Cenozoic Tectono-Magmatic and Metallogenic Processes in the Sanjiang Region, Southwestern China

EARTH-01992; No of Pages 32 Earth-Science Reviews 136 (2014) xxx–xxx

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Cenozoic tectono-magmatic and metallogenic processes in the Sanjiang region, southwestern China

Jun Deng a,⁎,QingfeiWanga,b, Gongjian Li a,M.Santosha a State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China b Department of Geological Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, United States article info abstract

Article history: The Sanjiang region in SE Tibet Plateau, and the western Yunnan region in southwestern China constitute a Received 2 December 2013 collage of Gondwana-derived micro-continental blocks and arc terranes that were accreted together after the Received in revised form 23 May 2014 closure of the Paleotethys Oceans in Permo-Triassic. The lithospheric structure in Sanjiang prior to the Cenozoic Accepted 24 May 2014 was dominantly characterized by sub-parallel sutures, subduction-modified mantle and crust, Mesozoic basins Available online 2 June 2014 between the sutures, and primary polymetallic accumulations. During the Cenozoic, intense deformation, episod- Keywords: ic magmatism, and diverse mineralization occurred, jointly controlled by the underthrust of South China litho- fi – Sanjiang sphere and the subduction of Paci c plate to the east, the India Eurasia continental collision and the Cenozoic subduction of Indian oceanic plate to the west. In this paper, we identify the following four main phases for India–Eurasia collision the Cenozoic evolution in the Sanjiang region. (i) Subduction and rollback of Neotethyan oceanic plate before Continent underthrust ca. 45–40 Ma caused lithosphere shortening, indicated by folding-thrusting in the shallow crust and horizontal Intracontinental metallogeny shearing in middle crust, and multiple magmatic activities, with associated formation of Sn ore deposits in the Tengchong block, Cu polymetallic ore deposits within Mesozoic basins, and Mo and Pb–Zn ore deposits in the Cangyuan area nearby the Changning–Menglian suture. (ii) Breakoff of Neotethyan slab in 45–40 Ma in combi- nation with the India–Eurasia continental hard collision caused the diachronous removal of the lower lithospheric mantle during 42–32 Ma, with the resultant potassic–ultrapotassic magmatism and formation of the related porphyry–skarn ore deposits along the Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan suture. (iii) Underthrusting of the South China plate resulting in the kinking of Sanjiang, expressed by block rotation, extrusion, and shearing in the southern Sanjiang during 32–10 Ma, with contemporary formation of the orogenic gold deposit along shear zones and the MVT Pb–Zn ore deposits within Mesozoic basins. (iv) Subduction of Indian oceanic plate possibly together with the Ninety East Ridge caused the local extension and volcanism in western Sanjiang, and the interplay between India–Eurasia collision and the Pacific plate subduction induced tensile stress and mantle perturbation in eastern Sanjiang from ca. 10 Ma to present. The Cenozoic tectonic process traces a continuum of lithosphere shortening, sub-lithosphere mantle removal, and lithosphere underthrusting. During the lithospheric mantle removal, the simultaneous melting of the metasomatized lithospheric mantle and juvenile lower crust with possible metal enrichment contributed to the formation of potassic–ultrapotassic intrusive rocks and related porphyry–skarn mineralization. It is proposed that the kinking in the Sanjiang region was controlled by the non-coaxial compressions of the South China block and India continent, which are much larger in size than the blocks in Sanjiang. The underthrust continental lithosphere of the South China block caused the formation of orogenic gold deposits due to the release of metamorphic fluids from the front of the underthrust zone and the development of MVT Pb–Zn deposits via fluid circulation in the farther metal-enriched Mesozoic basins. Our study reveals that the pre-Cenozoic lithospheric structure in Sanjiang played an important role in the styles of tectonic movement, the nature and spatial distribution of magmatism, and the large-scale metallogeny during the Cenozoic. © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction...... 2 2. Pre-Cenozoictectonicevolutionandframework...... 3

⁎ Corresponding author. Tel./fax: +86 10 82322301. E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Deng).

2.1. Tectonicblocks...... 3 2.2. Suturesandmagmaticbeltsalongblockmargins...... 5 3. CenozoicorogenyinTibetandmantlearchitectureinSanjiang...... 5 3.1. OrogenyinTibet...... 5 3.2. MantlearchitectureinSanjiang...... 5 4. Crustdeformation...... 6 4.1. Overallfeature...... 6 4.2. Gaoligongshanshearzone...... 8 4.3. Chongshanshearzone...... 8 4.4. Ailaoshan–RedRivershearzone...... 8 4.5. DeformationintheMesozoicandCenozoicbasins...... 9 4.6. Regionaldeformationmodel...... 9 5. Magmatism...... 10 5.1. PaleocenetoEarlyEocenesubduction-relatedmagmatism...... 10 5.2. MiddleEocenetoEarlyOligoceneintracontinentalmagmatism...... 10 5.2.1. LateEoceneintraplatemagmatisminwesternSanjiang...... 10 5.2.2. Middle Eocene to Early Oligocene potassic–ultrapotassic igneous rocks along the Jinshajiang–Ailaoshantectonicbelt...... 12 5.3. Late Miocene–Holocenevolcanicrocks...... 12 5.3.1. Pliocene–HolocenevolcanicrocksintheTengchongblock...... 12 5.3.2. Plio-PleistocenevolcanicrocksinthesoutheasternSanjiang...... 17 6. Metallogenesis...... 17 6.1. Paleocene to Early Eocene magmatic–hydrothermaloredeposits...... 17 6.2. Middle Eocene to Early Oligocene ore deposits related to potassic–ultrapotassicintrusiverocks...... 18 6.3. Oligocene MVT Pb–ZnpolymetallicoredepositsinMesozoicbasins...... 19 6.4. Oligoceneorogenicgolddeposits...... 19 6.5. MiocenetoHolocenehotspring-relatedAuandGeoredeposits...... 20 7. Tectono-magmaticandmetallogenicevolution...... 20 7.1. Paleocene–Eocene oceanic slab subduction-breakoff, lithospheric mantle removal, and porphyry–skarnoredeposits...... 20 7.2. Oligocene continental underthrust and regional kinking: orogenic gold and MVT Pb–Zndeposits...... 25 7.3. LateCenozoicevolution...... 26 7.4. Contributionofthepre-CenozoictectonicstoCenozoicprocesses...... 26 8. Concludingremarks...... 27 Acknowledgments...... 27 AppendixA. Supplementarydata...... 27 References...... 27

1. Introduction type (MVT) Pb–Zn, and orogenic Au, were formed in Cenozoic, making the Sanjiang one of the most productive and potential regions for The Sanjiang (Three Rivers) region is named due to it is drained metal resources in China. These three genetic types of ore deposits in by three major rivers: the Jinshajiang, Lancangjiang and Nujiang. Sanjiang were produced in continental collisional setting, in contrast The region covers the southeastern part of the Tibet Plateau and to those formed along convergent plate margins associated with oceanic western Yunnan province in China (Fig. 1). The NS-trending subduc- plate subduction or along passive continental margins (Mitchell and tion zone of Indian oceanic plate and Ninety East Ridge represented Garson, 1981; Groves et al., 1998; Doglioni et al., 1999; Richards, by the Kerguelen hotspot formed at 130 Ma (Muller et al., 1993) 2003). Thus, the analysis of the Cenozoic tectonic evolution in Sanjiang occur to the west of the Sanjiang (Figs. 1 and 2). The subduction is important in understanding the interaction of multiple crustal blocks zones of the Phillipine Sea plate and Pacific plate are developed to and the nature and mechanism of the associated metallogeny. the southeast. The Cenozoic tectonic deformation, the magmatic and metallogenic The Sanjiang region was formed via Paleotethyan ocean closure and processes in the Sanjiang region have been extensively researched in the subsequent amalgamation of Gondwana-derived micro-continental the past decades. The mantle architecture and the crust deformation blocks and Paleozoic arc terranes (Mo et al., 1994; Metcalfe, 2002, 2013; in the region were studied by Tapponnier et al. (1990), Wang and Cocks and Torsvik, 2013; Deng et al., 2013). After the amalgamation, it Burchfiel (1997), Liu et al. (2000), Socquet and Pubellier (2005), Lei was influenced by the subduction of the Meso- and Neotethyan oceanic et al. (2009), Zhao and Liu (2010), and others. The features and genesis plates from Jurassic to Paleocene. In Cenozoic, the large-scale Cenozoic of magmatic rocks in the Tengchong block were discussed by Xu et al. geological processes including the adjacent continental collision and (2012) and Zhou et al. (2012), and those of the potassic–ultrapotassic the distant oceanic plate subduction have largely re-shaped the litho- magmatic rocks in eastern Sanjiang by Wang et al. (2001a), Guo et al. spheric structure in the Sanjiang region. On the beginning of Paleocene, (2005), Flower et al. (2013),andLu et al. (2013a). The ore deposits con- the geological processes upon the welded blocks in Sanjiang were dom- trolled by the shear zones were investigated by Hou et al. (2007) and inantly controlled by the movements of larger blocks on the periphery, Sun et al. (2009), those in the Mesozoic continental basins by Xue i.e., the India continent, South China block, and Kunlun–Qaidam block. et al. (2007), He et al. (2009),andY.Y. Tang et al. (2013),andthoseas- This pattern is similar to that in many other orogenic belts after their sociated with the potassic–ultrapotassic intrusive rocks by Hou et al. formation, i.e., the Qilian–Qinling orogenic belt in central China, Tethyan (2003), Liang et al. (2006), Xu et al. (2007) and Lu et al. (2013b). Zagros orogenic belt, and the Appalachians in North America (Şengör, These investigations employed modern geophysical techniques and 1984; Van Staal et al., 1996). Due to wide spatial extension of the precise geochronological methods, offering important information on Sanjiang region, it recorded the most conspicuous impact of the build- the geological processes in Sanjiang. However, the linkage between up of Tibet plateau on its periphery. the tectonic, magmatic, and metallogenic aspects and the control of Numerous ore deposits of diverse genetic types and metal specia- pre-Cenozoic lithosphere architecture on the Cenozoic evolution have tions, including porphyry-skarn Cu-, Au-, and Mo-, Mississippi valley not been well addressed. In this paper, we synthesize the information

Fig. 1. (a) Distribution of principal continental blocks and oceanic plate affecting the tectonic evolution of the Sanjiang region (revised from the Tapponnier et al., 1990; Richards et al., 2007); (b) Simpliﬁed tectonic map of the Tibetan plateau and Sanjiang region showing major Cenozoic magmatic rocks. Abbreviation: AKMS, Anyimaqin–Kunlun–Muztagh suture; JS, Jinshajiang suture; BNS, Bangong–Nujiang suture; ITS, Indus-Tsangpo suture; MBT, Main Boundary thrust; ARSZ, Ailaoshan–Red River shear zone; TCV, Tengchong volcanic area. Numbers (e.g., 37–32) shown in the map is the age (Ma) of the magmatic rocks. Fig. 1a is based on the Google Earth website. Fig. 1bismodiﬁed from Chung et al. (2005) and Wang et al. (2010).

from various aspects to build a coherent picture for the Cenozoic were deemed to represent a Neoproterozoic continental arc developed tectono-magmatic and metallogenic evolution of the Sanjiang region. at around 840 Ma, termed the Panxi-Hannan arc (Fig. 2a; Zhou et al., 2002, 2006). The metamorphosed Precambrian rocks are overlain by 2. Pre-Cenozoic tectonic evolution and framework Paleozoic argillaceous and arenaceous rocks and carbonates. The Emeishan ﬂood basalts triggered by mantle plume erupted in the latest Several constituent tectonic blocks in the Sanjiang were sutured Permian (Fig. 2; YNGMR, 1990; Deng et al., 2010a). together during the closure of the Paleotethys Ocean and its branches The Simao block, which forms the northern part of the Indochina during Permo-Triassic (Collins, 2003; Metcalfe, 2006; Deng et al., block, comprises early-Ordovician sedimentary rocks, middle- 2013). Subsequently, the western Sanjiang was largely inﬂuenced by Devonian to Triassic shallow-marine, paralic and continental succes- eastward oceanic subduction of the Meso- and Neo-Tethys from late- sions, as well as Mesozoic red beds (YNGMR, 1990; Metcalfe, 2006). Permian to middle-Cretaceous and from late-Cretaceous lasting to The Baoshan and Tengchong blocks constitute the northern part of the Paleocene, respectively. Sibumasu block, which runs from western China, through Burma and Malaya, to Sumatra (Sone and Metcalfe, 2008). The metamorphosed 2.1. Tectonic blocks basement of the Baoshan block is represented by the Neoproterozoic– Cambrian Gongyanghe Group, and the Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedi- The Sanjiang region lies adjacent to the South China block (tectonic mentary sequences are composed of clastic rocks, carbonates, and unit I in Fig. 2) and Songpan–Garzê accretionary complex on the east Permian volcanic rocks (Huang et al., 2012). The Tengchong block is and the West Burma block on the west (Figs. 1 and 2). The Sanjiang re- mainly composed of Mesoproterozoic high-grade metamorphic gion is composed of seven tectonic blocks: the Simao (unit VI in Fig. 2), complexes belonging to the Gaoligongshan Group, late-Paleozoic clastic

Baoshan (unit IX1), Tengchong (unit IX3), Zhongza (unit III), Eastern sedimentary rocks and carbonates, and Pliocene–Holocene volcano- Qiangtang (unit V), Western Qiangtang (unit VIII), and Lhasa (unit XI). sedimentary sequences (YNGMR, 1990). The South China block is separated from the Simao block on the west After the amalgamation of the blocks, a string of Mesozoic conti- by the Ailaoshan suture (Q.F. Wang et al., 2013). The block comprises nental basins, including the Changdu in the Eastern Qiangtang block, the Yangtze Craton in the north and Cathaysia block in the south. In and Lanping and Simao basins in the Simao block, were developed the western part of the Yangtze Craton, Neoproterozoic granulite– (Fig. 2). The sedimentary sequences in the Lanping and Simao basins gneiss complex and low-grade metasedimentary rocks and clastic show enrichments of metals relative to the Clark values. For instance, rocks with interlayers of volcanic rocks are exposed. The Neoproterozoic the Cu, Pb, and Zn in several samples from the Cretaceous and Trias- volcanic rocks and coeval plutons along the western and northern mar- sic strata are higher than 20, 50, and 60 ppm respectively (Ye et al., gins of the Yangtze Craton display arc-like geochemical features, which 1992).

Fig. 2. Tectonic framework of the Sanjiang region showing the major continental blocks and suture zones. Revised from Deng et al. (2013). The distribution of the Panxi-Hannan arc in the Western Yangtze block is from Zhou et al. (2006).

