Food and Agriculture ~;~~::ization Nations • 'fl-IE i'IE'1V '1VORlD SCRE'1V'1VORJ'1\ ERf\DICf\flOi'I PROGRf\J'1\J'1\E
FOOD AND AGRICUUURE ORGANIZATION Of HIE UNITED NATIONS
Text prepared by Helen Gillman under the supervision of Dr E.P. Cunningham, Director, FAO Animal Production and Health Division and Dr A.E. Sidahmed, Senior Operations Officer, Screwworm Emergency Centre for North Africa.
The designations employed and the presentation of material in this pub lication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
M-27 ISBN 92-5-103200-9
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Printed in Italy © FAO 1992 Contents Preface 7 Introduction 9
Acronyms 12
Chapter one The New World screwworm 14
Chapter two The North African emergency 42
Chapter three Preparing for eradication 70
Chapter four The eradication programme 80
Chapter five Managing the campaign 124
Chapter six Money matters 142
Chapter seven Involving the public 150
Chapter eight Activities in neighbouring countries 164
Chapter nine Support organizations 170
Conclusion 178
Annex one FAQ chronology of events 181
Annex two SECNA documents 187
Annex three Coordination Committee 189
While the great majority of our work in Preface FAO is aimed at the steady improve ment of the world's capacity to feed its people, we are also on occasion chal lenged to respond to situations of great and immediate danger. The discovery of the New World screwworm in North Africa in 7988 was one such emergen cy. It rapidly became clear that the price to be paid for the persistent and inevitable spread of this pest from its beachhead in the Libyan Arab Jamahi riya would have been very great in deed - in terms of suffering and loss in domestic animal populations and dev astation of wildlife as well as the recur rent cost of containment far into the future. It was also clear that an eradica tion campaign could be costly: pru dent estimates put the costs in interna tional funds at close to US$ 700 million. It is a tribute to all concerned that successful eradication has been achieved more rapidly, and at less cost, than might have been expected. The international funds required have come to less than US$35 million. lnde p end en t economic appraisal has shown the programme to have been a remarkably profitable investment. FAO undertook this emergency campaign on behalf of the countries threatened by the disease and the 22 countries and agencies that provided the emergency funds required. I would like to extend my thanks to the donors for that essential support; to our sister United Nations agencies, IAEA, /FAD and UNOP, for their active collabora tion; and to all those who carried this campaign through to such a successful conclusion.
Edouard Saouma Director-General
7
Introduction This book documents a programme which was unusual in several respects. The campaign to eradicate the New World screwworm from North Africa was unusually large in financial terms. At the same time it was unusually short. Eradication itself took about six months, although it was preceded by one year of preparation and followed by one year of continued surveillance and preventive actions. It involved an unusually large array of partners: 22 donors, eight countries at immediate risk, four UN agencies and several con tractors from the private sector. What have been the main factors contributing to the success of the pro gramme? To begin with, a certain amount of good luck was involved. It was fortunate that the initial outbreak occurred in the Libyan Arab Jamahiri ya, a relatively wealthy country with good infrastructure and, in particular, a strongly developed national veterinary service. The early and effective re sponse of the Libyan authorities was undoubtedly a major factor in contain ing the outbreak within a limited area, eventually making possible a success ful eradication programme. While con ditions in the coastal area where the outbreak first occurred were highly suitable for screwworm establishment this zone is fortunately bounded by areas which are much less suitable: sea to the north, desert to the south and east, and semi-desert to the west. The western limit of the infested area ex tended almost to the Tunisian border, and the active cooperation of the Tu nisian authorities helped to prevent spread in that direction. Despite these factors limiting its spread, the success ful overwintering ofscrewworm in Lib ya for three years - and the explosive expansion in the number of infested animals in the second year of
9 infestation - demonstrated the serious duce; and an elaborate information ness and the scale of the problem. campaign, using all media, to prepare The other major element of good the population for the aerial distribu fortune was that the t€;chnology for tion of sterile insects as well as to en eradication had already been devel sure the cooperation of livestock own oped and was available. Three dec ers and the public generally. All of ades of research lay behind the suc these elements were as necessary as cessful use of the sterile insect tech the sterile insects themselves. nique for screwworm eradication, first While sterile flies had been widely in the United States and then in Mex and successfully used in the Americas, ico. The knowledge built up through those campaigns had been conducted that research and the experience close to the plant that produced the gained from the campaigns in North insects. The long-distance transport America were made fully available for in valved in the North African pro use in North Africa. Furthermore, with gramme introduced a totally new di the support of the Mexican and United mension and, with it, great uncertainty. States governments, the only sterile The key to the success of sterile insect screwworm plant in the world, at Tuxtla eradication is the competitive ability of Gutierrez, was authorized to provide the sterile insects when dispersed. flies under contract to the programme. Their quality is adversely affected by While it is now clear that the con suboptimal handling at any stage up to tainment activities carried out by the the dispersal point. Much experimen Libyan authorities from 7989 were very tation was required with shipping rou effective, this was by no means certain tines and environmental controls, and in the early stages of the campaign. very detailed interaction was required Substantial animal inspection and sur at all stages with the contract com veillance activities were therefore un panies providing the air transport and dertaken in all of the surrounding distribution. This attention to detail countries. Meanwhile, a sterile insect paid off: the quality of flies distributed eradication campaign was actively be was maintained at a very high level ing prepared. Because the final cam throughout the programme - un paign was so dramatically successful, it doubtedly a key element in the pro is easy to overlook the importance of gramme1s rapid success. the planning and preparation which Apart from technical matters, some made success possible. From the be of the most anxious moments through ginning, it was clear that massive out the campaign arose from difficulties operations on the ground would be on the diplomatic front. It is a tribute to needed. These included improved common sense that the difficult diplo animal inspection, surveillance and matic climate between certain coun quarantine arrangements; the estab tries involved was not allowed to im lishment of a laboratory to carry out the pede progress. Even the outbreak of necessary quality control measures; hostilities in the Persian Cul~ just as the the installation of environment-con programme was moving into high gear, trolled handling and storage facilities did not cause interruptions, although for sterile flies; a capacity to assemble, the associated fluctuations in air freight analyse and interpret the masses of da and insurance rates caused much fi ta which the programme would pro- nancial uncertainty. A particularly diffi-
10 cult issue arose over the question of diture by Libya, together with about liability in the event of a claim that flies US$ 78 million in cash and kind re distributed had not been properly ster quired for the earlier phases of the pro ilized. The probability of this actually gramme and for activities in surround happening was effectively zero, but it ing countries. Thus, the total cost is ap gave rise to a very critical legal ques proximately US$78 million. An inde tion. It was eventually resolved on the pendent economic appraisal of costs initiative of Mr Said El-Mabrouk, who and benefits has shown the return to tragically died in a motor accident investment, for North Africa alone, to within hours of that meeting. be in the region of 50: 7. Despite the generous response of The programme had many of the the donors to the call for support, anxi elements of a military campaign, and to eties over finances were myriad, partic some extent its success is also attribut ularly in the early stages of the pro able to the fact that it was managed gramme. The campaign was launched along those lines. The key factor was with the full authority of the Director the clear delineation of responsibilities Ceneral, specifically to take advantage - among other agencies and FAO, of the fact that fly numbers would be and within FAO to the specially estab low in the winter, although at that time lished SECNA team. Once the lines of the necessary funds to see the cam responsibility were clearly drawn, the paign through to completion were far partners could effectively cooperate. In from secure. particular, the partnership with the Lib As the campaign progressed, regular yan authorities worked extremely well. budgetary revisions were carried out, A further essential element was the while the funds pledged by donors good quality and use of information, were gradually made available. The both financial and technical. Consider budgeted requirements and funds able effort was made to ensure that in available have converged at US$35 formation was well communicated, million - less than half the amount both to those working on the pro originally thought necessary. In addi gramme and to those supporting it or tion to these international funds must affected by it. This book is the final part be added the US$25 million of expen- of that information exercise.
11 Acronyms AfDB. African Development Bank APHIS. Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (United States)
ARS. Agricultural Research Service (USDA)
CAB. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau
CSIRO. Australian Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization
EEC. European Economic Community
FAO. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
IAEA. International Atomic Energy Agency IBAR. Inter-African Bureau for Animal Resources
IFAD. International Fund for Agricultural Development
lsDB. Islamic Development Bank
IUCN. International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
MACES. Mexico-United States Commission for the Eradication of the New World Screwworm
OAU. Organization of African Unity OIE. International Office of Epizootics
SECNA. Screwworm Emergency Centre for North Africa
SIDA. Swedish International Development Aid
. UNDP. United Nations Development Programme
USAID. United States Agency for International Development
USDA. United States Department of Agriculture
WHO. World Health Organization
12 THE Nt'N '+NORlt> SCRE'N'+NORN\ ERADICATION PROGRAJ'+AN\E
NORTH AFRICA waa-wn Chapter one The New World screwworm
1. The New World screwworm adult fly
The New World screwworm eradication programme
he New World screwworm (NWS) body, with three distinct stripes, and has been referred to as a "flesh orange-red eyes (see Photo 1). Its larva Td e v our in g insect monster, has large, backward-projecting spines straight out of a horror story" and "the (see Photo 2), which earned it the worm of death". Historically one of the name screwworm. most destructive and costly insect pests The awful destruction and suffering of warm-blooded animals in the west caused by the screwworm larvae were ern hemisphere, the screwworm is an graphically described by the much obligate parasite, known to science as q u ote d Texas rancher , Charles Cochliomyia hominivorax (Coquerel). Scruggs, who wrote of the death of a The fly itself is harmless. Its reputa young buck in his 1975 book, The tion as a deadly parasite comes instead Peaceful Atom and the Deadly Fly: from its larvae, which are totally de "The wound in his head was now sev pendent on the living tissue of host eral inches deep. Screwworms now animals for survival. The wound they numbered in the thousands. The writh cause is known as a myiasis, the pres ing, tearing pests had made a round ence of dipterous larvae in the tissues wound three inches across." Scruggs of animals or humans. reported that in bad years, up to 80 While most other agents of myiasis percent of newborn deer in the south can survive on both dead and live tis ern United States died from screw sue, NWS larvae penetrate and eat worm infestation. only living flesh and the resulting secre An intensive and highly successful tions. As they feed, they dramatically 30-year programme using the sterile in enlarge wounds, creating a pocket-like sect technique (SIT) eradicated the pest cavity and producing exudates that from the southern United States and give rise to secondary infections and Mexico, with the last endemic case prevent the wound from healing. recorded in the United States in Wounds infested by NWS larvae are 1982. Mexico was declared screw generally very deep (up to 10 cm), worm-free on February 25, 1991, al resulting from the extensive tissue de though an outbreak occurred in Janu struction. The excretions from the lar ary 1992. vae produce necrosis of the tissue, Before its discovery in the Libyan which is also a lure for other flies. The Arab Jamahiriya in 1988, the NWS had wounds have a characteristic odour, been confined to the tropical and sub resembling that of putrefaction, and the tropical Americas, in a range extending larvae are generally found in the deep from the southern border of Guatemala est part of the wound, unlike the larvae and Belize in Central America, to South of other, secondary parasitic species, America beyond Uruguay. which generally stay near the surface. The extreme damage caused by the feeding of the larvae, combined with Economics resulting secondary bacterial infec tions, frequently causes the death of The cost of living with the NWS, in the host animal. terms of surveillance and animal treat The screwworm fly is about two ment, animal death and loss of produc and-a-half times larger than the com tion, is enormous. In 1976 the annual mon house fly. It has a blue-green cost of the disease in Texas alone was
16 The New World screwworm estimated at US$300 million. By 1980, the North African region, with 70 mil the cost estimate of a possible reinfest lion head of livestock, would incur a ation was US$378 million annually. combined cost of US$280 million an Even when an infested animal does nually. not die, it is more susceptible to other diseases, and milk and meat produc tion can be seriously affected. Damage History of the screwworm to hides and the cost of inspection and treatment amount to significant eco The New World screwworm has exist nomic losses to livestock owners. ed on the American continent since Based on an annual cost range of ancient times, and its name is found in US$4 to US$10 per animal for inspec all the principal indigenous dialects. tion and treatment against NWS, it was Throughout' North and South America estimated that living with the pest it is known by various local names, in would cost Libya more than US$28 cluding gusanera, queresa, bichera million annually. The five countries in and bichiera and, most commonly, in
2. The NWS larva has backward-protruding spines which earned it the name screwworm
17 The New World screwworm eradication programme
Early screwworm cases
Dr Coquerel, a surgeon in the French Cayenne at that time was a French Imperial Navy, had good reason for penal colony, with a well-deserved giving the newly identified screwworm reputation for being hell on earth. Four fly the name hominivorax. It literally of the five patients were transportees. means " maneater". In a report which Three had French names, one Arab he published on the fly in 1858, Dr and one African. In each case a Coquerel gave details of five men who screwworm fly had laid eggs in the were brought to the Cayenne hospital patient's nostrils, and the larvae had suffering from screwworm infestation. developed in the nasal sinus . The results, published in Dr Coquerel's report, make horrific reading. Three of the five patients died as a result of the damage caused by the larvae. Up to 300 larvae were recovered by flushing the sinuses with water. Reports of such cases occur even today, and it was feared that the spread of the screwworm into sub Saharan Africa could have had severe consequences for human populations. Dr Coquerel died in Reunion in 1867, of dysentery, after a long and distinguished career both as a naval surgeon and government official working in many parts of the world.
French naval surgeon, Dr Charles Coquerel, who identified th e NWS in 1858
18 The New World screwworm
English, the screwworm. References to tant scavenger fly, Cochliomyia macel the species have also been found in laria, a carrion breeder which is a sec documents from the period of Spanish ondary agent of myiasis, although colonization . morphologically very similar to the The species was first described in NWS. It is, in fact, often referred to as 1858 by the French naval surgeon Dr the secondary screwworm. Charles Coquerel (see box on page 18), The confusion had resulted from the in his records of myiasis cases in men in mistaken identification of the NWS in Cayenne, French Guiana. After studying the late eighteenth century by Danish specimens of a fly collected at the entomologist, Johann Christian Fab French penal colony on Devil's Island, ricius. He had observed a metallic, Coquerel declared a new species, giving green-coloured fly with three dark it the name Lucilia hominivorax. Homi stripes down its back, a yellow face nivorax means "devourer of man". and brick-red eyes. He determined However, the fly was for many years that the fly was C. macellaria. It was confused with the relatively unimpor- many years before entomologist Col.
