The Resource for Semi-Arid Hydrology
Volume 6/Number 5 September/October 2007
Southwest Hydrology University of Arizona - SAHRA Water-Energy P.O. Box 210158-B Tucson, AZ 85721-0158
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4 • September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology [SOUND PRINCIPLE NO. 33]
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6 • September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology © 2005 Hach Company
Turn to Hach Environmental to get the total solution for water level monitoring. Nobody ever claimed measuring water level is a walk in the park. So Hach Environmental offers a complete line of OTT water level monitoring instruments to meet a full range of needs. Our autonomous bubbler and shaft encoder, as well as our radar level and pressure sensors are easy to install, easy to maintain and provide accurate results in unpredictable conditions. Plus, we’re backing you with the superior service and support of Hach Environmental. To learn more about how we can help make your job easier, call your local sales representative or toll-free at 1-800-949-3766 ext. 1 today. ON THE GROUND Applying Tree-Ring Data to persistent and severe droughts were supply. The work is being expanded to in centuries before gauged flow data incorporate tree-ring-based temperature Water Resource Planning were available. By using tree-ring data, and precipitation reconstructions to Connie Woodhouse – Department of we can expand our capability to assess examine what might happen if the Geography and Regional Development, the true potential and risks of future droughts of the past occurred again University of Arizona and Jeffrey J. Lukas – Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research, severe drought in the Southwest. under warmer and drier conditions. University of Colorado The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation used Trees that reflect variations in moisture A principal challenge to more widepsread a 500-year tree-ring reconstruction of in their ring-width patterns can be used use of tree-ring data for water resources Colorado River flow at Lees Ferry for to reconstruct records of streamflow for planning has been integrating the data modeling done in conjunction with past centuries, extending stream gauge into a typical modeling environment. the development of shortage criteria records and providing a long-term context Tree-ring data are in the form of annual and coordinated operations for Lake for evaluating recent droughts and low- time steps from specific locations, Powell and Lake Mead. Reclamation’s frequency hydroclimatic variability. whereas models require daily or monthly approach extracted information on When extended records of streamflow time steps from multiple locations. the state of the system in a given are incorporated into models, the Several technical training workshops have year—whether the flows were above performance of water supply systems been held over the past year in Arizona or below average—from the tree-ring can be tested using a broader range of and Colorado to teach water managers record, and then assigned a specific flow values and a richer sequence of flows and consultants about the methods used magnitude for that year based on the than are contained in gauge records. to reconstruct hydrology from tree rings, observed (stream gauge) flow record One motivation for using tree-ring including field and laboratory methods, to generate a set of 500 60-year flow records has been the recent widespread data processing, statistical calibration simulations. Not surprisingly, using drought and questions regarding how techniques, and application approaches. information from the longer tree-ring The workshops were designed to provide record generated a greater probability participants a better basis of understanding of system shortages than when models from which they might apply tree-ring were run using only the observed record. data in their own water resources planning. Most recently, a number of water Salt River Project and the University of resource professionals convened at a May Arizona used tree-ring data to investigate meeting at the University of Colorado how often droughts occur simultaneously Upcoming Conferences in Boulder to share their experiences. in the Upper Colorado River Basin and the Salt-Verde-Tonto river basins. The 43rd AWRA Annual Water Resources Conference Who’s Using Tree Rings? results showed that synchronous low- Embassy Suites Hotel * Albuquerque, NM Denver Water used tree-ring-derived flow years are common, thus surpluses in November 12-15, 2007 flow reconstructions of two key gauges one basin would not be a reliable buffer For the best rate register by Oct.22, 2007 to help model the yield of its system for shortages in the other. Furthermore, 2008 Spring Specialty Conference under a broader range of conditions than low-flow years tend to cluster in time, GIS & Water Resources V those seen in the utility’s 45-year model heightening the stress on water resources. San Mateo Marriott * San Mateo, CA March 17-19, 2008 period (1947-1991). The results showed Submit abstracts by Oct. 29, 2007 that a four-year drought such as one Additional water providers present that occurred in the mid-1800s would at the Boulder meeting who are 2008 Summer Specialty Conference Riparian Ecosystems & Buffers: reduce water supplies to the level of the interested in incorporating tree-ring Working at the Water’s Edge system’s strategic reserves, even with data into future planning include Founder’s Inn & Spa * Virginia Beach, VA progressive restrictions on water use. Western Area Power Administration, June 30 – July 2, 2008 Mark Your Calendar Colorado Springs Utilities, and the The City of Boulder and its consultants Colorado cities of Aurora, Colorado Program, Registration, Exhibit & Sponsor Info extended a 95-year stream-gauge Springs, Pueblo, and Thornton. www.awra.org record using a 300-year record of tree- More information can be found on the University American Water Resources Association ring hydrology. These data were used of Colorado Western Water Assessment web page, 4 West Federal St., P.O. Box 1626 to develop a drought plan based on Tree-Ring Reconstructions of Streamflow for Middleburg, VA 20118-1626 Water Management in the West (wwa.colorado. Ph: 540.687.8390 FAX: 540.687.8395 the climatic and hydrological effects edu/resources/paleo/). Contact Connie Woodhouse at Questions? [email protected] of past droughts on the city’s water [email protected].
8 • September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology The Resource for Semi-Arid Hydrology We thank the following sponsors for their support: A bimonthly trade magazine for hydrologists, water managers, and other professionals working with water issues
P.O. Box 210158B, Tucson, AZ 85721-0158 · visit our web site: www.swhydro.arizona.edu · 520.626.1805
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September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 9 ON THE GROUND (continued) Urban-Scale Climate Change Long-Term Trends variation. The finding was somewhat Effects on Water Use Balling and Gober (in press) related surprising considering two-thirds of temperature, precipitation, and the Palmer all water use is for outdoor purposes, Anthony Brazel and Patricia Gober – School Hydrological Drought Index (PHDI) to but reinforces the fact that water use is of Geographical Sciences and Decision Center inherently a human-dominated activity, for a Desert City, Arizona State University annual variations in per capita water use in Phoenix. As shown in the chart below, and residential water often is delivered Global climate change is not the only from 1980 to 2004, water use declined 15 outdoors by automated irrigation systems climate-related issue with far-reaching percent overall to 835 liters per capita per that are reset only seasonally if at all. regional consequences. Urban-scale day (pcpd), a trend likely associated with climate change can complicate global the city’s conservation plan. The authors Variability Between Neighborhoods climate change scenarios and affect found an upward trend in temperature Guhathakurta and Gober (in press) local water use. Urban effects are of 0.03ºC per year that reflects both explored the effects of urban temperature especially significant in the Southwest regional warming and urban heat island differences across census tracts in where most of the population lives in effects associated with urbanized Phoenix on residential water use. The large, rapidly growing urban areas. portions of the city. Precipitation authors found that census tracts that decreased by 3.81 millimeters (mm) per are 1ºC warmer use 1,976 liters (522 Global climate affects water use in year. The PHDI shows a slight trend gallons) of additional water per month metropolitan regions, but these impacts toward drought during the period. for a typical single-family home (about may be compounded by local-scale 49 liters pcpd). The results also suggest climatic processes. One example is Short-Term Responses that urban heat island-related rises in the well-known heat island effect, the Next, the residual values of the regression water demand should be considered by tendency for urban surfaces to absorb line of per capita water use over time planners as they evaluate environmental heat during the day and release it at were studied to reveal short-term, city- consequences of growth strategies night, leading to higher nighttime wide responses to climate variables. such as infill and more compact forms temperatures in the urban core than in Residual values showed that for every of urban development. More compact the surrounding rural countryside. 1ºC increase (or decrease) in temperature cities may reduce the demand for water over the short term, residential water for outdoor purposes, but increase the Recent research at the Decision use increases (or decreases) by 60.76 demand due to urban heat island effects. Center for a Desert City at Arizona liters pcpd. Yet a reduction of 10 mm State University’s Global Institute per year in precipitation increases Wentz and Gober (2007) researched the for Sustainability has focused on the water use by only 4 liters pcpd. These determinants of variability of water use interrelationships among water, climate, results suggest that residential water for single-family residences in Phoenix. and growth in metropolitan Phoenix. use is relatively insensitive to climate The addition of new household members and pools, as well as differing lot sizes and landscaping methods, had varying 1050 effects on water use in different parts of the city. After accounting for the 1000 main indicators of indoor and outdoor water use, the researchers identified 950 a “neighborhood effect”—households in one tract used a similar amount of 900 water as those in neighboring tracts.
850 New Directions for Planners Additional atmospheric modeling 800 studies will determine the effects of evapotranspiration (ET), evaporation, 750
Per capita water use (liters per day) soil moisture, and temperature on water 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 use at the local scale for a variety Year of variables. Initial analyses suggest City of Phoenix per capita water use (liters per day) shows a trend of 15 that over 30 percent of the combined percent decline from 1980 to 2004. ET and evaporation can occur post- sundown when the heat island is at
10 • September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology a maximum. A deeper understanding (OW DO YOU MANAGE of climate, water, and urban growth ONE OF %ARTHS MOST relationships is key to understanding how best to plan for more sustainable PRECIOUS RESOURCES urban growth in the Southwest. !SK 'OLDER This material cited from DCDC is based on work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. SES-0345945 Decision Center for a Desert City (DCDC). Any opinions, findings, or conclusions and recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of the National Science Foundation. Contact Anthony Brazel at [email protected]. 7E FOCUS ON SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE SOLUTIONS References 4HE WORLDS MOST PRECIOUS RESOURCE IS BECOMING MORE PRECIOUS BY THE MINUTE 4HATS Balling, R.C., Jr., and P. Gober. Climate variability and residential water use in Phoenix, WHY RESPONSIBLE MANAGEMENT IS CRITICAL TO ENSURING WATER FOR INDUSTRY AND AGRICULTURE FOR Arizona. Journal of Applied Meteorology and HOUSEHOLD NEEDS AND FOR THE FUTURE 'OLDER HAS BEEN PROVIDING COST EFFECTIVE SOLUTIONS Climatology, in press. TO SATISlED CLIENTS FOR OVER YEARS lNDING BETTER WAYS TO DISCOVER PRODUCE TRANSPORT Guhathakurta, S., and P. Gober. The impact of MANAGE AND TREAT WATER urban heat islands on water use: The case of Phoenix metropolitan area. Journal of the 'LOBAL )SSUES ,OCAL 3OLUTIONS ¥ '!# American Planning Association, in press. ,OCAL OFFICES Wentz, E.A., and P. Gober, 2007. Determinants 4UCSON of small-area water consumption for the !LBUQUERQUE City of Phoenix, Arizona. Water Resources SOLUTIONS GOLDERCOM Management, www.springerlink.com/content/ WWWGOLDERCOM 7082mg44u7851351/fulltext.pdf
September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 11 GOVERNMENT EPA Issues Determination on degradates (herbicides); 1,1-dichloro-2,2- testing for perchlorate in tap water. I am bis (p-chlorophenyl) ethylene (a degradate outraged that EPA has yet again refused 11 Contaminants, Punts on of DDT); 1,3-dichloropropene (Telone, a to do its duty to protect the health of our Two Biggies soil fumigant); 2,4-dinitrotoluene and 2,6- families and communities from perchlorate Last spring, the U.S. Environmental dinitrotoluene (in ammunition, explosives, pollution. I have introduced two bills Protection Agency issued a preliminary dyes, polyurethane foams, and automobile on perchlorate—one to require testing determination not to regulate 11 air bags); s-ethyl propyl thiocarbamate and public disclosure of contamination, contaminants on its second drinking and Terbacil (herbicides); Fonofos (soil the other ordering EPA to quickly set a standard. It is clear that action is needed.” water contaminant candidate list (CCL), insecticide); and 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane concluding they do not occur at levels (volatile organic compound). The Natural Resources Defense of public health concern in public water EPA determined that two other Council accused EPA of “abdicating its systems. A regulatory determination is a contaminants—perchlorate and MTBE— responsibility once more,” stating that formal decision on whether EPA should require additional investigation to numerous data already exist regarding develop a national primary drinking water ascertain total human exposure and health measurable perchlorate concentrations regulation for a specific contaminant. The risks. This outraged many who have been in human and cow milk, food items, and Safe Drinking Water Act requires EPA arguing for years for safety standards human urine, and on the risks every five years to select at least five for these controversial compounds. of exposure. contaminants from the most recent CCL to determine whether or not to regulate Visit www.epa.gov/safewater/ccl/reg_determine2.html, U.S. Senator Barbara Boxer, chair of the boxer.senate.gov, and www.nrdc.org. them. In 2005, the agency published Senate Environment and Public Works the second CCL of 51 contaminants. Committee, issued a statement saying, “It is simply unacceptable that EPA would Texas Legislators Pass Major The 11 contaminants that will not be postpone, yet again, a decision on whether regulated are: boron (a naturally occurring Water Bill to protect our children and families from substance); dacthal mono- and di-acid the dangerous chemical perchlorate. In late May, Texas legislators passed Just last December EPA discontinued Senate Bill 3 providing for the development, management, and HydroFacts preservation of the state’s water resources. It was the state’s first major water- WATER FOR ENERGY ENERGY FOR WATER planning bill in a decade, according to Total daily water withdrawals for coal and Percent of natural gas used in California the Dallas News. A key aspect of the gas steam-generating electric plants in associated with the use of water: 20 bill is its provision for “environmental the Interior West: flows” designed to protect fish, wildlife, over 650 million gallons (2,000 acre-feet) Percent of electricity used on western and wetlands in streams, estuaries, and farms to pump groundwater: 90 bays. It establishes a basin-by-basin Water consumed per kilowatt-hour process for developing recommendations generated varies greatly with type of plant Rank of water sources by energy intensity to meet instream needs and directs the and its elevation: (from low to high): Texas Commission on Environmental Typical case: • local surface water Quality (TCEQ) to establish coal-burning power plants use • reuse of water environmental flow standards to be used on average 0.50 gallons • local groundwater in subsequent water rights allocations. Worst case: • imported surface SB3 also provides for the establishment of thermonuclear plant located in low or groundwater water conservation and planning programs, desert uses 0.70 - 0.90 gallons requiring public water providers serving Best case: greater than 3,300 connections to prepare new natural gas plants use water conservation plans, and mandating about 0.30 gallons the implementation of a state water Future case: conservation public awareness program. dry cooling systems (now used Funding for water supply projects is to in over 50 plants) use 0 gallons be allocated with priority to entities that either have achieved or will achieve significant water conservation savings.