2.2. Sutures and magmatic belts along block margins et al., 2010; Najman et al., 2010). The India continent gradually indented into the Asian continent ca. 2000 km northwards (e.g. Searle et al., 1987; The sutures in the Sanjiang comprise the Longmu Tso-Shuanghu Yin and Harrison, 2000). During this process, the Tibet plateau was

(tectonic unit VII1 in Fig. 2) and Changning–Menglian (unit VII2), formed due to the faster rate of convergence between India and Eurasia which represent the closure of the main Paleotethyan ocean. They also continents compared to that of shortening in the Himalaya (Doglioni include the Jinshajiang (unit IV1), Ailaoshan (unit IV2), and Garzê– et al., 2007). The rollback of the subducted Neotethyan oceanic slab Litang (unit II), which were formed via the closure of branch caused the magmatism with ages from 55 to 45 Ma in the Gangdese Paleotethyan oceans. These tectonic sutures are characterized by sever- arc belt in southern Tibet (Chung et al., 2005, 2009; Xia et al., 2011). al sub-parallel ophiolite complexes deﬁning nearly N–S strike. The At about 45 Ma, the convergence rate suddenly dropped, indicating ophiolite is composed of peridotites, gabbros, MORB-type basalts, and the transition from “soft collision” to “hard collision”.Coevalwiththis radiolarian cherts. Based on the ages of the maﬁc rocks and cherts, the transition, the Neotethyan oceanic slab was considered to have detached Paleotethyan oceans were considered to have opened almost simulta- from the India continental lithosphere based on the Himalayan metamor- neously in middle-Devonian (Deng et al., 2013). phic record (e.g., DeCelles et al., 2002; Kohn and Parkinson, 2002). As a result of eastward subduction of the Changning–Menglian oce- In the southern Tibet, potassic–ultrapotassic and adakitic magmas anic plate, subduction-related magmatism occurred during 298–282 Ma with emplacement ages ranging from 25 to 10 Ma are present in the in the Yunxian–Jinggu arc (east of unit VII2) in the western margin of Lhasa block; they were interpreted to relate to the removal of the Simao block (Hennig et al., 2009; Jian et al., 2009a,b; G.Z. Li et al., lower part of the lithospheric mantle via convective thinning mecha- 2012). The Yunxian–Jinggu arc was intruded by the post-subduction nism (Molnar et al., 1993; Platt and England, 1994; Williams et al., S-type Lincang granitic pluton with zircon U–Pb ages of 230–219 Ma, 2001). The removal of the lithospheric mantle has facilitated northward which formed via re-working of old crustal materials (Hennig et al., underthrust of the Indian mantle lithosphere starting from ca. 25 Ma 2009; Dong et al., 2013; Peng et al., 2013). Westward subduction of (Chung et al., 2005). Underthrusting of the Indian lithosphere beneath Garzê–Litang oceanic plate gave rise to the Yidun arc (west of unit II), the southern Tibet might have shut down the heat from the astheno- which is composed of Triassic arc volcanic rocks and plutons emplaced sphere and eventually terminated the lithospheric removal-induced during ca. 230 Ma to 204 Ma (W.C. Li et al., 2011; B.Q. Wang et al., 2011; magmatism in ca. 13–10 Ma (Chung et al., 2005). Leng et al., 2012). The westward subduction of the Ailaoshan oceanic In the northern Tibet, starting from the hard collision, the potassic– plate during 300–265 Ma resulted in the Yaxianqiao arc (west of unit ultrapotassic magmatic rocks were emplaced from Middle Eocene to

IV2)(Jian et al., 2009a,b; Fan et al., 2010; Lai et al., 2014a,b). The Early Oligocene along earlier Jinshajiang suture ( Fig. 1). Two different Xin'anzhai S-type granite exposed in the southern Ailaoshan suture opinions were proposed for this episode of magmatism. The first yielded zircon U–Pb ages of 252–251 Ma and largely negative εHf(t) thought it was induced by the removal of lower lithospheric mantle values (H.C. Liu et al., 2013), suggesting an anatectic origin (Li et al., (Chung et al., 2005; Zhao et al., 2009), and the second suggested the 2013). High-resolution inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry cause was the underthrust and rollback of Qaidam–Kunlun lithosphere of the Au-bearing pyrite from the Cenozoic Zhenyuan gold deposit de- (Q. Wang et al., 2008). A later potassic–ultrapotassic magmas occurred veloped in the Ailaoshan suture provided a Re–Os isochron age of 229 younger than ca. 18 Ma in the Songpan–Garzê belt and Eastern ± 38 Ma, with an initial 187Os/188Os value of 0.68 ± 0.24 and a corre- Qiangtang block (Fig. 1). This later episode of magmatism was consid- sponding γOs value of 442 ± 91 (G.Y. Shi et al., 2012). The results sug- ered to be produced via the diffusive removal of the lower part of the gest that preliminary enriched gold in the suture was mainly sourced lithospheric mantle, in which the absence of underthrust continental from the mantle after the closure of Ailaoshan Paleotethyan ocean. lithosphere was required (Chung et al., 2005; Zhao et al., 2009). Howev- The westward subduction of the Jinshajiang oceanic plate produced er, recent geophysical detection based on the P and S reciever function the Jomda–Weixi continental arc (west of unit IV1) in the Eastern technique evidenced the presence of flat, southward underthrusting Qiangtang block. Post-subduction volcanic rocks include the bimodal Qaidam–Kunlun lithosphere beneath the northern Tibet (Zhao et al., volcanic rocks with zircon U–Pb ages of 245–237 Ma, which was consid- 2010, 2011). ered to represent the melting of the subduction-metasomatized lithospheric mantle (Zi et al., 2012). Skarn-type copper mineralization 3.2. Mantle architecture in Sanjiang associated with the post-subduction granitic intrusions, e.g., the Yangla ore deposit, was developed in the Jinshajiang suture zone (X.A. Yang et Geophysical data from the whole of SE Asia suggest that the Sanjiang al., 2011). region witnessed the subduction of two slabs to different depths in It is shown that two pairs of sutures, the Jinshajiang and Ailaoshan opposite directions, as inferred from the spatial occurrences of the and the Longmu Tso–Shuanghu and Changning–Menglian, were formed slab-like high-V zones in the mantle (Liu et al., 2000; C. Li et al., 2008; due to the closure of connected Paleotethyan oceans and developed Lei et al., 2009). The geological interpretation of the geophysical data with comparable magmatic records. The lithosphere along the eastern is disputable. This paper adopts the explanation that the South China and western margins of the Simao and Eastern Qiangtang blocks and lithosphere was underthrusting beneath the eastern Sanjiang in Ceno- that along the western margin of the Yangtze craton are characterized zoic (Flower et al., 2013), and the Indian oceanic plate, possibly together by metasomatized mantle with associated arc magmatism (e.g., Zhou with the Ninety East Ridge, was subducting beneath the western et al., 2002, 2006; G.Z. Li et al., 2012). A thickened crust as expressed Sanjiang (Zhou et al., 2012). These two subduction systems occurring by the formation of S-type granitoids developed along the proximity at different times are considered as the engines for important tectonic of the sutures. and metallogenic processes in the crust (Fig. 3). Seismological data suggest a modern, east-dipping zone of earth- 3. Cenozoic orogeny in Tibet and mantle architecture in Sanjiang quake foci (Huan et al., 1981; Lei et al., 2009) to the west of Sanjiang region (Fig. 3). Huang and Zhao (2006) revealed a high-V zone down to 3.1. Orogeny in Tibet about 400 km depth and correlated this zone with the subducted Burma block. C. Li et al. (2008) revealed another high-V anomaly zone Since the tectonic evolution of Sanjiang was closely linked with the extending down to the mantle transition zone at ~660 km, representing Cenozoic large-scale continental collision in Tibet (Figs. 1 and 2), we the subducted Indian oceanic slab (Fig. 3). High-resolution P-wave to- briefly outline the evolution of the Tibetan plateau. During 55–50 Ma, mography of the Tengchong block indicated a broad low-V zone of the arrival of the India continent at the trench marked the closure of about 100 km width that extends down to ~400 km (Lei et al., 2009; the Neotethyan ocean and the initiation of collision (Dupont-Nivet Zhao and Liu, 2010). This low-V zone overlies the high-V anomalies in

Fig. 3. Interpreted mantle architecture (a) and simplified crust structure (b) across the Sanjiang region. The mantle architecture model is the projected plane of the EW-transverse seismic profile A along 25.3°N from 90°E to 105°E (Lei et al., 2009)andtheeasternoneprofile B along 23.5°N from 97°E to 107.5°E (Liuetal.,2000). The subducting ridge is hypothesized based on the Zhou et al. (2012). The locations of the two seismic profiles are shown in Fig. 2a. The profiles suggest that the Sanjiang was witnessed two opposite slab subductions, which were represented by the slab-like high-V zones in the mantle. This paper adopts the explanation that the eastern Sanjaing was underthrust by the South China lithosphere, and the western Sanjaing was subducted by the Indian oceanic plate possibly together with the Ninety East Ridge. The crustal structure is revised from Socquet and Pubellier (2005). Abbreviation: ARSZ, Ailaoshan– Red River shear zone; TVC, Tengchong volcanic area. the mantle transition zone, and this relationship supports the interpre- east to west, and related small-scale pull-part basins (Figs. 3 and 4), tation that the low-V zone was formed through metasomatism induced (2) thrust–fold system in the Mesozoic basins (Figs. 3 and 4), and by fluids released from the subducted materials (Zhao and Liu, 2010). (3) extensional Paleogene and Neogene basins mainly developed with- In the eastern Sanjiang, the seismic tomography reveals a slab-like in the Tengchong block and in the vicinity of the Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan high-V anomaly down to ca. 250 km beneath the Simao block (Fig. 3). suture (Fig. 3). The Ailaoshan–Red River shear zone juxtaposed or over- This high-V anomaly was explained to be the residual of the lapped the Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan suture in a linear NWN-trending tec- Paleotethyan Ailaoshan oceanic slab (Liu et al., 2000); in contrast, it tonic belt, termed the Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan tectonic belt in this paper. was also interpreted as the underthrust lithosphere of South China The overall crust deformation is revealed by the planar geometric block occurred in Cenozoic (Flower et al., 2013). We prefer the latter in- shape, the crustal thickness, and large-scale fault of the region. Based terpretation since it is compatible with the Cenozoic processes in on the observation and analyses of the surface structures, the timing Sanjiang as summarized in the following sections. The low-V zones are of movement and deformation styles of the three shear zones developed widely present in the range from Ailaoshan–Red River shear zone to from Oligocene to present and the Cenozoic sedimentation and defor- Changning–Menglian suture, displaying shapes as small patches above mation within the basins have been constrained (Socquet and 70 km, west-dipping belt from 100 km to 200 km, and a block from Pubellier, 2005; Burchfiel and Chen, 2012). 300 km downwards (Fig. 3; Liu et al., 2000). We interpret the wrapping of small low-V patches around high-V zone above 70 km to represent the crust of the Simao block engulfed in a more ductile mantle. It is shown 4.1. Overall feature that low-V domains exist both above and under the high-V zone below 70 km, which we interpret to indicate the penetration of the high-V The overall shape of the Sanjiang region is dumbbell, with a much slab into the low-V region. narrower segment near the Weixi county in the central part, commonly referred as the ‘central waist’ of Sanjiang (Figs. 2 and 4). This waist divides the northern and southern Sanjiang. The blocks to the north and 4. Crust deformation those to the south all contract towards this central waist. The three shear zones start from this segment extending southwards. The pair of The Cenozoic tectonic units comprise: (1) three main shear zones in- Longmu Tso-Shuanghu and Changning–Menglian sutures and that of cluding the Ailaoshan–Red River, Chongshan, and Gaoligongshan from Jinshajiang and Ailaoshan sutures were disconnected by the segment.

Fig. 4. Distribution of Cenozoic shear zones and magmatic rocks in the Sanjiang region. The ages in the northern segment of the Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan magmatic belt are from Ma (1990), Roger et al. (2000), Wang et al. (2001a, 2003), C.H. Wang et al. (2009), Spurlin et al. (2005), Guo et al. (2006), Jiang et al. (2006), Liang et al. (2006, 2009), H.Y. Liang et al. (2008), Yang et al. (2008); those in the central segment of the Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan magmatic belt are from Schärer et al. (1994), Zhang and Schärer (1999), Wang et al. (2001a, 2003), Liu et al. (2003), Liang et al. (2004b, 2007), Dong et al. (2005), Guo et al. (2005), Wan et al. (2005), Xu et al. (2006), Xu (2007), Cao et al. (2009, 2011), Xiao et al. (2009), Huang et al. (2010), He et al. (2011), W.Y. He et al. (2013), Lu et al. (2012), Flower et al. (2013), Jia et al. (2013); and those from the southern segment of the Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan magmatic belt are from Manhes et al. (1978), Schärer et al. (1994), Chung et al. (1997), Zhang and Schärer (1999), Leloup et al. (2001), Wang et al. (2001a, 2003), Lin et al. (2005), Liang et al. (2007), B. Huang et al. (2009), Huang et al. (2013), Sassier et al. (2009), Zhu et al. (2009), Fu et al. (2010), Flower et al. (2013), Tang et al. (2013a). The ages in the Chongshan belt are from Akciz et al. (2008), Song et al. (2010), Zhang et al. (2010), Tang et al. (2013b); those in the Cangyuan region from Yu et al. (2008), Chen et al. (2009, 2010), those in the Gaoligongshan zone and Tengchong block from Booth et al. (2004), F. Wang et al. (2006), Chen et al. (2007), Y.H. Liang et al. (2008), Xu et al. (2008, 2012), Chiu et al. (2009), Xie et al. (2010), Zou et al. (2010), Y.R. Shi et al. (2012).