3. Humans also can suffer NWS infestations
19 The New World screwworm eradication programme
Emory Cushing, under the direction of NWS biology and life cycle Prof. W.S. Patton at the University of Liverpool's School of Tropical Medicine, Cochliomyia hominivorax (Coquerel) discovered significant differences iri the has been recorded in a wide range of genital structures of the two flies. In livestock and wildlife. Humans are par 1933 they identified NWS as a distinct ticularly at risk of being infested when species (which had already been living in conditions of poor hygiene named by Dr Coquerel) and named it and close to infested livestock. If not Cochliomyia americana. Some years treated immediately, screwworm infes later, the scientific community adopted tations in humans (see Photo 3) can be the name C. hominivorax. come debilitating and can lead to The NWS is classified as follows: death, especially when larvae are pre Order: Diptera sent in the nasal and frontal sinuses, Family: Calliphoridae eyes, ears or mouth. Genus: Coch/iomyia However, the screwworm is primar Species: hominivorax (Coquerel) ily a veterinary pest, as was demon-
4. Adult flies will lay their eggs in the body orifices of hosts. This infestation started in the eye
20 The New World screwworm strated during an epidemic in Texas in sultant during the North African screw 1935, when approximately 230 000 worm campaign to assess the potential cases were recorded in livestock, com impact of the NWS on wildlife in Afri pared to only 55 in humans. ca, the Mediterranean basin, the Near All warm-blooded animals may be East and Asia (see box on pp. 22-23). The attacked, including cattle, horses, study concluded that, had the NWS sheep, goats, pigs and dogs. In North managed to break out of its Libyan Africa, the screwworm infested camels bridgehead, the impact on wildlife in and placed a variety of wildlife at risk, the Old World and, especially, in trop both in zoos and in nature. The erad ical Africa would have been cata ication of the NWS from North Amer strophic. ica resulted in an increase in popula Gravid female screwworm flies are tions of larger wild animals. Photos 4 to attracted to open wounds: essentially 6 illustrate the damage that can be all wounds are attractive, including caused by screwworm infestation. accidental lacerations such as those A specialist was employed as a con- caused by barbed wire, or wounding
5. Multiple infestations will lead in this case, a cow, died as a to a wound of this size in a result of the wound caused by matter of days; the host animal feeding screwworm larvae
21 The New World screwworm eradication programme
Impact of NWS on wildlife
This study was undertaken by Dr M.W. and often widely dispersed. Several Woodford, chairman of the Veterinary species classified as vulnerable or Services Group in the Species Survival endangered by the IUCN are found in Commission of the International Union the North African region, including the for the Conservation of Nature and Barbary hyena (said to survive in Natural Resources (IUCN). Its results Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia), the were published in March 1992. Barbary deer (Tunisia) and the Barbary The study drew on the somewhat macaque, Cuvier's gazelle and the scarce accounts of the impact of NWS Barbary ground squirrel (Morocco). on wildlife in subtropical North Seasonal incursions by the NWS into America, which were made by the habitats of these threatened species biologists and foresters when NWS would have had a serious impact on the was enzootic in that region. Most of viability of their populations. these accounts concerned the effects Red foxes and golden jackals, of screwworm on the indigenous common throughout North Africa, as white-tailed deer. There was no hard well as the Barbary sheep in Libya and data available on the likely impact of Algeria, could have become infested the NWS on wild mammals in the Old and spread NWS over wide areas, World, and it was necessary to although infestations would not have extrapolate descriptions of NWS threatened the survival of the species, infestations of the wild fauna in Texas, the study found. Florida and Alabama. The study also Among the other countries of the utilized the equally scarce data Mediterranean basin, the study available on the effects on wildlife of suggested that only southwestern Spain, the Old World screwworm, Chrysomya Sardinia, Sicily, southern Greece, bezziana. It also took into account Lebanon and Israel would have climatic conditions likely to constrain or provided suitable environments for augment a hypothetical spread of the permanent colonization by the NWS. NWS from its Libyan focus. The study concluded that seasonal The study concluded that much of incursions by NWS would have been lowland tropical Africa and subtropical widespread and serious if they had Africa would have provided an ideal occurred when wildlife was breeding. environment for the pest. Parts of The study found that several Mediterranean Africa and Europe as vulnerable and endangered species well as the Near East would also have would have been threatened, been able to sustain the fly. It including the ibex in southern Spain predicted opportunistic, seasonal and the Spanish lynx in western Spain. incursions into the hinterland of The endangered Corsican red deer, continental Europe. which still exists in small numbers in Sardinia, would have been affected. Sardinia supports a large population of North Africa, Europe and the Near East wild boar, a target of heavy infestation The study noted that wildlife by NWS when it existed in the populations in these areas were small southern United States.
22 The New World screwworm
Endangered species in Greece's United Republic of Tanzania and Olympus Beydaglieri National Park, Zambia, the infestation and death of including the brown bear, wolf and large numbers of wild animals would jackal, would have been threatened by have had serious economic seasonal incursions by NWS. The consequences. The wildlife-rich study also suggested that the small savannahs of East Africa would have populations of brown bear in central supported explosive outbreaks of Italy (the Abruzzi) and in the NWS, particularly among the huge mountains of Yugoslavia's Adriatic herds of seasonally breeding coast could also have been affected. antelopes. It was estimated, based on Parts of the Near East have data gathered in the United States, that environments similar to that which numbers could have been reduced by supported the NWS in Libya. up to 80 percent. Overgrazing and overhunting have The study predicted that there already had a significant impact on would also be a considerable risk that, wildlife populations; the study, if small populations of large wild however, found that captive herds of mammals were to become infested by desert mammals maintained NWS, veterinary authorities would throughout the Near East could have perceive them as uncontrollable been affected. reservoirs of infestation and call for their elimination. Throughout tropical Africa, small Tropical and subtropical Africa isolated groups of rare wild ungulates The NWS would have found a suitable can still be found. Had the NWS environment throughout most of spread into these areas, these groups lowland, sub-Saharan Africa. All of the could have become extinct. Indeed, wild mammals of Africa would have the small size and localized been susceptible to screwworm distribution of some of these groups myiasis, and the economic are thought to be attributable to their consequences of a widespread decline failure to recover from previous in wildlife numbers would have been rinderpest epizootics. very severe. In West African countries, the There would have been a serious infestation and loss of wildlife in impact on the food self-sufficiency of national parks and reserves would human populations in areas where have been very serious. In many of "bushmeats" provide a large proportion these countries, the last vestiges of of the protein in their diets. West and previously widespread large mammals Central Africa, where the presence of are now confined to relatively small the tsetse fly excludes domestic stock as protected areas. If these groups had a human food source, would have been been infested by NWS, there would particularly affected. have been no free-ranging populations In countries dependent on wildlife on which to draw for recovery. based tourism as a major source of foreign exchange, including Kenya, the
23 The New World screwworm eradication programme
as a result of animal hu sbandry prac ference of the Southeastern Associ tices such as castration, dehorning and ation of Game and Fish Commissioners branding. Many screwworm infesta (United States) on the ability of large tions result from natural wounding. In mammals to survive a screwworm in some affected areas, 90 percent of in festation. After observing adult white festations start at the site of tick bites; tailed deer in the United States , he among newborn animals the most fre noted that repeated infestations were quently infested site is the unhealed required to kill an animal of that size. umbilical scar (see Photo 7). "Two hundred screwworms will des Larvae may also invade body orifices troy body tissues two inches in dia such as nostrils, eyes, mouth, ears and meter and two inches in depth. Many re vagina. Invasion of the nasal fossae is peatedly infested wounds may contain the most common site of infestation in 2 000-3 000 screwworm maggots, humans. which will destroy tissues up to seven Mr D.D. Strode made some interest inches in diameter and seven inches in ing comments at the 1959 annual con- depth. Few deer can withstand such
6. Another example of the damage that screwworms can cause
24 The New World screwworm tissue destruction and most will die be to 8). All of the eggs are oriented in the fore this stage is reached ." same direction, while the ovipositor Screwworm larvae begin their devel (the organ with which the female de opment only on live animals. How posits its eggs) is swept from side to ever, they may complete their develop side. Egg clutches are frequently divid ment on the host even if it dies as a re ed into two or more masses, which can sult of the infestation, provided they be laid several minutes apart at the have reached the second larval instar same or a different wound. When fe stage, and the body of the host remains males oviposit on a wound already oc warm. cupied by an egg mass, they will invari Egg laying lasts an average of 15 min ably deposit their eggs in direct contact utes and may be preceded or followed with the older egg mass. Thus one by feeding at the wound. A female lays apparent mass could originate from between ten and 490 eggs (usually two or more females. around 200) in a flat, shingle-like mass The females lay their eggs at approxi at the dry edge of the wound (see Pho- mately three-day intervals. A female
7. The navels of newborn States, up to 80 percent of mammals are a favourite site for newborn white-tailed deer died female screwworm flies to lay from NWS infestations during their eggs. Before the NWS was particularly bad years eradicated from the United
25 The New World screwworm eradication programme
has been recorded as laying eight sep terior spiracles, above the liquid. arate clutches of eggs over a 33-day Once embedded in the flesh, the period, but an average female will lay larvae do not move around in the . about four clutches. wound, as do many secondary agents First instar larvae hatch 11-24 hours of myiasis, and their large, backward after laying and immediately start feed projecting spines prevent them from ing on the living tissue. Like the Old being easily removed. World screwworm Chrysomya bezzia The larvae grow to the third instar na (see box opposite), they have a gre stage while feeding in the wound; the garious method of feeding, burrow exudates produced promote second ing head-downwards into the tissue, ary bacterial infections, which prevent with just their posterior tips protruding healing. Larger infested wounds dis for respiration. If larvae become im charge pus and blood and have a char mersed in wound fluids they will acteristic bad odour, which is particu literally "come up for air", raising the larly attractive to NWS female flies. As posterior tip, which contains the pos- more egg masses are laid and hatched,
8. The NWS adult female lays its eggs at the edge of the wound in a shingle-like mass
26 The New World screwworm the wound is greatly enlarged and ed by the type of soil and by vegetation deepened by the increasing number of cover. The texture and temperature of growing larvae. Secondary agents of the soil are important factors for the myiasis may also be attracted to the ne survival of the pupae. crotic tissue of the wound, but, unlike the The duration of the pupal period de screwworm, their larvae remain near the pends heavily on temperature, ranging, surface and are not generally found for example in Texas, from seven days deep in the wound. The rate of devel in summer to 54 days in winter. Under opment of larvae is influenced by the controlled laboratory conditions of size and nature of the wound and by the 100 percent relative humidity, the pupal number of larvae present. period varies from six days at 34.5°C to After feeding for four to eight days, 32 days at 15°C. The life cycle (see Fig the larvae leave the wound and drop ure 1) is completed in about 21 days to the ground, burrowing several centi under favourable conditions, at 22°C, metres into the soil to pupate (see Pho but may extend to two or three months to 9). The depth of burrowing is affect- in cold conditions.
The Old World screwworm
The Old World genus Chrysomya is in tropical conditions and up to eight analogous to the New World genus weeks in subtropical winter months. Coch/iomyia. It includes the Old Like the NWS, the Old World World screwworm fly, C. bezziana, an screwworm is catholic in its selection obligate parasite in wounds. Its life of hosts. It was first given the name of cycle and habits and the appearance screwworm in 1909 in association with of wounds infested by it are very a human infestation in India, although similar to those of Cochliomyia it was not named C. bezziana until hominivorax and, therefore, it is the 1914. Other hosts include cattle, water species with the most potential to be buffalo, sheep, goats, horses, donkeys, mistaken, in the larval stage, for the dogs, camels, elephants, impala, New World screwworm. bushbuck, waterbuck, giraffe, lion, There is a remarkable parallel white rhinoceros, eland, black between the two screwworm species, rhinoceros and many others. which appear to occupy an exactly It is widely distributed over the equivalent parasitic niche in their tropical and subtropical parts of Africa natural ranges. Adult female C. and Asia. In Africa it has been bezziana only lay their eggs on live recorded as far south as northern mammals, depositing 150-500 eggs at Transvaal and northern Natal in South sites of wounds or in body orifices. Africa and, in Asia, it reaches eastward The larvae hatch after 18-24 hours, to Taiwan (province of China), the moult once after 12-18 hours and a Philippines, Celebes and Papu a New second time about 30 hours later. Guinea. It has also been introduced They feed for three to four days and into several countries on the west then drop to the ground to pupate. The coast of the Persian Gulf. pupal stage lasts for seven to nine days
27 The New World screwworm eradication programme
Adult flies generally emerge in the Female flies require protein, which early morning and burrow to the soil they obtain by feeding on the wounds surface. During the first two days they of animals. However, they have al will disperse over a wide area. Males ready taken in the protein necessary to are sexually mature within 24 hours lay their first batch of eggs during the and are polygamous, mating five or si x larval stage. In addition to protein, times. Females usually mate only once, adult flies require sources of carbohy on about the second or third day after drates and water, which they obtain by they emerge, and the female is ready to feeding on the flowers of a wide range lay her first batch of eggs about four of plants. days later. At this time she will begin Flowering shrubs and trees are also searching for a host and, if none are used as sites for mating and resting. available nearby, she will travel great Males establish "waiting stations" from distances to find one. Individual flies where they strike at any passing, flying have been observed to travel up to 290 object about the same size as a female km in less than two weeks. NWS. They have even been known to
9. NWS pupae
28 The New World screwworm chase small pebbles tossed in the air. tral United States from overwintering In the laboratory, pupal fat stores are sites in Texas, Mexico and Florida be exhausted within three days of emer fore the screwworm eradication pro gence. Honey is often used as a carbo gram began . hydrate source for flies in culture. Adult flies live for two to three weeks in the wild and can live for up to two months Geographic distribution in the laboratory. The screwworm is an opportunistic Before its appearance in North Africa, species. Its longevity and ability to lay the screwworm was endemic only in many egg batches, combined with its the tropical and subtropical regions of great ability to disperse, allows it to ex the New World (Central and South ploit intermittently favourable environ America and the Caribbean islands) ments. This capacity was well demon (see Figure 2) '. Its distribution is deter strated by the regular summer mined largely by its inability to survive advances made each year into the cen- persistently cold weather. Warm, moist
Figure 1. Life cycle of the screwworm LIFE CYCLE OF SCREWWORM FLY
YOUNG FLIES
EMl:;RGES AS . DEPOSm ON OF EGG YOUNG ADULT MASS ON WOUND
29 lhe New World screwworm eradication programme conditions are optimal, while pro eradication. The fly has now been longed dry heat or cold are sub pushed to the southern borders of optimal. Fly activity decreases when Mexico; from there it extends into the temperature is below 21°C and Chile, Argentina and Uruguay. flies cannot survive in areas where the mean temperature is below 9°C for three months, or 12°C for five con Use of insecticide to control secutive months of the year. NWS In favourable conditions, the fly can spread rapidly far beyond its overwin Surveillance and treatment of infested tering limits. This penetration occurred animals and use of insecticides to con annually in North America before trol the screwworm involve significant
30 The New World screwworm
recurrent expenses. The impossibility with a brush. It acts as both a curative of controlling wild animal populations for treatment of infested wounds and means that they are a constant reser as a prophylactic to prevent infestation. voir of reinfestation. Herds of animals are treated by dip It is of primary importance that all ping or spraying with a SO-percent wet animals are carefully inspected to lo table powder, applied at a 0.25-per cate any open wounds, which are then cent concentration. Dipping is consid treated with an organophorous com ered the most efficient and economic pound such as coumaphos, which was method for screwworm control. used in Libya. A 5-percent powder is Insecticides have also been used to applied directly to the wound, or reduce adult fly populations, through mixed with cooking oil and applied the use of the screwworm adult suppres sion system (SWASS), which are pellets comprising a mixture of dried blood, sugar, corn cob grits, the insecticide dichlorvos and wax impregnated with an adult NWS attractant known as sworm lure-2. The pellets have been used suc cessfully to reduce screwworm fly pop ulations in the southern United States and northern Mexico but were Jess ef fective in the more humid regions of central and southern Mexico. SWASS was not used in Libya during the erad ication programme.