12 • September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology In addition, SB3 provides for the state and local governments, are willing to certain characteristics that significantly designation of unique reservoir sites; voluntarily clean up these abandoned sites. affect traditionally navigable the designation expires in 2015 if Prior to these new policies, however, many waters, on a case-by-case basis. development of the reservoirs has not yet proposed cleanup projects were thwarted begun. Environmental groups opposed by volunteers’ concerns of being held liable Critics said the new guidance is still not to new reservoirs proposed in the state’s under the Clean Water Act and CERCLA. clear on exactly how to protect surface 2007 water plan pointed out that SB3 waters, may eliminate protection for merely designates certain sites as having EPA acknowledges that voluntary cleanups many streams, and likely will result unique value for reservoirs and does not facilitated under the new policies likely will in many lawsuits, reported Reuters. in any way provide for their construction. not solve all the problems at abandoned During the first six months the guidance The same article of the bill also allows mines, but the agency encourages is implemented, the public is invited to designation of sites of ecological value, incremental improvements that benefit the comment on their experiences applying again following on recommendations ecosystems impacted by these mines. the guidance and to offer case studies. of the 2007 state water plan. Visit www.epa.gov/compliance/resources/ publications/cleanup/superfund/factsheet/ The agencies will broadly consider Finally, the bill authorizes higher goodsam-tools-fs.html. jurisdictional issues, including additional pumping limits from the Edwards Aquifer clarification and definition of key Authority, in an attempt to resolve earlier terminology, through rulemaking or New Federal Wetland other appropriate policy practice. legislation that permitted fewer water Guidance Issued rights than had already been allocated. Comments can be submitted to docket EPA-HQ-OW- In June, the U.S. EPA and the U.S. Army 2007-0282 through www.regulations.gov/fdmspublic/ component/main. The bill was signed by Governor Corps of Engineers issued joint guidance Rick Perry in June. for their field offices designed to clarify continued on next page Visit www.capitol.state.tx.us and www.dallasnews.com. circumstances when a Clean Water Act (CWA) Section 404 permit is needed before conducting activities in wetlands, New Policies to Facilitate tributaries, and other waters. The guidance Voluntary Mine Cleanup was developed following last year’s Supreme Court split decision regarding the In June, U.S. EPA issued new policies scope of the agencies’ jurisdiction under designed to reduce barriers under the CWA. The split decision resulted in Total Water Management the Comprehensive Environmental the ninth judge, Anthony Kennedy, stating Response, Compensation, and Liability that decisions on how the CWA applies Act (CERCLA) for public and private to smaller water bodies must be made in entities to voluntarily clean up abandoned the lower courts on a case-by-case basis. hardrock mine sites responsible for degrading water quality. Under the new To help make that determination, policies, EPA and volunteer parties will the guidance discusses the agencies’ be able to enter into “Good Samaritan protection of three classes of waters Settlement Agreements” that provide through the following actions: key legal protections to good samaritans • Continuing to regulate “traditionally as nonliable parties, including a federal navigable waters,” including all 19,000 professionals serving your needs in: covenant not to sue under CERCLA rivers and other waters that are s 7ATER RESOURCE AND DEMAND MANAGEMENT and protection from third-party large enough to be used by boats s %NVIRONMENTAL RESTORATION contribution suits. that transport commerce and any s 3USTAINABILITY SOLUTIONS wetlands adjacent to such waters; About half a million orphan mines exist in Solutions Without Boundaries the United States, most of them hardrock • Continuing to regulate “non-navigable ch2mhill.com mines in the West. In many cases, the tributaries that are relatively permanent parties responsible for pollution from and wetlands that are physically +ATHY &REAS !LBUQUERQUE 4OM -C,EAN 0HOENIX connected to these tributaries”; and Tel: 505.884.1682 x205 Tel: 480.966.8577 x6239 orphan mine sites no longer exist or are not KATHYFREAS CHMCOM TOMMCLEAN CHMCOM • Continuing to regulate other tributaries financially viable. Yet, a variety of interests, WB052007020MKT ranging from nonprofit organizations to and adjacent wetlands that have © 2007 CH2M HILL
September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 13 GOVERNMENT (continued) Tiny Fish Wields Big Power in The shutdown was closely monitored by deficiencies revealed during earlier tests downstream water users, but reservoirs were have been resolved. In addition, University the Delta generally full enough and the shutdown of Arizona researchers monitored water The three-inch-long endangered delta sufficiently brief that no crises ensued. quality in the downstream cienega during smelt (Hypomesus transpacificus) is the test run to help assess potential causing great turmoil in California’s State On June 10, DWR began to gradually environmental impacts of operating the Water Project (SWP). In recent years, the resume pumping, beginning at just 10 plant. Scientists are concerned that running percent of its normal rate and reaching populations of smelt and some other fish the desalting plant will significantly normal pumping rates by the end of species have been markedly declining, reduce flow to the cienega and the month. On June 22, U.S. District and scientists warned that large pumps concurrently increase its salinity levels, Judge Oliver Wanger ruled “there drawing water out of the Sacramento-San severely impacting the ecosystem that has was insufficient evidence to indicate Joaquin Delta for transport to 25 million developed there. that current pumping operations in people and 750 million acres of farmland the … Delta jeopardize the continued Construction of the plant was completed in Southern California are largely to existence of the tiny delta smelt,” in 1993 at a cost of about $245 million. blame, sucking in and killing large reported the San Francisco Chronicle. It can produce up to 72 million gallons amounts of the fish, particularly juveniles. of desalted water per day, and was built Over the summer, the saga continued. In Last year, the issue came under greater to help meet salinity requirements for early July, DWR began to switch off the Colorado River water delivered to Mexico focus as federal water agencies requested pumps at night, hoping to avoid smelt revisions to endangered species permits and to salvage saline irrigation drainage attrition without significantly impacting water for beneficial use. However, the that would allow pumping despite the water deliveries. According to a July 6 plant has never been operated other than loss of certain numbers of fish. But in article in the San Jose Mercury News, for an initial six-month test because water March, Alameda Superior Court Judge more than 600 smelt were killed in the storage in the Colorado River reservoirs Frank Roesch ruled that the California pumps in the first week of July, but in has been adequate to meet all water Department of Water Resources (DWR) the 3 days that the pumps were off at quantity and quality requirements. With must comply with the state’s more night, no more than 21 died each day. the droughts of recent years threatening strict endangered species act or face water shortages in the Colorado River shutdown of the pumps. DWR continued The status of the delta ecosystem as a Basin, however, interest in the plant has working to get federal endangered whole, as reflected by the plight of the been renewed. species permits rewritten and then smelt in particular, is the subject of much attention in California by everyone from endorsed by state wildlife regulators. According to the Yuma Sun, Reclamation environmental groups to the governor. officials said the plant performed better Before any new permits were issued, All seem to agree that the delta needs than expected during the recent test, however, new information came out rescuing, and many proposals are being producing more than 4,000 acre-feet of about a severe decline of the young put forth to accomplish that, but given water that was discharged into the river, smelt, along with evidence that many the large numbers of parties that have a and successfully incorporating new, more were being entrained by the pumps, and stake in the delta, finding an agreeable, efficient technology. The cost of the test DWR voluntarily ceased pumping on effective solution will be a challenge. run was not immediately available because May 31. In his announcement, DWR Visit www.water.ca.gov, www.sfgate.com, and additional shut-down activities had to be Director Lester Snow pointed out that www.mercurynews.com. factored into it. Likewise, water quality many factors affect the smelt population, results have not yet been released. including invasive species, toxins, and diversions by other users besides SWP, Reclamation Completes Yuma Visit www.yumasun.com and www.usbr.gov/lc/region. and challenged other public agencies to Desalter Test take aggressive actions to protect the From March through May, the U.S. Salton Sea Restoration species. The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Bureau of Reclamation performed a Plan Selected also runs part of its Central Valley 90-day test of the Yuma Desalting Plant, Project water supply through the delta, located on the Colorado River just north After reviewing extensive comments on and drastically reduced its pumping of the U.S.-Mexico border. The plant nine different proposals presented in an during that time. The shutdown lasted was run at one-tenth capacity to gather October 2006 draft Salton Sea Restoration 10 days, until the young smelt migrated data on the potential costs of operating Report, the California Resources Agency out of the pump area to cooler waters. the plant and determine whether design announced in May its preferred alternative
14 • September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology for restoring the sea. Secretary for Resources Mike Chrisman then presented the plan to the state legislature for approval and funding.
The process to restore the Salton Sea began in 2003 with the Quantification Settlement Agreement to reduce southern California’s dependence on Colorado River water. Under terms of the agreement, inflows to the Salton Sea will be reduced, hastening its ecological degradation. To mitigate these effects, state legislation established a Salton Sea Advisory Committee to help guide the secretary in determining the best restoration and mitigation plan for the next 75 years. The Salton Sea Restoration Act and related legislation required that the preferred alternative be the one that will best restore the long-term stable aquatic and shoreline habitat to historic levels and promote diversity of fish and wildlife that depend on the Salton Sea, eliminate air-quality impacts from restoration activities, and protect water quality. According to the Palm Springs Desert Hydrology andand WaterWater ResourcesResources Sun, the chosen alternative—with an $8.9 million price tag—subdivides the UniversityUniversity ofof ArizonaArizona existing sea into a wildlife habitat in one area and a recreational lake in another. Are you ready to take your study of water to the next level? The final footprint of the sea will be one- fifth of its current area, meaning much The University of Arizona Hydrology and Water Resources Department is actively seeking applicants for all programs (BS,MS,M.Eng,PhD) for Academic of the lakebed will become exposed. Year 2008-2009. Come study with an outstanding faculty of scientists and engineers to gain a whole new perspective on the field of hydrology and water Strong opposition to the plan immediately resources. arose from the Torres Martinez Desert Competitive student assistantships and scholarships are available. Are you a Cahuilla Indians and environmental prospective student and ready for an on-campus visit? Check out our website groups, who said the large amounts of or give us a call. lake bed that would be exposed under the • Learn more at www.hwr.arizona.edu plan would create significant air quality • Contact us at 520-621-3131 problems, reported the Desert Sun. • Write to us at [email protected] • Apply online at www.hwr.arizona.edu/apply In June, the California Senate passed SB187, establishing the Salton Sea Come study with the original. Restoration Fund and allocating Come study with the best. $47 million for initial restoration Hydrology and Water Resources activities. The bill then moved to University of Arizona the Assembly, where committees were expected to work on details.
Visit info.sen.ca.gov, www.thedesertsun.com The University of Arizona -- EEO/AA - M/W/D/V
September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 15 THE WATER-ENERGY N•E•X•U•S
Ronnie Cohen – Natural Resources Defense Council t’s not a secret, but most people don’t quality standards are adopted, and new alternatives compare when their energy think about it. Water uses a tremendous treatments are developed to improve costs are considered? Iamount of energy. It is not just a the taste and color of drinking water. matter of the gas and electricity required Surface water: The energy intensity to heat, cool, or pump water in our homes of surface water depends on the source and businesses. It takes large amounts of Using water more and destination of the water. In much energy before that to extract, convey, treat, efficiently might be the of the West, water is pumped over and deliver water. Additional energy is single best way to reduce long distances. Delivering water from required to collect, treat, and dispose of water-related energy costs. Northern to Southern California, for wastewater. While the total energy required example, requires 3,000 kilowatt for water use is highly location-specific, hours per acre-foot, because the Distributing water: Energy is usually overall, the California Energy Commission water is pumped over the 2,000-foot needed to pump and pressurize water, but (CEC) has estimated that almost 20 percent Tehachapi Mountains—the highest lift gravity pressurization and distribution are of California’s electricity demand, and of any water system in the world. But over 30 percent of California’s natural gas possible when reservoirs are sufficiently even gravity-fed water is frequently demand, are associated with water use. higher than the locations of water use. pumped into and out of reservoirs.
Using water: End users consume additional Groundwater: The energy required to Energy in the Water Use Cycle energy by treating water with softeners or Energy is used at five stages of the water extract and deliver groundwater depends filters, circulating and pressurizing water use cycle: on the depth to groundwater and the with circulation pumps and irrigation efficiency of the pumps. In California, Extracting and conveying water: Most systems, and heating and cooling water. energy demands for groundwater water used in the United States is diverted pumping range from an average of Collecting and treating wastewater: from rivers and streams or pumped from 292 kilowatt-hours per acre-foot along Energy is used to pump wastewater to the aquifers. Conveying water often means California’s central coast to 740 kilowatt- treatment plant, and to aerate and filter pumping it over hills or into storage hours per acre-foot for the Westlands it at the plant. On average, wastewater facilities—a process that can be highly Water District in the Central Valley. treatment in California uses 500 to energy intensive. Smaller amounts of fresh 1,500 kilowatt-hours per acre-foot. water are extracted from salt, brackish, Recycled water: The CEC estimates that or recycled water using desalination or the energy required for water recycling— other energy-consuming technologies. Water Options from an additional treatment of wastewater and Energy Perspective transport to the point of use—ranges in Treating water: Water treatment facilities To keep up with growing demand, California from 325 to 1,000 kilowatt- use energy to pump and process water, water agencies are seeking new hours per acre-foot. Depending on the and this energy demand is expected sources—generally a mix of surface energy costs for surface or groundwater to increase over the next decade as water, groundwater, recycled water, supplies in a certain area, water recycling treatment capacity expands, new water and desalinated water. How do these may be an energy-efficient alternative.
