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Mitochondrial Toxicity of Triclosan on Mammalian Cells

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Mitochondrial Toxicity of Triclosan on Mammalian Cells Toxicology Reports 2 (2015) 624–637 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Toxicology Reports j ournal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/toxrep Mitochondrial toxicity of triclosan on mammalian cells a,∗,1 a,1 b,1 c Charmaine Ajao , Maria A. Andersson , Vera V. Teplova , Szabolcs Nagy , d e f g Carl G. Gahmberg , Leif C. Andersson , Maria Hautaniemi , Balazs Kakasi , h a Merja Roivainen , Mirja Salkinoja-Salonen a Department of Food and Environmental Sciences, Haartman Institute, University of Helsinki, POB 56, FI-00014, Finland b Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Biophysics, RAS, Puschino, Moscow Region, Russia c Department of Animal Science and Animal Husbandry, University of Pannonia, Georgikon Faculty, Deak F. u.,16, H8360 Keszthely, Hungary d Dept. of Bio- and Environmental Sciences, Haartman Institute, University of Helsinki, FI-00014, Finland e Dept. of Pathology, Haartman Institute, University of Helsinki, FI-00014, Finland f Finnish Food Safety Authority (EVIRA), Research and Laboratory Department, Veterinary Virology Research Unit, Mustialankatu 3, FI 00790 Helsinki, Finland g Institute of Environmental Sciences, University of Pannonia, Egyetem u. 10, H-8200 Veszprem, Hungary h National Institute for Health and Welfare, Department of Virology, Mannerheimintie 166, 00300 Helsinki, Finland a r t a b i c s t l r e i n f o a c t Article history: Effects of triclosan (5-chloro-2 -(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)phenol) on mammalian cells were Received 28 January 2015 investigated using human peripheral blood mono nuclear cells (PBMC), keratinocytes Received in revised form 29 March 2015 (HaCaT), porcine spermatozoa and kidney tubular epithelial cells (PK-15), murine pan- Accepted 30 March 2015 creatic islets (MIN-6) and neuroblastoma cells (MNA) as targets. We show that triclosan Available online 7 April 2015 −1 (1–10 ␮g ml ) depolarised the mitochondria, upshifted the rate of glucose consumption in PMBC, HaCaT, PK-15 and MNA, and subsequently induced metabolic acidosis. Triclosan Keywords: induced a regression of insulin producing pancreatic islets into tiny pycnotic cells and Sperm motility necrotic death. Short exposure to low concentrations of triclosan (30 min, ≤1 ␮g/ml) par- Oxidative phosphorylation Uncoupler alyzed the high amplitude tail beating and progressive motility of spermatozoa, within Glycolysis 30 min exposure, depolarized the spermatozoan mitochondria and hyperpolarised the acro- Acidosis some region of the sperm head and the flagellar fibrous sheath (distal part of the flagellum). Electric transmembrane potential Experiments with isolated rat liver mitochondria showed that triclosan impaired oxidative phosphorylation, downshifted ATP synthesis, uncoupled respiration and provoked exces- sive oxygen uptake. These exposure concentrations are 100–1000 fold lower that those permitted in consumer goods. The mitochondriotoxic mechanism of triclosan differs from that of valinomycin, cereulide and the enniatins by not involving potassium ionophoric activity. © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Abbreviations: EC50, concentration that diminishes the respective vitality parameter by ≥50%; «, electric transmembrane potential; « p, membrane potential of the plasma membrane; « m, membrane potential of the mitochondrial membrane; BCF, bioconcentration factor; PBMC, monocyte-enriched peripheral blood mononuclear cells; HaCaT, a spontaneously immortalized (non-neoplastic) keratinocyte cell line; PK-15, a porcine kidney tubular epithelial + cell line; MNA, a murine neuroblastoma cells; MIN-6, a murine pancreatic beta cell line; TPP , tetraphenylphosphonium; JC-1, 5,5 ,6,6 -tetrachloro-1,1 ,3,3 - tetraethylbenzimidazolyl-carbocyanine iodide; MIC, minimal inhibitory concentration; PI, propidium iodide; RLM, rat liver mitochondria; PN, pyridine nucleotides. ∗ Corresponding author. E-mail address: charmaine.ajao@helsinki.fi (C. Ajao). 1 These authors contributed equally to the work. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.toxrep.2015.03.012 2214-7500/© 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). C. Ajao et al. / Toxicology Reports 2 (2015) 624–637 625 1. Introduction organs responsible for human innate immunity [3]. Porcine spermatozoa resemble more closely than any other The antibacterial preservative 5-chloro-2 -(2,4- spermatozoa their human counterparts [85,95] and porcine dichlorophenoxy) phenol (mol. wt. 289.5), trivial names kidney tubular epithelial cells representing the susceptibil- triclosan and irgasan, was introduced to commerce in ity of a major elimination route of chemicals. To represent 1964, in products of health care industry in 1972 and is the nervous system and the cells responsible for the glu- since then in wide spread world-wide use in personal cose homeostasis murine neuroblastoma cells (MNA) and care products, textiles, food contact materials [81,82,36]. insulin producing pancreatic ␤-cells were chosen [41]. Triclosan is poorly biodegradable, lipophilic (log Kow 4.76) [29], bioaccumulates in biota (BCF = 2.5) and found ubiquitous almost everywhere in the indoor and out- 2. Materials and methods door environment, including drinking water resources [12,33,23,13,20,93,68,86]. 2.1. Target cells used for in vitro toxicity assessments. The antibacterial effect of triclosan is believed to be through its potent inhibitory effect on the bacterial type Human cells. Monocyte-enriched peripheral blood enzyme of fatty acid biosynthesis, enoyl-acyl carrier pro- mononuclear cells (PBMC) were retrieved from buffy coats tein reductase (ENR), the Fab I step [38]. Triclosan inhibits of healthy individual donors from the Finnish Red Cross the purified enzyme with an IC50 of 120 nM [57] and Blood Service (with ethical permission), Helsinki, Finland, −1 inhibits the growth of bacteria with MIC of 0.25 ␮g ml by the Ficoll gradient method of Bøyum [18]. The cells were −1 (E. coli) to >1000 ␮g ml (Pseudomonas aeruginosa) [39]. used on the day of isolation. Each lot of isolated PBMC Since this enzyme is believed to occur in prokaryotic was checked for viability (trypan blue exclusion) and used organisms only, triclosan has been considered harmless when viability was >80%. HaCaT is a spontaneously immor- to humans [16,80,34] and approved at high concentra- talized (non-neoplastic) keratinocyte cell line, from adult tions (up to 0.3 wt%) in direct human contact, such as human epidermis and exhibits normal differentiation [19]. tooth paste, mouth washes, creams, wet wipes, diapers The cells were handled as previously described [41]. and other personal and occupational hygiene products Porcine cells. Spermatozoa were delivered by com- [11,36,50,55,59,60]. mercial suppliers (Figen, Ltd., Tuomikylä, Finland, and However, in vitro studies have revealed that triclosan Véghfarm Kft, Pakod, Hungary). All disposables used in is a xenoestrogen [56,42,52], potent inhibitor of the proin- sperm contact, were pretested for sperm motility affecting flammatory TLR-signaling pathway in epithelial cells and effects as described elsewhere [7]. The semen was diluted 6 −1 × plasminogen activation in human oral fibroblasts [9,96] to 27 10 cells ml using commercial extender (MR- and, at low concentration, adversely affects the motility of A Kudus S.A. Madrid Spain or Androstar Plus, Minitube, human sperm [7,78]. In addition, epidemiological studies Tiefenbach, Germany), and used within 48 h as described strongly indicate that exposure to triclosan causes aller- by [6,7]. The spermatozoa were exposed as suspension in 6 −1 × gic sensitization in children, retards fetal development in seminal plasma diluted to 27 10 sperm cells ml , with + utero, affects the thyroid function and alters the inflamma- the commercial extender, containing 2–5 mM K and 150 to + tory responses of epithelial cells [24,67,15,51,69]. Triclosan 200 mM Na for all exposures, excepting the measurements also induces formation of antibiotic resistant nasal biofilms of glucose consumption. Since the glucose concentration of Staphylococcus aureus and is a possible promoter of in the commercial sperm extenders is extremely high antibiotic resistance in pathogenic bacteria [97,88]. (150 mM), the sperms were prewashed with TALP-HEPES Human exposure to triclosan has been documented medium (Bavister and Yanagimachi 1977, as cited by [79]). through the skin, orally and respiratory system, due to The sperm cells and the pelleted cells were resuspended 6 −1 × its widespread use. The oral use of care products may into TALP-HEPES medium to 75 10 cells ml , with glu- ± be the most significant route of exposure to triclosan for cose set at 15 0.5 mM. Exposures were done for 24 h ◦ ± adults [1,5,60]. Triclosan in human body fluids (plasma, at 22 C 2. For motility readings the sperm cells were ◦ urine, breast milk) and tissues, including fetuses, was first warmed to 37 C (5 min). reported from Sweden and subsequently in numerous PK-15 is a non-neoplastic porcine kidney tubular countries on all continents [1,5,75,21,8,90,58,11,50,71,73]. epithelial cell line [28], cultured as described earlier [74]. Considering the large scale of human exposure, the envi- Murine cells. Neuroblastoma cells (MNA) were from the ronmental persistence and the reported adverse health Department of Veterinary Virology, The Finnish Food Safety effects of triclosan there is a need for
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