Development of the sterile insect technique
The sterile insect technique (SIT), the first insect pest control method involv ing genetics, can most simply be de scribed as a form of birth control. Com bined with surveillance, wound treat ment, animal movement control and quarantine, the use of SIT has been phenomenally successful, as demon strated in the Americas and in North Africa. The technique involves mass rearing of the target pest species, sexual steril ization by radiation (using caesium 137) and the release of vast numbers of sterile insects into the infested area
Figure 2. Areas affected by the NWS, 1991
31 The New World screwworm eradication programme with a ratio of sterile to wild of 10: 1. league, entomologist Dr Raymond C When a wild female mates with a ster Bushland. ile male, she will lay infertile eggs, and In 1936, Bushland had developed thus will not produce offspring. If suffi laboratory techniques for culturing the cient numbers of sterile males are re screwworm on ground meat, facilitat leased, so that most indigenous fe ing mass production of the flies for re males are mated by them, numbers in search. This was a major breakthrough, the wild population will be conse since nobody had previously been quently reduced. Continued release of able to rear an obligate parasite except sterile flies over consecutive genera on a live host animal. tions will progressively reduce the re In 1937 l 32 The New World screwworm An award for developing sterile insect technique Following the successful conclusion of world. "It may seem impossible today, the SIT programme in North Africa, especially in places the size of Brazil, the Director-General of FAO presented but I am sure it can be done," Dr special awards to Dr Knipling and Dr Bushland said . Bushland, in recognition of over 50 The scientists were presented with years' work in developing the silver medals and a scroll in technique for pest control. recognition of their work. During the award ceremony, the two scientists were praised for their insight, persistence and dedication; the Director-General commented that their work was a striking example of how a scientific idea could be nurtured, developed and, finally, brought to bear on problems of real concern. They were presented with silver Leonardo da Vinci medals, which were struck by FAO in 1986 to underline the importance of science in the historical development of agriculture and in improving agriculture for the future. On receiving their awards, the scientists commended eradication programme of the Screwworm Emergency Centre for North Africa (SECNA). Dr Knipling said that the achievement of eradication in such a short period was clear evidence that the programme was well planned and well executed. He expressed hopes that such cooperative efforts would continue. "It is my conviction that we have the knowledge and technology for dealing with many other important insect problems more effectively," Dr Knipling said. "To achieve this we must be bold in our thinking, and provisions must be made so the technology we have can be applied in From left, SECNA director Dr E.P. the proper manner." Cunningham, Dr Edward F. Knipling Supporting Dr Knipling's comments, FAO Director-General Edouard Saouma, Dr Bushland said he believed the and Dr Raymond C. Bushland NWS could be eradicated from the 33 The New World screwworm eradication programme X-ray machine and later gamma rays they persuaded their state legislature produced from cobalt 60. After a few and the United States Congress to pro months they demonstrated that adults vide funds for a control programme in of both sexes were sterilized with rel that state in 1957. The massive task of atively low irradiation doses to pupae. eradicating the NWS from the southern Laboratory experiments in which sex United States began. ually sterile and untreated males were placed in cages in various ratios to compete for females demonstrated the NWS eradication in the essential validity of l 34 The New World screwworm populations were destroyed by pro The southwestern United States longed cold during late autumn and the winter months. Prior to 1962, livestock owners esti mated that one million cases of screw worm infestation were treated in Tex The southeastern United States as, the most heavily infested state, in a normal year. Screwworm migration After the successful eradication of the from Texas also caused thousands of screwworm from Florida, an eradica cases each year in Louisiana, Arkansas, tion programme jointly funded by the Oklahoma, Kansas and Missouri. state and federal government was fin A campaign by livestock owners in ally approved for the southeastern the southwestern states led to the ap United States. proval of an eradication programme, The winter of 1957-1958 was one of again jointly funded by the US Congress the coldest in Florida's history. Taking and state governments, on February 8, advantage of the consequent reduction 1962. The aim was not only to eradicate in the screwworm population, the the pest from Texas, Arizona, New Mex team began distribution of 14 million ico and California, but also to prevent its sterile flies per week in the southern reintroduction into the southeastern part of the Florida peninsula, estab states and to prevent a reinvasion of the lishing a "barrier zone" that virtually United States from Mexico. stopped the usual northward migration The severe winter of 1961-1962 re of the flies and spared the states north duced the screwworm population in its and east of Florida from their usual overwintering area to an unusually low summer screwworm infestations. level, and distribution of sterile flies A new, larger rearing facility was was begun over central Texas. After established at an airbase at Sebring, construction of a new plant at Mission, Florida in 1958, which was able to Texas, the distribution area was ex produce from 50 to 75 million sterile panded to cover 388 500 km 2 of Tex flies per week. Sterile flies were pack as, New Mexico and a small area of aged 400 to a box and released over Mexico near the Texas border. treatment areas in Florida, southern During 1963 many livestock owners Georgia and southern Alabama. Fly dis reported no screwworm cases for the tribution was supplemented by livestock first time in recent history and, in inspection, education of owners and 1965 Texas and New Mexico were de monitoring of sterile and wild fly activity. clared free of endemic screwworm in Quarantine lines were operated across festation. After successful cooperative northern Florida and along the Missis eradication programmes in Arizona sippi River from Memphis, Tennessee, and California, the United States De south to the Gulf of Mexico, where all partment of Agriculture (USDA) de livestock moving into the eradication clared the entire United States screw area were inspected and treated. worm-free in 1966. Florida livestock producers reported The problems, however, were not only 864 cases of screwworm infesta over. Unfavourable weather condi tion in 1958, and the last endemic case tions kept remaining populations 1ow was recorded in Florida on June 17, until 1971-1972, when an abundance 1959. of rain and a warmer than normal win- 35 The New World screwworm eradication programme ter contributed to a major outbreak in been in existence since 1966, with the Texas in 1972. The favourable weather dual aim of controlling the NWS and also contributed to an increase in num reducing economic losses caused by bers of Gulf Coast ear tick, which in the pest in Mexico, while attempting fested large areas of Texas. Ticks cre to prevent its natural migration to the ated record numbers of wounds for United States. screwworms from late July to the end The agreement achieved little suc of October each year from 19 72 to cess, and in 1966-1967, a study on the 1976, resulting in a consequent reduc seasonal abundance and geographic tion in the effectiveness of the screw distribution of the pest in Mexico (to worm control and eradication cam evaluate the feasibility of implementing paign. an eradication programme) found that The earlier success of the pro it was distributed throughout 95 per gramme had meant a reduction in an cent of the country. imal surveillance activities, with live Mexican livestock owners, alarmed stock owners reducing the amount of by the results of the study and aware of labour devoted to surveillance and the success of the SIT eradication pro control. The number of absentee live gramme in the United States, com stock owners had increased, and both bined forces with their US counterparts cattle and deer populations were sig to convince their governments to use nificantly higher since screwworms SIT in Mexico. had been brought under control. Recognizing that the NWS would By mid-May 1972, the screwworm continue to make its away into the problem was completely out of hand in United States unless eradicated from Texas, but sterile fly releases, which the adjacent areas of Mexico, govern continued until the end of the year in ment officials from both countries be Texas, Louisiana and Arkansas, pre gan discussing the feasibility of imple vented the reintroduction of the pest menting a programme in Mexico. into the southeastern states. Outbreaks In 1972 the joint Mexico-United continued to occur in the southwest, States Commission for the Eradica notably in 1976, when almost 30 000 tion of the New World Screwworm cases were reported. (MACES) was established with the The last endemic case in the United initial aim of eradicating the pest to the States was recorded in August 1982. Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The need for continued surveillance to prevent reintroduction of the screw The Puerto Rican trial. In 1971 a trial worm has been demonstrated by the was initiated to evaluate the SIT in a discovery of infestations in animals en tropical environment, similar to that of tering the United States. central and southern Mexico. It in volved the dispersal of sterile insects over the islands of Puerto Rico, Mona, The eradication programme Culebra, Vieques and the United States in Mexico and British Virgin Islands. The pro gram me had achieved success by A cooperative agreement between the 1975, and the experience gained both USDA and the Mexican Secretary of in eradication from a tropical environ Agriculture and Livestock (SAG) had ment and in long-range aerial transport 36 The New W o rld screwworm Figure 3. Chronologica l summary of the NWS eradica tion and future plans in th e Americ as of flies was to be valuable in the Mex ican eradication programme. Progress in Mexico. A production plant with a capacity to produce 600 million flies per week was opened at Tu xtla Gutierrez, Chiapas, in August 1976. Combining its efforts with intensive inspection and treatment of animals, the Mexican eradication programme progressively moved south; in 1984, a year ahead of schedule, all of Mexico north of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec 10. The Mexico-United States Commission for the Eradication of the New World Screwworm sterile NWS production plant at Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico 37 The New World screwworm eradication programme was declared free of screwworms. A in the infested zone in March and April sterile fly barrier zone and an animal 1992, releasing a total of 58 million quarantine and inspection programme sterile flies per week to eradicate the was maintained at this point, as the SIT pest. programme progressed into southern Eradication programmes are contin Mexico, Guatemala and Belize. uing in Central America, with the aim Mexico was declared free of screw of pushing the NWS to the Isthmus of worms in February 1991. However, Panama by 1996 (see Figure 3). there was an outbreak in early 1992, which probably originated from the introduction of screwworm-infested The Mexican production plant animals from Central America. The in festation spread quickly through three The Tuxtla Gutierrez sterile fly produc states in southern Mexico: Campeche, tion plant (see Photo 10) is involved in Tabasco and Chiapas. MACES was three main activities: NWS rearing, conducting a hotspot SIT programme irradiation and packaging for distri- 11. Larvae are reared at the Mexican plant on a gelled diet, which is a mixture of dried blood, milk substitute, spray dried egg, a gelling agent, water and formaldehyde 38 The New World screwworm bution. It also operates a major research A strain collected from Guatemala in and development programme to en 1988 was maintained for back-up pur sure an output of consistently high poses and, in 1991 , a new strain from quality sterile insects. Costa Rica (CR-91) was being devel Biological security is extremely im oped by the ARS-USDA. portant at the plant because of the risk NWS larvae are reared at the plant of reinfestation by escaping fertile flies. (see Photo 11) on a gelled diet (consist The plant therefore maintains strict ing of dried bovine blood, milk substi security measures in and around the tute, dried egg, formaldehyde, a gelling rearing areas. agent and water), which replaced a less efficient hydroponic diet in April 1990. Rearing. The plant's brood stock in NWS eggs are placed on ground 1992, known as OW-87, originated horsemeat patties, which are then from a strain collected in Orange Walk, placed in feeding trays containing the Belize, in 1987 by the Agricultural gelled diet. These infested trays are Research Service (ARS) of the USDA. then stored in racks placed in special 39 The New World screwworm eradicat ion programme larva rearing rooms, where a temper Within 16 hours of transfer to the ature of 36.7-37.8°( with 65 percent temperature-controlled rooms, ap humidity is maintained. Fresh gelled proximately 99 percent of the larvae diet is added to the trays at regulated will have pupated. Three to five per intervals until, after 64 hours, the racks cent of the pupae are diverted at this containing the rearing trays are moved stage for use as brood stock. to another rearing room, where a tem perature of 32 .2°C with 70 percent Radiation. Once fully developed, humidity is maintained. about five days after pupation, the re After a total of 88 hours, they are maining pupae are placed in stainless placed in a larva collection area, and a steel cylindrical canisters and irradi three-day larval crawl-off period be ated, using caesium 137, in the four gins. The larvae leave the feeding trays specially designed Husman radiators at and fall on to collector belts; from the plant (see Photo 12). The irradiated there they are moved in bulk to a pu pupae are then stored for 72 hours at pation room. 10°(, before being packaged (see 12. The plant's radiation chambers; pupae are exposed to eight rads of radiation, produced from caesium 137 40 The New World screwworm Photo 13) and transported to distribu quent rearing, and the adult flies are tion centres for dispersal. destroyed. Egg harvesting. Those pupae re Methods development. The depart tained as brood stock are placed in ment is concerned with the develop cages until adult emergence, when they ment of new technologies that increase are then held for five days to allow . programme efficiency while minimiz for mating and egg development. ing expenditure. It is involved in quality When the females are fully gravid, the control, research and development, cages are equipped with an oviposi and strain maintenance. ti on device, known as an egging board, and transferred to the oviposi Production. In April 1992, the plant tion room. Positive phototropism and was producing 300 million sterile flies a spent-diet bait are used to attract fe per week for eradication programmes males to the egging board. Eggs are in Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, El harvested from the boards for subse- Salvador and Mexico. 