16 • September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology Orange County, California, is constructing water, as well as the downstream energy a water-recycling system that will use Just the Numbers: needed to treat and dispose of wastewater. half the energy required to import the Energy Consumed same amount of water from Northern for CA Water Efficiency measures that reduce indoor California. The project will produce (all in kilowatt-hours per acre-foot) water use include installing efficient toilets, showerheads, dishwashers, and clothes 70 million gallons of water per day • Transport from Northern to Southern for less than the cost of imported California: 3,000 washers. Outdoor landscape irrigation, water, and save an estimated 140 • Groundwater pumping, Central which typically does not require end-use million kilowatt-hours annually. Coast: 292 energy nor wastewater treatment, is still a • Groundwater pumping, Central highly promising area for reducing water Desalinated water: Desalination has Valley: 740 and energy use, due to the sheer magnitude been limited in the United States because • Planned seawater desalination: 4,400 of water required for landscape use. More of its high cost, directly tied to high to 5,500 than 50 percent of residential use goes energy consumption: energy accounts • Existing brackish water desalination: to landscape irrigation. This percentage for approximately 40 percent of total 405 and 1,700 may be even higher in hot, inland areas. desalination costs. The amount varies • Wastewater treatment: 500-1,500 According to the CEC, the cumulative widely depending on the method used • Water recycling: 325-1,000 energy consumed for outdoor water use and the quality of the source water. (including conveyance, treatment, and • Outdoor water use, Northern Estimates of energy demand for seawater California: 3,500 distribution) averages 3,500 kilowatt-hours desalination plants proposed or planned per acre-foot in Northern California and • Outdoor water use, Southern in California range from about 4,400 California: more than 11,000 over 11,000 kilowatt-hours per acre-foot to 5,500 kilowatt-hours per acre-foot. in Southern California. Recently, water Desalination of brackish groundwater may region, end use represents the single agencies have begun to focus conservation require less energy; two such facilities largest component of water-related programs on outdoor use, using such tools in Southern California require just 405 energy costs. If this is true for regions as “smart” controllers that adjust landscape and 1,700 kilowatt-hours per acre-foot. like San Diego, where the energy cost irrigation based on weather conditions. of conveyance is unusally high, it is Efficiency As a Water Source likely to be even truer for other regions, Agencies Taking Strides Forward-thinking water agencies suggesting potentially enormous energy Water agencies and energy utilities alike are also considering efficient use savings from using water more efficiently. are becoming more aware of the energy- as an “alternative” source of water. water connection, implementing ways to These agencies compare efficiency or Residential water use accounts for 50 reduce energy and water consumption. “demand-side” alternatives to traditional percent to 85 percent of urban water supply-side alternatives for meeting use. Using water more efficiently may The Inland Empire Utilities Agency of a community’s future water needs. be the single best way to reduce water- Southern California adopted an integrated related energy costs, because, in addition water management strategy to reduce A recent analysis by the Natural Resources to saving the on-site energy, efficiency dependence on high-energy water supplies Defense Council (NRDC) and the Pacific reduces the upstream energy required by establishing aggressive efficient-use Institute found that for the San Diego to extract, convey, treat, and distribute programs and developing water-recycling and groundwater- and stormwater-recapture programs. The water-recycling program Putting Kilowatt-Hours into Perspective is expected to produce approximately A kilowatt-hour (kWh) is a unit of energy • Color TV: 137 kWh/year 100,000 acre-feet per year, replacing (power used over time) commonly used • Coffee maker: 116 kWh/year the same amount of imported water and with electricity and natural gas. A 100- A typical 10 million-gallon-per-day saving 34 megawatts of electricity a year. watt lightbulb left on for 10 hours will surface water treatment plant consumes consume one kWh of electricity. A recent CEC report suggested that close to 15,000 kWh per day. According to the U.S. Department of conserving water might be a more cost- The U.S. water and wastewater sector Energy, the average household in the efficient approach for energy utilities to annually consumes around 75 billion West used 8,300 kilowatt-hours of save energy than traditional programs. kWh. electricity per year in 2001. Average Preliminary estimates showed that by 2001 electrical consumption for The average retail price of residential conserving water, California could common items includes: electricity in 2007 is about $0.10/kWh. save 95 percent of the energy saved by Commercial and industrial prices are • Refrigerator: 1,239 kWh/year implementing the usual energy efficiency slightly less. programs at only 58 percent of the cost. • Personal computer: 300 kWh/year see Nexus, page 19
September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 17 ENERGY DEMANDS ON WATER RESOURCES:
Betsy Woodhouse – Southwest Hydrology, The Federal Perspective University of Arizona Energy Element Water Quantity Connection Water Quality Connection n response to a 2004 congressional Oil and gas exploration Water used for drilling, completion, Shallow groundwater quality directive, the U.S. Department of and fracturing impacted Energy (DOE) prepared a report Oil and gas production Large volume of impaired water Produced water can impact surface I produced and groundwater quality to Congress on the interdependency
& Production Coal and uranium mining Large quantities of water may be Tailings and drainage can impact of energy and water in the United Energy Extraction Energy produced surface water and groundwater States. As illustrated in the table at Thermoelectric Surface water and groundwater used Thermal and air emissions impact right, water is an integral element of (fossil, biomass, nuclear) for cooling and scrubbing surface waters and ecology energy resource and development. Hydroelectric Reservoirs lose large quantities of Water temperatures, quality, water to evaporation ecology can be impacted
Generation Solar photovoltaic and wind Only minimal water used for panel and None
The report, released earlier this year, has Electric Power blade washing a national to regional focus and notes Traditional oil and gas refi ning Water used to refi ne oil and gas End use can impact water quality that much of the growth in electricity Biofuels and ethanol Water used in growing and refi ning Wastewater requires treatment demand over the next 25 years is projected ning & Synfuels and hydrogen Water for synthesis or steam Wastewater requires treatment Refi Refi to occur in areas such as the Southwest Processing reforming where water supplies are already limited. Energy pipelines Water used in hydrostatic testing Wastewater requires treatment Technologies are available that can reduce Coal slurry pipelines Water used for slurry transport and Final water is of poor quality and water use, such as wind and solar power, not returned requires treatment Barge transport of energy Fuel delivery is impacted by river fl ows Spills or accidents can impact but economics, among other factors, Transportation and stages water quaity & Storage have limited their deployment so far. Oil and gas storage caverns Large quantities of water required for Slurry disposal impacts water
Energy Energy slurry mining of caverns quality and ecology Managers and policy makers must now Connections between the energy sector and water availability and quantity (from the Report to Congress consider energy and water development on the Interdependency of Energy and Water). so that each resource is used according to its full value. The chart at right shows Biodiesel Refining water consumption for various stages Soy Irrigation of energy production, a consideration Ethanol Processing that will become increasingly important Corn Irrigation as new energy sources are developed. Hydrogen Electrolysis Hydrogen Reforming What is the federal role in this issue? Uranium Processing According to the report, federal agencies Uranium Mining need to foster greater collaboration Oil Storage in Salt Cavern** Oil Sands among federal, regional, and state Oil Shale In-Situ* agencies and with industry and other Oil Shale Surface Retort stakeholders. Science- and system- Refining based policies are needed to ensure that Enhanced Oil Recovery regulations developed to support one Petroleum Extraction area, such as greater domestic energy Gas Storage in Salt Cavern** supplies, do not have unintended negative Natural Gas Pipeline Operations impacts on water resources or water Natural Gas Extraction & Processing quality. Finally, infrastructure synergies Coal Gasification should be maximized to promote Coal Slurry conservation of both energy and water. Coal Liquefaction Coal Washing The 80-page report,“Energy Demands on Coal Mining Water Resources: Report to Congress on the Interdependency of Energy and Water,” prepared by 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 Sandia National Laboratory with support from the National Energy Technology Laboratory and Los gallons/kilowatt-hour Alamos National Laboratory, is available at www. *Water Consumption for Electric Power from Evaporatively-Cooled Combined Cycle Gas Turbine sandia.gov/energy-water/docs/121-RptToCongress- **One-Time Use for Solution Mining of Salt Cavern EWwEIAcomments-FINAL.pdf. Water consumption for various types of energy extraction, processing, storage, and transport (modified from the Report to Congress on the Interdependency of Energy and Water).
18 • September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology Nexus, continued from page 17 Climate Concerns Any evaluation of new water supplies or re-examination of existing supplies must factor in the predicted impacts of climate change. The most energy- conserving approaches—efficient-use programs and recycling—are also likely to be the best performers in the uncertain conditions created by climate change. Water conservation and recycling can help water agencies meet the demand for water under a variety of climate change scenarios, while simultaneously saving them energy and reducing the emissions that contribute to climate change.
As the water-energy nexus gains attention, more people will recognize the role that improved conservation, recycling, and other water management alternatives It’s a Southwest necessity. can play in saving energy. When it Together we can attain it. comes to saving energy, turning off the tap is like turning off the lights.
This article is summarized from an article in Home Energy’s Special Issue on Water/Energy, 2007. See • Groundwater resource evaluation and basin inventory analysis www.homeenergy.org. Contact Ronnie Cohen at • Modeling of groundwater and surface water flow systems [email protected]. • Wellhead and aquifer source protection • Assured water supply planning and development • Litigation support for water rights and resource damage • Water quality evaluation and treatment (including arsenic) For more information, contact Brad Cross at 480.905.9311 or via e-mail at [email protected].
LFR Inc. is an environmental management & consulting engineering firm with 29 offices nationwide. For more information, call 800.320.1028 or visit us at www.lfr.com.
September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 19 California’s Energy-Water Nexus: Water Use in Electricity Generation Dana Larson, Cheryl Lee, Stacy Tellinghuisen, and Arturo Keller — Bren School of Environmental Management and Science, University of California, Santa Barbara
ater and energy are The following primary energy sources were The data were used to project the total inextricably linked. Large analyzed: bioenergy, coal, geothermal, water needs for California’s potential Wamounts of water are hydroelectric, natural gas, nuclear, oil, solar, future energy portfolios under the 2010 needed for energy production, and large and wind. High and low estimates for both and 2020 renewable portfolio standards amounts of energy are needed for the water withdrawn and water consumed were (RPS; see sidebar below). In addition, extraction, conveyance, treatment, and included in the data collection process. To scenarios were created for the year 2020 distribution of water. Historically, energy ensure the validity of the data, the 2005 that altered the primary energy sources, and water issues have been examined water withdrawals for electricity generation electricity generation technologies, and independently, which has led to: cooling technologies. These scenarios • planning for future electricity production While geothermal and included: 1) a fossil fuel-focused scenario without considering water needs; and in which future electrical generation growth coal constitute less was limited to natural gas and coal; 2) an • planning for a future domestic potable than a quarter of the advanced technologies scenario in which water supply and wastewater treatment integrated gasification combined cycle with the assumption that electricity will generation capacity …, (IGCC) and dry cooling technologies be readily available and affordable. they account for almost 90 percent of the freshwater were applied to the 2020 RPS portfolio; In the future, however, both the scarcity requirements. and 3) a water-efficient primary energy of freshwater and the cost of energy scenario that relies on the primary energy will likely become limiting factors of sources that our initial research identified as economic and population growth. This were projected for four counties in California water-efficient (rooftop solar photovoltaic, is particularly critical in California and compared to U.S. Geological Survey wind, and waste-based bioenergy). and other arid Southwestern states, (USGS) and California Department of This analysis considered only freshwater where population is projected to grow Water Resources (DWR) thermoelectric requirements for power generation, thus dramatically and climate change models water withdrawal estimates for the same seawater-cooled thermoelectric power suggest that freshwater supplies may counties. Projected water requirements plants and hydroelectric facilities were decrease significantly. Integrated planning closely agreed with USGS and DWR values excluded. Although the total volume of between the energy and water sectors for coastal counties. The projection for the seawater withdrawn for power generation therefore will be essential to meet one inland county showed some discrepancy, in California is far greater than that for rising demands for both resources. likely due to the large amount of reclaimed water used for power plant cooling there. freshwater, greater competition exists
How Much Water for Electricity? Renewable Portfolio Standards We reviewed peer-reviewed literature, industry and government sources, and To promote sustainable energy production (using offshore wind, ocean waves, and help boost the renewables market currents, or tides). primary research to collect quantitative as it matures, 24 states to date have water requirements pertaining to each The California RPS policy, the most adopted renewable portfolio standards stringent in the United States, was step of the electricity generation process. (RPS). These require sellers of electricity established in 2002, requiring retail The water input steps considered were to have a certain percentage of sellers of electricity to purchase different for each type of generation but “renewable power” in their mix. RPS 20 percent of their electricity from generally included agriculture, mining, policies usually mandate a gradual renewable resources by 2017. Because transportation, makeup water, processing, increase in the percentage over a number the state had already been generating cooling, cleaning, evaporative losses, and of years, and often involve a trading around 10 percent of its electricity mechanism whereby companies can sell other. For example, water is required at consumption by renewables and credits to those who haven’t met their several points in the process of generating the program enjoyed considerable requirements. electricity from coal. Initially, water early success, the time frame was is required for extraction (mining), Renewable energy sources typically accelerated to achieve the 20 percent processing (washing), fuel conversion include wind, geothermal, biomass, solar, goal by 2010, and a new goal of 33 (gasification), and finally cooling. hydropower, and ocean-based energy percent was set for 2020.