The Mesozoic Lanping basin is also separated from the Changdu basin bearing schists. The foliation within the shear zone is moderately to by this ‘central waist’. steeply west-dipping, and stretching lineations are sub-horizontal, The depth of Moho interface decreases remarkably from northern parallel to the trend of the zone. Both dextral and sinistral kinematic in- Sanjiang to southern Sanjiang (Y.H. Li et al., 2008). In the southern dicators including rotated porphyroclasts, S–C fabrics, and asymmetric Sanjiang, sub-horizontal detachment within mid-crustal layer was de- folds are observed (Akciz et al., 2008). tected under the Gaoligongshan, Chongshan, and Ailaoshan–Red River Granites developed with shearing fabrics in the Chongshan shear shear zones using wide-angle seismic tomography and magnetotelluric zone have zircon U–Pb ages ca. 55–38 Ma (Domain C in Fig. 4)(Zhang geophysical profiling (Fig. 3; R.Q. Huang et al., 2009; Bai and Meju, 2003; et al., 2010). Syn-shearing leucogranite veins yield zircon U–Pb ages of Y.H. Li et al., 2008). We explain the deformation in northern Sanjiang 32.6 Ma and 31.52 Ma, and the zircon growth rims have U–Pb ages was characterized by thickening on a whole crustal scale, and that in fromca.32to22Ma(Zhang et al., 2010; Tang et al., 2013b). The mon- southern Sanjiang expressed by the large-scale oblique-slip or strike- azite grains from the syn-shearing granitic dykes provide U–Pb ages slip shearing and horizontal detachment (Fig. 4). from ca. 29 to 24 Ma (Akciz et al., 2008). The monazite from post- shearing dykes shows U–Pb ages of about 17.1–16.5 Ma (Akciz et al., 4.2. Gaoligongshan shear zone 2008). It was revealed that the ductile shearing with concomitant granitic vein injection within the Chongshan shear zone persisted from The Gaoligongshan shear zone divides the Tengchong and Baoshan ca. 32 to 17 Ma. Synkinematic muscovite from one sample with dextral blocks (Fig. 2), and it is continuously exposed along the Gaoligongshan movement indicator has a 40Ar/39Ar age 17.2 Ma, which was explained mountain to the west of the Nujiang river (Wang and Burchfiel, 1997; to represent the initiation of dextral movement (Zhang et al., 2010). Zhong, 2000). The mountain ranges decrease in elevation and terminate against the NE–SW striking, left-lateral strike-slip Wanding fault. The 4.4. Ailaoshan–Red River shear zone mylonitic granite and Proterozoic rocks belonging to the Gaoligong group are mainly exposed along the Gaoligongshan shear zone (Y.J. The Ailaoshan–Red River shear zone extends from SW China, Wang et al., 2006). The dextral movement indicators are ubiquitous through Vietnam, and into South China Sea along the western margin across the shear zone. Micro-scale deformation including recrystallized of the South China block (Fig. 1; Tapponnier et al., 1990; Zhong et al., feldspar grains, cataclastic flow, and the quartz dislocation creep de- 1990; Leloup et al., 1995; Zhang et al., 2006). Three narrow NW–SE notes the deformation temperature reaching 600 °C (Y.J. Wang et al., oriented high-grade metamorphic complexes (mainly composed of 2006). The Gaoligongshan shear zone is flattened and rooted in the mid- Mesoproterozoic gneisses), that is, Xuelongshan, Diancangshan, and dle crust at depths of 15–20 km as revealed by the geophysical detection Ailaoshan, are exposed along the shear zone (Fig. 4). The metamorphic (Bai and Meju, 2003; G. Wang et al., 2008; Y.H. Li et al., 2008; R.Q. Huang rocks show intense ductile deformation with a well-developed foliation et al., 2009). that bears a strong sub-horizontal stretching lineation, both being paral- Four stages of deformation have been distinguished. The first stage lel to the trend of the alignment of metamorphic complexes. Ductile since ca. 65 Ma was characterized by the horizontal shearing, manifest- movement indicators showing sinistral shearing are well preserved. ed by regional recumbent folds with nearly NS-trending fold axis and West of the Ailaoshan–Red River shear zone occurs a low-grade meta- granulite facies metamorphism occurred at mid-crust levels (Royden morphic belt consisting of several large nappes and structural slabs. et al., 1997; Clark and Royden, 2000; B. Zhang et al., 2012). In the second The leucogranitic intrusions in the Diancangshan complex were stage, oblique-slip or strike-slip shearing was initiated in response to re- formed at different stages related to the shearing (Schärer et al., 1994; gional dextral transpression. The Gaoligongshan shear zone was devel- Chung et al., 1997; Zhang and Schärer, 1999; Cao et al., 2011). The oped and localized into a narrow ductile zone with resultant crust pre-shearing intrusions with high-temperature solid-state plastic de- partial melting and leucogranite intrusion. The zircon U–Pb age of formation have zircon U–Pb ages of ca. 34–31 Ma. Syn-shearing intru- leucogranite ranges from 24.4 to 21 Ma (Song et al., 2010), and sions with widespread appearance of diagnostic mylonitic structures synkinematic hornblende has a 40Ar/39Ar age of ca. 32 Ma (Y.J. Wang and microstructures provide zircon U–Pb ages of ca. 27–21 Ma. The in- et al., 2006). These dating suggested the deformation in the first trusions crosscutting the shearing foliation yield zircon U–Pb ages of ca. stage terminated before Early Oligocene. In the third stage, the 23–20 Ma, postdating the ductile shearing movement. These data define transpression-induced exhumation and cooling of the Gaoligongshan that the left-lateral ductile shearing in Diancangshan was initiated at ca. shear zone occurred. The synkinematic biotites yield 40Ar/39Ar 31 Ma, reached its peak between 27 and 21 Ma at high temperatures, and ages from 17 to 11 Ma (Ji et al., 2000; Lin et al., 2009). These biotite terminated at about 20 Ma at low temperatures due to rapid cooling (Cao 40Ar/39Ar ages were preferentially interpreted as the cooling age rather et al., 2011). than the continuous ductile shearing time, since the deformation inten- Searle et al. (2010) dated the growth rims of Oligocene metamorphic sity in this stage occurred in a temperature possibly higher than the clo- zircons and the folded leucogranitic intrusions in the Ailaoshan complex sure temperature of biotite K–Ar isotopic system. The final stage was the to be 31.9–24.2 Ma, and the shearing fabrics-cutting dykes to be east–west extensioning especially in the southern part of the 21.7 Ma. Liu et al. (2012) and Tang et al. (2013a) reported the ages of Gaoligongshan shear zone inferred from the Late Neogene active normal 36.6 and 30.9 Ma for pre-shearing granite, and 27.2 and 25.9 Ma for faults along its eastern and western boundaries (G. Wang et al., 2008). syn-shearing leucogranite, and 21.8 Ma for the undeformed granitic The extension was considered to have resulted in the decrease in eleva- dyke. It was revealed that the zircons from syn-shearing granitic tion from Gaoligongshan shear zone to Wanding fault (G. Wang et al., dykes have much lower Th/U ratios than those from the pre-shearing 2008). Fission track data from the mylonitic rocks in the footwall of the and post-shearing ones (Tang et al., 2013a). These zircon U–Pb ages southern segment of Gaoligongshan shear zone yielded ages between clarify the timing of the ductile left-lateral shearing in the Ailaoshan 8.4 and 0.9 Ma, suggesting a continuous exhumation from Late Eocene complex, with its initiation later than 31 Ma, climax at ca. 27 Ma, and (G. Wang et al., 2008). termination at ca. 21 Ma. The timing of the shearing events from the Diancangshan and 4.3. Chongshan shear zone Ailaoshan complexes suggests that the left-lateral strike-slip lasted from Late Oligocene to Miocene in the Ailaoshan–Red River shear The Chongshan shear zone defines a N250 km long and ca. 10 km zone (Tapponnier et al., 1986; Briais et al., 1993; Leloup et al., 1995, wide boundary between the Simao and Baoshan blocks (Fig. 2). This 2001; Gilley et al., 2003). Published 40Ar/39Ar ages of synkinematic bio- shear zone consists mainly of mylonitic gneisses with amphibolite tites mainly vary from 26 to 17 Ma (e.g., Leloup et al., 1995, 2001; Wang enclaves, leucogranites, migmatites, pegmatites, marbles, and garnet- et al., 1998, 2000), which might document the exhumation ages after

4.5. Deformation in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic basins 4.6. Regional deformation model

The Mesozoic strata in the Changdu, Lanping, and Simao basins Despite the strike-slip shearing and exhumation may have been (Fig. 2) were folded and faulted in response to the strong Cenozoic com- partitioned temporally and spatially across and along three main shear pression. East-verging thrust faults dominate in the western part of the zones (Akciz et al., 2008), a general timeframe of the tectonic movements Changdu and Lanping basins and west-verging ones in the east (Fig. 3). can be defined based on available geochronological data. Shearing along Thrust-induced nappes consisting of Mesozoic strata overlie the Ceno- the three zones was almost contemporaneously initiated at ca. 32 Ma. zoic in the central part of Lanping basin. A large-scale N–S trending Data from the post-shearing granitic dykes indicate that the ductile fault was continuously developed in the central of the Lanping and deformation terminated at ca. 20–17 Ma in the Ailaoshan–Red River Simao basins, termed the Central axis fault or Lanping-Simao fault. and Chongshan shear zones, and it continued to ca. 14 Ma in the This fault is composed of an array of brittle fractures with westward Gaoligongshan shear zone (Wang et al., 2000; Akciz et al., 2008). Both dip and largely varying dip angles, in which the planes with shallow dextral and sinistral movement indicators are preserved in the dip often cut across those with steep attitude (Fig. 4). The fact that Ailaoshan–Red River and Chongshan shear zones; whereas, sinistral indi- this fault transects the Paleogene strata is supportive the opinion that cators are barely observed in Gaoligongshan (Fig. 8). The three shear it was developed concomitantly with the ductile shearing in Sanjiang zones in the Sanjiang region generally share similar magmatic, metamor- (Liuetal.,2004). In the eastern part of Lanping basin, the Qiaohou phic, and deformational history before ca. 17 Ma with the Mogok meta- fault zone, which is deemed as one branch of the Ailaoshan–Red River morphic zone, the Dien Bien Phu, Wang Chao and Three Pagodas fault shear zone (Liu et al., 2004), strikes NNE with dip angles mainly of zones in southeastern Asia (Morley, 2004, 2007, 2009; Zhang et al., 60°–70°. Evidences for both strike-slip and thrust movement are ob- 2010)(Figs. 1 and 4). This similarity indicates that these zones were served in the Qiaohou fault zone. Calcite, sulfate, and sulfide minerals linked, forming a network that accommodated the strain transfer derived are extensive widespread within the Qiaohou fault zone and occasional- from the India–Eurasia collision (Leloup et al., 1995; Wang and Burchfiel, ly in the Central axis fault zone. We interpret the formation of the min- 1997; Barley et al., 2003; Morley, 2004, 2007; Zhang et al., 2006). erals to be related to penetration of metal-bearing fluids along faults Compared to the intense shearing in the southern Sanjiang, the along the basin margins, possibly during periods of tectonic activity. NE–SW compression in the northern Sanjiang, e.g., Nangqian and The Paleogene basins were mainly developed intermittently from Xialaxiu basins, was prominent and strike-slip movement was transient Eastern Qiangtang block to Simao block. These basins, e.g., Nangqian, (Spurlin et al., 2005). This difference between the northern and southern Xialaxiu, and Jianchuan, are typically composed of basement of Paleozo- Sanjiang might be induced by their distinct tectonic locations. As the in- ic to Triassic strata and cover of Paleocene to Eocene sedimentary rocks tense shearing was continuing in southern Sanjiang, the northernmost intercalated with Late Eocene potassic–ultrapotassic volcanic rocks Sanjiang region showed a rapid transition from shearing to compression (Spurlin et al., 2005; Yang et al., 2013). The observations from the as it was situated within the normal continental collisional belt. Relative Nangqian area at the northern end of the Sanjiang distinguished three to the South China block, the blocks in the southern Sanjiang rotated deformation stages, transiting from an early NE–SW contraction, a mid- clockwise by about 45° from Oligocene to Early Miocene, as revealed dle strike-slip faulting (both sinistral and dextral), to a later NE–SW from paleomagnetic data (Funahara et al., 1992; Sato et al., 2001, 2007; contraction (Spurlin et al., 2005). In the Xialaxiu basin, the volcanic Yoshioka et al., 2003). The displacement along the Ailaoshan–Red

River shear zone is much more conspicuous than that of the zone in northern Sanjiang (Fig. 4). Their petrogenesis remains unclear Gaoligongshan. The difference of displacement suggests the notion that due to lack of geochemical data. Based on their location above the the shearing was concomitant with the rotation of the southern Sanjiang. subducting Neotethyan slab, we infer that these rocks are products of The overall dumebell shape of the Sanjiang, differentiated shearing- back-arc extension. induced displacement between the eastern Sanjiang and western Granitoids associated with the Jinla Pb–Zn–Ag west of Changning– Sanjiang, discrepancy of deformation styles between the northern and Menglian suture and with the Laochang Mo ore deposits within the southern Sanjiang, and block rotation of the southern Sanjiang make suture occur in the Cangyuan domain (Figs. 4 and 5). Zircon SHRIMP dat- us to propose a kinking deformation model for the whole Sanjiang re- ing of the Laochang granitoid yielded U–Pb age of 44.6 Ma with inherited gion. During the kinking, the Ailaoshan–Red River shear zone adjacent zircons showing ages ranging from 60 Ma to 529 Ma (Chen et al., 2010). to the South China block acted as the moving boundary, and the ‘central The least altered samples show SiO2 from 70.87 to 73.48 wt.%, Na2Ofrom waist’ as a hinge, the southern Sanjiang rotated compared to the north- 1.22 to 2.99 wt.% and K2O from 5.52 to 6.67 wt.% with A/CNK (molar ratio ern Sanjiang with resultant extruding of Indochina crust. The extrusion Al2O3/(CaO + Na2O+K2O)) near 1 (Chen et al., 2010). The granitoids was facilitated by the ductility of underlying mantle as illustrated in the are enriched in Rb, Ba, Th, U, and K, and moderately depleted in Nb, Ta, geophysical profile (Fig. 3). The western margin of Yangtze Craton and P, and Ti compared to the primitive mantle. The initial 87Sr/86Sr of the the Simao block were squeezed during the kinking, resulting in folding granitoid is 0.7084-0.7154 (Xu and Ou'yang, 1991). The geochemical and faulting of the strata. As the Sanjiang region was re-oriented after data of these granitoids suggest that they were mainly generated from block rotation for about 45° relative to the South China block, the move- the lower crust with input of mantle-derived melt. The Gonglang, ment along the Chongshan shear zones switched from sinistral to dex- Manghao, and Huguangzai granodiorites in the Cangyuan county show tral sense in response to the northwards indentation of India continent. zircon SHRIMP U–Pb ages of 40.9 to 40 Ma (Yu et al., 2008), and the According to the data obtained in modern GPS reference station Laochang (near Cangyuan county) and Menglinshan granodiorites dis- networks, the Sanjiang region currently rotate clockwise. The clockwise play zircon LA-ICP-MS U–Pb ages of 43.41 to 45 Ma (Chen et al., 2009). rotation has resulted in the formation of several NE-trending strike-slip The five granodiorites show SiO2 ranging from 69.41 to 70.44 wt.%, faults, i.e., Ruili, with associated extensional Neogene basins (Fig. 4). Na2O from 3.04 to 3.98 wt.%, and K2O from 3.72 to 5.15 wt.% with A/ CNK from 0.91 to 1.22 (Yu et al., 2008; Chen et al., 2009). These granodiorites, showing similar trace element distribution patterns with that in 5. Magmatism the Laochang within the suture, were considered to bear the petrogenesis of crust-mantle mixing (Chen et al., 2010). The spatial distribution of the Cenozoic magmatic rocks can be mainly divided into 7 domains, i.e., Bomi-Chayu (Domain A in Fig. 4), Tengchong (Domain B), Chongshan (Domain C), Cangyuan (Domain 5.2. Middle Eocene to Early Oligocene intracontinental magmatism D), northern segment of Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan tectonic belt (Domain E), middle segment of Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan belt (Domain F), and 5.2.1. Late Eocene intraplate magmatism in western Sanjiang southern segment of Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan belt (Domain G) (Fig. 4). Basaltic dykes in the Gaoligongshan shear zone and eastern margin of In addition to these seven domains, the Late Miocene to Holocene mag- Tengchong block with Ar–Ar plateau ages from 41.8 ± 0.5 Ma to 39.7 ± matic rocks are exposed in the Simao block and western margin of 0.7 Ma (Fig. 4)werestudiedbyXu et al. (2008).Thesemafic dykes have South China block. The magmatic activities in the whole Sanjiang con- relatively high Na O and low K O contents. Their primitive mantle- centrated in three episodes, i.e., Paleocene to Early Eocene distributed 2 2 normalized trace element distribution patterns are characterized by en- in Domains A and B, Middle Eocene to Late Oligocene within Domains richment of large ion lithophile elements (LILE) and depletion of high E to G along Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan belt, and the Late Miocene to field strength elements (HFSE). The extent of Nb depletion is much less Holocene within Domain B and southeastern Sanjiang. significant than that of typical arc magma. The Gaoligongshan– Tengchong mafic dykes have highly radiogenic initial 87Sr/86Sr ranging 5.1. Paleocene to Early Eocene subduction-related magmatism from 0.7065 to 0.7139 and εNd(t) from −0.3 to −3.9 (Xu et al., 2008). The Gaoligongshan–Tengchong mafic dykes were thus considered as An important magmatic event is traced from 62 to 47 Ma in the intraplate-type basalts, rather than arc-related magmas (Xu et al., southern part of Tengchong block (Fig. 4). The southern Tengchong 2008). The Nb/La ratios in Gaoligongshan and Tengchong samples comprises coeval S-type granites with zircon εHf(t) from −2to12in remain virtually unchanged irrespective of MgO and SiO2 contents, sug- the east and I-type granites with zircon εHf(t) from −4 to+6 in the gesting that the Nb–Ta deficits in the Tengchong samples were inherited west (Xu et al., 2012; Chen et al., 2014). This assembly was explained from the source. The source was mostly likely a metasomatized to be the product of Neotethyan oceanic slab subduction (Xu et al., lithospheric mantle. 2012). Negative anomalies of Nb, Ta, and Ti are less pronounced in the In the Xialaxiu basin, coeval granitic intrusion and volcanic rocks Gaoligongshan samples than in the Tengchong samples. In the plots of with similar geochemical compositions emplaced in 51–49 Ma based εNd(t) vs. Nb/La and εNd(t) vs. SiO2, the Tengchong and Gaoligongshan on the zircon U–Pb and biotite 40Ar/39Ar dating (Roger et al., 2000; samples define a coherent correlation (Xu et al., 2008). These can be Spurlin et al., 2005). The major element geochemistry suggests these explained by that the Tengchong dykes were directly derived from an rocks have calc-alkaline features. The chondrite-normalized rare earth enriched lithosphere mantle, whereas the Gaoligongshan dykes repre- element (REE) pattern shows a slightly negative Eu anomaly. The pat- sent the mixed melts derived from lithosphere mantle and astheno- tern of primitive mantle-normalized trace elements exhibits pro- sphere. These Gaoligongshan–Tengchong dykes have been derived nounced negative anomalies in Nb, Ta, Ti, and P, typically indicative of from thin lithosphere (b80 km) deduced from their low Dy/Yb and subduction-related magmatism (Roger et al., 2000; Spurlin et al., La/Yb (Xu et al., 2008). The intraplate-type magmas in the 2005). The subduction affinity was further affirmed by the enriched Gaoligongshan–Tengchong region were interpreted to be the magmatic 87Sr/86Sr values around 0.7072 and 143Nd/144Nd values of expression of the asthenosphere upwelling following the breakoff of 0.5125–0.5124 (Roger et al., 2000; Spurlin et al., 2005). Intrusive rocks subducted Neotethyan oceanic slab from the India continental plate around 54–50 Ma are developed in the northern Chongshan shear during the Eocene (Xu et al., 2008).