13. Packaging the pupae at the Mexican production plant 41 Chapter two The North African emergency 14. Sheep being inspected for wounds and any evidence of NWS infestation The New World screwworm eradication programme he discovery of the New World ing the lead in developing plans first to screwworm in the Libyan Arab control and then to eradicate the pest, T Jamahiriya in the spring of 1988 with the support of the other three represented an emergency not only for United Nations agencies. Libya, but for the entire North African The implementation of these plans region. . represented an enormous technical, For the first time in history, this re logistical and diplomatic challenge. lentlessly destructive pest had become Since the screwworm had previously established outside its natural range in been found only in the Americas, the the Americas and, if left uncontrolled, it only countries with expertise in screw would inevitably spread to neighbour worm biology and with the capacity to ing countries and eventually into sub produce sterile flies were the United Saharan Africa, the Near East and Med States and Mexico. iterranean Europe. While FAO and other UN agencies By early 1989 the Libyan govern could employ Mexican and United ment had developed plans for a sur States experts, and did so from the veillance and treatment programme to early stages of the programme, action control and contain the screwworm by the US Congress and the Mexican and requested United Nations assist government was required before sterile ance. flies could be obtained for an eradica Consequently, the Food and Agricul tion programme in Libya. ture Organization of the United Na In an extraordinary example of poli tions (FAO), the International Fund for tics being put aside in the face of an Agricultural Development (!FAD), the international emergency, all obstacles International Atomic Energy Agency to implementing the eradication pro (IAEA) and the United Nations Devel gramme were eventually overcome opment Programme (UNDP) became and, while red tape may have caused involved to varying degrees in the early frustration and delays during the two stages of the emergency, with FAQ tak- an d-a-half years before eradication TABLE 1: LIVESTOCK CENSUS IN INFESTED AND BORDER AREAS (1987) Municipality Sheep Goats Cattle Camels Other* Total Zawia 460 730 80 220 12 150 16 630 n.a. 569 730 Al-Jabal al-Gharbi 417 550 224 580 340 5 150 n.a. 647 620 Tripoli 907 200 160 300 39 210 5 110 n.a. 1 111 820 Kh alije Sirte 341 460 47 450 6 350 1 020 n.a. 396 280 Total 2 126 940 512 550 58 050 27 910 = 20 000 2 745 450 Proportion (% ) 77 .5 18.7 2.1 1.0 = 0.7 100 * Horses, donkeys and dogs. 44 The North African emergency TABLE 2: LIBYAN IMPORTS OF CATTLE, IN HEAD Source 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 Austria 5 528 13 055 13 767 4 637 Bulgaria 7 715 9 429 15 232 n.a . Denmark 233 Germany, F.R. 1 498 3 910 2 097 42 Hungary 2 531 3 457 n.a. Ireland 46 366 30 149 15 982 36 057 Italy 1 201 105 Yugoslavia 2 252 Netherlands 814 Total 62 541 59 179 52 787 41 550 Trade yearbook 70 000 60 000 55 000 45 000 55 000 figures (FAO estimates) TABLE 3: LIBYAN IMPORTS OF SHEEP, IN HEAD Source 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 Australia 357 056 586 387 Bulgaria 276 110 586 336 743 820 n.a. Turkey 63 685 147 505 118 334 Malta 4 Hungary 108 545 n.a. New Zealand 66 000 66 000 Tunisia 6 500 43 274 Uruguay 236 628 16 661 Total 696 851 1 320 232 1 279 827 125 935 Trade yearbook 1 000 000 1 800 000 2 000 000 2 300 000 2 000 000 figures (FAO estimates) 45 The New World screwworm eradication programme was achieved, it never threatened the mainly sheep. In 1991, there were an success of the operation. estimated 2 million head of livestock in the infested area, with a total of about 7 million in the entire country, of which Livestock production in Libya 80 percent were sheep (see Table 1). Agriculture in Libya, although diverse, Libyan livestock are used mainly for relies heavily on livestock production, production of meat and milk, with 33 Ben ardane TUNISIA 32 - Urban areas - Forests and woodlands - Intensive cultivation Extensive cultivation Extensive pasture 31 Intensive pasture 46 . The North African emergency domestic production of red meat estima more than 1 .2 million sheep from ted in 1988 at 18 kg per person. The countries including Bulgaria, Turkey, country imported an approximately Hungary, New Zealand and Uruguay equal amount per person, about 15 (see Tables 2 and 3) . percent of it in the form of live animals. In 1988, Libya imported about 59 000 Figure 4. The western part of Libya show ing cattle from European countries and different agriculture levels, 1989 LIBYA Al Buayrat 47 The New World screwworm eradication programme The source of the screwworm infes sandy and there are no rivers or high tation in Libya remains an unresolved mountains in the area of the NWS in question. There has been the sugges festation (see Figure 4). tion of possible shipments of live ani Much of the region where the screw mals from the Caribbean and Latin worm appeared in Libya is irrigated American countries which were not re and rich in vegetation, with extensive flected in official trade figures; how agriculture, horticulture and livestock ever, these have not been confirmed. It breeding. Crops produced include was initially thought that the screw wheat, barley, olives, oranges, lemons, worm could have entered Libya with a plums, grapes, almonds, carrots, toma shipment of 236 000 live sheep from toes and peppers. The wild flora con Uruguay in 1988. It was later con sists mainly of small flowering trees, firmed that this shipment arrived after particularly mimosa and acacia. These the first cases of screwworm infestation trees provide an important source of were discovered in Libya. As a conse nectar for the adult NWS flies. quence of the discovery of the NWS in Inland from the green coastal belt, Libya, the government banned all live the vegetation and amount of culti animal imports from Latin America. vated land decreases in proportion to the distance from the sea. The land scape becomes semi-arid, with few Economy or no trees and scattered grass and bush-shrubs. The land is used for The Libyan economy, at the time of the semi-nomadic grazing of sheep, goats infestation, was based on a system of and camels. To the far west of the in annual objectives, formulated in five fested area, near the Tunisian border, year cycles within the framework of a and in most of the eastern parts of the long-term plan to the year 2000. area, the land is semi-arid and sparsely The government's goal was to create vegetated and features salty marsh a diversified economy, based on mod lands. ernized agriculture and industry. The aim, under the long-term plan, was to reach a high level of self-sufficiency to Agriculture and the NWS meet the demands of the country's growing population (estimated to In the primary agricultural area of reach 5 million by the year 2000). In Libya along the coastline and includ 1990, approximately 40 percent of the ing the area infested by the NWS, Libyan work force were employed in animal production is not a major the agricultural sector, which contrib source of income because most live uted a 20-percent share to the non-oil stock owners have other full-time sector of the gross domestic product. work and keep relatively few animals (mainly sheep). This lack of emphasis had advan Environment tages for screwworm control because livestock were kept in small numbers, Libya's climate is Mediterranean, with owners knew their animals well and a rainy season in the winter months individual animals could be more easily (December to February). The soil is inspected. 48 The North African emergency Animal husbandry practices son is from April to early June and is normally combined with spraying of Libyan livestock owners do not cas animals against ectoparasites such as trate their animals, and dehorning and ticks, mange and fleas. branding are practised only on a limit ed basis. Generally, wounds caused by human intervention occur as a result of Veterinary services transporting animals or of tying their front legs together to prevent move Libya has an extensive network of vet ment (used to restrain camels, cattle, erinary clinics - even the smallest vil horses and donkeys). The shearing sea- lages generally have their own clinics. .. .. • Libyan focus ~ Countnes al immediate risk Countries at risk II no eradication action taken Figure 5. Countries at risk from potential spread of the screwworm 49 The New World screwworm eradication programme Treatment and drugs were provided into Tunisia, although Libya had closed free of charge by the Libyan govern its border with Tunisia to live animal ment until 1992, when it was decided transport following an outbreak of foot that animal owners should pay for and-mouth disease in November 1989. drugs. Operated by the Libyan Secre During the eradication campaign, tariat of Agriculture's Department of positive cases of NWS myiasis were Veterinary Services, the network pro found within 40 km of the Tunisian vided an important basis for the early border. Sterile fly distribution was in surveillance and control activities or fact expanded during the campaign to ganized by the Libyan authorities and include a buffer zone inside Tunisia. later for the surveillance, prevention In the United States and Mexico, riv and control aspects of the eradication er valleys provided an important chan programme. nel of migration for the NWS; it was quickly acknowledged in North Africa that the Nile Valley, through Egypt and The regional threat the Sudan, could enable the NWS to spread into sub-Saharan countries, There was a disastrous potential for the where it would have caused immense NWS to spread throughout Libya, into losses to livestock producers and other countries of the North African re would have seriously threatened wild- gion and then into the Near East and 1ife. As mentioned in the previous Europe (see Figure 5). chapter, screwworm infestations had Although the infested area in Libya caused the deaths of up to 80 percent had the ideal ecology for NWS subsist of newborn fawns in Texas during ence and there was little need for the some years before the eradication pro fly to migrate in search of suitable con gramme. ditions, the major risk was that it could There was no parallel scenario to spread through animal transport. Only compare with the game-rich regions of one infested animal needed to move sub-Saharan Africa and, if screwworms out of the infested area to cause an out had become established there, they break in a neighbouring country. would have been impossible to control A major factor which contributed to or eradicate at any cost. The impact on the containment of the pest was the national economies and on people re fact that the infested zone was bor liant on wildlife for their livelihood dered by natural barriers to its spread - would have been enormous. the Mediterranean Sea and the Sahara Near Eastern countries, which im Desert. ported millions of live animals annually The border areas of neighbouring from Africa, were also seriously threat countries to the south of Libya are arid ened by screwworm infestation. Com and had relatively small livestock pop mercial transport of live animals is the ulations, although these animals were most significant method of long-range managed under nomadic conditions. movement of the NWS. It was feared This practice presented problems in that, even if importation was prohibit that animal movement was therefore ed, uncontrolled illegal animal move difficult to control. ment and gradual natural migration of There was, however, considerable the flies would mean their inevitable potential for the pest to spread easily introduction into the Near East. 50 The North African emergency NWS colonization of Africa and Europe A report by two Australian scientists, bezziana). Results of CLIMEX prepared in late 1990, showed that projections for North America showed climatic conditions would have similar distribution patterns by both the allowed permanent colonization by Old World screwworm and the NWS. the NWS in tropical Africa. The report After making adjustments to also indicated that the pest could have temperature and moisture parameters become permanently established along to match the life cycle of the Mediterranean coasts of Africa and Cochliomyia hominivorax better, the Europe. scientists ran a model for NWS. The The scientists, Ors R. Sutherst and model is based on climatic factors and G. Maywald, of the Australian cannot readily account for the effects Commonwealth Scientific and of non-climatic environmental change Industrial Research Organization such as tree-planting or irrigation (CSIRO), used a computer model for programmes. Models were run, climate-matching projections, known however, to simulate the effects of as CLIMEX. The model had been irrigation schemes, rainy seasons and developed originally to estimate the climate change. potential geographic distribution of the Old World screwworm (Chrysomya The countries of Mediterranean in early 1988, when several farmers Europe were also susceptible if the brought cases of an "unusual" myiasis NWS was allowed to become estab to the attention of Dr O.M.E. El-Azazy, lished in the North African region. It of the department of parasitology, was anticipated that the pest could be Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Al introduced into Europe by the trans Fateh University in Tripoli. port of live animals and, based on the Specimens were collected in March experience in the United States, it ap 1988 at Hadba, 10 km south of Tripoli; peared certain that under favourable and later in the year samples of larvae conditions the NWS could spread far from myiases were collected from cat into the temperate regions of Europe. tle and sheep in an area which extend During the screwworm outbreak in ed from Zuwarah, 100 km west of Trip North Africa, Australian scientists re oli, to Gharyan, 80 km south of the ported that climatic conditions would capital, and l 51 The New World screwworm eradication programme identified Cochliomyia hominivorax as the existence of NWS in Libya, when the causative agent of the myiasis they received copies of the report from cases. CAB, International Institute of Ento During 1988, some cases of human mology, on the identification of the myiasis caused by the NWS were re Libyan samples. ported in towns and villages within a After advising IAEA, the International 100 km radius of Tripoli. Office of Epizootics (OIE), the Organi zation of African Unity (OAU), the Inter-African Bureau for Animal Analysis of specimens Resources (IBAR) and the World Health Organization (WHO) of the situation, Specimens collected in the Tripoli area FAO requested confirmation of and in November and December 1988 details on the screwworm problem were sent by Dr El-Azazy to both the from the Libyan government. British Museum (Natural History) and the Commonwealth Agricultural Bur eau (CAB), International Institute of En The first mission tomology, London. Ors N.P. Wyatt, 1.M. White and A.C. Pont of the British The first action by FAO was to send a Museum identified the specimens as mission to Libya, from April 1 5 to 22, C. hominivorax. The Institute circulated 1989, to investigate and confirm the notification of the identification of existence of the NWS in Libya. NWS in Libya to Dr El-Azazy, Ors The mission members were Dr V. W.N. Beesley and M.M. Gabaj of the Kouba, chief of the Animal Health Ser Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, vice in FAQ's Animal Production and UI<, and to FAO and the USDA. Health Division and Dr S.M. Toure, On January 28, 1989 Dr El-Azazy re FAQ's project manager based in Burkina ported in the Veterinary Record the ex Faso. istence of the pest in Libya. FAO also called in a screwworm ex In February the Veterinary Record pert, the general subdirector of the published another report giving further Mexico-United States Commission details of the NWS and its worrisome (MACES) in Mexico, Dr M. Vargas-Teran, spread in Libya (Gabaj and Beesley, who began work as a consultant in 1989). The writers noted infestations in April. He later travelled to Libya to cattle, sheep, goats, camels and a mon assist in training the local personnel key in the Tripoli zoo, as well as four and to advise on the implementation of cases in humans. surveillance and prevention activities. The New Scientist published a report in its edition of February 18, 1989 on the appearance of the NWS in Libya. NWS presence confirmed in Libya International agencies The members of the mission spent one are notified week in Libya, hosted by the govern ment and veterinary authorities. Their On February 1, 1989, FAO, IFAD and programme, prepared by Libyan au other organizations were notified of thorities, included discussions with the 52 The North African emergency General Secretary of Agriculture and provided three consultants as well as Land Reclamation, H.E. Ing. Abdel insecticides and essential equipment. majed El-Gaud, and leading veterinary Following the mission, several im specialists as well as visits to the nine portant recommendations were made districts in the Tripoli area. which, to varying degrees, were acted By the second day of the mission, af on in the early stages of the emer ter studying specimens of adult flies gency. They included a recommenda and larvae taken from four cases of hu tion that a project document be pre man myiasis in ,-988, the FAO repre pared for the eradication of the screw sentatives confirmed that the New worm in Libya and that, in agreement World screwworm was present in Lib with OIE and WHO, animal myiasis ya. The specimens were held at the de caused by C. hominivorax be included partment of parasitology, Faculty of in the list of internationally notifiable Medicine at Al-Fateh University in Trip diseases. oli, where they had already been iden tified by Libyan scientists as C. homi nivorax. Initial activities The Libyan authorities informed the mission that 2 000-3 000 cases of Little time was wasted as emergency screwworm myiasis in animals and measures were enacted to deal with some cases in humans had been re the screwworm problem in North Afri ported in less than one year within a ca. Within days of the return of the first 100 km radius of Tripoli. The mission mission, FAO had notified countries members also discussed with the Libyan bordering Libya (Algeria, Chad, Egypt, authorities an emergency programme the Niger, the Sudan and Tunisia) of for the control and eradication of the the threat, both by telex and through screwworm and the need for emer their representatives to FAO in Rome. gency international assistance in estab The governments of neighbouring lishing a surveillance, prevention and countries were urgently requested to control programme. assist in determining whether or not the On completing the mission, the rep NWS had already spread from Libya. resentatives urged that the situation be They were asked to initiate surveillance regarded as an emergency. of myiasis cases in animals and hu The Libyan government requested mans, coordinated by veterinary, en immediate FAO assistance on April 22, tomological and medical services. 