20 • September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology for freshwater resources. Further, while Water Use for Electricity Production seawater cooling may appear to be a likely Biogas alternative to the use of freshwater in energy BIOENERGY generation, growing concerns about negative Waste Products impacts to coastal ecosystems have shifted Dedicated Energy Crops 130+ interest away from this cooling method. Dry Cooling FOSSIL FUELS Wet Recirculating Cooling And the Results Are... Once-through Cooling Water requirements vary greatly, depending Dry Cooling GEOTHERMAL on the primary energy source, conversion Wet Recirculating Cooling technologies, and cooling technologies used Once-through Cooling (see figure, right). Overall, the data showed “Run of River” Facilities HYDROPOWER that the biggest water users are bioenergy Large Reservoir and Dam derived from dedicated energy crops (based Small Reservoir and Dam on average values for irrigated crops), CSP, Dish-Engine System hydroelectric facilities, and thermoelectric SOLAR facilities using once-through cooling. Waste- CSP, Parabolic Troughs based bioenergy, thermoelectric facilities CSP, Power Tower Plant using dry cooling, solar photovoltaics, and RV, Rooftop Panels WIND wind turbines require the least water. Medium-sized Farm Large-sized Farm Alternative Energy Scenarios 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 When the water requirements were applied to future energy scenarios, the total amount Average Water Withdrawals (gal/kWh) of water required varied (see figure below Water requirements are highest for electricity generated from irrigated crop-based biomass, right). Surprisingly, the fossil fuel-based hydroelectric power, and for thermoelectric generation using once-through cooling technology. Note: not all energy crops are irrigated, and regional irrigation differences are great. CSP = concentrating scenario projected for 2020 requires less solar power (power towers and parabolic trough plants). water than that required by the 2020 RPS. A closer analysis of the breakdown Freshwater Required for Energy Generation in California of water use for each of the different 2020, Water- energy sources within these two scenarios 2020, Fossil Fuel- Efficient Primary 2005 2020, RPS Based Energy Mix Energy Mix reveals a large proportional contribution 350 of geothermal and coal. While these two ) 3 300 primary energy sources constitute less than 250 a quarter of the generation capacity of the 2020 RPS and fossil fuel based scenarios, 200 they account for almost 90 percent of the 150 freshwater requirements of these scenarios. 100
Volume (Million m 50 Thus, altering the generation and cooling 0 technologies or primary energy sources WC WCCW WC can decrease freshwater withdrawals 55% fossil fuels 35% fossil fuels 64% fossil fuels 20% fossil fuels and consumption significantly below the 5% renewables 28% renewables 4% renewables 50% renewables 34% hydro & nuclear 27% hydro & nuclear 27% hydro & nuclear 30% hydro & nuclear 2020 RPS-based projected energy mix. 6% geothermal 10% geothermal 5% geothermal 0% geothermal Future water requirements for electrical generation can be reduced, not only below future projections, but even below current ENERGY water requirements. By incorporating PORTFOLIO technologies such as dry cooling and coal gasification into the RPS 2020 scenario, California’s projected annual freshwater Coal Geothermal Oil/Gas Solar Wind Bioenergy Nuclear Hydropower withdrawal and consumption requirements Average water required (W = withdrawals, C = consumption) for electricity generated in 2005 and decrease by 66 percent. By relying on more for three future (2020) scenarios. Although nuclear and hydropower are included in the portfolios water-efficient primary energy sources such (assumes existing infrastructure will continue to be utilized), they are not considered in the water requirements totals because California’s nuclear plants are seawater cooled and water use by as solar photovoltaic, wind, and waste- hydroelectric facilities counts all water flowing through turbines, a very different metric than other see California’s Nexus, page 30 water requirements for generation.
September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 21 Water Usage for Current and Future Ethanol Production Andy Aden – National Renewable Energy Laboratory
C02 scrubber distillation columns corn delivered to plant grinder cooker fermenter molecular sieve ethanol storage
ethanol transported to market
evaporation he U.S. ethanol industry is Of these, crop system distillers grains to market growing at an enormous rate. In production and rotary drum dryer T2006, almost 5 billion gallons ethanol production of ethanol were produced, an increase are the greatest centrifuge wet stillage or syrup to market of 1 billion gallons over the previous water users. year. At least 73 corn ethanol plants are currently under construction with eight Water Use in more undergoing expansion, which Crop Production thin stillage or syrup to market will add another 6 billion gallons of The amount of water Dry grind corn ethanol production process (modified from Renewable new capacity by 2009. President Bush required to grow corn Fuels Association, 2007) in his 2007 State of the Union Address depends on local and through a combination of distillation established his “Twenty in Ten” goal of regional considerations. As much as 96 and molecular sieve dehydration to displacing 20 percent of gasoline in 10 percent of the field corn used for ethanol create fuel ethanol. The byproduct years. This equates to 35 billion gallons production is not irrigated at all. For of this process is known as distiller’s of renewable and alternative fuels by corn that is irrigated, water consumption dried grains and solubles (DDGS) and 2017. With such rapid growth, water estimates are not widely available. The is used wet or dry as animal feed. availability, utilization, and quality are 2003 USDA Farm and Ranch Survey key issues that must be addressed. states that irrigated corn grain uses on Many of these ethanol plants have little or average 1.2 acre-feet of water per acre no wastewater discharge. They recycle a In 2006, the Institute for Agriculture of land. The average corn yield from this significant portion of their process water and Trade Policy (IATP) issued a report land is 178 bushels per acre. This equates through a combination of centrifuges, describing why consumptive water use to 785 gallons of water for every gallon of evaporation, and anaerobic digestion. was one of the most important emerging ethanol produced. Therefore, water demand primarily is concerns for the ethanol industry. Conflicts related to energy production, specifically over water use in the Midwest are Water Use in Corn the cooling tower and boiler systems. growing among agricultural processing facilities, livestock operations, and urban Ethanol Production Estimates of water usage during ethanol areas as water usage by each rises. Two types of ethanol production processes are used in the United States: wet mill production range from 3 to 4 gallons of water per gallon of ethanol produced. The most comprehensive methodology and dry grind. Over 80 percent of IATP (2006) states that Minnesota ethanol for analyzing and quantifying the water U.S. ethanol is produced from corn by plants in 2005 averaged 4.2 gallons of usage for a product such as ethanol is life the dry grind process depicted above. water per gallon of ethanol produced. cycle inventory and assessment (LCA). Corn grain is milled, then slurried with Other industry experts calculate ratios LCA quantifies material and energy flow water to create “mash.” Enzymes are closer to 3:1. Thus, a 50-million-gallon rates across the entire life cycle of the fuel added to the mash and this mixture is per year ethanol facility can expect to from cradle to grave. For ethanol, this then cooked to hydrolyze the starch use 150 to 200 million gallons of water includes: crop production and harvesting, into glucose sugars. Yeast ferment per year, or over 400,000 gallons per transportation, ethanol production, and these sugars into ethanol and carbon day (1.2 acre-feet). In the corn belt, the final utilization in a vehicle engine. dioxide and the ethanol is purified source of this is often groundwater.
22 • September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology How does this usage compare to other Fresh Water Demands Corn Ethanol: Cellulosic Ethanol: Cellulosic Ethanol: industries and processes? Petroleum Dry Grind Biochemical Thermochemical refining, for example, has the highest rate Cooling tower makeup (percent) 68 71 71 of water recycling of any major industry. Boiler and process makeup (percent) 32 29 29 Water use ranges between 65 and 90 Overall water demand (Gal H O / Gal EtOH) 3–4 6 1.9 gallons per barrel of crude oil processed 2 and wastewater discharge ranges between Summary of ethanol production process water demands. Corn ethanol values are from commerically operating plants; cellulosic values are model-based. 20 and 40 gallons, leaving 45 to 50 gallons of water consumed per barrel, or As with corn, most of the water demand conservation technology has resulted in 2 to 2.5 gallons of water per gallon of is related to energy production. cooling towers with 20 percent reduction gasoline. However, the ratio is lower if in water consumption (Owens, 2007) Similarly, a 2007 NREL report (Phillips all fuel products are considered (diesel, and new high efficiency dryer designs. and others, 2007) documents a detailed kerosene, etc). Power plants, however, Several of these options are currently process design and economic analysis for consume significantly more water because being modeled at NREL to determine the conversion of wood chips to ethanol they have greater cooling needs. A coal- potential water, energy, and economic via a thermochemical approach, using fired power plant on average will use 9.5 benefits for the cellulosic processes. low pressure gasification followed by gallons per minute per megawatt (MW). mixed alcohol synthesis. However, this DOE is also in the process of examining For a 250 MW power plant, that equates report documents steps that were taken water use issues associated with the to 3.4 million gallons per day. And nuclear to minimize water usage, such as using power plants use 25 percent more water growth of a biomass to fuels and chemicals forced-air cooling in place of cooling than an equivalent coal-fired power plant. industry in the United States. Specifically, water when possible. In this primary water issues related to increased feedstock Water Use in Cellulosic design consideration, the water usage production (such as water availability and for this process was calculated at 1.9 competing water use rights) needed to Ethanol Production gallons of water per gallon of ethanol. meet renewable fuel goals for the future Cellulosic ethanol technology is also will be studied. These must be quantified rapidly becoming a reality. At the National Opportunities for Water Savings in terms of current and projected Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Given this information, it becomes clear increases in feedstock production. scientists and engineers continue to that the energy and water demands of research and develop the technology Contact Andy Aden at [email protected]. ethanol processes are closely integrated, to convert biomass into fuels such as and one way to reduce water demand ethanol. Biomass feedstocks range from is to reduce energy consumption. Many References agricultural residues (corn stover, wheat options are being pursued in this category. Aden, A., M. Ruth, K. Ibsen, J. Jechura, K. Neeves, J. straw) to woody feedstocks, and include Sheehan, B. Wallace, L. Montague, A. Slayton, Producing broths with higher ethanol and J. Lukas, 2002. Lignocellulosic biomass to energy crops such as switchgrass, which concentrations can reduce the energy ethanol process design and economics utilizing is more drought tolerant than corn and can co-current dilute acid prehydrolysis and needed for distillation. Alternative be grown over a wider geographic area. enzymatic hydrolysis for corn stover, NREL/ technologies to distillation, such as TP-510-32438, www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/ pdfs/32438.pdf. pervaporation (a membrane separation An NREL report (Aden and others, 2002) Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy (IATP), documents a detailed process design and process), also have the potential to 2006. Water use by ethanol plants potential significantly reduce water usage. challenges, Minneapolis, MN. www. economic analysis for the conversion of agobservatory.org/library.cfm?refid=89449 corn stover to ethanol. Similar to corn Owens, S., June 2007. Reduce cooling tower water A second option for reducing water ethanol production, a combination of consumption by 20%, Ethanol Producer demand is to utilize a different heat Magazine, www.ethanolproducer.com enzymes and fermenting organisms are transfer medium, using forced-air fans Phillips, S., A. Aden, J. Jechura, and D. Dayton, used in this biological approach, but the 2007. Thermochemical ethanol via indirect for cooling instead of water where process is more complex. For example, gasification and mixed alcohol synthesis of appropriate. This could potentially result lignocellulosic biomass, NREL/TP-510-41168, cellulose is much more difficult to break in much lower evaporative and blowdown www.nrel.gov/docs/fy07osti/41168.pdf. down. A mixture of sugars is fermented Renewable Fuels Association, 2007. How ethanol is losses. In addition, new patented water instead of a single sugar, and the presence made, www.ethanolrfa.org/resource/made/ of the byproduct lignin compounds the technical difficulty of this process. The Numbers Using this design, 69.3 million gallons 96% of corn used for ethanol production is not irrigated 785 gallons water per gallon of ethanol (average crop irrigation) per year of ethanol are produced, and 3-4 gallons water per gallon ethanol (dry grind production) 6 gallons of water are used per gallon of 1.9-6 gallons water per gallon ethanol (conceptual cellulosic production) ethanol produced. This is a non-optimized 2-2.5 gallons water per gallon gasoline (petroleum refining) process with potential for improvement. 0.6 gallons water per kilowatt-hour (coal-fired power plant) PHOTO: USDA, Charles Herron USDA, PHOTO:
September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 23 Water Use Efficiency: Saving More than Water Jeannine Larabee and Hossein Ashktorab – Santa Clara Valley Water District
he Santa Clara Valley Water water use efficiency program surface water supplies, and associated District (SCVWD) is the savings for FY 2005/06 met watersheds. These environmental Twater wholesaler for Santa Clara around 15 percent of the total Santa Clara benefits in turn provide significant County, California. It serves 15 cities, County water demand for that year. aesthetic and human health benefits. of which San Jose is the largest, with 1.8 million residents and over 200,000 The greatest water conservation savings Indirect Benefits: Energy commuters. SCVWD meets the county’s are achieved through high-efficiency toilet and Air Quality and clothes washer rebate programs, low- water demands through a combination of While the primary goal of the District’s flow showerhead distribution programs, local water (groundwater, surface water, Water Use Efficiency programs is to use recycled water, and water conservation) and water more efficiently, ancillary benefits imported water from the federal Central SCVWD has saved include energy savings and resultant air Valley Project and the State Water Project. approximately 1.42 billion quality improvements. California’s water supply chain, or the route water follows SCVWD places high priority on offering kWh since the inception of as it is pumped and conveyed from its cost-effective, innovative water recycling its water conservation and source, treated to drinking water standards, and water conservation programs. Since water recycling programs distributed, used, and treated to wastewater these programs were initiated, water savings standards, is energy-intensive. Fifteen to 20 have been significant, but the benefits and pre-rinse sprayer distribution programs percent of all energy consumed in the state are far-reaching, and include substantial (for food services). SCVWD’s water is water-related. The State Water Project energy savings and reduced emissions of conservation savings have increased each alone, a 444-mile long aqueduct transporting carbon dioxide and other air pollutants. year due to expansion of and greater San Francisco Bay-San Joaquin Delta water participation in these water conservation to Southern California, consumes two to How Much Water is Saved? programs. Water recycling, or the use three percent of all electricity in the state SCVWD’s water use efficiency programs, of treated wastewater for nonpotable because of the high elevations and long which include both water conservation applications, is used in a variety of ways, distances over which water must be pumped and water recycling, reduce demands including for irrigation and industrial and conveyed (Wolff and others, 2004). on existing water supplies and delay or processes. SCVWD has established Thus, reducing flow through the water eliminate the need for new water supplies goals for water conservation to supply supply chain by using alternative water for an expanding population. These 92,000 acre-feet by the year 2020 and supply sources such as water conservation effects are cumulative and increasing. water recycling to supply 10 percent and water recycling decreases energy use. Since the water conservation programs of total water use by the year 2020. were implemented in FY 1992/93, a Electricity production by power plants total of 300,000 acre-feet of water has Besides the water supply management using nonrenewable energy sources such been saved, with approximately 39,000 benefits of greater flexibility and increased as natural gas and coal generates air acre-feet saved in FY 2005/06 alone. reliability, the water use efficiency pollutants, including reactive organic gases, Water recycling programs, implemented programs provide environmental particulates, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, in FY 1998/99, have saved a cumulative benefits by helping protect the salt all of which have adverse human health 68,200 acre-feet, with 15,000 saved just marsh habitat of South San Francisco or environmental impacts, and carbon in FY 2005/06. Combined, the SCVWD Bay, local groundwater supplies, local dioxide, a greenhouse gas that contributes