Fig. 5. Distribution of Cenozoic ore deposits in the Sanjiang region. Abbreviation: Cal, Calcite; Cs, Cassiterite; Mo, Molybdenite; Ms, Muscovite; Phl, Phlogopite; Ser, Sericite; Sp, Sphalerite; Zr, Zircon. The corresponding descriptions are listed in Table 1.

5.2.2. Middle Eocene to Early Oligocene potassic–ultrapotassic igneous those of the regional lower-crustal amphibolite (Lu et al., 2013a). The rocks along the Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan tectonic belt adakite-like rocks were considered to have been derived from the juvenile An Eocene–Oligocene potassic–ultrapotassic magmatic belt, associ- lower crust underplated by the magma sourced from the metasomatized ated with several important porphyry–skarn ore deposits, extends lithospheric mantle in Eocene to Early Oligocene (Lu et al., 2013a). over 2000 km along the Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan tectonic belt across the The reason for the mantle metasomatism that significantly defined Eastern Qiangtang block, Simao block, and South China block (Chung the geochemical features of the potassic-ultrapotassic igneous rocks is et al., 1998). The magmatic suites occur in the vicinity of, as well as distal in debate. One group of scholars considered the oceanic slab subduction to, the Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan tectonic belt (Figs. 4, 5). They extend up to induced the metasomatism. It was suggested that the mantle wedge 50 km to the west within the Simao block, and eastward into the South metasomatism under the Simao and Qiangtang blocks was induced by China block up to 150 km for the felsic intrusions and 270 km for mafic the subduction of the Ailaoshan and Jinshajiang Paleotethyan oceanic rocks (Fig. 4)(Zeng et al., 2002; Guo et al., 2005). The mafic rocks show a slab (Jiang et al., 2006; Zhao et al., 2009; Fan et al., 2010). The metaso- compositional spectrum from trachybasalt to latite, mostly occurring as matism beneath the western Yangtze Craton was related to the slab lamprophyres in volcanic pipes or dykes closely controlled by subsidiary subduction in response to the formation of the Panxi-Hannan arc fractures or faults (Huang et al., 2010). The mafic rocks are almost por- around 1100–900 Ma (Fig. 6e) (Zhou et al., 2002, 2006; Lu et al., phyritic with phenocryst olivine, clinopyroxene, and phlogopite. The 2013a,b). The other proposed mechanism for metasomatism in western felsic intrusive suites comprise two series, i.e., the shoshonitic syenite Yangtze Craton is the eastward subduction of the Paleotethyan oceanic and quartz monzogranites and the adakite-like granite and quartz mon- slab (Fig. 6c) (Guo et al., 2005). Contrasting to the diverse oceanic slab zonite (Lu et al., 2013a). The mafic microgranular enclaves are present in subduction models. It was also suggested that the metasomatism shoshonitic syenite and adakite-like quartz monzonites, indicating a agent was mostly the materials in continental crust. E.g., Flower et al. magma mingling process (Lu et al., 2013a). Diverse garnet-bearing xeno- (2013) proposed that the magmas were derived from adiabatic melting liths are present in the syenite porphyry, including garnet clinopyroxenite of crust-contaminated asthenosphere comprising a ‘mélange’ of litho- originating from an estimated depth of 90 km, garnet-diopside amphibo- spheric mantle (hydrated by slab-derived fluids) and lower crust, re- lite and granulite from ca. 45 to 55 km depth, and garnet-plagioclase am- moved from the overriding plate and further enriched by metasomatic phibolites from ca. 30 km depth (Zhao et al., 2003). Comparatively, the melts of subducted Indian continental crust. Alternatively, it was also xenoliths in the adakite-like quartz monzonites are rare. suggested that the metasomatic agent could be a carbonatitic melt for The intrusive felsic rocks in the northern segment of Jinshajiang– the igneous rocks in western Yangtze Craton (Huang et al., 2010). Ailaoshan tectonic belt are scattered around Yulong, those in the central The mechanism for magma generation has also remained controversial, segment mainly extends from Weixi to Dali, and those in the south are and various models have been proposed: (1) Eastward India continental clustered to the southeast of Lüchun county. Zircon U–Pb age data indi- underthrust leading to fluid infiltration into the overlying mantle wedge cate that intrusive felsic rocks of the Yulong belt has emplacement ages and subsequent melting (Wang et al., 2001a)(Fig. 6a). (2) Movement of clustered around 41 and 36 Ma (Rui et al., 1984; Tang and Luo, 1995; the Ailaoshan–Red River shear zone and the resultant tectonic decompres- Hou et al., 2003; Guo et al., 2006; Jiang et al., 2006; Liang et al., 2006). sion (Leloup et al., 1995, 1999; Liang et al., 2006, 2007)(Fig. 6b). (3) Reac- The potassic and ultrapotassic intrusive felsic rocks in the central and tivation of deep fault in an extensional crust setting (Guo et al., 2005) southern segments share similar ages, and they intruded in a limited (Fig. 6c). (4) Breakoff of underthrust continental lithosphere (Flower time around 35 Ma (Lu et al., 2012), which is younger than those in et al., 2013)(Fig. 6d). (5) Convective removal of thickened lower continen- the northern segment. The mafic rocks in the western Yangtze Craton tal lithospheric mantle (Zhao et al., 2009; Lu et al., 2013a,b)(Fig. 6e). had emplacement age at ~35 Ma, as dated by the whole-rock, phlogopite, In light of the first-order control of the Jinshajiang– Ailaoshan and sanidine 40Ar/39Ar method (e.g., Guo et al., 2005; Huang et al., 2010). Paleotethyan sutures on the spatial distribution of the potassic–

The mafic rocks have high K2O(2.68–6.92 wt.%) and K2O/Na2O ultrapotassic rocks, the metasomatism induced by the westward (0.91–4.2), depletion of Ta, Nb and Ti, enriched Sr–Nd isotopic composi- subduction of the Paleotethyan slab was preferable. The eastward sub- tions (initial 87Sr/86Sr of 0.7048–0.7101; εNd(t) of −0.3 to −11.8), and duction of Paleotethyan slab under the northwestern margin of the very low Cu–Au–Mo concentrations (Wang et al., 2001a; Guo et al., Yangtze Craton was not well established due to the lack of convincing 2005; Huang et al., 2010; our unpublished data). The shoshonitic sye- geological evidences (Deng et al., 2013). Abundant xenocrystic zircons nite and quartz monzonite intrusions are characterized by high K2O with U–Pb ages clustered at about 840 Ma and εHf(t) ranging from contents (4.9–6.8 wt.%) and K2O/Na2O ratios (1.1–1.7), high Y largely negative to highly positive were entrained in the potassic– (1.7–34.8 ppm) and Yb (1.50–3.16 ppm) contents, and small A/CNK ra- ultrapotassic felsic intrusive rocks in the northwestern Yangtze (our un- tios below 0.9 (Lu et al., 2013a and our unpublished paper). The published data). This supports the inference that metasomatism of the shoshonitic syenite and quartz monzogranites have higher magmatic lithospheric mantle occurred at ~840 Ma for northwestern Yangtze. zircon δ18Ovalues(6.26–7.05‰) than the mantle, which suggests Based on the recent extensive geochronological data containing the some δ18O was enriched during earlier subduction-related metasoma- timing of ductile shearing and the emplacement of potassic– tism of lithospheric mantle source (Lu et al., 2013a,b). High fO2 values ultrapotassic rocks, it has been recognized that the ductile shearing calculated from the spinels of the mafic rocks indicate that the parental postdated the magmatism (Lu et al., 2012). The tectonic history in the melts were oxidized, which explains the high Mg-number [Mg/(Mg southern Tibet from 25 to 10 Ma suggests that as the underthrust of con- +Fe2+)] of the melts and the high-Mg olivines in these rocks (Huang tinental lithosphere was initiated, the magmatic events tended to sub- et al., 2010). These features support that the mafic rocks and the side (Chung et al., 2005). Therefore, it is unlikely that the shearing shoshonitic syenite and quartz monzogranites were mainly derived movement and continental underthrust generated the potassic– from metasomatized lithospheric mantle (Lu et al., 2013a,b). ultrapotassic magmatism. We thus prefer the mechanism of removal

Potassic-ultrapotassic adakite-like intrusions have variable K2Ocon- of lower lithospheric mantle as the trigger (Fig. 6e). The anthenosphere tents (3.4–12.15 wt.%), K2O/Na2O ratios from 0.7 to 31.97, A/CNK ratios upwelling after the removal is an efﬁcient mechanism to trigger the par- of 0.83–1.06, ranging from subalkaline to alkaline, high-K calc-alkaline tial melting of the enriched lithospheric mantle and juvenile crust. to shoshonitic. The adakite-like intrusions are characterized by high La/Yb (14.4–62), Sr (177–1423 ppm), and Sr/Y (38–243), and the low 5.3. Late Miocene–Holocene volcanic rocks Y and Yb contents (Lu et al., 2013a,b; our unpublished data). Compared with the intrusive felsic rocks without adakite afﬁnities, the adakite-like 5.3.1. Pliocene–Holocene volcanic rocks in the Tengchong block granites and quartz monzonites have even larger variations in the initial The Pliocene–Holocene volcanic rocks in the Tengchong extend 87Sr/86Sr of 0.7056–0.7080 and εNd(t) of −7.8 to 1.8, which is similar to about 90 km from north to south and 50 km from west to east

Fig. 6. Genetic models proposed for potassic–ultrapotassic magmatic rocks along the Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan tectonic belt. (a) subduction of the India lithosphere proposed by the Wang et al. (2001a); (b) shearing-induced melting proposed by Liang et al. (2006); (c) decompressional partial melting of metasomatized lithospheric mantle triggerred by block extrusion proposed by Guo et al. (2005); (d) breakoff of subducted India continental lithosphere proposed by Flower et al. (2013); (e) removal of lower lithospheric mantle which was metasomatized in 1100–900 Ma proposed by Lu et al. (2013a).

(Huangpu and Jiang, 2000). A low-V layer at a depth of 3–10 km was predominantly alkaline suite and displaying apparent linear geochemi- identiﬁed by seismic sounding and earthquake data in the Tengchong cal trends on Harker diagrams. Unit 2 is composed of hornblende dacite. block, and this layer is explained to be the active magma chamber in Zhou et al. (2012) reported the mineralogical and geochemical features the upper crust (Qin et al., 2000; Bai et al., 2001; Zhao et al., 2006). of the lava in Units 1, 3, and 4. The chromite inclusions contained in the

Early volcanism during the Pliocene or Miocene occurred in south- olivine phenocrysts plot close to the MORB field in the TiO2 versus Al2O3 east and northern margins of the Tengchong volcanic area (Zhu et al., diagram, suggesting that the magma formed at a deeper level than nor- 1983), it migrated to the central part of the field during the Pleistocene mal arc volcanic rocks. Most rocks belong to K-rich calc-alkaline and to Holocene (Huangpu and Jiang, 2000). Geochronology based on U–Pb, shoshonite lavas with higher TiO2 and P2O5 contents comparable to 230Th–238U, K/Ar, and thermoluminescence techniques constrains the ocean island basalt (OIB). They have arc-like trace element features, age of the Tengchong volcanic rocks from 5.5 Ma to present (Li et al., i.e., enrichment of LREE in chondrite-normalized REE patterns and de- 2000; Yin and Li, 2000; F. Wang et al., 2006; Zou et al., 2010; Y.R. Shi pletion of Ti, Nb, and Ta in primitive mantle normalized trace element et al., 2012). patterns. However, they are enriched in Th, Ti and P relative to typical Zhou et al. (2012) divided the volcanic rocks into four units (1 to 4 arc volcanics. In the plot of La/Nb versus Ba/Nb, the rocks fall between from oldest to youngest). Units 1, 3, and 4 are composed of olivine the arc volcanic and Dupal OIB fields. The rocks show initial 87Sr/86Sr ra- trachybasalt, basaltic trachyandesite and trachyandesite, forming a tios of 0.706–0.709, εNd(t) values of −3.2 to −8.7, and εHf(t) values of

laect hsatcea:Dn,J,e l,Cnzi etn-amtcadmtloei rcse nteSnin ein otwsenChina, southwestern region, Sanjiang the in processes metallogenic and tectono-magmatic Cenozoic al., et (2014), J., Rev. Deng, Earth-Sci. as: article this cite Please Table 1 Characteristics of major Cenozoic ore deposits in the Sanjiang region.

Deposit Tectonic location Genetic type Metal Tonnage Grade Metallogenic time Tectonic References commodity evolution phase

Zhailong (1) South part of the Western Magmatic hydrothermal Sn Sn, 12, 300 t Sn, 0.33–1.09% Oligocene? Phase iii Tang et al. (2006) Qiangtang Saibeinong (2) South part of the Western Magmatic hydrothermal Sn No published data Sn, 0.1–3.8% Oligocene? Phase iii Tang et al. (2006) Qiangtang http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2014.05.015 Zhaofayong (3) South part of the Eastern MVT Pb–Zn Pb, 60, 500 t Pb,3.36% Oligocene? Phase iii Tang et al. (2006) Qiangtang Zn, 0.503 Mt Zn, 27. 95% Song (2009) Au,4.12t Au,2.3g/t Lalongla (4) South part of the Eastern MVT Pb–Zn No published data Pb, 0.42–11.51%, Oligocene? Phase iii Y.C. Liu et al. (2013) Qiangtang Zn, 2.81–23.21% Nanyuela (5) South part of the Western Basinal brine + magmatic Pb–Zn Zn, 50, 000 t Pb, 1–25% Oligocene? Phase iii Tang et al. (2006) Qiangtang hydrothermal Zn, 5.07–47.57% Binda (6) South part of the Western Basinal brine + magmatic Sb–Ag–Pb–Zn Sb, 0.283 Mt Sb, 2.31% Oligocene? Phase iii Tang et al. (2006) Qiangtang hydrothermal Pb, 0.485 Mt Pb, 4.04% Hou and Wang (2008) Cu, 0.17 Mt Cu, 1.42% Ag,1,160t Ag, 96.8 g/t

Ganzhongxiong (7) South part of the Nujiang Basinal brine + magmatic Pb–Zn Pb + Zn, 0.98 Mt Pb, 1.72–2.8%, Oligocene? Phase iii Tang et al. (2006) xxx (2014) 136 Reviews Earth-Science / al. et Deng J. suture zone hydrothermal Zn, 1.82–5.3% Lanuoma (8) South part of the Eastern Basinal brine + magmatic Pb–Zn–Sb Pb + Zn, 1.02 Mt Zn, 3.61% Oligocene? Phase iii Tang et al. (2006) Qiangtang hydrothermal Pb, 1.76% Tao et al. (2011) Yulong (9) South part of the Eastern Porphyry Cu–Mo–Au Cu, 6.5 Mt Cu, 0.99% 43.8–38.9 Ma, by zircon U–Pb age; Phase ii Tang and Luo (1995) Qiangtang Mo, 0.028% 41.6–40.1 Ma, by molybdenite Re–Os age Guo et al. (2006) Hou et al. (2003, 2006) Jiang et al. (2006) Liang et al. (2006) H.Y. Liang et al. (2008) Tang et al. (2009) Wang et al. (2009a) Zanaga (10) South part of the Eastern Porphyry Cu–Mo–Au Cu, 0.3 Mt Cu, 0.36% 38.5 ± 0.2 Ma, by zircon U–Pb age Phase ii Tang and Luo (1995) Qiangtang Mo, 0.03% Hou et al. (2003) Liang et al. (2006) Mangzong (11) South part of the Eastern Porphyry Cu–Mo–Au Cu, 0.25 Mt Cu, 0.34% 37.6 ± 0.2 Ma, by zircon U–Pb age Phase ii Tang and Luo (1995) Qiangtang Mo, 0.03% Hou et al. (2003) –