1989. They were also informed of the need to FAO approved the first Technical collect larvae samples for identification Cooperation Programme (TCP) project, and were urged to notify FAO of any on April 27, for emergency assistance to suspected or confirmed cases of NWS Libya. The eight-month project provid infestation in order to coordinate na ed an initial US$182 000 (later in tional and international surveillance of creased to US$345 000) to assist Libya the problem. in establishing of an intensive campaign !FAD had also responded promptly of animal surveillance, quarantine and to the emergency. Following the noti treatment, with the aim of containing fication by the CAB of NWS presence the screwworm and preventing its in Libya, IFAD's Technical Advisory spread to other African countries. It Division director, Dr A. Kesseba, dis- 53 The New World screwworm eradication programme cussed the situation with the Libyan Minister of Agriculture in early March. A report from the Consequently, IFAD received a formal infested zone request from the Libyan government for assistance on May 3, 1 989 and re sponded by sending a mission to Libya later that month (see Chapter nine). When the chief of the Zawia Animal Protection Service, Mr Garib Elgelidi, The Screwworm Action Group was called to Tripoli in May 1989 by the Department of Veterinary Services to discuss the discovery of a new, A special Screwworm Action Group unusual animal myiasis, he was was formed within FAO on April 27. already aware of the problem. Apart from coordinating FAQ activities Farmers had reported incidences of in relation to the screwworm problem, these strange myiases to local the group was to begin preparing a veterinary clinics, and there was programme to eradicate the NWS from concern about the severe damage Libya, based on use of the sterile insect caused to livestock. technique. Following the Tripoli meeting, the During May, FAQ missions to Tunisia, National Screwworm Committee was established. Mr Elgelidi was appointed Algeria and Egypt found no evidence of regional supervisor for Zawia and infestation and recommended surveil given responsiblity for establishing a lance and prevention programmes in surveillance, treatment and control these countries. programme in the municipality, based on the network of local veterinary clinics. Inclusion in OIE List B Farmers were informed that the new, strange pest was the New World An FAQ recommendation that screw screwworm and were encouraged to worm myiasis caused by C. homini report unusual cases of myiasis to veterinary clinics. Inspection teams vorax be included in the list of interna were established, which were sent tional notifiable animal diseases (List B) immediately to farms where ·cases had was approved by the general session of been reported. the International Office of Epizootics in Animals were inspected, wounds Paris on May 12, 1989. This meant that treated and samples of myiases taken the disease would be included in the for identification; reports were made international reporting systems, occur for submission to the regional rence data would be published in the supervisor, who then passed weekly FAO/WHO/OIE Animal Health Year reports on to the national committee. book and that special recommen In early 1989, the number of screwworm cases in Zawia was dations for export and import of limited, enabling prompt treatment of animals would be included in the OIE infested animals and transfer of larvae International Zoosanitary Code. to Tripoli for identification. In September 1990, international re Mr Elgelidi was shocked when he quirements for the import and export first saw an animal infested by the of live animals were finalized and larvae of the NWS. "I had a very adopted by OIE. FAO participated in 54 The North African emergency strange feeling about this kind of pest treating wounds. Its way of which was eating through the animal's reproducing was so fast. " flesh. It made me very afraid for the Surveillance and control activities future," he said . were increased and most of the local His fears were shared by local veterinary resources were directed farmers. During 1990, Zawia was one toward the emergency situation. of the worst-affected areas and, as the Mr Elgelidi was one of a group of number of myiasis cases increased, Libyan professionals who travelled to farmers bringing myiasis samples the Tuxtla Gutierrez sterile fly jammed the corridors of local production plant in Mexico during the veterinary clinics. SIT programme. "We were worried (in 1990) that things would get out of control and extra effort, great effort, was made to control the pest," he said . "We knew from very early times that it wasn 't Zawia regional supervisor Mr Garib Elgelidi possible to get rid of this pest by (centre) hands screwworm information to a normal means, by traditional ways of local farmer 55 The New World screwworm eradication programme the process of drafting the require treatment and to report any cases of my ments. iasis to the central committee. A screwworm diagnosis and identi fication laboratory was established in Libyan government action June at the veterinary services head quarters in Tripoli. In the meantime, the Libyan authorities To strengthen screwworm control were working to establish the infra activities, a stray dog control pro structure to handle the emergency. gramme was further implemented in They had identified a control zone, the municipalities of Tripoli, Zawia and which included the three infested mu Margeb. nicipalities of Tripoli, Zawia and Mar Libya's total contribution to the geb and part of the the municipalities screwworm programme in 1989 was of Al-Nekat al-l 56 The North African emergency The Libyan government/ UNDP pro and to assess the possibility of using ject, executed by FAO, was essentially SIT. They also assisted in the develop a control project, specifically aimed at ment and execution of specimen col containing the NWS within the identi lection and identification. fied infested zone. It provided essential The collection of live screwworm support for the consultants, a signifi material in Libya was extremely impor cant amount of chemicals and equip tant at that time. It was necessary to ment for treatment of livestock and for rear larvae to pupa stage, which could the training of Libyan personnel. then be transported to the United The Libyan government organized States for tests to determine the mating the required infrastructure by consol compatibility of the Libyan NWS strain idating existing staff and providing oth with the Mexican-reared strain. These ers as needed. Support was provided tests, later conducted in the United in the form of junior and field staff as States, were crucial if SIT was to be ap well as office, laboratory and field trial plied successfully in Libya. facilities. Among the first priorities of the pro It had been acknowledged that, since ject was the employment of a chief the NWS had never before been found technical advisor (CTA) who, in collab outside the Americas and thus presented oration with Libyan authorities, would an entirely new problem in Libya, expe oversee the project in Libya. rienced personnel was lacking to plan and implement preventive and treat ment programmes and to initiate appro Activities priate quarantine measures. The Mexican experts, who were em The consultants worked in Libya from ployed as consultants by FAO, there July to September 1989. While the Lib fore played an important role during yan government had been working to the initial phase of the programme, in establish surveillance and control acti assisting the Libyan government to de vities and to set up the infrastructure to termine the distribution of the pest in handle the emergency, the consultants Libya, implement a surveillance and found that much work was needed to control programme, put in place quar develop the expertise and methods to antine measures and, finally, evaluate deal with the NWS as well as to identify the feasibility of eradicating the pest. and obtain the necessary equipment. The consultants were: screwworm Although NWS larvae had been test epizootiologist Dr L.F. Liera; screw ed and identified, no accurate records worm control specialist Dr J.E. Rios and had been kept of the exact locations of screwworm entomologist, Dr A. Marti confirmed cases, and no maps of the nez y Tapia. All three had worked for infested area were available. the Mexico-United States Commission Working with Libyan authorities, the for the Eradication of the New World experts helped to establish a system of Screwworm in Mexico. collection and identification of myiasis Their work also involved entomolog cases where the names of the munici ical investigations into the biology and pality, branch (subdivision) and farm behaviour of C. hominivorax in Libya. where larvae had been gathered were The information gained was useful in recorded. The boundaries of the infest devising practical control procedures ed area were then determined. 57 The New World screwworm eradication programme They also advised on how further to One expert also participated in the develop and strengthen surveillance regional training course on surveil and control activities, which had been lance, control, prevention and eradica established by the Libyans in early June tion of screwworms, held in Tripoli in 1989. They introduced the use of cou July 1989, lecturing on the subject of maphos 5-percent powder for treat the methods development division in a ment of wounds and advised on how screwworm eradication programme. to streamline prevention and control activities to enable inspection teams to complete their inspection of an area UN DP/Libyan government within 21 days (the average life cycle of project: ongoing activities the NWS). Inspection teams were encouraged Although designed to assist in control to spray animals only on farms where ling and containing the screwworm in positive cases of NWS had been identi festation, this project eventually helped fied. Previously the teams had sprayed to lay the groundwork for the main all animals, regardless of whether or eradication programme using SIT. It not NWS cases had been confirmed on continued into 1990 to strengthen pre a farm, and had also sprayed the soil. vention, control and surveillance activ The consultants helped determine ities in preparation for the use of SIT; to appropriate locations for the 1 3 animal advise on methods to streamline fur checkpoints, which were established ther the reporting and recording of to control animal movement (quarant NWS cases; and to develop maps of ine stations were established at these the infested area. During this period, sites during the pilot phase of the erad screwworms were reared to the pupa ication programme). stage for use in sexual compatibility Sentinel sheep pens were establish tests . ed in an attempt to gather live NWS In August 1990 wind-oriented traps material for use in sexual compatibility (WOTs) baited with the NWS fly attrac tests. Three sheep were placed in each tant, swormlure-4, were set up to test pen and one was surgically wounded their suitability for use in an eradication to provide an attractive site for a female programme in North Africa. The results NWS to lay her eggs. The sheep were were good, and WOTs were used to inspected twice daily, to keep the trap flies during both the pilot phase wounds fresh and to collect any egg and the main eradication programme. masses. The wounded sheep were ro tated after three days. Because of low NWS fly activity dur- . Early problems ing the period of the consultancies, no live NWS material was gathered at the While the response to the screwworm time. emergency in North Africa had been The experts collaborated with the prompt and decisive to a great extent, Joint FAO/IAEA Division mission, there were also considerable problems which had been sent to Libya to con to be dealt with, not only in the tech duct a preparatory investigation into nical and logistical areas, but also in the potential use of the sterile insect breaking through political and bureau technique for eradication. cratic barriers. 58 The North African emergency The Action Plan The main points of the Action Plan • prepare a proposal for were to: presentation to the OIE Zoosanitary • prepare complete project Code Commission on veterinary documentation for the eradication of conditions for the export and import of the screwworm from North Africa, for animals, with the aim of protecting submission to potential donors; screwworm-free countries (following • with IAEA, contact various inclusion of the NWS in OIE List B of organizations and manufacturers to internationally notifiable animal solve the problem of producing sterile diseases) ; flies for the eradication campaign in • prepare a programme for the Libya; research of NWS biology under • prepare a regional training course specific North African conditions; on the screwworm for specialists from • consider the establishment of a North African countries; special temporary screwworm control • arrange to distribute specific unit; insecticides for preventive and curative • arrange for closer cooperation in treatment of individual animals and kits the screwworm eradication campaign for collection of specimens for between international organizations laboratory investigation; including WHO, O!E, !AEA, OAU, • elaborate a uniform questionnaire UNDP, IFAD, the European Economic for monitoring and reporting on the Community (EEC), the World Bank and screwworm situation in North Africa donor organizations. and other countries at risk; • publish on a regular basis a screwworm information document to keep the relevant organizations, countries and officers informed on developments in the screwworm situation and programme; • prepare and distribute suitable materials for training and extension activities in both infested areas and free zones - the main target group to be farmers; • select a top-level entomological institute as the FAO reference laboratory for screwworm identification; the British Museum (Natural History) was eventually selected; • publish and distribute a manual for screwworm diagnosis and control (in Arabic, English and French); 59 The New World screwworm eradication programme While the government had under Action Plan for the control and eventual taken significant action, particularly in eradication of the NWS from North the areas of surveillance and control, Africa. authorities remained cautious and The plan outlined projects and ac were often reluctant to release details tivities which were already under way of these activities. The Libyan govern and plans for both a trial SIT pro ment, in fact, did not officially recog gramme in Libya and a full eradica nize the presence of NWS in the coun tion programme (see box on page try until one month after the FAO mis 59). sion confirmed its presence in April 1989. Liaising with other organizations. Authorities remained suspicious of The demanding programme would be recommendations by consultants that implemented in close cooperation with the sterile insect technique was the the affected countries and with other only way to eradicate NWS until well international organizations, which into 1989. However, intensive efforts would participate mainly in the follow to inform Libyan authorities about the ing areas: details of SIT, which included the !FAD: fundraising and preparation of regional training programme in July a pilot phase programme; and a study tour by Libyan officials to IAEA: production of sterile flies and the sterile fly production plant in their use in affected and threatened Mexico, successfully alleviated Libyan zones; concerns about the technique. 01£: preventive measures in export ing and importing animals, world mon itoring of screwworm occurrence, sci The Action Plan entific publications; WHO: alerting human populations Preparatory meeting and formula in affected and threatened countries tion of the screwworm action plan. and monitoring screwworm occur This important meeting, held at FAO rence in human populations; headquarters on June 5 and 6, 1989, OAU: executing and monitoring re outlined the Screwworm Action gional screwworm programmes in Africa. Plan and initiated discussions on the formulation of an eradication programme using the sterile insect The Joint FAO/ IAEA technique. It also resulted in recom Division mission mendations for follow-up actions for Libya and other countries at risk, As early as April 1989, the Joint FAO/ including importation requirements IAEA Division had begun planning the from countries infested by screwworm. research necessary to apply SIT in The meeting was attended by top Libya. The United States/Mexican experi level international screwworm experts, ence with the NWS had already dem senior veterinary officers from Libya onstrated that livestock inspection and and other countries at risk as well as treatment alone could not eradicate FAO representatives. the pest; it had been apparent from the Following the meeting, FAO out earliest investigations in Libya that the lined the details of its Screwworm use of SIT, in conjunction with surveil- 60 The North African emergency lance, control and quarantine, would idea of using the Mexican mass-reared be necessary. strain of the NWS to eradicate the North African strain. However, the Lib The FAO/IAEA expert mission. Follow yan authorities were still concerned ing the preparatory meeting in Vienna about the use of SIT in Libya and on the formulation of a regional strategy stressed that it should be properly pre for the control/eradication of screw p a red and implemented with the worm in North Africa, an expert mission involvement of a Libyan scientist. was organized through the Joint FAO/ The national committee told the mis IAEA Division. A primary aim of the mis sion members that consideration sion, which visited Libya from June 18 to would be given to the establishment of 22, 1989, was to conduct a preparatory a biological security facility in Libya investigation into the potential use of the where experimental rearing and testing sterile insect technique in Libya and to of sterile screwworm flies could be collect live NWS material for sexual conducted. compatibility tests. The mission had recommended that The expert mission divided its time the national committee designate a between meetings with senior govern person to coordinate the screwworm ment and veterinary officials, field trips control programme and advised on in the infested area and laboratory ob ways to avoid delays in control activ servations and work. ities. It also targeted