24 • September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology to global warming. Global 350 because of its strong commitment to warming and the climate changes the efficient use of water and energy. 300 that may result present many Total Energy Savings from FY 92-93 through FY 05-06: At the state policy level, the SCVWD challenges for water agencies. 250 For example, it is predicted that 1.42 billion kWH supports the integration of energy and water Northern California’s water 200 policies, such as the passage of AB 32, supply system will be altered the Global Warming Solutions Act, which by changes in precipitation 150 requires California to cut its greenhouse gas patterns and an earlier snowmelt. emissions by about 25 percent by 2020. The
Energy (million kWh) 100 A reduction in water-related district also encourages increased financial support from energy utilities as well as energy demand due to water 50 conservation and water recycling state agencies for water-use efficiency, reduces these air pollutants and 0 particularly cold water conservation, because of the significant benefits to be gained in allows the district to respond 92-9393-9494-9595-9696-9797-9898-9999-0000-0101-0202-0303-0404-0505-06 20-21 to the water supply challenges Fiscal Year energy savings, air quality, and mitigation Energy savings from the SCVWD water use efficiency of the effects of global climate change. posed by global climate change. program (recycling and conservation). Contact Jeannine Larabee at [email protected]. Model Demonstrates Savings Model results showed that SCVWD has Potential impacts of climate change on achieved significant energy savings and air References California’s water and energy resources emissions reductions since the inception California Energy Commission, 2006, California of its water conservation and water electricity consumption by sector, energy.ca.gov/ have brought together professionals from electricity/consumption_by_ sector.html. recycling programs. For 1992/93 through both industries with the shared goal of U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Greenhouse understanding the connections between 2005/06, the district saved approximately Gas Equivalencies Calculator, www.usctcgateway.net/tool/ water and energy in the state water supply 1.42 billion kilowatt-hours of energy (see chart above), equivalent to the annual Wolff, G., 2004. Water to Air Models. Pacific Institute, system. As part of this effort, models www.pacinst.org/resources/water_to_air_models/ and methodologies to determine the electricity required for 207,000 households Wolff, G., R. Cohen, and B. Nelson, 2004. Energy based on average California household Down the Drain, New York, Natural Resources energy embedded in California’s water Defense Council. supply system have been developed. use (California Energy Commission, 2006) and representing a financial savings One such model, the spreadsheet-based of approximately $183 million. These “Water to Air Model,” was developed energy savings eliminated the emission of by The Pacific Institute (Wolff, 2004). approximately 335 million kilograms of The model’s whole-system approach carbon dioxide, which (according to the for quantifying water-related energy use U.S. EPA’s equivalency calculator) is the provides water supply planners with equivalent of removing 72,000 passenger an overview of the energy intensity of cars from the roads for one year. Emissions different water supply options, allowing of several other air pollutants were also comparison of water supply scenarios. Users reduced due to the energy savings from can input agency-specific water supply, these programs, as indicated by figures energy use, and air emissions information, for the period FY 1992/93 through or use the default values. The model is FY 2005/06: reactive organic gases (20,900 user-friendly and customizable. SCVWD kg), nitrogen oxides (146,200 kg), sulfur staff used this model to quantify the oxides (13,900 kg), and particulate matter energy savings and air pollutant emission smaller than 10 microns (25,700 kg). reductions garnered by the district’s water conservation and water recycling Looking Ahead programs. Two scenarios were compared: Water conservation and water recycling programs clearly save energy and • Continued use of current reduce air pollutant emissions. In the water conservation and water future, SCVWD will continue to offer recycling programs; and its proven programs as well as develop new water use efficiency programs that • No use of conservation/recycling have potential for both water and energy programs; with the water savings. The district also intends to that has been saved instead continue to improve the energy efficiency supplied by imported water. of its operations, buildings, and practices
September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 25 Linking Water and Energy Along the Arizona-Sonora Border
Christopher A. Scott, Robert G. Varady, Anne Browning-Aiken, and Terry W. Sprouse – University of Arizona
he Southwest, including the which initially led to an increase in total approach—the plant would have supplied U.S.-Mexico border region, is energy and groundwater consumption, electricity to both Arizona and Mexico— Texperiencing dramatic population likely due to lower costs and reduced the plan has not moved forward. and economic growth, which in turn is controls on irrigation at night when driving steep increases in the demand labor costs are higher. However, one Also in the works is Mexico’s plan to for both water and energy. Population year after the nighttime irrigation rate build a wastewater treatment plant in Los is increasing twice as fast on the border Alisos, about 10 miles south of Nogales, as at the national level in either country, Sonora. The plant would treat wastewater and is projected to grow by 50 percent Mexico has taken a strong in excess of the 9.9 mgd allocation at from 2005 to 2030. Much of this growth position on limiting global the NIWTP. Under the existing treaty is occurring in 14 border sister cities. warming and is among with the United States, Mexico could retain and reuse scarce water on its side Pumping Water Requires those nations calling for of the border; however, this would likely Consuming Energy mitigative strategies. prove to be a costly choice in energy In the perpetually water-short Southwest, terms, as the wastewater would have to be pumped upgradient and over a with its rugged terrain and high was introduced, total energy consumed watershed divide to reach the proposed evapotranspiration rate, most options and groundwater pumped for Mexican new plant. Additionally, Mexico would for increasing water availability require agriculture continued their decline. increased energy consumption. Depending lose the cost advantage of allowing on the type of contract and customer Similarly on the Arizona side, irrigation wastewater to flow downgradient to served, energy costs of pumping currently represents 10 percent of electrical the NIWTP and the economy-of-scale comprise a quarter to a half of the total power sales revenue for the Sulphur benefits the larger NIWTP offers. rate charged for Central Arizona Project Springs Valley Electric Cooperative, but water (CAP, 2007/2008). Utilizing electricity use by irrigation increased As the foregoing discussion has shown, Arizona’s full Colorado River water 45 percent from 2002 to 2005, largely the demand for a range of water services allocation through CAP deliveries due to customers switching to electricity in the border region has been accompanied will cost tens of millions of dollars as natural gas prices increased. by increased energy use. With energy costs annually in energy. On a smaller scale, rising, its sources politically unstable, and Sonora has its own interbasin water Energy for Water Treatment its supplies uncertain, this trend places transfers, such as the Los Alisos/Rio Wastewater treatment requires significant water management at odds with the Magdalena-Nogales aqueduct, that supplies of energy. On the U.S. side of palpable need to limit energy consumption. entail significant energy for pumping. the border, the Nogales International Wastewater Treatment Plant (NIWTP) Add Climate Change to the Mix On both sides of the border, agricultural treats about 15 million gallons per day At the same time, the impacts of climate pumping represents a major energy (mgd) of wastewater originating from both variability and change are becoming more demand. In the Mexican border states Nogales, Arizona and Nogales, Sonora. widely accepted as important contributors of Sonora and Chihuahua, groundwater Mexico has an allocation of 9.9 mgd to the water-energy link. In Mexico, the pumping for irrigation accounts for per day at the plant, yet has regularly government and scientific establishment, 10 and 16 percent respectively of total exceeded that amount over the last several sensitized by recent impacts of El Niño state energy demand (Scott, 2007; CFE, years due to increased water supply and and La Niña, recognize the importance 2006), although total agricultural power wastewater collection infrastructure in of climate on the agricultural and urban consumption began declining in 2000 Nogales, Sonora. In 2004, the Maestros sectors. Mexico has taken a strong position in response to increasing power rates. Group outlined a plan to build a on limiting global warming and is among The Comisión Federal de Electricidad 411-megawatt electrical generation plant those nations calling for such mitigative (CFE) introduced reduced power rates in Nogales, Arizona, utilizing Mexican strategies as adoption of carbon caps and for nighttime irrigation in 2003-04, effluent for cooling. Despite its innovative reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.
26 • September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology CAP Canal
3,000 ft.
Lake Havasu City Santa CAP Canal Cruz River Phoenix elevation Tucson Nogales Arizona Sonora Arroyo de los Alisos 12,611 ft. 0 336 mi. Colorado Riverdistance Tucson Los Alisos/Rio 72 ft. Magdalena-Nogales aqueduct 3200 kWh to pump one acre-foot of CAP water from the Colorado River to Tucson.
Los Alisos Basin
Interbasin water transfers in Arizona and Nogales, Sonora require large amounts of energy. The profile of the Central Arizona Project through Arizona (right) shows an increase in elevation of 2900 feet from the Colorado River to its end near Tucson. The Los Alisos/Rio Magdalena-Nogales aqueduct in northern Sonora must cross over a watershed divide to reach Nogales. The United States, as is well-known, has over the past several months, the U.S. In 2005, the states of Arizona and Sonora criticized and refused to sign the Kyoto public and its politicians are beginning signed a “Declaration of Cooperation” to Accords, while the Bush administration to accept the need to address climate establish a joint binational climate change has until very recently questioned change. And in the border region, with initiative (Arizona-Sonora Declaration, scientific research on global warming its serious water and energy constraints, 2005), with follow-up activities planned and denied human causation. However, the issue has gained strong momentum. by the Arizona-Mexico Commission. see Arizona-Sonora, page 31
September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 27 Water-Energy Trade-Offs Between Swamp Coolers and Air Conditioners Arunima Chatterjee and Melanie Lenart – University of Arizona
esidential cooling and heating Research Laboratory (ERL) at the account for about 56 percent University of Arizona found that during water distribution lines Rof the total energy consumed summer conditions in Tucson (May- motor evaporative pad in the typical U.S. home, according September), a swamp cooler working at to the U.S. Dept. of Energy (DOE, 75 percent efficiency uses an average 2005). In the Southwest, this energy of 150 gallons of water per day, while is increasingly going toward air- air-conditioning units do not directly conditioning rather than the traditional use water. However, the generation of air evaporative coolers, known as swamp electricity requires water, a behind-the- coolers. The shift has implications for scenes use that is easily overlooked. energy use, water use, and climate. blower Torcellini and others (2003) estimate that Energy Use hydropower, which supplies about 12 Strictly in terms of energy use, the percent of Arizona’s electricity, consumes ongoing shift from swamp coolers to about 65 gallons of water per kilowatt- float pump and screen hour generated because of high regional air air conditioners could be considered to house unfortunate. Air conditioners generally evaporation rates from reservoirs where it is generated (this value considers the total Swamp coolers typically consist of a box with use two to four times more electricity vented sides. A fan draws ambient air through than swamp coolers. For a typical water evaporated from reservoirs serving vents and through pads that are kept moist by 2,000-square-foot Tucson residence, the Hoover and Glen Canyon dams versus the a water supply, pump, and distribution lines. amount of electricity generated.) However, The cooled, moist air is then delivered to the electricity used by a swamp cooler can be building via a vent in the roof or wall. as low as 250 kilowatt-hours in an average the coal-fired plants that supply most of month, while an air conditioner consumes Tucson’s electricity consume about half Coal-powered electricity Hydropower about 850 kilowatt-hours. In Swamp Air Swamp Air Tucson, this translates to a monthly cooler conditioner cooler conditioner electrical cost of $25 versus $85. Electricity used (kWh/month) 250 850 250 850 Water used directly by cooler (gals/month) 4,495 0 4,495 0 But a scarcity of water in the Off-site water used to generate electricity (gals/month) 125 425 16,250 55,250 Southwest makes the comparison Total water used (gals/month) 4,620 425 20,745 55,250 more complex, posing a challenge in Electricity cost (monthly, assuming $0.10/kWh) 25 85 25 85 determining the conservation strategy Monthly energy and water consumption with resulting cost analysis for cooling a 2,000-square-foot Tucson that can yield optimum savings for residence using coal-powered energy and a rated 4,500-cubic-foot per minute evaporative cooler operating on low for May through September. For comparison, hydropower-based energy calculations are also both energy and water. T. Lewis shown, and indicate greater water use by an air conditioner than a swamp cooler. Thus, the source (or mix Thompson of the Environmental of sources) of energy is critical to this analysis.