Liang et al. (2006) xxx Duoxiasongduo (12) South part of the Eastern Porphyry Cu–Mo–Au Cu, 0.5 Mt Cu, 0.38% 37.5 ± 0.2 Ma, by zircon U–Pb age; Phase ii Du et al. (1994) Qiangtang Mo, 0.04% 36.0 ± 0.2 Ma, by molybdenite Re–Os age Liang et al. (2006) Tang and Luo (1995) Hou et al. (2003) Malasongduo (13) South part of the Eastern Porphyry Cu–Mo–Au Cu, 1.0 Mt Cu, 0.44% Mo, 0.14% 36.9 ± 0.4 Ma, by zircon U–Pb age; Phase ii Du et al. (1994) Qiangtang 36.2–35.4 Ma, by molybdenite Re–Os age Tang and Luo (1995) Liang et al. (2006) Hou et al. (2003) Gegongnong (14) South part of the Eastern Porphyry Cu–Mo–Au Cu, 0.1 Mt, Au, 754 kg Au, 3.37 g/t Late Eocene Phase ii Li et al. (2002) Qiangtang S.M. Zhang et al. (2012) Donglufang (15) West part of the Yangtze Porphyry Cu–Au No published data No published data Late Eocene Phase ii Hou et al. (2004) Bainiuchang (16) West part of the Yangtze Porphyry Au–Pb–Zn Au, 1.44 t Pb, 10, 800 t No published data Late Eocene Phase ii Qin (2009) Xifanping (17) West part of the Yangtze Porphyry Cu–Au No published data Cu, 0.33–0.49%, 32.5 ± 0.3 Ma, by zircon U–Pb age; Phase ii Hou et al. (2006) Au, 0.1 g/t 32.1 ± 1.6 Ma, by molybdenite Re–Os age Lu et al. (2012) Mo, 0.01% Yu et al. (2012) Mahuaping (18) West part of the Yangtze Magmatic hydrothermal W–Be No published data W, 0.368% 17 Ma, by K-feldspar Ar–Ar age Phase iii Ran et al. (2011) Baiyangping (19) Lanping basin (North Magmatic hydrothermal Cu–Co–Ag Cu, 0.12 Mt Cu, 0.86–3.3% Late Eocene? Phase i Chen (2006) part of the Simao block) Co, 0.10–0.27% Wudichang (20) Lanping basin MVT Ag–Pb–Zn–Cu No published data Pb, 4.2–10.4% 29.9 ± 1.1 Ma, by Calcite Sm–Nd age; Phase iii Chen (2006) Zn, 12.2–15.33% 28.9 ± 0.6 Ma, by Sphalerite Rb–Sr age X.H. Wang et al. (2011) laect hsatcea:Dn,J,e l,Cnzi etn-amtcadmtloei rcse nteSnin ein otwsenChina, southwestern region, Sanjiang the in processes metallogenic and tectono-magmatic Cenozoic al., et (2014), J., Rev. Deng, Earth-Sci. as: article this cite Please Liziping (21) Lanping basin MVT Ag–Pb–Zn–Cu No published data No published data 29.9 ± .1 Ma, by Calcite Sm–Nd age; Phase iii X.H. Wang et al. (2011) 29.01 ± 0.04 Ma, by Sphalerite Rb–Sr age Fulongchang (22) Lanping basin MVT Ag–Pb–Zn–Cu No published data Ag, 328–547 g/t 29.9 ± .1.1 Ma, by Calcite Sm–Nd age; Phase iii Chen (2006) Pb, 4.2–7.4% 29.0 ± 0.1 Ma, by Sphalerite Rb–Sr age X.H. Wang et al. (2011) Cu, 0.63–11.70% Quwu (23) Lanping basin MVT Ag Ag–(Cu–Pb–Zn) No published data Ag, 23.32–220.07 g/t Oligocene? Phase iii Chen (2006) Caizidi (24) Lanping basin MVT Pb–Zn No published data No published data Oligocene? Phase iii Song (2009) Xiaogela (25) Lanping basin Magmatic hydrothermal Cu–Ag Cu, 8, 956 t Cu, 2.12% Early Eocene? Phase i Li et al. (2001) Ag, 29 t Ag, 73.22 g/t Song (2009) Kedengjian (26) Lanping basin Magmatic hydrothermal Cu–Co No published data Cu, 1.3–5.5% Early Eocene? Phase i Song et al. (2011) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2014.05.015 Dahua (27) Lanping basin Magmatic hydrothermal Cu No published data No published data Early Eocene? Phase i Song (2009) Sanshan (28) Lanping basin MVT Pb–Zn–Cu–Ag Zn + Pb, 0.5 Mt Ag, Pb, 1.27–3.55% Oligocene? Phase iii Chen (2006) 3000 t Zn, 1.60–3.39% Cu, 0.3 Mt Ag, 15.8–114.9% Laojunshan (29) Lanping basin MVT Pb–Zn No published data No published data Oligocene? Phase iii Song (2009) Liancheng (30) Lanping basin Magmatic hydrothermal Cu–Mo No published data Cu, 1.45–2.07% 47.8– 49.0 Ma, by molybdenite Re–Os age Phase i G. H. Wang et al. (2009) Cu–Mo Song et al. (2011) J.R. Zhang et al. (2013) Jinman (31) Lanping basin Magmatic hydrotherma Cu–Ag Cu, 0.2 Mt Cu, 0.65–12.0% 58.2 ± 5.3 Ma, by Calcite Sm–Nd age Phase i Zhao (2006) J.R. Zhang et al. (2013) Jinding (32) Lanping basin MVT Pb–Zn Zn, 12.84 Mt Zn, 8.32–10.5% Oligocene? Phase iii Liu et al. (1993) .Dn ta./ErhSineRves16(04 xxx (2014) 136 Reviews Earth-Science / al. et Deng J. Pb, 2.64 Mt Pb, 1.16–2.42% Xue et al. (2007) Ag, 12.5–12.6 g/t Song et al. (2011) Y.Y. Tang et al. (2013) Baiyangchang (33) Lanping basin Magmatic hydrothermal Cu–Ag No published data Cu, 0.36–1.61% Early Eocene? Phase i Ye et al. (1992) Cu Ag, 110–245 g/t Pb, 0.22–3.24% Zn, 1.11% Beiya (34) West part of the Porphyry/skarn Au–Cu Wandongshan ore Wandongshan 36.5–33.3 Ma, by zircon U–Pb age; Phase ii Xu et al. (2007) Yangtze cluster: ore cluster: 36.9 ± 0.8 Ma, by molybdenite Re–Os age Yang and Lü (2011) Au, >200 t Au, 2.45 g/t Lu et al. (2012) Fe, 25.44 Mt Fe, 36.74% W.Y. He et al. (2013); Z.H. He et al. (2013) Xiaolongtan (35) West part of the Yangtze Porphyry Cu–Au No published data No published data 35.4 ± 0.4 Ma, by zircon U–Pb age Phase ii Lu et al. (2012) Machangqing (36) West part of the Yangtze Porphyry Cu–Mo–Au Cu N 81, 260 t Cu, 0.50% 37.9–35.0 Ma, by zircon U–Pb age; Phase ii Liang et al. (2004a) Mo N 44, 525 t Mo, 0.078% 35.8–33.9 Ma, by molybdenite Re–Os age D.H. Wang et al. (2004) Hou et al. (2006)

Xing et al. (2009) – xxx He et al. (2011) Lu et al. (2012) Yao'an (37) West part of the Yangtze Porphyry Au Au, 10 t Au, 4–5g/t 34.0–33.4 Ma, by molybdenite Re–Os age Phase ii Ye et al. (1992) Liang et al. (2007) Lu et al. (2012) Zacun (38) South part of the Magmatic hydrothermal Au Au, 11. 7 t Au, 1–4 g/t Late Eocene? Phase ii Y. Wang et al. (2004) Lanping basin Shuixie (39) South part of the Magmatic hydrothermal Cu–Co No published data Cu, 0.9–2.96% Early Eocene? Phase i Y. Wang et al. (2004) Lanping basin Cu–Co Lailishan (40) Tengchong block Magmatic hydrothermal Sn–W Sn, 42, 600 t Sn, 0.63–1.58% 53.2 ± 0.6 Ma, by zircon U–Pb age; Phase i Liu et al. (1993) 47.4–52.0 Ma, by cassiterite U–Pb age; Xu et al. (2012) 48.4 ± 0.3 Ma, by muscovite Ar–Ar Chen et al. (2014) plateau age Lianghe (41) Tengchong block Hot spring Au No published data Au, 0.1–0.8 g/t Quaternary Phase iv Zhuo (1991) Xiaoshuijing (42) Ailaoshan–Red River Orogenic Au Au No published data Au, 1.03–5.95 g/t Oligocene? Phase iii Zhou et al. (2010) shear zone (West Fu et al. (2010) part of the Yangtze) Dazhai (43) West part of the Simao Basinal brine Ge Ge, ~800 t Ge, 20–2500 g/t, Late Neogene or Quaternary Phase iv Qi et al. (2004, 2007), block averaging 850 g/t Hu et al. (2009) Zhongzhai (44) West part of the Basinal brine Ge Ge N 200 t Ge, 35–2500 g/t Late Neogene Phase iv Qi et al. (2004, 2007) Simao block Hu et al. (2009) 15 (continued on next page) Table 1 (continued) Deposit Tectonic location Genetic type Metal Tonnage Grade Metallogenic time Tectonic References commodity evolution phase 16

laect hsatcea:Dn,J,e l,Cnzi etn-amtcadmtloei rcse nteSnin ein otwsenChina, southwestern region, Sanjiang the in processes metallogenic and tectono-magmatic Cenozoic al., et (2014), J., Rev. Deng, Earth-Sci. as: article this cite Please Zhenyuan (45) Ailaoshan–Red River Orogenic Au Au Au N 77 t Au, 5.1–5.29 g/t 26.4 ± 0.2 Ma, by phlogopite Ar–Ar Phase iii Yang et al. (2010) shear zone isochron age Hu et al. (1995) Wang et al. (2001b) Denghaishan (46) Simao basin (South part Basinal brine Cu No published data Cu, 0.72–5.32% Oligocene? Phase iii Liu et al. (1993) of the Simao block) Chen (2012) Jinla (47) South part of the Baoshan Skarn/magmatic Pb–Zn No published data Pb + Zn, 15% 45.0–43.4 Ma, by zircon U–Pb age Earliest phase ii Xiao et al. (2008) block hydrothermal Chen et al. (2009) Bailongchang (48) Simao basin Basinal brine Cu– Cu–Pb–Zn No published data No published data Oligocene? Phase iii Liu et al. (1993) Luoboshan (49) Simao basin Basinal brine Pb–Zn No published data Pb, 0.52–0.94% Oligocene? Phase iii Z.X. Li et al. (2012) Zn, 1.60–7.29% http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2014.05.015 A'mo (50) South part of Changning– Magmatic Sn–W No published data Sn, 0.32–5.16% Early Eocene? Phase i Zhao and Tang (1991) Menglian suture hydrothermal-W Liu et al. (1993) Banzhe (51) South part of Changning– Magmatic Sn–W No published data No published data Early Eocene? Phase i Liu et al. (1993) Menglian suture hydrothermal Laochang (52) South part of Changning– Porphyry Mo–(Cu) No published data Mo, 0.056% 44.6 ± 1.1 Ma by zircon U–Pb age; Earliest phase ii Li et al. (2009) Menglian suture 43.8 ± .8 Ma by molybdenite Re–Os age Chen et al. (2010) Xiao et al. (2011) Changdonghe (53) Simao basin Basinal brine Cu–Ag No published data No published data Oligocene? Phase iii Liu et al. (1993) Mengman (54) Southwest part of the Hot spring Au No published data Au, 0.1–3.84 g/t, Quaternary Phase iv Yang et al. (2007) Simao block averaging 0.71 g/t Feng et al. (2008) Yitian (55) Simao basin Basinal brine Pb–Zn No published data No published data Oligocene? Phase iii Liu et al. (1993) .Dn ta./ErhSineRves16(04 xxx (2014) 136 Reviews Earth-Science / al. et Deng J. Chang'an (56) Ailaoshan–Red River Orogenic gold Au Au, 31 t Au, 5.84 g/t Oligocene? Phase iii Yang et al. (2010) shear zone J. Zhang et al. (2013) Daping (57) Ailaoshan–Red River Orogenic gold Au Au, 60 t Au, 8–10 g/t 33.8 ± 0.7 Ma, by sericite Ar–Ar Earliest phase iii Hu et al. (1995) shear zone plateau age Yang et al. (2010) Sun et al. (2009) Habo (58) Southeast part of the Porphyry Cu–Mo–Au No published data Cu, 0.42–1.0% 36.3–36.0 Ma, by zircon U–Pb age; Phase ii Zhu et al. (2009) Simao block Mo, 0.01–0.1%, 35.5 ± 0.2 Ma, by molybdenite Re–Os age Au, 1–30 g/t Tongchang (59) Southeast part of the Porphyry Cu–Mo–Au Cu, 8, 621 t Cu, 1.24% 36.0–34.6 Ma, by zircon U–Pb Phase ii D.H. Wang et al. (2004) Simao block Mo, 17, 060 t Mo, 0.218% age; 34.4 ± 0.5 Ma, by molybdenite Liang et al. (2007) Au, 100 kg Au, 0.13 g/t Re–Os age Xue (2008) B. Huang et al. (2009) – xxx J. Deng et al. / Earth-Science Reviews 136 (2014) xxx–xxx 17

4.8 to −6.4. The Pb isotopic ratios of the lavas (206Pb/204Pb = and commenced from ~80 Ma (C.M. Wang et al., 2013; Deng et al., 18.02–18.30) clearly show an EMI-type mantle source. F. Wang et al. 2013). These Cenozoic Sn ore deposits are represented by the Lailishan (2006) reported that the recent lavas (b200 ka) are characterized by ex- greisen-type deposit (No. 20 in Fig. 5 and Table 1), which formed at cess of either 230Th or 238U. 53.2–48.4 Ma as shown by the zircon U–Pb ages of the intrusive rocks These features mentioned above suggest a highly heterogeneous (Xu et al., 2012) and the muscovite and biotite Ar–Ar ages of the ore and metasomatized mantle source for the Tengchong lavas. Based on (Liu et al., 1993; Dong et al., 2006). A recent study on U/Pb ages of cas- the coupled variations in 230Th/238U with respect to 87Sr/86Sr and REE siterite in the Lailishan shows comparable ages of 52 ± 2.7 to 47.4 ± data, F. Wang et al. (2006) suggested that the sources included a 2.0 Ma (Chen et al., 2014). The Lailishan ore deposit is temporally and LREE-enriched, high Rb/Sr end-member marked by 230Th enrichment spatially associated with S-type granite (Liu et al., 1993). The Sn from melting within the garnet stability ﬁeld and a more typical arc- orebodies, mainly composing of pyrite, topaz, pyrrhotite, and cassiterite, type melt with 230Th/238U b 1. The phlogopite-rich veins in lithospheric are spatially localized in fracture zones. The Lailishan granite is charac- mantle caused by the ﬂuid-related metasomatism are suggested to at- terized by high K, F, and S contents, and elevated initial 87Sr/87Sr ratio tribute to the high Th content and Th/U ratio of the lava as evidenced (0.7124–0.7138), suggesting a crustal anatexis (Lu and Wang, 1993). by the negative correlation between Sr/Ce and Th (F. Wang et al., TheCu(Co,Mo,Ag,Pb–Zn, etc.) polymetallic vein-type ore deposits

2006). The olivine trachybasalts have (Th/Ba)N mostly smaller than 1 include the Jinman (No. 31), Liancheng (No. 30), and Baiyangping and (Th/La)N ratios from 1 to 2, possibly indicating that the source (No. 19) in the western part of Lanping basin and the Bailongchang was modiﬁed by slab-derived ﬂuids; the rest lithologies have higher (No. 48) in Simao basin (Fig. 5). Ore minerals in these deposits include