the urgent need for During a meeting with the National comprehensive recording of all survey Screwworm Committee, the mission data and the use of operational survey members discussed the primary prob maps with well-defined reference lems that needed to be resolved in grids. preparation for the implementation of the sterile insect technique. They em phasized the need for: Other missions • transfer of screwworm material from Libya to Fargo, North Dakota, for From June to the end of September sexual compatibility testing; 1989, three further missions to Libya • preliminary research and develop were conducted to assist in preparing ment work and the initiation of small and running the regional training pro scale screwworm rearing in Libya; gramme and to advise Libyan author • the development of methods for ities on control measures. They also as shipping sterile screwworm flies. sisted in the supervision of field activ During a field trip on the fourth day ities, advised on specific methods to of the mission to Ain Zara, 30 km treat animal wounds and acted as the southeast of Tripoli, mature third instar liaison between FAO and the Libyan larvae were found in the wound of government on all technical matters re an infested sheep and identified as lating to the screwworm. C. hominivorax. Conclusions. The mission reported Regional training course that the Libyan Secretary of Agriculture and Land Development, H.E. Ing. Abdel The need to train veterinary specialists majed El-Gaud, was receptive to the from the North African region in the 61 The New World screwworm eradication programme specific areas of screwworm surveil which was being prepared by FAO lance, control, eradication and preven consultants specifically for use in North tion had been outlined in the Screw Africa. It was published in Arabic, Eng worm Action Plan. Funding for a re lish and French in December 1989. gional training course had been pro During the four-day course, partici vided under the FAO-financed regional pants attended lectures on a wide project, and the course was conducted range of topics, covering screwworm from July 22 to 27 in Tripoli, in con biology, distribution and identification; junction with another mission to Libya. animal treatment and control; and all The mission had the dual role of aspects of the application of the sterile conducting the training course and insect technique. There were also dis continuing to assist in the development cussions, film and slide shows and of surveillance, control, entomology demonstrations. Participants were also and quarantine activities. taken on field trips to observe the use of sentinel sheep, the treatment of wounds and the spraying of animals. The course The objective of the course was to train Missions to neighbouring two individuals from each of the coun countries tries in from each of the countries in North Africa - Libya, the Niger, Egypt, During 1989 several m1ss1ons were Algeria, Chad, the Sudan and Tunisia - conducted to the countries bordering and one individual from Morocco in Libya, which were considered at im the identification, surveillance, preven mediate risk of infestation by NWS. tion and control of the New World FAO representatives travelled to Egypt, Screwworm fly. Algeria and Tunisia to discuss the It was anticipated that, after com emergency with governments and ad pleting the course, the participants vise on introducing surveillance, treat would be equipped to organize sur ment and control activities. veillance and prevention programmes In total, FAO approved eight projects and train national personnel in their to fund screwworm surveillance and own countries. They would also be prevention programmes in neighbour able to organize area and national ing countries during the initial phase of screwworm notification systems for activities. Funding totalled more than their countries and for international US$2 million (including the project for notification. regional support and training, which In all, 23 representatives of the eight also assisted Libya). countries (including 12 from Libya) at tended the course. The dean of the parasitology department, Faculty of Collection of live screwworm Medicine, Al-Fateh University (Tripoli), larvae Dr M . El Heggiagi, acted as director of the course. Participants were present With the completion of the training ed with the first draft of the Manual programme and the continued liaison for Control of the Screwworm Fly, by FAO consultants with Libyan au Cochliomyia hominivorax ( Coquere~, thorities, the initial phase of the screw- 62 The North African emergency worm programme in North Africa was in North Africa, the Joint FAO/IAEA Di well under way. vision employed three consultants in In October, an IAEA expert collect January 1990 to prepare a programme ed NWS pupae reared in Libya, which to eradicate the pest using the sterile were then transported to the Agricul insect technique. tural Research Service of the USDA, at The document they prepared, entit Fargo, North Dakota, for mating com led A Programme for the Eradication of patibility testing. In December, tests the New World Screwworm from confirmed that Mexican and Libyan North Africa, was published in April NWS strains were compatible. 1990 for use by the Joint FAO/IAEA Di vision as a guide in its support activities Moving closer to eradication for FAQ in North Africa. However, it also provided an important basis for In response to the urgent need to get development of the actual eradication an eradication programme under way programme. 15. Animal wounds were cleaned, treated with insecticide and larvae samples taken for identification 63 The New World screwworm eradication programme The situation in the field for NWS; in September, 75 pos1t1ve cases were recorded from 561 sam Sporadic cases of NWS my1as1s in ani ples collected. In October, the num mals continued to be recorded in late ber of confirmed NWS cases jumped 1989 in northeastern Libya, con to 419, and in November cases firming the persistence of the infestation peaked at 796. Cooler weather saw in the Tripoli area. However, the pest the number of cases drop to 607 in remained contained within the December. boundaries of the identified infested From the commencement of myia zone. During the autumn, favourable sis reporting in July 1989 to the end weather conditions, coupled with the of the year, 5 805 cases of myiasis lambing season, saw an increase in were examined and 1 937 were con the number of screwworm infesta firmed as caused by NWS. Three per tions. cent of these cases occurred in Za Of 721 samples of myiasis collect wia, only 100 km from the Tunisian ed in August 1989, 29 were positive border. 16. A Libyan farmer i 64 The North African emergency In addition to the resources provided considered quarantine/buffer zones by FAO projects and the UNDP/ and consequently were given the same government cost-sharing project, the level of attention. Libyan government had committed By the end of the year, 94 roving in significant funds and resources to the spection teams - each with at least screwworm control programme. three technicians, a four-wheel drive By the end of September 1989, there vehicle, insecticides and a sprayer - were 12 animal-movement control were working in the infested zone. As sites operating in the infested zone (see recommended by FAO consultants, Photo 14 on pages 42-43 and Photos the teams were completing their 15 and 16), comprising five of Libya's inspection rounds in 21 days, treating 13 municipalities - Al-Nekat al-l 17. A wounded camel is inspected and treated 65 The New World screwworm eradication programme A step ahead an agreement had to be reached with MACES, which would supply sterilized The confirmation that the Libyan wild NWS for the programme, requiring screwworm fly was sexually compat complex negotiations with both the ible with the mass-produced Mexican United States and Mexican govern sterile fly had given the green light to ments. It was also necessary to deter the use of the sterile insect technique mine how the pupae would be trans to eradicate NWS in North Africa. ported to Libya and then dispersed However, extensive planning and over the infested zone. preparation were necessary before SIT The Screwworm Emergency Centre could be applied in Libya and consid for North Africa (SECNA) field pro erable work was still needed to strength gramme director, Dr D.A. Lindquist, later en the surveillance, prevention and commented that the programme would control activities which would support never have succeeded without the in fly dispersal. tensive and detailed planning that was Before the programme could start, done during the early months of 1990. 18. Coumaphos powder is a larvicide that kills screwworms and protects against reinfestation 66 The North African emergency "There was planning and more de donors consultation at its Rome head tailed planning, and hours of argu quarters, followed by a pledging con ments about how the programme ference in July, convened jointly with should be run," Dr Lindquist said. "We IFAD at IFAD headquarters. In a ma had bushel baskets full of documents, jor gesture of support for the pro but one of the reasons why the pro gramme, donors pledged a total of gramme worked was because of the US$30.5 million. planning. When it went, it went pic Discussions were also proceeding turebook," he said. in early 1990 to finalize arrangements As planning proceeded, FAO for the preparatory phase, including launched its public information cam the pilot release of sterile flies. paign in April with a highly successful The formation of SECNA by the press conference in Rome, during FAO Director-General in June, fol which it announced its intention to lowed by the establishment of the eradicate the pest in North Africa. In field programme in Tripoli in August, Libya, livestock owners and the pub- marked a crucial turning point. Plans 1ic were being informed about the for the eradication programme began screwworm and urged to cooperate to be translated into practice as inter in surveillance and prevention activ national experts arrived in Tripoli to ities. make the physical and logistical pre In May, FAO began seeking fund parations for the use of the sterile in ing for the programme, holding a sect technique. NWS sexual compatibility tests The four tests used were: There was no evidence of difference Free-choice mating: males from the between the two strains. Mexican strain mated freely with Mitochondrial DNA: this females from both the Libyan and specialized segment of DNA is often Mexican strains, indicating that the used in studies to detect genetic factory-produced males would mate as differences between strains. The readily with the Libyan females as they Mexican and Libyan strains were would with those of their own strain. compared by looking at the similarity Genetic compatibility: crosses in of the pattern of fragments produced both directions between unsterilized when the DNA of each strain was Mexican and Libyan strains were fertile digested with particular enzymes. and produced fertile offspring, which Some differences were observed, but it indicated that there was no genetic was concluded that the level of incompatibility between the strains. difference should not inhibit the Chromosome morphology: further success of SIT in North Africa. evidence for genetic compatibility was obtained by studying the chromosomes at microscopic level. 67 The New World screwworm eradication programme Green light for SIT December 1990. The complex nego in North Africa tiations necessary for a contract agree ment suitable to all parties, which in The Libyan screwworm strain had cluded FAO and several government been reared from egg masses collected departments in both the United States near Tripoli in October 1989, while the and Mexico, took five months. They Mexican strain, known as Orange are detailed in Chapter five. Walk or OW-87, was a standard factory reared population originating from egg masses collected at Orange Walk, Bel Activities in Libya ize, in 1987. Four different measures of compatibility were used to show that A chief technical advisor (CTA), res the two strains were sexually compat ponsible for overseeing the implemen ible (see box on page 67). tation of both the US$345 000 FAO Technical Cooperation Project and the US$1 .25 million Libyan government/ Obtaining sterile NWS UNDP joint project, had been posted in Tripoli in early 1990. The CTA, Dr A. Even before the final results of the sex Martinez, worked in close liaison with ual compatibility tests were available, Libyan authorities, providing advice FAO had taken early steps to organize and assistance where necessary. the provision of flies from Mexico. In a letter to the Minister Counsellor of the United States Permanent Repre Second training programme sentation to FAO, Mr G.J. Monroe, in November 1989, FAO requested ster A second training course was held in ile flies for the planned eradication Tripoli in March 1990, funded under programme. The original agreement the FAO regional Technical Coopera between the United States and Mexi tion Project, which had been approved can governments, under which MACES in early 1989. While the first training was formed, specifically prevented the course in July 1989 had been conduct sale of sterile NWS outside the Amer ed for representatives of Libya and icas. The letter also requested permis neighbouring or "first-line" countries, sion for US nationals to take part in the the second course was aimed at campaign in Libya, as the United States "second-line" countries (Burkina Faso, government had barred all of its citi Cameroon, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Mali, zens from entering Libya. Morocco, Mauritania, Nigeria, Senegal On March 15, 1990, United States and Somalia). President Bush signed legislation per mitting the sale of sterile NWS any where in the world - another crucial Project document green light for the North African SIT programme. The President's signature, Probably the most important FAO mis however, was only the first in a long list sion to Libya during the planning phase of signatures that were required before was the formulation mission in June an operational agreement between 1990. The mission was assigned the FAO and MACES was finally reached in task of preparing the project document 68 The North African emergency and budget for the operation of the SIT had become involved in the North eradication programme. African emergency. The document's The resulting document was the cul detailed plan of action and budget esti mination of all the planning and re mates were to provide the guidelines search undertaken since FAO, IFAD, for the implementation of the era IAEA and other international bodies dication programme in 1991. 69 Chapter three Preparing for eradication Ben Gar 33 Figure 6. The trial zone for dispersing flies 0 100 K1 during the pilot project 31 13 14 15 16 3.5 million NWS flies/week Area: 6 170 km 2 Tarhuna [] ----¥----.!.'M isratah [] s2°1 n12°sg· 16 Gharyan Bani Walid LIBYA Mizdah The New World screwworm eradication programme he arrival in the Libyan Arab Ja other assistance to the project. Its con mahiriya of the first shipment of tribution in kind, worth a total of T sterile screwworm pupae from US$3.9 million, involved the allocation Mexico on December 16, 1990 repre of 13 counterpart staff, 15 field veter sented a crucial moment in the cam inary officers and more than 350 sup paign against the pest in North Africa. It port staff (see box below). marked the beginning of the eight-week Initiated in July 1990, the preparatory pilot project for the eradication pro phase aimed to: gramme and was the culmination of • strengthen the quarantine and months of preparation, negotiations and animal movement control activities in research under the preparatory phase. Libya and neighbouring countries; From December 16, 1990, when the • develop and test the infrastructure first shipment of 3.5 million pupae ar for the use of SiT to eradicate NWS, in rived in Tripoli, to February 14, 1991, a cluding transporting NWS from Mexico total of 49 million sterile NWS were to Libya; handling the sterile insects in transported from Tuxtla Gutierrez, Libya; releasing them by air over the Mexico, for dispersal over a 6 170 km 2 infested area; and evaluating the qual trial zone in northwestern Libya under ity of the released sterile NWS and the US$2.74 million pilot project (see their performance under field condi Figure 6). tions in Libya. The eight-week trial was carried out It had always been intended that there as part of the US$10.8 million prepara would be no break between the pilot tory phase in applying SIT, jointly fund test and the main eradication pro ed by the Libyan government, !FAD, gramme. When early results of the test the African Development Bank (AfDB), release of sterile flies were positive, FAO and UNDP. SECNA decided to take advantage of the The Libyan government provided a favourable weather conditions and the range of facilities, support staff and low wild NWS population by launching Libyan government contribution Libyan government inputs (in kind) to • ground support staff to assist with the preparatory phase were: air dispersal and biological and • landing, take-off, parking, veterinary monitoring; servicing, refuelling and repair facilities • sentinel animals for biological for project aircraft; assessment; • facilities for unloading, storage • office, laboratory and storage and loading of boxed flies; facilities for diagnosis and • flight control through aeronautic identification. maps and ground-to-air communications; • access to national and international communication facilities for project staff; 72 Preparing for eradication the main eradication programme earlier equipment, facilities and personnel than planned. The first shipment under were in place to test the feasibility of the main