28 • September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology a gallon of water for each kilowatt-hour 110 20 of electricity produced. Applying this Dry-bulb temperature Wet-bulb temperature standard to the cooling of a 2,000 square- 100 Evaporatively cooled air foot home, an ERL analysis found that Water evaporated 15 monthly water consumption for an air- 90 conditioning system is about 425 gallons, while an evaporative cooler requires about 80 Operating Period 4,620 gallons, including direct and indirect 10 usage for both (see table below left). 70 The source of energy is critical to this Temperature, °F analysis, however. If the same calculations 60 5 are made using hydropower, an air Water Evaporated, gal/hr conditioner uses 55,250 gallons of water 50 Total water evaporated = 128 gal/day with 15% blowdown per month compared to an evaporative Note: 4500 CFM Blower Operated at Low Speed Total useage = 148 gal/day cooler’s use of 20,745 gallons per month. 40 0 midnight 4 am 8am noon 4 pm 8 pm midnight Evaporative cooling works best in the dry Time months of summer. During the monsoon Evaporative coolers work by converting some of the heat energy in air into latent heat and kinetic energy that is trapped in the process of evaporation of water. A modern swamp cooler with an 85 when outside air is already moist, the percent efficiency can cool 100°F daytime air down to about 68°F. In the process, it uses about effectiveness of swamp coolers is limited. 145 to 150 gallons of water a day, assuming it operates on low during the day and is turned off at Air conditioning’s appeal is its ability night. (Figure and analysis courtesy T. Lewis Thompson of the University of Arizona Environmental to cool to a thermostatically controlled Research Laboratory, data for Tucson, Arizona, June 2006.) temperature regardless of the humidity. Arizona State University researchers were noted that the ongoing shift from At some level, though, the cooling of a surprised to find daytime temperatures swamp cooling to air conditioning may home usually equates to a warming of in parts of metropolitan Phoenix were eventually reduce some of that daytime the planet, with air conditioners doing no higher, and in some cases actually cooling. Once the sun goes down, the more damage than swamp coolers when lower, than those in the surrounding desert cools down much quicker than the source of energy is one that produces desert despite the expected urban heat the ciy with its heat-trapping pavement greenhouse gases, such as coal. island effect. They surmised that their and vegetation. Some Phoenix-area results reflected the evaporative cooling urban temperatures averaged up to 20°F Climate Considerations from pools, urban lakes, landscaped warmer than those in the nearby desert. The collective choice of cooling vegetation and perhaps even swamp see Coolers, page 32 equipment can affect the local climate coolers. ASU researcher Joseph Zender as well. While air conditioners merely eject heat from the interior of a home or office into the outside air, swamp coolers can actually contribute to cooling the environment, indoor and outdoor. An evaporative cooler pulls air through moist pads, lowering the incoming air by as much as by 30 degrees (see figures, left and above right). Because those cooling their homes with swamp coolers must leave some windows open, some of this cooled air permeates outdoors.
A typical swamp cooler converts about 1 billion joules of energy a day from heat into other types of energy, including kinetic and latent energy. This amount of energy could warm a 6-foot-deep 12 x 12 foot pool by 20°F. Meanwhile, a typical air conditioner ejects about 63 million joules of energy per hour into the outside air, or a billion joules for every 16 hours of operation.
September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 29 California’s Nexus, continued from page 21 based bioenergy, we project California’s The Energy Intensity of Water Supplies water withdrawals and consumption to R. C. Wilkinson – University of California at Santa Barbara decrease even further, up to 90 percent. The total energy embedded in a unit of A spreadsheet-based computer model water used in a particular place varies (available from the author) calculates both To make the collected data available in with location, source, and use. The energy individual and cumulative energy inputs intensity of water is the total amount of of each process in the water system to a more user-friendly manner, a Web- energy, calculated on a whole-system determine its energy intensity. The table based tool was created to calculate basis, required for the use of a given below illustrates the range of energy the estimated water requirements amount of water in a specific location. All intensities for various water systems in (both withdrawn and consumed) of steps in the process, starting with initial Southern California. extraction from a natural source through a given portfolio (see sidebar). The energy intensity calculator is available for no conveyance, treatment, distribution, end- charge from the author. Contact R.C. Wilkinson at uses, waste collection, treatment, and [email protected]. A Clear Benefit to Water Efficiency discharge are included. in Energy Planning There are several key conclusions of this Efficiency analysis. First, a water-efficient energy Reuse (IEUA) RECYCLED WATER portfolio demands the right mix of primary Reuse (WBMWD) energy sources, conversion technologies, Reuse (Osmosis) and cooling technologies. Utilities should Groundwater (WBMWD) therefore focus on increasing investment GROUNDWATER in water-efficient electricity generation Groundwater (IEUA) such as solar photovoltaics, wind Groundwater (Ion Exchange) power, and coal gasification systems. Groundwater (RO)
CO River (MWD) Second, policies that encourage SURFACE WATER conservation of water can greatly reduce State Water Project (West Branch) future water requirements. For example, State Water Project (Coastal Branch) issuing conservation credits to energy State Water Project (East Branch) utilities that implement programs to reduce State Water Project (Crafton Hill) water use will help reduce both water and State Water Project (Cherry Valley) electricity consumption. Integration of Ocean Desal (West Basin) water and energy infrastructure planning SEA WATER also offers several distinct benefits. Co- Ocean Desal locating wastewater treatment facilities 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 and power plants facilitates the increased kWh/acre-foot use of reclaimed water in power plants, IEUA — Inland Empire Utilities Agency; MWD — Metropolitan Water District; reducing potable water consumption RO — Reverse Osmosis; WBMWD — West Basin Municipal Water District and providing a reliable water supply. Energy intensity of selected water supply sources in Southern California.
Finally, many research gaps still exist. This transition to alternative sources of As freshwater resources will likely A thorough life-cycle assessment of electricity must be accomplished, however, become more constrained in the future electricity generation, including water in a manner that will not compromise the and may limit electricity generation, use in facility construction, is needed to reliability of our energy supplies. In addition water efficiency must be considered in understand the full water requirements to the impacts of electricity generation on energy planning. This analysis provides of electricity generation. Additionally, water resources, we must consider other a tool to support integrated planning as water-efficient energy portfolios environmental impacts. For example, between energy and water utilities, are developed, the feasibility must be covering the deserts of California with solar and to help government agencies determined, assessing both the availability panels may reduce pollution and conserve integrate water considerations into of energy resources and patterns of demand. water, but may have significant impacts to planning for future energy supplies. regional biodiversity and ecosystems through Contact: Dana Larson at [email protected] Several issues must be considered in the habitat loss. Finally, impacts on water integration of energy and water planning. resources may be region-specific. As we see First, relying on water-efficient renewable in the bioenergy sector, the production of Reference sources of energy decreases water use and dedicated energy crops may be limited in Dennen, A., D. Larson, C. Lee, J. Lee, and S. Tellinghuisen, 2007. California’s Energy-Water Nexus: may decrease greenhouse gas emissions the arid Southwest, but may be more viable Water Use in Electricity Generation. Report to be and provide greater political security. in wetter climates of the United States. published at University of California at Santa Barbara.
30 • September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology Arizona-Sonora, continued from page 27 resource implications of power generation, 2007/2008 rate schedule. www.cap-az.com/ there is a concomitant need to more static/index.cfm?contentID=30. Planning Together for the Future Comisión Federal de Electricidad (CFE), 2006. fully consider the energy implications of Unpublished energy sales data. In the border region, U.S. and Mexican growing demands for water services. Ray, A.J., G.M. Garfin, L. Brito Castillo, M. Cortez scientists and social scientists are meeting Vázquez, H.F. Diaz, J. Garatuza Payán, D. regularly and developing instruments to Contact Christopher Scott at [email protected]. Gochis, R. Lobato Sánchez, R.G. Varady, and C. Watts. 2007. Monsoon region climate use jointly. One such effort would yield applications: Integrating climate science with an ongoing, binational, U.S.-Mexico regional planning and policy, Bull. Amer. References Meteor. Soc., 88(6): 1-3. border climate diagnostic summary (Ray Arizona-Sonora Declaration, 2005. Declaration of Scott, C.A., 2007. Energy boom and groundwater bust: and others, 2007). This summary, to be cooperation to establish the Arizona-Sonora Mexico’s water-energy nexus with implications Regional Climate Change Initiative, www. prepared collaboratively and at regular for the U.S. border region, presented at azclimagechange.gov/initiatives/ 1st Western Forum on Energy & Water intervals, would provide forecasts and Central Arizona Project (CAP), 2007/2008. Final Sustainability, Santa Barbara, CA, March 2007. value-added information on temperature, precipitation, and drought within the region. Once in place, the tool would help managers and policymakers in the water and energy sectors make more realistic and accurate decisions. And in a region of chronic multiyear drought, the importance of addressing societal and economic impacts of climate is essential to effective use of scarce water and energy resources.
Water and energy are closely coupled resources in the rapidly growing Arizona- Sonora border region. While there is increasing recognition of the water
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September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 31 Coolers, continued from page 29 The cooling efficiency of a swamp In a typical summer day in Tucson, air Alternative Cooling cooler can increase dramatically by entering an evaporative cooler with 75 “sensible” cooling of the air before percent efficiency at a temperature of Many factors influence total water it goes through the moist pads of 100° F can exit with an air temperature of consumption in an evaporative cooling 75° F. Many newer evaporative cooling system, including residential design, the cooler. Sensible cooling can be systems have an 85 percent efficiency. location of the cooler, and the use of air achieved by strategic landscaping, modifiers such as vegetation and water. rock beds, and water channels. For residences at the design stage, cool towers are another way to utilize the principle of downdraft evaporative cooling. Cool towers usually have a wet pad in the top of the tower. The cool air is heavier than warm air and sinks by means of gravity, creating its own airflow and eliminating the need for blowers Environmental and Water Resources Software or fans. The only power required is for 100+ Proven Software Solutions a 12-volt pump to circulate water over the cooler pads. Generally, cool towers without fans are 20 to 30 feet tall and Surface-water GMS V. MODFLOW between 6 and 10 square feet. These Automated H&H systems require from 100 to 150 watts, Flood Hydrology HGA Water Quality GW Vistas and cool 1,000 to 2,500 square feet. Coastal Circulation & Waves SVE-3D River & Bay Hydrodynamics FEFLOW AquiferTest The need to consider energy as well Aquiferwin32 as water demand for cooling options Geotechnical Multimed seems likely to increase in the coming Borehole Logging Gflow years. The Intergovernmental Panel on Site Characterization SVFlux Slope Stability Argus ONE Climate Change projects that summer Soil Analysis MODRET temperatures in the Southwest will rise by MINTEQA2 at least several more degrees on average Groundwater SMS in decades to come, even more if society 2D/3D Flow & Transport RIVERMorph Bioremediation WMS fails to stabilize greenhouse gas emissions. Soil Vapor Vflo As temperatures rise, individuals will MIDUSS Aquifer Pump Testing continue to seek a cool indoor refuge Multi-phase Flow & Transport AquaDyn Risk Assessment AQUASEA from outdoor heat. Meanwhile, society Visualization & Animation 3D Master must look for ways to provide cooling gINT in the most energy-efficient way WinLog Air Pollution QuickLog possible, given other limitations. Air Dispersion Galena Accidental Toxic Release Surfer T. Lewis Thompson of the ERL also contributed to the Roadway Pollution Grapher analysis. Contact Arunima Chatterjee at Risk Management Planning Voxler [email protected]. EVS ChemPoint Visualization ISC-Aermod References Arizona Climate Change Advisory Group, 2005. Surface/Terrain Modeling SLAB View Final Arizona Greenhouse Gas Inventory and Advanced Site Graphics CALRoads Reference Case Projections 1990-2020. GIS CALPuff www.azclimatechange.us/documents.cfm Graphing GWN-COGO DOE, 2005. A consumer’s guide to energy efficiency Geostatistics SoilVision and renewable energy. www.eere.energy.gov/ Many more... consumer/your_home/space_heating_cooling/ index.cfm/mytopic=12300 Low-Price Guarantee & Free Shipping! Southwest Energy Efficiency Project, 2004. New Get the best software to save time and money on your projects! evaporative cooling systems: An emerging solution for homes in hot dry climates with Call or visit our website for more information and price quotes. modest cooling loads. www.swenergy.org/pubs/. Torcellini, P., N. Long, and R. Judkoff, 2003. 1 866 620 9214 Consumptive water use for U.S. power 1 801 208 3011 production, National Renewable Energy Laboratory Publication NREL/CP-550-35190. www.scientificsoftwaregroup.com www.nrel.gov/docs/fy04osti/35190.pdf
32 • September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology R & D Ag Pumping Causing Wyoming Oil and Gas Conservation Earth Fissure Maps Available Commission (WOGCC), “more than Surface Sinking 14 percent of active coal-bed methane for Arizona The land surface in Central California wells in the Powder River Basin in In June, the Arizona Geological dropped 30 feet in elevation from 1925 December were producing only water,” Survey (AZGS) released individual, to 1977 and is still falling, reported the and “more than 39,000 acre-feet of 1:250,000 scale, earth-fissure planning Fresno Bee. Worldwide, subsidence water have been produced from wells maps of Cochise, Maricopa, Pima, and such as this resulting from extensive that have not produced any gas.” Pinal counties with an accompanying groundwater pumping, is “the largest Open-File Report. The maps show all human alteration of the Earth’s surface,” The pumped water is generally released currently known earth fissures. This to drainages or low-lying areas. Its the USGS said, according to the Bee. As is the first step in preparing highly quality is generally too poor, or the a result, in Central California, millions of detailed fissure maps to be completed location too remote, for beneficial dollars will be needed to repair damage area by area over the next few years. to infrastructure such as irrigation uses. Small amounts are used to supply stock wells or for irrigation. canals and highways, and eventually the Earth fissures are associated with basin Mendota Dam on the San Joaquin River. subsidence that accompanies extensive In the interest of production efficiency groundwater mining. In Arizona, and environmental concerns, some USGS scientist Kerry Arroues described fissures were first noted near Eloy companies have begun to inventory for the Bee two kinds of subsidence in 1929. Their physical appearance the wells to determine where water affecting the California landscape. One varies greatly, but they can be more savings might occur, said the Star- is regional, in which deep groundwater than a mile in length, up to 15 feet Tribune. Welldog Inc., a company in pumping causes an overall lowering of the wide, and hundreds of feet deep. Laramie, Wyoming that specializes in landscape; this is happening in the area “direct technical evaluation of coalbed near Mendota. Further south, the weight During torrential rains they erode rapidly, natural gas reservoirs,” used data from of irrigation water added to the surface presenting a substantial hazard to people WOGCC to analyze water production has caused local, nonuniform subsidence, and infrastructure. Moreover, fissures figures relative to gas production. resulting in the transformation of once- provide a ready conduit to deliver runoff smooth topography to rolling hills. The analysis is not straightforward and contaminated waters to basin aquifers. because some water pumping is necessary Rapid population growth in southern According to scientists, regional to reduce the regional hydrostatic Arizona is increasingly juxtaposing subsidence occurs in conjunction with pressure to allow gas production, even population centers and fissures. droughts, the newspaper said. When if a specific well is not producing gas. snowpack is low and streamflow is In response to the sudden reactivation in However, at a minimum, the newspaper reduced, farmers fall back on groundwater August 2005 of a 1.5-mile long fissure reported, Welldog found that 8.6 percent for irrigation, and subsidence increases. near Queen Creek, Arizona, the Arizona of water-producing wells that have been When river water is used, subsidence Legislature passed legislation to map in production for at least two years do slows. Arroues estimated that an additional earth fissures in Arizona. Effective Sept. not economically contribute to overall 21, 2006, House Bill 2639 charged 10 feet of subsidence may have occurred gas production; collectively they pumped AZGS with 1) comprehensive mapping in Fresno County’s west side since 1977. about 29,000 acre-feet of water. The high of earth fissures throughout Arizona, and Visit www.fresnobee.com. end of the estimate is 39.3 percent. 2) delivering detailed earth-fissure map According to the Star-Tribune, Welldog data to the State Land Department for Methane-Related Groundwater and other companies have begun to work public access online. A complementary Pumping Raising Interest with gas producers to improve production bill, A.R.S. 33-422, requires disclosure of efficiencies and reduce the amount of earth fissures in nonincorporated areas. The amount of groundwater pumped water produced, a move supported by for the production of coalbed methane The maps are available at www.azgs.az.gov/earth agricultural interests who only want as fissure planning maps.html or for $4 each at the in Wyoming’s Powder River Basin is much water as they can use. Reducing AZGS bookstore in Tucson and the Department drawing attention. According to the of Mines and Mineral Resources in Phoenix. The the amount of water pumped would accompanying 25-page report, Earth Fissure Casper Star-Tribune, some groundwater likewise reduce the energy demand for Mapping Program: 2006 Progress Report; Open-file wells have been pumping for two years pumping, providing additional savings. Report 07-01, will be available at the same locations and online. or more while no gas is produced. The continued next page newspaper stated that according to the Visit www.casperstartribune.net and www.welldog.com.