(Th/Ba)N and (Th/La)N reaching to 5, suggesting a melt-related enrich- tetrahedrite, chalcopyrite, chalcocite, bornite, and pyrite; and gangue ment. Plots of the Th/Zr against Nb/Zr and the Nb/Y against Rb/Y also de- minerals are quartz, calcite, barite, and siderite. The molybdenite Re– note that they were affected by both melt-related and fluid-related Os and calcite Sm–Nd isotopic dating shows this type of deposit was enrichments (Zhou et al., 2012). formed in 58–48 Ma (G.H. Wang et al., 2009; J. R. Zhang et al., 2013). The geochemical features indicate that the mantle source beneath The homogenization temperatures of the fluid inclusions entrapped in was previously modified by slab melt and fluid during the subduction the ore gangue minerals from the Jinman deposit show two peaks at of Neotethyan plate (F. Wang et al., 2006; Zhou et al., 2012), as is sup- 236 °C and 346 °C, and the salinities range from 6 to 9 wt.% NaCl equiv- ported by that the Tengchong lava is near the arc belt related to the alent (J.R. Zhang et al., 2012). Sulfide δ34S values of Jinman show a wide 18 Neotethyan oceanic slab subduction (Fig. 4). Zhou et al. (2012) sug- range and a peak around 0. The δ Owater (SMOW) mainly ranges gested that the metasomatized mantle source was further reworked from +2 to +10 per mil, close to that of magmatic fluid (Ji and Li, through interaction with melts derived from the subducted Ninety 1998). Lead isotopes of sulfides from the series of Cu deposits in the East Ridge, because the OIB component of the ridge (Storey et al., western Lanping basin, are 17.155–18.865, 15.339–15.793, and 1989) could explain some of the unusual features of the Tengchong 37.249–39.240 for 206Pb/204Pb,207Pb/204Pb, and 208Pb/204Pb, respective- lavas, including their intermediate OIB-arc geochemical signatures. In ly (Wu et al., 2003; Xu and Zhou, 2004; Wang et al., 2005; Zhao, 2006; spite of the fact that the subducted oceanic ridge has not been detected Song, 2009). These compositions are within the range of the upper in geophysical profiles so far (C. Li et al., 2008; Lei et al., 2009), the oce- crustal reservoir of the Lanping basin, which show 18.140–20.289, anic ridge hypothesis is compatible with the geochemical features, and 15.274–16.051, and 37.878–40.800 for 206Pb/204Pb,207Pb/204Pb, and also confirms with the modern orientation of the Ninety East Ridge. 208Pb/204Pb, respectively (Zhao, 1989; Zhang et al., 2002). Most Pb isotopic compositional values are located between the evolution lines of the 5.3.2. Plio-Pleistocene volcanic rocks in the southeastern Sanjiang upper crust and orogene illustrated in Fig. 7a and between those of the The K-rich basalts and basanites are distributed in Puer, Tongguan, lower crust and orogene shown in Fig. 7b. These values dominantly and Pingbian counties in the southeastern Sanjiang (Fig. 4). These scattered around the Pb–Pb isochrons of two-stage model for 200 and magmas have whole rock 40Ar–39Ar age of 1.5 to 0.3 Ma (Wang et al., 50 Ma, which possibly reflects the selective Pb enrichment relative to 2001a, 2003; Flower et al., 2013; Huang et al., 2013) and display U during the Permo-Triassic orogenic process as Paleotethyan oceans HFSE-rich characteristics (Flower et al., 2013). It was explained that closed in Sanjiang (Fig. 7a). A few plots of Pb isotopes offset towards these magmas resulted from decompression melting of thermally the range of the upper mantle of Lanping basin as indicated by the man- anomalous K-rich asthenosphere, which was considered to link with tle enclaves in Cenozoic intrusive rocks (Zhang et al., 2002) and the the subduction-induced metasomatism (Wang et al., 2001a; Flower mantle evolution line (Fig. 7a). This suggests a small amount mantle- et al., 2013). This magmatism reflects to mantle reactivation after the derived Pb might have been involved into the ore formation (Fig. 7). 18 extrusion of Indochina block. Based on the relatively high homogenization temperatures, δ Owater compositions, as well as the Pb isotopic compositions, these ore deposits 6. Metallogenesis were interpreted by Ji and Li (1998) and J.R. Zhang et al. (2012) to have been derived from hydrothermal fluids fractionated from a magma of The metallogenic units, defined based on the magmatic and tectonic largely anatectic origin, with only minor mantle contribution. The ore- units, include the magmatic hydrothermal Sn–W ore deposits in forming magmatic rocks were coeval with those exposed nearby Tengchong block, porphyry–skarn Mo and hydrothermal Pb–Zn in Chongshan shear zone (Fig. 4). Cangyuan area, porphyry–skarn Cu, Mo, and Au (Fe, Pb, and Zn) The Jinla Pb–Zn (No. 47) and Laochang Mo (No. 52) ore deposits polymetallic and orogenic Au ore deposits along Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan formed in the Cangyuan magmatic domain. The Jinla ore deposit tectonic belt, magmatic hydrothermal Cu (Co, Ag, etc.) and MVT Pb– comprises an early skarn-type Pb–Zn–Cu mineralization and a later Zn (Ag, Sr, etc.) polymetallic deposits contained in the Mesozoic basins Pb–Zn–Ag mineralization mostly occurring as brecciated veins along (Fig. 5). the NE-trending faults that are either parallel to, or cut across the bedding of the host rocks (Xiao et al., 2008; Chen et al., 2009). The ore min- 6.1. Paleocene to Early Eocene magmatic–hydrothermal ore deposits erals in the vein-type orebodies include galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, and pyrrhotite and the gangue minerals are mainly quartz, calcite, fluo- In the period from Paleocene to Early Eocene, magmatic– rite, and barite. The δ34S values of sulfide minerals in vein-type orebodies hydrothermal Sn ore deposits were developed in the Tengchong block range from −0.6 to+5.1‰ (Xiao et al., 2008). The 206Pb/204Pb,207Pb/ and Cu-polymetallic vein-type ore deposits within the Mesozoic basins 204Pb, and 208Pb/204Pb of the sulfides are 18.568–18.800, 15.584–16.051, (Fig. 5). The Cenozoic Sn mineralization in the Tengchong block is a con- and 38.621–38.993, respectively (Xiao et al., 2008). Fluid inclusions of tinuum of that related to the subduction of Neotethyan oceanic plate vein-type orebodies are dominated by NaCl–H2O and NaCl–CO2–H2O

Fig. 7. Lead isotope compositions of sulfides from the different genetic types of deposits, Sanjiang region, SW China. (a) 207Pb/204Pb vs. 206Pb/204Pb. (b) 208Pb/204Pb vs. 206Pb/204Pb. Mantle source reservoirs BSE, DM, EM I, and EM II are from Zindler and Hart (1986). The Northern Hemisphere Reference Line (NHRL) is from Hart (1984). The evolution line of mantle, orogene, and the lower and upper crust reservoir are from Zartman and Doe (1981). The Pb–Pb isochrons of two-stage model for 200, 100, 50, and 0 Ma are based on Stacey and Kramers (1975). Data for leucogranite within the Ailaoshan–Red River shear zone (ARSZ) are from Zhang and Schärer (1999) and those for amphibolites xenoliths hosted by the potassic–ultrapotassic felsic intrusion in the western Yangtze Craton are from Deng et al. (1998) and Zhao et al. (2004). Data for the upper crust of the Lanping basin are from Zhao (1989) and Zhang et al. (2002), and those for the upper mantle indicated by the mantle enclaves in Cenozoic magmatic intrusions are from Zhang et al. (2002). Data sources for different genetic types of deposits: Magmatic hydrothermal deposit in the Lanping basin (Wu et al., 2003; Xu and Zhou, 2004; Wang et al., 2005; Zhao, 2006; Song, 2009); Jinding MVT Pb–Zn deposit (Bai et al., 1985; Ye et al., 1992; Zhou and Zhou, 1992; Zhang, 1993; Xiu et al., 2006; Zhao, 2006; C.H. Li et al., 2011) and other MVT deposits in the Lanping basin (Zhang, 1993; Wei, 2001; Wang and He, 2003; Xu and Zhou, 2004; Li et al., 2005; Zhao, 2006; Song, 2009); Zhenyuan (Hu et al., 1995; Dong, 1997) and Daping (Han et al., 1997; Chang and Zhu, 2005; Yuan et al., 2010) orogenic Au deposits within the Ailaoshan–Red River shear zone. types with the homogenization temperatures in the range of 160–320 °C. propylitic zone. At least three styles of mineralization have been recog- These isotopic and ore fluid features are compatible with the explanation nized. The first style is veinlet-disseminated quartz-pyrite-chalcopyrite that the ore fluid has a mixed signature between magmatic hydrothermal forming a pipelike, steeply dipping orebody in the interior of the por- and meteoric waters. The Laochang ore deposit shows widespread horn- phyry intrusion. The second consists predominantly of fine-veinlet fels and garnet-diopside skarn along the contact of a granitic porphyry, pyrite-chalcopyrite or pyrite-chalcopyrite-molybdenite ores hosted and intense alteration of silicification, pyritization, and chloritization in within the hornfels zone adjacent to the intrusion. The third occurs the porphyry and wallrock. The porphyry-type and skarn-type Mo within a ring-shaped halo of stratiform or lenticular replacement mineralization zone extending to over 850 m has been discovered orebodies comprising pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, and sphalerite hosted in drillcore (Li et al., 2009; Chen et al., 2010). The Re–Os dating of in the late-Triassic strata. molybdenite from the Laochang ores yielded an age of 43.78 Ma The Beiya ore deposit, the largest porphyry–skarn Au deposit in (Chen et al., 2010). China, has a gold reserve of N200 tons according to the exploration carried out before 2013 (Fig. 5; Z.H. He et al., 2013). The Wandongshan 6.2. Middle Eocene to Early Oligocene ore deposits related to potassic– segment carries most of the ore reserve of the ore deposit. In the ultrapotassic intrusive rocks Wandongshan open-pit, the barren quartz-K-feldspar porphyry shows the formation of skarn along its contact and was intruded by altered The potassic–ultrapotassic intrusive rocks, dominantly extending and mineralized monzogranitic porphyry. Both types of porphyries along the Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan tectonic belt, constitute the Yulong show adakitic geochemical features (Lu et al., 2013b). Most Au occurs porphyry orefield (Nos. 9–13) in the northern segment, the Beiya in voluminous and massive orebodies situated along the contact of the (No. 34), Machangqing (No. 36), and Yao'an (No. 37) ore deposits in quartz-K-feldspar porphyry and within the void spaces in the Triassic the central, and the Habo (No. 58) and Tongchang (No. 59) ore deposits carbonate. The massive ores are dominated by hematite and magnetite in the southern (Fig. 5). with small amounts of sulfides (Xu et al., 2007). In contrast, the altered The Yulong porphyry orefield contains a bunch of ore deposits, in monzogranitic porphyry contains less Au. Our studies show that the sul- which the Yulong ore deposit (No. 9) with 6.3 Mt Cu metal is the largest fides and native gold are relicts in the Fe-minerals, suggesting that the (Fig. 5). Molybdenite Re–Os dating defines mineralization ages ranging ores with sulfides and gold were mainly formed during an early between 42 and 32 Ma with two peaks at 40 Ma (e.g., the Yulong Cu– skarnitization related to the quartz-K-feldspar porphyry, and then pos- Mo) and 36 Ma (e.g., the Duoxiasongduo Cu–Mo ore deposit, No. 12) sibly overprinted by a later gold-rich hydrothermal fluid related to the (Hou et al., 2006). The monzogranitic porphyry emplaced in the Yulong monzogranitic porphyry. Later intense weathering altered the sulfides ore deposit shows potassic adakite-like features (Jiang et al., 2006). The into Fe-oxides. Recent exploration revealed magmatic hydrothermal monzogranitic porphyry emplaced in the Yulong ore deposit was char- Pb–Zn orebodies controlled by bedding faults were discovered on the acterized by SiO2 from 63.11 to 71.94 wt.%, Na2O from 2.87 to 4.39 wt.%, periphery of the Beiya ore deposit. – and K2O from 4.27 to 6.24 wt.%, belonging to the shoshonite series. The The Cu Mo mineralization in the Machangqing ore deposit in the porphyry has depleted Y and Yb, enriched Sr corresponding to high Sr/Y central part of the belt is associated with high-K calc-alkaline and and La/Yb ratios, and no Eu anomaly (Jiang et al., 2006). These geochem- adakitic granitic stocks (Lu et al., 2013b). The stocks which intruded ical features indicate that the porphyry belongs to the adakite type, into Ordovician sedimentary sequences underwent K-silicate, phyllic, which could be derived from a thickened crust with the presence of gar- and argillic alteration (Fig. 5). The ores occur both as Cu–Mo veinlets net. The Yulong deposit is associated with a steeply dipping and pipe- with mineralogical assemblage of molybdenite, pyrite, and chalcopyrite like monzogranitic porphyry stock with zircon U–Pb age of 38.86 Ma within the stocks, and as Cu–Mo skarn-type with metal minerals of (Hou et al., 2003; Jiang et al., 2006). The alteration shows concentric magnetite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, and molybdenite along the boundary zoning from an inner K-silicate, through a quartz-sericite, to an outer of the stock (Hou et al., 2006).