programme left Tuxtla Gutier SIT in Libya. rez on February 1, 1991. In line with the aims of the prepara tory phase, SECNA staff worked to es tablish the infrastructure that would The preparatory phase support the SIT programme, including the establishment of: The first proposal for a pilot eradication • facilities to receive sterilized programme had been prepared in June pupae from Mexico and hold them 1989. This in effect formed the basis of until adult flies emerged; formal plans for the preparatory phase • facilities for the release of sterile prepared by FAO and IAEA in July. insects over the infested area; • laboratory and other required facilities for quality control; IFAD involvement • traps and a system for weekly monitoring of fly catches (two sets of In August 1989, IFAD, which had traps were established, with ten in joined the Screwworm Action Group Zawia and five in Sabratha). on July 31, drafted its own plan for a pi lot project, taking account of the earlier FAO/ IAEA document. IFAD pledged to Fly purchase, transport and provide US$1 .5 million for the project. distribution A formal agreement between FAO and IFAD on the conduct of the project Complicated contractual arrangements was reached in May 1990, when the were necessary for the purchase, trans two bodies signed a Technical Assist port and distribution of NWS flies in ance Execution Agreement (Regional Libya. These were developed and Pilot Biological Control Programme for finalized during the early months of the the NWS in North Africa). Under the preparatory phase. agreement FAO would execute the pi The contract, under which the lot project, with funds to be provided Mexico-United States Commission for by IFAD, UNDP, AfDB and the Libyan the Eradication of the New World government. Screwworm would provide sterile The subsequent tripartite project NWS at cost price for the North African agreement between the Libyan gov programme, was finalized after four ernment, FAO and !FAD, signed in months of discussions on December June 1990, provided the legal and fin 12, 1990. Two days later the first ship ancial support required to start the pro ment of flies left the Mexican plant ject, which consequently got under bound for Libya. way in July 1990. Before the pilot release of the sterile flies got under way, contracts had also been finalized with German Cargo Ser Establishing the infrastructure vices, a subsidiary of Lufthansa, to trans port the flies from Frankfurt to Tripoli, The preparatory phase was partially and with the Libyan Aeroclub to dis conceived to ensure that the necessary perse the flies over the infested zone. 73 The New World screwworm eradication programme NWS cases reported cases in October. During each of these months, between 1 million and 1 .8 mil The number of confirmed NWS ·cases lion animals were inspected. The main had been increasing steadily through animal species affected was sheep. out the summer of 1990, peaking at Favourable weather conditions had just under 3 000 new cases in Septem undoubtedly contributed to the in ber and then dropping to 1 700 new crease in the NWS population, and the 13 LIBYA Cases · • 1 • 2-5 0 100 Km • 5< 74 Preparing for eradication peak infestation period coincided with mals in 1990. Most of the cases during the warmer months. However, intensi the period of high infestation in 1990 fied animal surveillance resulted in occurred in the municipalities of more cases being recorded (see Figure Zawia, Tripoli and Margeb. 7). Comparisons between figures for 1989 and 1990 showed an overall in crease in the number of infested ani- Figure 7. Positive cases in 1990 75 The New World screwworm eradication programme The project in action inspection throughout the country, quarantine of infested animals for three Surveillance and control activities were days and restriction of animal move already being carried out in Libya, but ment at night from infested municipal successfully implementing SIT meant ities into the free zones; streamlining and strengthening these • the preparation of administrative procedures as well as developing quar forms related to transport and quarant antine stations to control animal move ine, which were then put into use; ment both into and out of the infested • the preparation of documents area. containing detailed procedures for op erating quarantine posts, which were distributed to field officers and used for Quarantine training; • the organization of several train During the four months prior to the ing sessions for quarantine officers, first release of sterile NWS, 13 quaran which covered inspection procedures, tine stations were established, includ quarantine, use of insecticides, admin ing 11 fixed stations and two mobile istrative and legal procedures. stations. The fixed stations were equipped with a caravan, a vehicle and a mobile Data sprayer and were staffed by two veter inary assistants, who were required to Data coinciding with the pilot project inspect all transported animals for were collected from the quarantine sta wounds and myiasis. There was a po tions from December 22, 1990 to Feb lice presence at all fixed posts to assist ruary 9, 1991. In all, 56 537 animals the staff when necessary. were inspected during this period, Any infested animals were to be de most of them (86 percent) sheep. tained in quarantine and treated, al though no screwworm-infested ani mals were detected at the stations dur Surveillance and treatment ing the programme. Others were sprayed with insecticide as a prophy Ninety-four surveillance teams had lactic treatment. been operating in the infested area Mobile posts were located at the since August 1989. Each team consisted Tunisian border and to the south of the of field inspectors who travelled infested zone to deal with the seasonal throughout their zones on a 15- to 21- movement of livestock from one area day cycle, inspecting all animals and to another. treating all wounds. Before the quarantine stations could Farmers were encouraged to report be set up, action had to be taken in a cases of myiasis to the teams' head number of areas to ensure that move quarters as quickly as possible; larva ment control activities could be carried samples collected from infested out efficiently. These actions included: wounds and submitted for identifica • the submission of proposals to the tion by the teams were accompanied national authorities for the legalization by a report detailing the time and loca of specific actions such as compulsory tion of the case. 76 Preparing for eradication Municipal supervisors had been ap of those weeks was increased to 10.5 pointed, who received daily inspection million, which included 3.5 million reports from the teams and then com shipped for the main programme. piled weekly reports for submission to the SECNA field programme in Tripoli, where a weekly resume of results and Shipment activities from all municipalities was compiled. This report detailed the At the MACES sterile fly production numbers and species of animals in plant in Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico, the spected (compared with the previous pupae were packed in small cardboard week) and samples taken (including boxes (1 600 per box) containing results) by animal species and by gelled food and water for emerging the municipality. Each laboratory flies and then transported by refriger confirmed screwworm infestation was ated truck to Mexico City. They were recorded as one positive case, and a flown by scheduled air freight to Frank record of the number of NWS cases furt, and then by German Cargo Ser by month, municipality and animal vices charter to Tripoli. Throughout the species was compiled. journey they were kept at a regulated The field programme staff developed temperature of 10°C to control their a consistent system of weekly reporting development into adult flies. from the municipalities. Maps were also drawn up in preparation for the eradication programme, based on a Distribution scale of 1 :50 000. The staff required that all positive cases of myiasis were A distribution centre had been estab- reported with map coordinates. 1i shed at Tripoli airport, where the During 1990, a total of 16 220 090 boxed pupae were held in temper animals were inspected and a total of ature-controlled trailers until they 12 556 samples were taken and report emerged into adults. ed, of which 12 068, or 96 percent, Procedures for unloading and stor were confirmed to be NWS through ing the sterile flies were established laboratory identification. during the preparatory phase and maintained during the main eradica tion programme. They are detailed in Sterile fly shipment Chapter four. and dispersal When 80 percent or more of the flies had emerged, the boxes were loaded During the eight-week SIT trial in Lib on to twin-engine aircraft, each fitted ya, there were eight weekly shipments with a specially designed chute of sterile NWS. The first two shipments through which the boxes were re contained 3.5 million sterile pupae, but leased at a predetermined rate. the number was increased to 7 million The cardboard boxes, about half the for the subsequent six shipments . size of a shoebox, were designed to The last two sterile fly shipments for the open during their fall from the aircraft, pilot release project overlapped with or on impact with the ground, thus re the full-scale eradication programme. leasing the flies. The number of flies dispersed in each The dispersal aircraft flew along pre- 77 The New World screwworm eradication programme determined flight paths, 4 km apart, The percentage of malformed pupae and boxes were dispersed at a rate of varied between shipments, while overall three to ten per minute as the plane mortality rates were low in all shipments. flew at 240 km/hour at an altitude of 500 m. On each dispersal day an area of approximately 6 400 km 2 was Monitoring the wild and sterile covered, with an average distribution NWS populations 2 of 800 flies per km • Fifteen wind-oriented traps, baited with an attractant for adult NWS Quality control (swormlure-4), were set up in the dis persal area, and captured flies were ex Laboratory facilities were established amined in the laboratory for sterility. for identification of NWS and quality The main purpose of the traps was to control. In October 1990, the laborat monitor the activity of sterile flies. ory staff began limited rearing of NWS However, these tests were also valu for experimental purposes, particularly able in determining the ratio of sterile to obtain base-line data for quality con to fertile flies in each area. trol testing (the colony was destroyed Most of the flies captured were ster in June 1991 ). ile, which indicated a high level of ac A comprehensive quality control tivity by the released NWS and low programme was conducted during the numbers in the wild population. pilot phase, with tests being carried out Eight pens, each with three sentinel at each stage of the transport and distri sheep, were also set up in the distribu bution of the sterile NWS. tion area. The sheep were surgically · The tests involved analysing emer wounded to attract NWS flies and ex gence, mortality, flight agility and lon amined twice daily to detect egg masses. gevity and were conducted both in The purpose was to measure the Libya and Mexico. The tests in Libya number of sterile egg masses produced were the same as those carried out on by the wild population. However, low samples retained in Mexico and were temperatures and the naturally low wild conducted on the same production lot, NWS population during winter meant so that comparisons could be made of that no egg masses were collected. any change in fly quality caused by transport, handling and release. Information Test resu Its An intensive information campaign was launched in Libya as part of the The results of quality control tests on preparatory phase. The campaign, us emergence, flight agility and longevity ing both printed material and the mass were similar in Mexico and Libya, in media, informed the public, in partic dicating that the quality of flies re ular livestock owners, about preven ceived from Mexico was of a good tion, control and eradication of the standard and similar to those distri NWS using SIT and prepared them for buted by the Mexico-United States the field activities. Commission. SECNA commenced publication of a 78 Preparing for eradication monthly NWS newsletter in November and distribution was completed three 1990 to provide up-to-date reports on days later, marking a smooth transition the progress of the eradication pro into the full programme. gramme. The newsletter was a contin The pilot phase had shown that uation of an earlier publication called boxed, sterile NWS could be shipped Screwworm Information, which was from Mexico to Libya, handled and started in May 1989. then released with no measurable loss in fly quality. Information based on trap catches had demonstrated that the flies Overlap period dispersed and survived in Libya well enough to eradicate the indigenous While the pilot phase was still in opera population. tion, the main eradication programme The preparatory phase overall had was launched on February 1, 1991. achieved its objective of establishing The first shipment of 10.5 million sterile the infrastructure necessary to run the flies arrived on February 3, for distribu main eradication programme, includ tion over the entire known infested ing the strengthening of quarantine and area in Libya. surveillance activities and the develop The eighth and final shipment under ment of the necessary physical and hu the pilot phase arrived on February 11, man resources. 79 Chapter four The eradication programme 19. A box of emerged flies The New World screwworm eradication programme he smooth transition from the The victory was achieved far more rap preparatory phase into the main idly than might have been expected T eradication programme clearly and well under budget. This success demonstrated the value of the intensive was made possible by a combination planning and preparation for the use of of factors. By commencing sterile fly SIT to eradicate the screwworm. releases in winter, the SIT campaign had By the time the first shipment of taken advantage of the naturally low 10.5 million sterile flies for the main pro population of wild NWS during those gramme arrived in Tripoli on February months. Effective surveillance, treat 3, 1991, SECNA had shown that it was ment and quarantine activities had well prepared to implement the essen kept the NWS population within the tial components of a successful SIT limits of the identified infested zone, programme. and a well-organized communication Just over nine months later, follow campaign had enlisted widespread ing the release of more than 1 300 mil public support and cooperation for the lion sterile flies, supported by intensive programme. TABLE 4: MYIASIS CASES IN LIBYA 1989 1990 1991 1992 NWS Other NWS Other NWS Other NWS Other Jan 102 15 3 17 0 11 Feb 94 28 2 17 0 6 Mar 190 73 0 128 Apr 289 50 1 221 May 371 42 0 191 Jun 917 65 0 158 Jul 1 570 53 0 105 Aug 2 154 65 0 87 Sep 2 932 45 0 6.1 Oct 1 701 23 0 37 Nov 1 566 25 0 41 Dec 191 5 0 21 Total 1 937 0 12 068 489 6 1 084 0 17 surveillance, treatment and quarantine activities, the SIT programme was Myiasis brought to a successful conclusion. case Sterile fly releases ended on October • Wild fly 15, six months after the last case of captures screwworm myiasis had been found. 