September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 33 R & D (continued) Roscoe Moss Company We make water work TAES gets TEEA from TCEQ worldwide. Scientists at the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station (TAES) El Paso Research Center earned the state’s highest environmental achievement: the Texas Environmental Excellence Award, presented by the Texas Commission on Environmental Quality. TAES earned the award for its achievements in water quality improvement for bacterial source tracking research.
TAES El Paso scientists carried out two large-scale projects to track pollution sources for two state agencies. Using state-of-the-art DNA fingerprinting and antibiotic resistance typing methods for No single screen type is appropriate for all wells. Roscoe Moss Company is the only manufacturer E. coli, they identified specific animal in the world producing shutter screen, continuous slot screen, bridge slot screen, and slotted pipe. and human sources of fecal pollution This ensures that Roscoe Moss Company’s customers receive unbiased technical assistance in seven different watersheds. directed toward solving their specific problems. In addition, the researchers created a 4360 Worth Street, Los Angeles, CA 90063 • Phone (323) 263-4111 • Fax (323) 263-4497 www.roscoemoss.com • [email protected] genetic library of E. coli bacteria isolated © 2006 Roscoe Moss Company. All Rights Reserved. from known sources. The library could save millions of dollars on future fecal pollution source tracking projects. By pinpointing the sources of pollution, resource managers can develop effective pollution control strategies to ensure water is drinkable and safe for all users.
Visit elpaso.tamu.edu/Research/award.htm.
Report on Status of New Mexico Water Quality A report issued last spring by the New Mexico Department of the Environment (NMED) summarizes the condition of the state’s water bodies and recommends federal measures to improve water quality management. The report was prepared to comply with U.S. EPA Clean Water Act requirements and was based on data collected from January 2002 through February 2004.
Surface water: Nearly 40 percent of New Mexico’s 6,500 miles of perennial streams do not meet standards for their designated use and 65 percent of lakes, reservoirs, and playas do not fully support
34 • September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology designated uses. The major causes of landfills, accidental spills and leaks, and is a challenge for states with large surface water impairment are heavy metal injection wells). Naturally occurring radon land areas and small populations with contamination, sedimentation, temperature, and arsenic also affect water quality. low tax bases, as well as for tribes. and turbidity. Nonpoint source pollution • Provide additional federal funding Recommendations: NMED’s is responsible for more than 95 percent for water quality research, data recommendations to Congress and EPA of the impaired water quality of streams. collection (especially for the USGS), reflect water quality issues common to and wastewater treatment facilities. Groundwater: About 22 percent of many states in the Southwest. Among them: • Make federal facilities operating facilities with groundwater discharge • Allow sufficient time for determining within a state responsible for water permits in New Mexico had confirmed the efficacy of nonpoint source quality protection, compliance, and groundwater contamination or presented pollution control programs before remediation related to their activities. a threat to groundwater as of early federal mandates are enacted, and 2004. Groundwater contamination stems make deadlines for compliance • Develop federal programs and from both nonpoint sources (such as with mandates flexible to meet the legislation to protect against septic tanks, residual minerals from conditions of the specific area. groundwater contamination to support evapotranspiration, mining activities, and • Rethink the required 40 percent state programs and initiatives, rather urban and agricultural runoff) and point nonfederal match for federal funding than to supercede them. sources (such as surface impoundments, for water quality improvements. This continued next page
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September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 35 R & D (continued)
• Use species appropriate for the Second, Innovis’ proprietary detection water-related data from hundreds of ecosystem to evaluate impairment system was developed to produce an federal, state, and local agencies will be of a water body, and make standards easily observed color change if DNA from available. Early aspects of this Hydrologic flexible to take into account the microbe of interest is detected. No Information System were described existing background conditions. color change means no target pathogen. by Maidment and his colleagues in • Better integrate federal mandates Southwest Hydrology (May/June 2006). Innovis is promoting the test kits for use to reflect close ties between water Maidment received the grant as part of with irrigation water, well water, fresh quality and water quantity issues. the Consortium of Universities for the produce, and meat products. According Advancement of Hydrologic Science Inc. The report is available at www.nmenv.state.nm.us/ to the company, the technology “can He is cooperating with researchers from wqcc/303d-305b/2004/. potentially be adapted to any DNA Drexel University, Ohio State University, sequence, generating nearly unlimited and the San Diego Supercomputer Center. Portable Test Kits for adaptability both for microbial Ready access to comprehensive water Pathogen Detection identification as well as human, plant, and animal genetic characterization.” information will help municipalities University of Arizona scientists are make more informed responses to water developing technology to rapidly detect According to an April 19 article in challenges, such as the droughts occurring and quantify specific pathogens in the Tucson Citizen, the test kits will in much of the Southwest. Currently, food and water in the field. Innovis have to comply with U.S. EPA testing water managers obtain streamflow Technologies, a business created by requirements before they can be marketed. measurements, soil data, and satellite students in the McGuire Center for The students are meeting with potential and meteorological data from dozens Entrepreneurship at the school’s Eller investors, and plan to sell the kits for $35. of organizations, each of which gathers College of Management, has developed a data for different purposes and often Visit www.innovistechnologies.com and stores them using different software. portable test kit for use on solids (tissue) www.tucsoncitizen.com. or liquids that can identify microbes at the genetic level in less than 10 minutes. Besides providing nationwide water data Grant Will Advance One-Stop at one site, Maidment and colleagues The test kit combines two key Water Data Website plan to provide user-friendly programs technologies. First, it uses biomolecules on the website for modeling how a given known as zinc fingers, which can be David Maidment, director of the water resource could change over time. customized to recognize and bind to University of Texas at Austin’s Center for Eventually, they hope to make the system specific DNA sequences, such as from Research in Water Resources, recently easy enough for the general public to use. E.coli. Highly specific zinc fingers now received a five-year, $4.6 million grant Visit www.engr.utexas.edu/news/ can be developed within weeks, thanks from the National Science Foundation articles/200703061176/ and www.cuahsi.org/his.html. to new computer modeling software. (NSF) to create a one-stop website where
36 • September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology SOCIETY PAGES International Recharge Experts needed federal aid through New Journal for the State Revolving Loan Fund Convening in the Southwest (CWSRF) program; Water Practitioners An excellent opportunity to learn • Authorize $1 billion in annual funding Last spring, the Water Environment from recharge experts from around the for the Safe Drinking Water Act State Foundation (WEF) released the inaugural world is coming soon to the Southwest. Revolving Loan Fund (DWSRF); issue of Water Practice, a new peer- The 6th International Symposium for reviewed online journal for water • Enact a Water Resources Development Managed Aquifer Recharge (ISMAR6) practitioners. The first issue featured Act (WRDA) that requires a more will be held Oct. 28-Nov.2 in Phoenix. topics related to residuals and biosolids. comprehensive approach to water Full access to the journal is available resources projects constructed by the In addition to three days of technical at no cost through December 2007. talks, the meeting will offer four U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; and workshops and a day of field trips. • Ensure the integrity of the Inland Water Practice features articles on Presentations will be made by authors Waterways Trust Fund. monitoring, facility operations and from 17 different countries and 14 maintenance, management, and policy. U.S. states covering a wide range of ASCE estimates that the United Each issue focuses on a specific water topics, including the practical aspects States needs to invest $1.6 trillion in quality topic, often coinciding with of recharge in such diverse places as federal, state, and local funds over a recent WEF specialty conferences. Europe, the Middle East, Africa, India, five-year period to bring the nation’s Upcoming issues will focus on topics Australia, Mexico, Japan, and Taiwan. infrastructure to a condition that meets such as odor control, disinfection, the needs of our current population. nutrient removal, collection systems Visit www.ismar2007.org for more information. and compounds of emerging concern. Much of the needed funding is already allocated in existing budgets—only Visit www.wef.org/ScienceTechnologyResources/ ASCE Presents Infrastructure about one-third of the total investment Publications/WaterPractice/. Action Plan to Congress needed will be new funding. However, The American Society of Civil Engineers’ the $1.6 trillion does not account Rio Grande One of Top 10 Rivers (ASCE) most recent Report Card for for future population growth. at Risk Worldwide America’s Infrastructure (2005; also see ASCE’s Report Card for America’s Infrastructure and Southwest Hydrology, Mar/Apr 2006) the Infrastructure Action Plan are at The Rio Grande is among the world’s www.infrastructurereportcard.org. gave the nation’s critical infrastructure top ten rivers at risk, according to a an overall grade of D. In March, ASCE members from across the country delivered an Infrastructure Action Plan to their respective representatives from the 110th Congress as part of the organization’s annual Legislative Fly-In Program. The plan calls for 11 specific actions, seven of which concern water-related issues: • Enact the National Infrastructure Improvement Act to establish the National Commission on Infrastructure of the United States; • Enact the Dam Rehabilitation and Repair Act (H.R. 1098) to address the most critical non-federal public dams; • Enact a national levee safety program, including a nationwide inventory of levees and mandatory inspection requirements; • Enact the Water Quality Financing Act of 2007 (H.R. 720) to provide vitally
September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 37 SOCIETY PAGES (continued) report released in March by the World that water can remain in the river for the of Southern California for 22 years as Wildlife Fund. The WWF report names benefit of fish and other wildlife, and the district’s primary representative for the world’s rivers that are facing so farmers and ranchers can secure a statewide issues. During that time, he widespread degradation while millions reliable supply of water. WWF also seeks helped to create the Drought Water Bank, of people depend on them for survival. to establish more parks and protected and worked to negotiate the 1994 Bay- The Rio Grande along the U.S.-Mexico areas along the stretches of the river Delta Accord and the Monterey Agreement. border made the list because it is that are most important for wildlife. Before joining Metropolitan, Quinn was a severely threatened by water diversions, project manager at the Rand Corporation, The report, The World’s Top Ten Rivers at Risk, widespread alteration of the floodplain, is available at www.worldwildlife.org/news/pubs/ specializing in research on natural resource dams, and pollution. It was the only 10rivers.pdf. and environmental policy issues. North American river on the list. Steve Hall, ACWA’s previous executive The Rio Grande and its tributaries run American Rivers’ Top 10 Rivers director, will retire at the end of the year through the arid Chihuahuan Desert, at Risk after leading the organization for 15 years. and the area is home to a rich diversity In April, American Rivers announced the of freshwater species. The river is also ACWA is a statewide association of 10 most endangered rivers in the United the lifeblood of the region’s economy, public agencies whose 460 members are States, a list that includes three in the responsible for about 90 percent of the providing water to some of the fastest- Southwest. Topping the list was the Santa water delivered in California. growing urban areas in the country and Fe River in New Mexico, followed by thousands of farms and ranches. Irrigation Visit www.acwa.com. San Mateo Creek in California. Texas’s accounts for more than 80 percent of Neches River came in at number six. all water diversions from the river. WateReuse Maintains The Santa Fe was deemed most at risk In response, WWF is working to improve because for most of the year it lacks Facilities Database irrigation in the Rio Grande valley so any water at all—the biggest risk any Agencies, utilities, consultants, and reuse river could face, according to American water customers seeking information on Rivers. The San Mateo Creek in Orange the practice and implementation of water County suffers from plans to bury it reuse can find answers at the WateReuse to accommodate a new transportation Association’s National Database of corridor. The Neches is one of the last wild Water Reuse Facilities (NDWRF). It is a rivers in Texas and home to the state’s comprehensive database of reuse programs newest wildlife refuge, but lawmakers and facilities across the United States. are proposing to build a dam on it. Information available from the database The annual American Rivers list is includes reclaimed water production compiled from nominations from river capacity and extent of reclaimed water groups, environmental organizations, local distribution systems; reclaimed water users governments, and taxpayer watchdogs. It in the United States, including the quantity aims to highlight rivers facing the most of reuse for such applications as irrigation, uncertain futures rather than those with the industrial, and recharge; utility program worst chronic problems. The Rio Grande management practices; production and (see previous article) was not on the list. distribution data; reclaimed water rates; and utility contracts that may have Visit www.americanrivers.org. additional information on reuse programs.