The Yao'an porphyry Au deposit is associated with a syenite and inclusions are respectively in the range of 301.7–385.7 and quartz monzonite porphyry, which emplaced into Jurassic and Creta- 0.03–0.06 Ra, suggesting the ore fluid is air saturated meteoric ceous sedimentary rocks. They have initial 87Sr/86Sr of ca. 0.708 and groundwater (Hu et al., 1998). Lead isotopic compositions of the εNd(t) of ca. −11, similar to coeval lamprophyres, and they are charac- Jindingoredepositvarywidelyandshowclearlineartrend,deviat- terized by uniform zircon εHf(t) (−9.1 to −7.4) and δ18Ovalues ing from the values for the upper mantle beneath the Lanping basin (6.6–7.0‰). They are interpreted as products of fractional crystallization (Fig. 7). This distribution implies that the Jinding ore deposit has a of lamprophyre-like potassic mafic magma derived from ancient mixed Pb source derived from both a low U/Pb and a high U/Pb metasomatized lithospheric mantle (Lu et al., 2013b). Mineralization crust source, with little, if any, mantle contribution. occurred within the alkaline porphyry as pyrite-chalcopyrite stockwork Other smaller MVT Pb–Zn polymetallic ore deposits dominated by veins and in the Mesozoic sedimentary rocks as vein and lenticular bod- vein-type mineralization mainly comprise the Yitian (No. 55), ies (Bi et al., 2004; Liang et al., 2007). Luoboshan (No. 49), and others in the Simao basin (Fig. 5; Z.X. Li et al., It was shown that most ore deposits comprise multi-episodic em- 2012), and the Sanshan (No. 28; Chen et al., 2000; Gong et al., 2000; placement of magma with the adakite affinity. Since the regional wide- Yang et al., 2003), Fulongchang in the Lanping basin (No. 22; Tian, spread lamprophyres that are considered to be derived directly from the 1997; Chen et al., 2004; He et al., 2004), as well as the Dongmozhazhua metasomatized mantle display low metal concentrations, we infer that deposit in the north of Sanjiang region (Tian et al., 2009; Liu et al., 2011). most of the Cu–Mo–Au metals were sourced from the juvenile lower In these deposits, ore minerals include sphalerite, galena, pyrite (marca- crust, where metal enrichment occurred during the Proterozoic or Pa- site), and minor Cu-sulfides (usually tetrahedrite). Rb–Sr dating of leozoic subduction processes. This preliminary metal enrichment was sphalerite and Sm–Nd dating of calcite in mineralization stage in the possibly favoured by the presence of a thickened crust (Chiaradia, Fulongchang ore deposit yielded ages between 30 Ma and 29 Ma (X.H. 2014). The concentrations of 4He trapped in fluid inclusions of pyrites Wang et al., 2011). The fluid inclusions at Fulongchang and Sanshan from the ores from the Yulong, Beiya, Machangqing, and Yao'an ore de- show salinities ranging from 14 to 22 wt.% NaCl equivalent and from 6 −6 3 −1 40 18 posits are (0.7–54.1) × 10 cm STP g , and those of Ar are to 8 wt.% NaCl equivalent respectively. The δ Owater (SMOW) from (0.6–7.3) × 10−6 cm3 STP g−1, 3He/4He ratios are 0.3–2.5 Ra, 40Ar/36Ar the Sanshan ore deposit ranges from −0.7 to −10.9 per mil deviating ratios are 316–1736, and 3He/36Ar ratios are 0.2–11.2 × 10−3 (Hu et al., from typical magmatic fluid (Chen et al., 2004). The sulfide δ34S values 2004). These values further suggest the significant involvement of the in Sanshan cluster at +7 per mil, and those in the Fulongchang at mantle materials in the ore-forming process. about −3 per mil. These MVT deposits in the Lanping basin show more radiogenic in Pb isotopic compositions than the Jinding MVT ore 6.3. Oligocene MVT Pb–Zn polymetallic ore deposits in Mesozoic basins deposit (Fig. 7a). Their Pb isotopic compositions are within the range of the upper crustal reservoir of the Lanping basin, and they plot mostly The Oligocene MVT Pb–Zn polymetallic deposits, with a variety of nearby or upon the evolution line of upper crust (Fig. 7a). These Pb iso- accompanying metals including Ag, Sr, Co, Mo, among others, were topic plots form a continuous trend with those of the Jinding, which can widely developed in the Mesozoic basin (Fig. 5). The most important be explained that one of the Pb sources for the giant Jinding and other among these ore deposits is the Jinding Zn–Pb deposit (No. 32) located smaller ore deposits is the same. Some highly radiogenic Pb data suggest in the Lanping basin (Xue et al., 2000; Kyle and Li, 2002). This deposit is involvement of a high U/Pb source component in the upper crust in the the largest Zn–Pb deposit in China with reserves of 12.84 Mt Zn and Mesozoic basins. 2.64 Mt Pb (Liu et al., 1993). The tabular orebodies in this ore deposit The most remarkable difference between the Jinding giant ore de- are hosted in Paleocene Yunlong Formation and the overlying early- posit and other smaller ore deposits is that metals in the former is partly Cretaceous Jingxing Formation, the two formations are separated by a contributed by the lower crust, as reflected by the Pb isotopic composi- thrust fault. The mineralization occurs in permeable coarse-grained tions (Fig. 7a). According to the ore fluid features and sulfide isotopic siliciclastics, pebbly sandstone in the Jingxing Formation and limestone compositions, the circulating basinal brine was suggested as the agent breccias in the Yunlong Formation. Ores are dominated by sphalerite (He et al., 2009), that scavenged the dispersed metals in the sedimenta- and galena, with lesser amounts of other sulfides (pyrite, marcasite, ry sequences and basement rocks of the basin and precipitated these chalcopyrite, argentite, and tetrahedrite), sulfates (celestite, anhydrite, metals into faults. gypsum, and barite), carbonates (calcite), quartz, and bitumen of vari- AfewPb–Zn polymetallic deposits, e.g., Lalongla (No. 4) and ous compositions (Xue et al., 2007). An early ore stage (stage 1) is char- Lanuoma (No. 8), in the Changdu basin, with similar mineralization acterized by fine-grained sulfide minerals (galena, sphalerite, pyrite and age (Fig. 6) show evidence for significant magmatic hydrothermal con- marcasite) disseminated in the Jingxing Formation sandstones and tribution to the fluids (Fig. 5)(Tao et al., 2011; Y.C. Liu et al., 2013). This massive sulfides in the Yunlong Formation limestone breccias; and a suggests that the magma emplaced at shallow depth in the basin during later stage (stage 2) occurs as coarse-grained galena veins crosscut- Oligocene. ting stage 1 sulfides, and minor amounts of colloform sphalerite intergrown with galena. Stage 1 sulfides have δ34Svaluesmajorly 6.4. Oligocene orogenic gold deposits ranging from − 26‰ to − 14‰.Stage2sulfides have higher δ34S 34 values (− 8.3 − +7.7‰). These δ Svaluesreflect that the H2S The orogenic gold deposits are distributed in the low-grade meta- responsible for stage 1 sulfide precipitation was associated with bac- morphic rocks west of the Ailaoshan–Red River shear zone. These ore terial sulfate reduction, and that of stage 2 was likely derived from deposits are represented by the Zhengyuan (No. 45 in Fig. 5)inthe thermochemical sulfate reduction (Y.Y. Tang et al., 2013). In contrast northern part and the Daping (No. 57) in the southern part. to other Pb-Zn ore deposits in the Lanping basin, biogenic sulfur The Zhengyuan ore deposit is mainly composed of the Donggualin might have played a key role in the Jinding. Compared to the classical and Laowangzhai orebody clusters, which are controlled by the NW– MVT ore deposit, the sphalerites in the Jinding have lower contents NWN- and NE–EW-trending compressional shear faults respectively. of Ge and Fe and higher concentration of As, Tl, and Pb in average The NW–NWN-trending faults crosscut and re-oriented the NE–EW- (Ye et al., 2011). Fluid inclusions in sphalerite and associated gangue striking ones. Various types of rocks, including the Paleozoic clastic minerals (quartz, celestine, calcite, and gypsum) have homogeniza- rocks and carbonates as well as the Paleozoic and Cenozoic igneous tion temperatures clustering around 110 to 150 °C and 190 °C, and dykes in fault zones, were all mineralized by infiltration of ore-bearing the salinities concentrate around 5 wt.% NaCl equivalent with a fluids into extensional fractures (Yang et al., 2010; L.Q. Yang et al., few high values from 9 to 15 wt.% NaCl equivalent (Xue et al., 2011). Ore minerals in the two clusters are low temperature assem- 2007; He et al., 2009). The 40Ar/36Ar and 3He/4He ratios in fluid blages of pyrite–stibnite–arsenopyrite. The fault controlling on the

Please cite this article as: Deng, J., et al., Cenozoic tectono-magmatic and metallogenic processes in the Sanjiang region, southwestern China, Earth-Sci. Rev. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2014.05.015 20 J. Deng et al. / Earth-Science Reviews 136 (2014) xxx–xxx mineralization supports the interpretation that the Ar–Ar isochron age mineralization is coeval with the underthrust of the South China litho- ~27 Ma of phlogopite from the mineralized lamprophyre, which intrud- sphere and shearing of the Ailaoshan–Red River shear zone. The in- ed at ~35 Ma, represents the main mineralization stage (Wang et al., creased pressure and temperature induced by the underthrusting of 2001b). In contrast, the Daping ore deposit consists of hundreds of South China lithosphere caused metamorphism in the deeper parts auriferous polymetallic sulfide quartz veins controlled by the NWN- along the block margin and release of metamorphic fluid. Thus the trending faults, which are developed within Late Proterozoic (773 ± gold deposits west of the Ailaoshan–Red River shear zone were sug- 12 Ma) Yaojiazhai diorite stock (Zhang et al., 2011). Ore minerals in- gested to be a unique intracontinental orogenic gold deposit formed clude scheelite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, bornite and sphalerite. The under the continental underthrust. Daping ore deposit formed at about 33 Ma based on the 40Ar/39Ar ages of sericite from a representative auriferous sulfide quartz vein (Sun 6.5. Miocene to Holocene hot spring-related Au and Ge ore deposits et al., 2009). Fluid inclusions from the auriferous quartz veins in the Zhenyuan The mineralization in this time span includes Pliocene–Holocene are dominantly the NaCl–H O type and the H O–CO type with high 2 2 2 gold ore deposit in Tengchong block and the Dazhai (No. 43) and CO content (Bi et al., 1997; Burnard et al., 1999; Liang et al., 2011; 2 Zhongzhai (No. 44) germanium deposit in Miocene basin in the Simao Zhao et al., 2013). Microthermometric measurements on these fluid in- block, both of which are related to the circulation of meteoric water. clusions show that the ore fluid was characterized by medium to low Active hot springs are widespread in the Tengchong block (Deng et al., temperature (110–250 °C) and low salinity (6–8 wt.% NaCl equivalent). 2010b; Hou et al., 2013). The water in the hot springs is mainly meteoric The δ18O (SMOW) values of the ore-forming fluids range from +1.6 to water, which has reacted with the rocks in shallow crust, according to +11.77‰, and δD (SMOW) values vary from −50.3 to −105.1‰ H2O the small offset of the δDandδ18O values of the spring waters from (Hu et al., 1995; Liang et al., 2011). Ore fluids in the Daping are those of the local meteoric water (Liao and Zhao, 1999; Xiao et al., also enriched in CO . Fluid inclusions in the Daping have homogeniza- 2 2010). The CH and CO content as well as the N /(Ar + O ) ratio display tion temperatures of 299–424 °C with two peaks at 320 and 380 °C. 4 2 2 2 temporal variations, as explained by the proportion changes of the gas The δD (SMOW) of fluid inclusions range from −60.0‰ to −85‰, H2O contribution from mantle, crust, and atmosphere (Du et al., 2005). The whereas δ18O (SMOW) varies from +2.39‰ to+7.59‰ (Sun et al., H2O gold concentration in hot spring water reaches hundreds of ppm 2009). (Deng et al., 2010b). The activation of the hot spring formed a small- The δD and δ18O values in Daping are compatible with a meta- H2O H2O size Lianghe ore deposit (No. 41), which is characterized by the devel- morphic origin of the ore fluid (Sun et al., 2009). Those values of δD H2O opment of intense silicification zone or quartz vein containing and δ18O in the Zhenyuan partially extend from the range of meta- H2O native gold. morphic fluid to that of connate fluid due to the varied δD . Since a H2O The Dazhai germanium deposit contains at least 1000 tons of Ge at large portion of the strata in the Zhenyuan deposit is carbonaceous, it an average grade of ~850 ppm Ge, and is one of the largest Ge deposits could be deduced that the δD of the fluid might reflect the presence H2O in the world (Fig. 5). The Ge deposit is hosted within coal seams of the of organic component. However, this deduction is not consistent with Miocene Bangmai Formation, deposited on top of the Ge-rich Lincang the little organic components, i.e., CH and C H ,inthefluid inclusions. 4 2 6 S-type granite batholith (Hu et al., 2009). Germanium is mainly incor- Therefore, we interpret that the relatively lower δD in the Zhenyuan H2O porated by the organic matter within the coal seams concentrating at was probably induced by the hydrogen isotope exchange with the or- the top and bottom of the seams. It is proposed that the Ge was leached ganic matters as the fluid migrated through the sedimentary rocks. from underneath Ge-rich Lincang granites via circulating hydrothermal The high abundance of CO and the δD-δ18O of the ore fluid support 2 fluids and discharged in the overlying basins, where abundant organic that it was dominated by the metamorphic fluid. The H-O isotopic com- matter was deposited. positions, together with the higher homogenization temperatures in the Daping, indicate that the Daping was formed in a deeper level relative to the Zhenyuan. The 3He/4He and 40Ar/36Ar of the fluids released by 7. Tectono-magmatic and metallogenic evolution crushing pyrite grains in the Zhenyuan are 0.17–0.73 Ra and 308–341 respectively (Burnard et al., 1999); and those in the Daping were 7.1. Paleocene–Eocene oceanic slab subduction-breakoff, lithospheric man- 0.706–1.018 Ra and 1802–2664 (Sun et al., 2009). These data suggest tle removal, and porphyry–skarn ore deposits ore fluid in the Zhenyuan and Daping is contributed by mantle fluid to different degree. In the Paleocene–Eocene, several magmatic rocks prior to ca. 40 Ma The plots of 207Pb/204Pb vs. 206Pb/204Pb of ore sulfides in the related to the subduction of Neotethyan oceanic slab were mostly Zhenyuan offset to the left and approach the evolution lines of the developed in the western Sanjiang; whereas the potassic–ultrapotassic upper crust and orogene, relative to those in the Daping (Fig. 7a). More- igneous rocks formed after ca. 40 Ma related to the removal of lower over, the plots of the Zhenyuan are close to the range of leucogranite in lithosphere mantle were emplaced dominantly in eastern Sanjiang. the Ailaoshan–Red River shear zone, and more plots in the Daping are The most typical arc magmstism related to the subduction of clustered within the range of the amphibolites in western Yangtze Neotethyan plate with emplacement ages in 62–47 Ma occurred in the Craton (Fig. 7a). The range of 207Pb/204Pb vs. 206Pb/204Pb of the Tengchong block. The arc-like igneous rocks formed in 51–49 Ma in leucogranite is more close to the upper crust than the amphibolite, as il- the Xialaxiu area has been explained to be the products of subduction lustrated in Fig. 7a. This indicates the leucogranite was generally formed of Songpan–Garzê terrane from the north (Roger et al., 2000)orthe at a shallower level in the crust compared to the regional amphibolite. Lhasa block from the south (Spurlin et al., 2005). We prefer to relate Correspondingly, we consider that the ore metals and fluids in the these Xilaxiu arc-like igneous rocks to the subduction of the Neotethyan Zhenyuan were sourced in a shallower level than those in the Daping. oceanic plate. The emplacement of Cangyuan granitoid in 45–40 Ma The mineral assemblages and the enriched elements in the ores, the lagged that of Tengchong arc-type granitic rocks and predated presence of CO2-enriched fluid inclusions, and large contribution of Tengchong–Gaoligongshan oceanic slab breakoff-induced maficrocks. lower crust to ore metals are compatible with the characteristics of oro- Accordingly, we boldly deduce that the series of igneous rocks in the genic gold deposit typically formed in accretionary orogenesis. There- Cangyuan were caused by the rollback of subducted Neotethyan plate. fore this kind of ore deposits is categorized into orogenic gold deposit. The rollback triggered the asthenosphere upwelling and subsequent Moreover, the region experienced regional metamorphism from melting of the lower crust. In our opinion, the western part in the south- greenschist to amphibolite, which has the potential to release gold- ern Sanjiang most likely trace a process of oceanic slab subduction, roll- bearing, CO2-rich metamorphic fluid (Groves et al., 1998). The back, and breakoff from Paleocene to Middle Eocene.

Fig. 8. Tectono-magmatic-metallogenic events in the Sanjiang region. The sources of data are the same as in Figs. 2, 4 and 5. Abbreviation: CLM, continental lithosphere mantle; JSAS, Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan.

The magmatism in the Gaoligongshan shear zone coincided with the occurred at ca. 52–47 Ma in the Tengchong block, at ~50 Ma in the development of recumbent folds and metamorphism of granulite facies Lanping basin, and at 45–40 Ma Cangyuan area respectively, are genet- via NE-trending compression before Oligocene (Fig. 8)(Yeh et al., ically related to this episode of magmatism (Figs. 8 and 9a).Itwas 2008). The resultant NW-trending thrusting prior to the latest Eocene shown that the Neotethyan oceanic plate subduction induced the potassic–ultrapotassic magmatism is also observed in the northernmost crust shortening, arc magmatism, and magmatic–hydrothermal related Sanjiang. The Sn, Cu polymetallic, and Mo–Pb–Zn mineralization Sn, Cu, Mo, Pb–Zn mineralization.

Fig. 9. Phased crust deformation and ore deposit development in the Sanjiang region. Annotation: (1) Garzê–Litang suture; (2) Jinshajiang suture; (3) Ailaoshan suture; (4) Longmu Tso– Shuanghu suture; (5) Changning–Menglian suture; (6) Banggong–Nujiang suture; (7) Shan Boundary suture. Abbreviation: ARSZ, Ailaoshan–Red River shear zone; CSZ, Chongshan shear zone; DBPF, Dien Bien Phu fault; GLGSZ, Gaoligongshan shear zone; JLF, Jiali fault; NTF, Nanting fault; SGSZ, Saging shear zone; WDF, Wanding fault. (a) Early Eocene (55–42 Ma), Neotethyan oceanic plate subduction and slab rollback induced folding and thrusting in the Sanjiang region and the formation of diverse magmatic hydrothermal mineralizations, including Sn ore deposits in the Tengchong block, Cu ore deposits in the Lanping basin, and Mo and Pb–Zn ore deposits nearby the Changning–Menglian suture; (b) Middle Eocene to Late Eocene (42–32 Ma), removal of lower lithospheric mantle caused the development of potassic–ultrapotassic igneous rocks and associated porphyry–skarn Cu, Mo, and Au ore deposits along the Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan tectonic belt; (c) Oligocene (32–25 Ma), the Sanjiang region kinked resulting in the clockwise rotation of southern Sanjiang from a NW strike to its present orientation, the extrusion of Indochina block, and the displacement along the Aillaoshan shear zone. The shearing-induced displacement offset the potassic–ultrapotassic intrusive rocks and related ore deposits in the Indochina block southwards about 250 km. The continental underthrust induced the formations of important MVT Pb–Zn ore deposits in the Mesozoic basin and orogenic Au deposits along the shear zones; (d) Late Mioce-Holocene (ca. 10–0 Ma), the NNW-oriented indentation of the India continent caused the continuous and conspicuous clockwise rotation of the Sanjiang blocks and the development of several NE-trending strike-slip faults in SE Asia, and the subduction of Indian oceanic plate possibly with East Nighty Ridge induced the formation of volcanic basins in western Sanjiang.

The Na-rich maﬁc rocks emplaced at ca. 40 Ma in the southern collision. It is shown that the Neotethyan slab breakoff in the southern Sanjiang were believed to genetically link with the breakoff of Tibet lagged for ~5 Ma than that in the southern Sanjiang. Neotethyan oceanic slab from the India continental lithosphere The potassic–ultrapotassic magmatism in the northern Jinshajiang– (Chung et al., 2005; Xu et al., 2008). The slab breakoff in the southern Ailaoshan tectonic belt was initiated at ca. 45 Ma, earlier than that at ca. Tibet, expressed by the regional thermally driven metamorphism 38 Ma in the southern Sanjiang (Fig. 8). This suggests that the removal (Ding et al., 2001) and rapid cooling of the Gangdese granitic batholiths of the sub-lithospheric mantle was diachronous with a laterally south- (He et al., 2007), occurred at ca. 45 Ma, contemporary to the hard ward transfer along the belt. The potassic–ultrapotassic magmatism in

Fig. 10. Schematic models for the geodynamic and magmatic evolution in the Sanjiang region. The vertical scale is smaller than the horizontal one. Abbreviation: AKMS, Ayimaqin–Kun- lun–Mutztagh suture zone; S–G, Songpan–Garzê; K–Q, Kunlun–Qaidam. (a) Early Eocene (55–50 Ma), Neotethyan slab subduction and rollback induced the formation of arc-like volcanic rocks along the Lhasa block (Chung et al., 2005) and those in the Burma and Tengchong block; (b) Early Eocene (45–38 Ma), the breakoff of Neotethyan oceanic plate from the India continental plate in the northern Sanjiang occurred at ~45 Ma, and that in the Sanjiang at ~40 Ma manifested by the emplacement of Na-rich maﬁc rocks in Tengchong and Gaoligongshan (Xu et al., 2008). Contemparory to the breakoff in the northern Sanjiang, the lower continent lithospheric mantle along Jinshajiang suture was removed, which is shown by the formation of potassic–ultrapotassic igneous rocks; (c) Early Eocene to earliest Oligocene (38–32 Ma), removal of lower lithospheric mantle was transferred to the southern Sanjiang resulting in the formation of potassic–ultrapotassic igneous rocks along the Ailaoshan tectonic belt; (d) Oligocene (32–25 Ma), removal of lower lithospheric mantle beneath amalgamated Lhasa and India in Tibet; meanwhile along the northern margin of Tibet, the lithosphere of Kunlun–Qaidam was underthrust. The lithosphere of the South China block was underthrust under the Simao block and part of crust was thrust upon the Simao block. The kinking of the Sanjiang belt occured, resulting in extrusion of Indochina block and the initiation and culmi- nation of the shearing along Ailaoshan–Red River and Chongshan; (e) Early Oligocene to Late Miocene (25–10 Ma), with the India lithosphere underthrust underneath the southern Tibet, a double-side underthrust model formed in Tibet. The left-lateral ductile shearing in Chongshan ceased before ca. 20 Ma. After the re-orientation of the southern Sanjiang, the movement along the Chongshan shear zones changed to dextral; (f) Late Miocene to present (from ca. 10 Ma to present), the double-side underthrust persisted in Tibet, and the western margin to the southern Sanjiang has turned into oceanic slab subduction with possible association of oceanic ridge, inducing a local extensioning and magmatism in the southwestern Sanjiang (Zhou et al., 2012). The tensile setting and mantle perturbation in eastern Sanjiang occurred in response to the interplay between India–Eurasia collision and the Paciﬁc plate subduction.

7.2. Oligocene continental underthrust and regional kinking: orogenic gold and MVT Pb–Zn deposits

In Oligocene, the Sanjiang region was kinked with comtemparory formations of shear zones and diverse types of ore deposits. The ductile shearing along Ailaoshan, Chongshan, and Gaoligongshan zones was initiated synchronously at ca. 32 Ma to accommodate the kinking of Sanjiang belt, and reached the climax at ca. 27 Ma (Fig. 8). The shear zone-controlled orogenic gold deposits related to the release of metamorphic fluid formed from 32 to 27 Ma in the Ailaoshan–Red River tectonic belt (Fig. 11). Bierlein et al. (2006) pointed out that the formation of giant orogenic gold deposits was related to the lithosphere thinning and asthenospheric upwelling prior to the metallogenesis. This is applicable in the Sanjiang, where the orogenic gold deposits were produced by the continental underthrust immediately following the asthenospheric upwelling. The coeval MVT Pb–Zn deposits, which were interpreted to originate from circulating basinal brines (He et al., 2009), occurred in the Mesozoic basins. The geological expression of the kinking, together with other geological constraints and geophysical profile interpretation, suggest that the Fig. 11. Tectonic model for the formation of porphyry–skarn Cu–Au deposit, orogenic Au – kinking resulted from the continental underthrust of the South China deposit, and MVT Pb Zn deposit produced in the intracontinental setting, Sanjiang region. fl (a) Formation of juvenile crust and metasomatization of lithospheric mantle in Permian in block (Fig. 11): (1) The presence of metamorphic uid, involved in the the Eastern Qiangtang and Indochina block during subduction of the Jinshajiang– formation of orogenic gold deposit, indicates that the regional meta- Ailaoshan oceanic plate, and that in the NW South China block occurred at ~840 Ma; morphism occurred coevally with the shearing. (2) The removal of (b) Underplating of the asthenosphere and the resultant partial melting of juvenile crust lower lithospheric mantle is favorable to the underthrust of rigid and generation of potassic–ultrapotassic magmas induced the formation of porphyry– skarn Cu–Au–Mo ore deposits along the Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan tectonic belt (revised South China lithosphere, as is supported by penetration of the cold con- from the Lu et al., 2013b); (c) Continental underthrust caused the formation of orogenic fi tinental slab into the upwelling mantle shown in the geophysical pro le gold deposit related to the metamorphic fluid discharge in the Ailaoshan belt and the across the western Yangtze and eastern Sanjiang (Liu et al., 2000). (3) MVT Pb–Zn ore deposits linked with the basinal brine activation in the Mesozoic basin. The western Yangtze Craton experienced compression during the shearing along the Ailaoshan–Red River zone as revealed in the Jianchuan basin (Yang et al., 2013). Tectonics events in the northernmost Sanjiang were synchronized compatible with the presence of underthrust Qaidam–Kunlun litho- with those in the northern Tibet. The synthesis in our present work sup- sphere as revealed in geophysical detection (Zhao et al., 2010, 2011). ports the opinion that the potassic–ultrapotassic magmatic rocks from Traditionally, the rotation and extrusion of the southern Sanjiang Middle Eocene to Early Oligocene emplaced along earlier Jinshajiang su- have been correlated to the indentation of the India continent (e.g., ture in the northern Tibet was triggered by the sub-lithospheric mantle Royden et al., 1997; Wang and Burchfiel, 1997). Here we refer this removal (Zhao et al., 2009). Then the Qaidam–Kunlun lithospheric mechanism to a non-coaxial compression model (Fig. 9b). As the India mantle might have underthrust southward, resulting in the cease of continent exerted northeastward compression on the northwestern the potassic–ultrapotassic igneous activity (Fig. 10d). After ca. 18 Ma, segment of the Tethyan orogenic extending from Tibet to Sanjiang, the the underthrust lithosphere rolled back, released alkali elements and South China block pushed the southeastern segment in the opposite di- metasomatized the overriding mantle, producing the second episode rection due to the lithosphere underthrusting. This non-coaxial of potassic–ultrapotassic magmatism (Fig. 10f). This hypothesis is compression induced kinking of the Sanjiang belt in the middle, and

Please cite this article as: Deng, J., et al., Cenozoic tectono-magmatic and metallogenic processes in the Sanjiang region, southwestern China, Earth-Sci. Rev. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2014.05.015 26 J. Deng et al. / Earth-Science Reviews 136 (2014) xxx–xxx clockwise rotation in the south. The block rotation was accommodated 17 Ma to Holocene (e.g., Hoàng and Flower, 1998; Lee et al., 1998). It by block extrusion and concomitant large-scale shearing (Fig. 4). was proposed that these OIB-like magmas were induced by the inter- Both the Sanjiang and Tibet orogenic belts composed of small conti- play between the India–Eurasia collision and subduction of the Pacific nental blocks were underthrust by larger continental blocks, i.e., South plate, resulted in a Late Cenozoic tensile setting in East Asia, which China, India, and Kunlun–Qaidam (Figs. 1 and 9). These continental was capable of inducing melting in the asthenosphere by decompres- blocks dominantly formed in the Archean and experienced several epi- sion (Hoàng et al., 2013). This process can be interpreted by the mantle sodes of metamorphism attaining relatively higher density and rigidity extrusion mechanism, which describes widespread dispersal of of the lithosphere relative to the small blocks. The differences of block thermally-anomalous ductile mantle in response to colliding continents size and mechanic properties may be responsible for the kinking of (Flower et al., 2001). Seismic tomographic cross-section at 18˚Nshows the Sanjiang. apparent low-velocity zone in upper mantle extending from Indochina In the southern segment of the Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan tectonic belt, block, South China Sea, to Mariana Trough (Zhang and Tanimoto, no potassic–ultrapotassic magmatic rocks are exposed east of the 1991), which supports the mantle extrusion hypothesis (Hoàng et al., Ailaoshan–Red River shear zone (Fig. 5). In the central segment, most 2013). potassic–ultrapotassic magmatic rocks are distributed west of the shear zone. We therefore interpret that the potassic–ultrapotassic magmatic rocks and associated ore deposits in the southern segment and 7.4. Contribution of the pre-Cenozoic tectonics to Cenozoic processes the coeval ones in the central segment were displaced into two groups from one cluster by the shearing along Ailaoshan-Red River (Fig. 11b This study demonstrated that the lithosphere architecture and c). The distance between these two porphyry–skarn ore deposit constructed via the pre-Cenozoic ocean closure process played an groups is about 300 km (Fig. 5), supporting the interpretation that the important role in the Cenozoic evolution in the Sanjiang region. The offset along the Ailaoshan–Red River shear zone is ~250 km (Mazur pre-Cenozoic architecture is characterized by sub-parallel sutures, et al., 2012). subduction-modified mantle, formation of juvenile crust, the Mesozoic A summary of the Oligocene process of the Sanjiang is as follows. As basins bounded by sutures, and the primary polymetallic accumulations the lithosphere was underthrusting after the removal of the lithospheric in the shallow and deep parts of the crust. These features contributed to mantle (Fig. 10b and c), the crust of the South China block was split, the styles of tectonic movement, types and locations of magmatism, and with a partial thrust westward, followed by shearing and exhumation, intense metallogenesis in Cenozoic within the Sanjiang region. resulting in the formation of Ailaoshan–Red River shear zone The pattern of amalgamated small blocks confined by larger ones (Fig. 10d). In response to the regional compression, the Au-bearing was essential for the kinking of Sanjiang. The welding boundaries of metamorphic fluids were discharged and conduited by the coeval west- the amalgamated blocks with weak mechanical strength served as the wards propagated transpressional faults, forming the orogenic Au ore deformation zones to adjust the movement of the smaller block. The deposit in front of the continent underthrust zone; simultanously, the movement and contraction of the small blocks have built up the Ceno- Pb–Zn-charged connate fluid was released and transported along the zoic overall shape and tectonic framework of the Sanjiang. contemporary thrust system, producing MVT ore deposits within the Beside the Paleotethyan Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan suture, the lithospheric sedimentary sequences in the Mesozoic basins (Fig. 11). The shearing mantle was metasomatized through slab subduction in Proterozoic and movement crosscut the earlier sutures, extensively dismembered Paleozoic (Figs. 5eand11a). Associated with the metasomatization, con- ophiolites, displaced the clustered potassic–ultrapotassic igneous comitant juvenile lower crusts with possible preliminary metal enrich- rocks and associated ore deposits, allowed exhumation of middle- ments formed as the arc magma underplated along the mantle–crust lower crust metamorphic rocks, and constructed of a unique and highly boundary (Fig. 11a). The partial melting of metasomatized lithospheric fluctuating topography. mantle and juvenile crust was responsible for the production of highly oxidized magma and corresponding formation of Cu–Au–Mo ore deposits 7.3. Late Cenozoic evolution upon the previous subduction zone. The Cenozoic granitoids widely developed in western Sanjiang were From Late Miocene to Holocene, the Sanjiang has re-oriented and likely generated in a thickened crust related to Tethyan slab subduction. the Chongshan and Ailaoshan–Red River shear zones displayed dextral The Cangyuan granitoids with Mo and Pb–Zn ore deposits were pro- movements (Figs. 8 and 9d). The re-oriented Sanjiang, as well as SE duced nearby the collision zone of the Simao and Baoshan blocks with Aisa, still persisted a slow clockwise rotation, resulting in the formation a thickened crust. The S-type granitoid associated with the Sn mineral- of several NE-trending strike-slip faults in the Indochina and Sibumasu ization in the Tengchong block also reflects a reworking of thickened blocks. crust, which is possibly formed in response to the Mesotethyan ocean In the western Sanjiang, the exhumation of Gaoligongshan shear closure (Deng et al., 2013). zone and Tengchong volcanism occurred coevally within an extensional The Paleotethyan orogenic belts closed in Permo-Triassic bounded setting. According to geophysical data, the NE-directed subduction of the nearly NS-trending Mesozoic basins (modern orientation) and the Indian oceanic slab had a high angle (Fig. 3; C. Li et al., 2008; Lei et thus provided the filling sediments for the basins. Since these orogenic al., 2009). This is contradictory to the theory that the shallow subduc- belts possessed metallic mineralization, i.e., the Yangla Cu polymetallic tions are universal in the NE-directed subduction slab for modern ore deposits in the Jinshajiang suture, the sediments could be have plate tectonics (Doglioni et al., 1999). Despite this disagreement, the been enriched in metals due to the exhumation and erosion of mineral- arc-like geochemical features of magmatic records show that the west- ized rocks. This is consistent with the development of several layers ern Sanjiang was controlled by the subducted Indian oceanic slab possi- with high metal concentrations in the basins (Ye et al., 1992). The sed- bly together with the Ninety East Ridge. This subduction induced local iments could be imprinted by complex Pb and S isotopic compositions extension, magmatic emplacement, and high geothermal gradient in from the orogenic belts constituted by diverse components from crust the upper crust. These facilitated the circulation of meteoric water in ex- to mantle. These features of the sediments correspond to the anomalous tensional basins induced the gold and germanium enrichment in the metal enrichment, diverse accessory metals, and complex isotopic western Sanjiang. signature of the MVT ore deposits formed in Oligocene within basins. In the eastern Sanjiang, the potassic HFSE-rich volcanic rocks are The preliminary Au enrichment occurred within the Ailaoshan suture sporadically exposed. In the eastern Indochina block and the Hainan after the closure of Paleotethyan ocean (G.Y. Shi et al., 2012). The contri- Island in the South China block, the OIB-like basaltic magmas with bution of preliminary Au enrichment to the formation of Cenozoic lower potassium compared to those in Sanjiang erupted from ca. orogenic gold belt needs more research.

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