Information does come at a price. New Director for ACWA WateReuse Association members and The Board of Directors of the Association WateReuse Foundation subscribers receive of California Water Agencies (ACWA) limited complimentary access to data, but appointed Timothy Quinn as executive queries from nonmembers and extensive searches from members are subject to a director for the 460-member statewide fee based on the query. association effective July 2. Quinn served with the Metropolitan Water District To access the database, visit www.watereuse.org/ndwrf/.
38 • September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology IN PRINT Sustainable Water Management: existing water resources, including The Sonoran Institute had the report municipal effluent; reviewed by 34 stakeholders from the Guidelines for Meeting the three basins, including developers, Needs of People and Nature in • improve international and regional cooperation. farmers, ranchers, politicians, the Arid West environmentalists, and engaged citizens. Betsy Woodhouse – Southwest Hydrology Their comments, summarized on the website, are applicable to any attempts to The issues surrounding water management develop water management guidelines. are technically and legally complicated, presenting challenges to developing Reviewers strongly supported the broad sound public policies. A new report from concepts presented in the report, but said the Tucson-based Sonoran Institute, it is somewhat idealistic and general, Sustainable Water Management: and would be more useful if it better Guidelines for Meeting the Needs of acknowledged existing social, economic, People and Nature in the Arid West, political, and legal frameworks within explores the groundwater-surface water which water managers must operate. In relationship and proposes a framework addition, implementation details need to for sustainable water management. The be worked out. Reviewers disagreed about report looks at these issues as applied whether local control is preferable, but to three Arizona river basins—the San agreed that a “one-size-fits-all” plan may Pedro, Santa Cruz, and Verde—and not be appropriate.The report was viewed recommends water management policies as having an environmentalist agenda, that could allow the state to prosper while which some thought an advantage and protecting its important river systems. some a disadvantage. Finally, reviewers At 52 pages with plenty of photographs unanimously cited the need to inform The report’s suggested approach to and maps, the report is attractive, the public and policymakers about the sustainable water resources management easy to read, and includes informative value of the proposed approach. has three primary objectives: assessments of the state of the three river basins. But the sustainability To view the 52-page report, executive summary of • provide for the needs of current and in-depth stakeholder interviews, and list of interview future residents of the area and those of guidelines are fairly general. participants, visit www.sonoran.org. downstream users, human and nonhuman; • protect aquifer-stream system conditions sufficient to maintain acceptable baseflow and associated aquatic, wetland, and riparian habitats; • protect restorative flood flows to Ground-water flow model of the Sierra Vista subwatershed and Sonoran portions of the Upper San maintain the stream channel and the Pedro Basin, southeastern Arizona, United States, and northern Sonora, Mexico, by D.R. Pool aquatic, wetland, and riparian habitat and J.E. Dickinson. conditions necessary for plants and http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2006/5228/ animals to reproduce and grow. Flow velocity and sediment data collected during 1990 and 1991 at National Canyon, Colorado Recommendations for attaining these River, Arizona, by N.J. Hornewer and S.M. Wiele. objectives in Arizona include: http://pubs.usgs.gov/ds/2007/246/ • resolve uncertainty over surface water rights (i.e., adjudicate); Simulation of multiscale ground-water flow in part of the northeastern San Joaquin Valley, California, by S.P. Phillips, C.T. Green, K.R. Burow, J.L. Shelton, and D.L. Rewis. • create new water-management authorities http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2007/5009/ that can define water available for allocation, allocate water resources Analysis of the magnitude and frequency of peak discharges for the Navajo Nation in Arizona, Utah, among new and existing users, and Colorado, and New Mexico, by S.D. Waltemeyer. pursue supply augmentation strategies; http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2006/5306/ • pursue recharge and re-use projects to encourage more effective use of
September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 39 EDUCATION Volunteer Network Spawns neighborhood. Official rainfall amounts review). These interpolations will improve are usually measured at an airport or upon the current practice of estimating RainMapper Service some other public site far from residential rainfall at an ungauged location using Data from backyard rain gauges are neighborhoods, making it difficult to an inverse distance squared function supporting research, drought monitoring, adjust an individual irrigation schedule by using more advanced approaches to weather reporting, and a to the local conditions. weight readings from nearby gauges. new Web service that The advanced method improves accuracy provides neighborhood- RainMapper is a particularly for convective storms such specific rainfall free service based on as the Southwest’s summer monsoons. reports to homeowners RainLog.org, developed without rain gauges. at the University of These findings emphasize the need for a RainLog.org is a Web- Arizona with support dense network of gauges to capture the based network of more from a U.S. Bureau of spatial variability of monsoon storms. than 1,100 volunteer Reclamation conservation Therefore, RainMapper results will be weather watchers that grant. Homeowners most reliable in areas with many active Rainmapper shows rainfall recorded who register for the free RainLoggers. Currently, the metropolitan measure and report in the subscribers’neighborhood. rainfall in their backyards. RainMapper service Tucson area has over 450 RainLoggers through the RainLog.org website receive and Maricopa County has over 300. As the Southwest enters a tenth year of e-mails with information on how For more information, or to subscribe to RainLog or drought, many homeowners are more much rain fell in their neighborhood RainMapper, visit www.rainlog.org. carefully irrigating their landscapes and each time it rains within five miles. adjusting for weather conditions. But Reference the intense, localized nature of monsoon Soon, RainMapper also will provide Garcia, M., C.D. Peters-Lidard, and D.C. Goodrich, precipitation makes it difficult to Spatial interpolation of precipitation in a dense interpolated rainfall estimates based gauge network for monsoon storm events in the determine how much rain fell in a specific on research by Garcia and others (in southwestern U.S., Water Resour. Res. (in review).
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40 • September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology SOFTWARE REVIEW Super Slug but to actual water-level measurements made during the test. It would be clearer Review of SUPER SLUG Hyeyoung Sophia Seo – Colorado School Bouwer and Rice Graph if the term “drawdown” was changed 1. of Mines. Software Review courtesy of International Ground Water Modeling Center to “heads” or “measurements.” and Colorado School of Mines 0.1 Bouwer and Rice parameter C = 12.61 In(Re/Rw) = 6.144876e+000 Analysis Starts at time 0. Seconds One of the best features of Super Slug Analysis ends at time 63. minutes
Super Slug is a commercial Windows- 22 Measurements analyzed from 1 to 22 Head Ratio (Ht/Ho) Ratio Head is its flexibility for fitting the model Hydraulic Conductivity = 8.71e-003 meters/day 1.e-002 based program that calculates aquifer Transmissivity = 0.871 meters2/day
to the data. Users can evaluate which 0 1 transmissivity and hydraulic conductivity Adjusted Time (Hours) from slug test data. The program uses solution better fits their field data Analysis by Starpoint Software Ho is 0.56 Meters at 0. Seconds simply by switching to each option. Ease of Use: Application the four most popular slug-test data Slug Test Analysis When graphical methods are used, GUI: analysis methods: 1) Cooper, Bredehoeft, Best Features Papadopulos; 2) Bouwer and Rice; 3) the user can easily exclude unwanted Output/Plotting: Data Control and Hvorslev; and 4) Ferris and Knowles. points at the beginning and end of the Documentation: Adjustments Super Slug handles both falling and rising test to obtain a better fit. Super Slug Speed: Worst Feature Documentation head tests, and the required input is simple also has a convenient drag-and-drop OVERALL RATING: compared to other aquifer test programs. feature for matching a type curve to Rating System: data for the Cooper method. When the Excellent Poor Data entry is easy; data can be entered automatic option is used, Super Slug or modified at any time. Super Slug can calculates aquifer parameters without International Ground Water Modeling Center read time and drawdown values directly user interaction and results are displayed Department of Geology and Geological Engineering from digital data logger files in most on the screen in a report format. -3 cases without editing, and can import program, AQTESOLV, 8.71x10 m/d -3 an AQTESOLV file in DOS format. In Using a simple data set, easy-to-use Super compared to AQTESOLV’s 8.21x10 m/d. Slug produced similar values of hydraulic Super Slug, the term “drawdown” does Super Slug is available for $195 from Starpoint not refer to a change in hydraulic head, conductivity as the more sophisticated Software, www.pointstar.com/Aquifer/SuperSlug.asp.
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September/October 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 41 THE CALENDAR
SEPTEMBER 2007
September 10-11 CLE International. Texas Water Law (conference). Austin, TX. www.cle.com/upcoming/PDFs/AUSWAT07.pdf September 10-13 National Ground Water Association. Monitored Natural Attenuation: Mechanisms, Site Characterization, Evaluation, and Monitoring (Sept. 10-11) and Advanced Techniques for Evaluating and Quantifying Natural Attenuation (Sept. 12-13) (short courses). Las Vegas, NV. info.ngwa.org/servicecenter/Meetings/ September 17-18 CLE International. Western Water Law Superconference. Las Vegas, NV. www.cle.com/ September 17-18 Midwest Geosciences Group. Improving Your Personal and Project Management Skills. Naperville, IL. www.midwestgeo.com/projmgmt2007.htm September 18-19 Groundwater Resources Association of California. 16th Annual/26th Biennial GRA Conference and Meeting. Sacramento, CA. www.grac.org September 20-21 Univ. of AZ programs, COMET, NWS, and Vaisala. 4th Symposium on Southwest Hydrometeorology. Tucson, AZ. www.atmo.arizona.edu/swhs/ September 24-27 National Ground Water Association. Groundwater Geochemistry: Fundamentals (Sept. 24-25) and Applications (Sept. 26-27) (short courses). Park City, UT. info.ngwa.org/servicecenter/Meetings/ September 24-29 Association of Engineering Geologists. AEG’s 50th Annual Meeting. Los Angeles, CA. www.aegsc.org/2007-Meeting/ September 28-October 1 National Ground Water Association. 2007 Theis Conference - Conjunctive Management of Ground Water and Surface Water: Application of Science to Policy. Park City, UT. info.ngwa.org/servicecenter/Meetings/ September 30-October 5 U.S. Committee on Irrigation and Drainage. USCID 4th International Conference on Irrigation and Drainage. Sacramento, CA. www.uscid.org/07call.PDF OCTOBER 2007
October 1- 2 CLE International. Utah Water Law Superconference. Salt Lake City, UT. www.cle.com/ October 1- 3 National Ground Water Association. Borehole Geophysical Logging for Water Recovery/Water Supply Applications (short course). Garden Grove, CA. www.ngwa.org October 1- 3 National Ground Water Association. An Introduction to Ground Water (short course). Park City, UT. info.ngwa.org/servicecenter/Meetings/ October 2- 4 U.S. EPA and Arizona Dept. of Environmental Quality. Desert Remedial Action Technologies Workshop. Phoenix, AZ. www.clu-in.org/ techdrct/techpubs.asp October 13-17 WEFTEC. 80th Annual Technical Exhibition and Conference. San Diego, CA. www.weftec.org/Education/CallforAbstracts/ October 22-23 National Ground Water Association. 6th International Conference on Pharmaceuticals and Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals in Water. Costa Mesa, CA. info.ngwa.org/servicecenter/Meetings/ October 23-24 Midwest Geosciences Group. Aquifer Testing for Improved Hydrogeologic Site Characterization. Fort Collins, CO. www.midwestgeo.com/ October 28-31 Geological Society of America. GSA Annual Meeting and Exposition. Denver, CO. www.geosociety.org/meetings/2007/ October 28-November 2 AHS, IAH, ASCE/EWRI, UNESCO. ISMAR6: The 6th International Symposium on Managed Aquifer Recharge. Phoenix, AZ. www.ismar2007.org
NOVEMBER 2007
November 1- 2 CLE International. California Water Law. Pasadena, CA. www.cle.com/ November 5- 6 National Ground Water Association. Petroleum Hydrocarbons and Organic Chemicals in Ground Water: Prevention, Detection, and Remediation Conference. Houston, TX. info.ngwa.org/servicecenter/Meetings/Index.cfm#MT1 November 5- 6 Nevada Water Resources Association. Climate Change Symposium. Las Vegas, NV. www.nvwra.org/events.asp November 7- 9 Central Coast Agricultural Water Quality Coalition. 2007 National Conference on Agriculture and the Environment. Monterey, CA. www.agwaterquality.org/2007conference/ November 8-10 California Groundwater Association. 59th Annual CGA Convention and Trade Show. Reno, NV. www.groundh2o.org/events/events.html November 12-15 American Water Resources Association. 2007 Annual Conference: Hazards in Water Resources. Albuquerque, NM. www.awra.org/meetings/New_Mexico2007/index.html November 14-15 Groundwater Resources Association of California. DNAPL Source Zone Characterization and Removal. Long Beach, CA. www.grac.org/dnapl.asp November 15-17 International Center for Arid and Semiarid Land Studies. Water in Arid and Semiarid Lands: Innovative Approaches and Informed Decision-Making. Lubbock, TX. www.iaff.ttu.edu/home/icasals/conference/
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