31 • Figure 8. NWS myiasis and wild fly captures, January-June 1991 82 The eradication programme The situation in the field on the wild flies, indicated that the sur viving population was widely dis The incidence of confirmed NWS in persed throughout the infested area festations had declined steadily from (see Figure 8). the peak of September 1990, when al most 3 000 screwworm myiasis cases were recorded (see Table 4). The programme Only six screwworm cases were found in 1991 - three in January, two Few significant problems occurred dur in February and the last on April 7. The ing the programme. The SECNA field number of fertile flies captured programme operated efficiently, and in traps also declined throughout the contract arrangements with MACES, first months of 1991. Thirty-five German Cargo Services and the Libyan wild, fertile females were trapped, the Aeroclub functioned well. last on April 27. The locations of the Throughout most of 1991, a steady positive cases, confirmed by trap data supply of high-quality sterile flies was IJ Cl 1-awia • • Tarhuna Cl LIBYA Mizdah 0 100 Km 83 The New World screwworm eradication programme delivered to an exacting deadline, a with the declaration that the Libyan significant achievement in view of the Arab Jamahiriya was official complicated logistics of the pro ly screwworm-free. A preventive gramme. programme to secure the region from After the last case of NWS myiasis reinfestation and to minimize the risks was identified in April, and the last fer of recurrences was put in place. tile flies had been trapped in the same period, a countdown to eradication was begun. SIT To be absolutely certain that erad ication had been achieved, it was ne The sterile insect technique relies on cessary to continue sterile fly releases five major activities to succeed: surveil for nine NWS life cycles without the lance (including treatment of animals), . detection of a single case of infestation. quarantine (including animal move In line with this requirement, and sup ment control), the production of sterile ported by a recommendation of the in flies, quality control and aerial disper dependent Technical Advisory Com sal of the flies in the infested area (see mittee, which had been established to Figure 9). assess the progress of the campaign, Just as surveillance, treatment and the decision was taken to end the SIT control alone cannot eradicate NWS, programme in mid-October 1991. the successful use of SIT relies on the From the beginning of May (the first proper implementation of these other month with no NWS detected) to the activities as well. end of the SIT programme, 100 000 Surveillance activities permit the trapped female flies were dissected, identification of areas where the NWS and no fertile flies were found. More is active; treatment contributes to re than 22 million animals were inspected ducing the screwworm population by and 700 larva samples collected with lessening the number of wounds avail no NWS found. Almost 750 000 an able as breeding sites; animal move imals were inspected at quarantine sta ment control and quarantine help con tions with the same results. tain the pest and ensure that it does not The ending of the SIT phase in Octo spread through animal transport; and ber was then followed up by continued quality control ensures that the flies dis surveillance, treatment and quarantine persed are of a consistently high stan activities, which ended in June 1992 dard. Mexico-US Commission Transatlantic transport SECNA field programme HQ Dispersal Surveillance Treatment Rearing Irradiation of pupae Control Packaging Quarantine Laboratory quality control Communication Figure 9. The components of the sterile insect technique programme 84 The eradication programme SIT programme overview gence temperatures, with the aim of dispersing emerged adult flies either 30 Under the main eradication pro or 60 hours after their arrival. gramme 28 million sterile flies were ini The sterile flies were then dispersed tially dispersed weekly by the Libyan twice weekly by the Libyan Aeroclub Aeroclub over an area of 26 500 km 2 in over the infested area at concentra Libya, the entire known infested area. tions ranging from 800 to 1 200 flies per square kilometre, which was calcu lated on the basis of data indicating the The Mexican plant incidence of NWS cases in each area. As outlined in Chapter one, the insects were reared, irradiated and packaged The expanded programme at the sterile fly production plant in Mexico. Each box contained 1 600 On May 3, 1991 the treatment area was sterile pupae and a small cup of special expanded to include a protective barrier gelled diet for the emerged flies (see around the infested area, including an Photo 19, the chapter opener). area of approximately 2 500 km 2 inside 2 Tunisia for a total of 40 000 km • The number of flies dispersed weekly was Transport increased to 40 million, and transport arrangements were changed to direct Initially, sterile pupae were transported German Cargo charter flights from the twice weekly in shipments of 10.5 mil airport at Tuxtla Gutierrez to Tripoli, with lion and 17.5 million, using the system a refuelling stop at Bermuda (see Figure tested during the preparatory phase. 10). The total flight time was 14 hours The first stage was a 24-hour journey and, after a period of experimentation by refrigerated truck from the sterile fly with different temperatures, the insects production plant at Tuxtla Gutierrez to were maintained at a constant temper Mexico City. This was followed by ature of 20°C. scheduled flight to Frankfurt, where the pupae were transferred to a German Cargo charter plane for the three-hour Handling journey to Tripoli (see box on page 86). The twice-weekly deliveries meant The shipment of such a large number that some stage of the transport opera of sterile pupae and the move to the tion was in effect at all times. direct charter flights necessitated rad ical changes in the technical require ments for handling the sterile insects. Handling and dispersal The flies were now delivered once in stead of twice weekly, and the single The sterile pupae were maintained at a shipment needed to be stored and pro constant temperature of 10°C during grammed for dispersal over as many shipment to control their maturation days of the week as possible. and, on arrival in Tripoli, they were SECNA had given careful consider divided and placed in temperature ation to the matter of single, weekly controlled trailers at different emer- shipments of the sterile flies, taking into 85 The New World screwworm eradication programme German Cargo Services German Cargo Services, founded in The company also established a 24- March 1977 as a subsidiary of hours-a-day communications service for Lufthansa, operates international freight the SIT programme, which meant that charter flights to supplement key personnel were always contactable Lufthansa's scheduled cargo services. in the event of any delays or problems The company concentrates on with the charter flights to Tripoli. markets in Africa, the Near East, Asia In total, the company transported and South America and specializes in 1 300 million sterile NWS flies from charter projects requiring high Mexico to Libya. flexibility and expert planning. The loss of a single shipment could Cargoes have included flowers and have set back the eradication produce from Kenya to Europe, live programme several weeks, and it was cattle from Germany to Jordan, acknowledged that German Cargo shipments of up to 150 000 live Services' high standards made an chickens and hatching eggs to important contribution to the success Teheran, as well as polo horses from of the campaign. Argentina to Brunei Darussalam. The company operates a fleet of ten It was this experience with the aircraft: five DC-8 73Fs, three Boeing transport of live cargo, combined with 74 7-200SFs and two Boeing 737- the presentation of the required 200Fs. During 1990 the fleet logged specifications, that contributed to nearly 18 000 flying hours and flew German Cargo Services' success in more than 14 million km. gaining the FAO contract to transport The shipments of sterile pupae from NWS pupae to Libya. Tuxtla Gutierrez to Tripoli, using a During the SIT operation, German DC-8 aircraft, accounted for more than Cargo Services initially transported the 300 hours. pupae from Frankfurt to Tripoli. In In addition to a.bout 60 crew May 1991 it began direct charter members who were involved in the flights from the airport at the Tuxtla SIT flights, SECNA acknowledged the Gutierrez production plant to Tripoli, special efforts of German Cargo · transporting 40 million flies in one Services' general manager, marketing weekly shipment. The introduction of and sales, David Keary; project the direct flights needed an manager Jurgen Stille; operations and international communications system handling manager Wolfgang Duffner; at Tuxtla Gutierrez airport. German cargo handling staff Detlev Schlemmer, Cargo Services set up a link between Jurgen Weidner and Kerstin Sasse; Mexico's domestic airline Michaela Mi.inker from animal communications system and the major handling; aircraft mechanics Falk international airline system, called Trippler and Thomas Schroder in SITA, enabling pilots leaving Mexico to Tuxtla Gutierrez; and cargo manager receive information on weather as well in Tripoli, Roland Rost. as to file flight plans for the journey to Tripoli. 86 The eradication programme Original transport route: December 1990 · April 30, 1991 A - Truck transport: 24 hours B - Scheduled flight: 8 hours C - Charter flight: 3 hours Direct transport route: May 3, 1991 · October 15, 1991 Direct charter Total flight time: 14 hours Figure 10. SIT transport arrangements Irradiation Dispersal Temperature Start of I 26°C pupation 16°C I 20°c 10°C I J • I J • I J • I J I • I Days 1 2 31 .I sl sl 1l_!J,1d_11l 12I 131 14 Figure 11 . The temperature control programme for once-weekly sterile fly dispersal 87 The New World screwworm eradication programme account the costs involved and the The flies were then loaded directly necessity of ensuring that the flies were into a preheated temperature-con of consistently good quality. trolled truck and transferred to the Ger At Tuxtla Gutierrez, the pupae were man Cargo plane, which had also been sorted according to age and each preheated. All preflight checks had batch was maintained on a different tem been done in advance and, once load perature programme prior to departure. ed, the plane could leave immediately. As mentioned, the temperature during On one occasion in January 1991, the 14-hour charter flight was maintained these measures were put to the test, at 20°C. On arrival in Tripoli, the pupae when heavy snow at Frankfurt airport were transferred to temperature-con caused a two-hour delay in the transfer trolled storage trailers, where they were of the flies from one aircraft to the maintained at temperatures of 10°C, other. The actions taken by German 20°C or 26°C, depending on the day on Cargo Services ensured that the quality which the emerging adult flies were re of the flies was not affected. quired for dispersal (see Figure 11 ). Transport hitches It was crucial that the sterile pupae were maintained at a constant temper ature during transport. Any increase in 33 temperature would have resulted in early emergence of the flies; any de crease in temperature would have af 32°46' fected fly quality. German Cargo Services had de 600 11E signed comprehensive measures to en sure that constant temperatures were maintained during the winter months, 500 1 0 when the flies were being transported to Frankfurt and then on to Libya. 32°06' Each Lufthansa flight carrying a ship ment of sterile flies docked in the cargo 900 area, rather than at the passenger ter 500 minal, as close as possible to the Ger 31 °50'/11 °15' 12°00· man Cargo Services aircraft. Thermal blankets were loaded on to the aircraft through a small side door to cover the boxed flies; they needed to be pro tected from the subzero temperatures j + Hotspot j outside the aircraft before the main cargo doors were opened. 31 Figure 12. The number of dispersed NWS flies per square kilometre per week 88 The eradication programme Traffic rights radio communication with the Tripoli airport control tower, he requested per During the same period, German Cargo mission to land, which was refused. Services encountered another potentially "The pilot then told the control tower disastrous problem during a flight from that he had 14 million passengers on Frankfurt to Tripoli. Each flight was re board," German Cargo Services' gen quired to have traffic rights to Libya, eral manager, David Keary said. "There which were granted on a weekly basis by were three to four minutes of absolute Libyan airport authorities. silence from the control tower and In practice, traffic rights were usually then they granted traffic rights." granted within ten minutes of an ap plication being lodged. However, on The war in the Persian Gulf one occasion the German Cargo Ser vices pilot discovered mid-flight that The outbreak of war in the Persian traffic rights had not been granted. In a Gulf, five weeks into the main eradica- 13 14 15 16 1200 32°25' Tarhuna 1100 32°0s· 900 31 °54' 13°10' 800 14°07' 31 °43'/13°50' Bani Walid IBYA 800 Mizdah 31 °25'/15°00' 0 100 Km 89 The New World screwworm eradication programme tion programme, threatened to put an three days before the first charter flight end to the entire SIT operation in Lib was to leave Tuxtla Gutierrez on May ya. However, Libya's response to the 3, 1991 . crisis meant that operations were not Following four hours of telephone disrupted. discussions, involving the USDA, the The war did, however, affect the US State Department, the Pentagon transatlantic transport of the sterile and FAO, traffic rights were obtained. pupae. Military air traffic increased dramatically in the area of the Persian Gulf, resulting in the blockage of some The last shipment normal commercial routes. Civilian aircraft flying from the United States to The efficiency of the German Cargo Europe, including those carrying the fly operation was further highlighted shipments, were required to fly longer when operational problems caused de routes. lays during the final shipment of flies in The threat of terrorism during the October. The aircraft, while changing war resulted in a drastic reduction of crews at New York before leaving for the number of passengers on interna Tuxtla Gutierrez, was damaged just be tional flights. Lufthansa consolidated its fore take-off. United States-Europe flights to com The transport schedule allowed for pensate for the decreased demand for the shipment of spare parts from Ger seats, which meant that the Mexico many for the necessary repairs. How City-Frankfurt flight travelled via Hous ever, a malfunction in one of the ton, Texas. As a precautionary meas plane's communications instruments ure against possible loss of fly quality eventually resulted in a 12-hour delay. caused by the high temperatures in After German Cargo Services had Houston, no cargo was loaded on to notified Rome, Tuxtla Gutierrez and the aircraft during the flight stop. Tripoli of the problem, the direct flight The USDA secured the transit per was delayed for 24 hours. The flies mits required for the flights carrying the were consequently maintained at a shipments of sterile flies to land in higher temperature during the 14-hour Houston. flight to Tripoli to ensure that the first batch of sterile flies was ready for immediate release. Again, the quality Direct flights of the flies was not affected, and the final dispersal of the flies went The introduction of direct German Car ahead. go charter flights from Tuxtla Gutierrez to Tripoli via Bermuda necessitated in tensive negotiations to enable the Hotspots flights to refuel and change crews at the United States military airport in Ber A "hotspot" dispersal zone was intro muda. Authorities at the military base duced in the area where the last case declined traffic rights to any aircraft of positive NWS myiasis was identified travelling to Libya. in April 1991. A farmer had brought Mr Keary said that traffic rights for larva samples from a wounded sheep Bermuda had still not been granted to the Misratah veterinary clinic, which 90 The eradication programme were identified as NWS. The hotspot tinued until the conclusion of the pro dispersal of sterile flies was designed to gramme, increasing the dispersal area 2 ensure that they were dispersed where to just over 40 000 km • Figure 12 they were most needed, which meant illustrates the flight grids as well as the scheduling extra flights and dispersing densities of flies dispersed in each grid extra flies in an area where an isolated area. case had been discovered. It involved the dispersal of an additional 100 box es (160 000 flies) in an area less than SECNA field programme 2 5 km • The Misratah case was the only technical units time that hotspot treatment was required during the eradication The SECNA field programme in Tripoli campaign. (see Photo 20) was divided into seven Two special barrier flight grids were units to handle all aspects of the imple introduced at the southern extreme of mentation of SIT. They were: the dispersal zone on May 14 and con- • Field unit: responsible for all sur- 20. The SECNA field programme laboratory and offices in Tripoli 91 The New World screwworm eradication programme veillance, quarantine (after April 1991) TABLE 5: SUMMARY OF SURVEILLANCE, QUARANTIN and animal movement activities, as well as trapping and biological evalua tion. Surveillance • Laboratory: responsible for qual Animals Other Year Month NWS ity control testing, the identification of inspected myiasis larvae and adult flies and research and 1991 January 1 598 024 3 17 development. February 1 487 976 2 17 • Epidemiology: responsible for the analysis and interpretation of all data March 1 812 782 128 presented by other technical units and, April 1 779 108 221 based on results, for preparing plans May 2 677 191 191 for fly dispersal and recommending June 2 834 093 158 any necessary alterations to the erad ication strategy. July 2 932 284 105 • Distribution centre: based at Trip August 3 610 805 87 oli airport, the unit received NWS ship September 3 388 086 61 men ts from Mexico and was re October 3 360 846 37 sponsible for unloading them from air November 2 681 430 41 craft and placing them in trailers kept at various temperatures. The unit then December 2 354 008 21 loaded them on to dispersal aircraft. Total 30 516 633 1 084 The unit was also responsible for en 1992 January 3 031 697 11 suring the biological quality of the flies and carried out quality control tests be February 2 341 207 6 fore and after fly dispersal flights. It was also responsible for the preparation of fly dispersal grids, based on data re ceived from the field unit. • Aviation: responsible for the ae The field unit rial dispersal of sterile flies and all air craft operations. The use of SIT relies heavily on the availability of precise information • Communication and Information: about the locations and incidence of responsible for educating and inform infestations, which must be contin ing livestock owners and the public uously monitored and updated. The about the NWS, and encouraging live unit therefore produced maps based stock owners in particular to inspect on the use of geographic coordinates and treat their animals and to report in case reporting. any cases of myiasis to veterinary offi cials. • Administration: responsible for all Activities matters relating to personnel, purchas ing and finance. Surveillance and treatment activities Further details of SECNA's structure had been conducted since the very and role are found in Chapter five. early stages of the screwworm emer- 92 The eradication programme AND TRAP CATCHES (1991 AND 1992) Quarantine Flies Captured NWS Screwworm Fertile Animals Wounds Others inspected treated cases Male Female Female 42 245 203 80 251 455 52 971 278 1 135 2 923 2 715 15 48 968 412 8 565 11 354 12 349 10 39 110 203 8 972 10 764 17 213 9 62 963 510 11 774 11 231 8 168 94 096 557 37 659 42 138 10 705 101 116 544 37 220 44 098 10 463 125 049 468 21 474 28 312 563 99 638 308 21 919 29 830 7 656 124 207 421 28 138 33 029 20 591 86 894 293 14 775 40 879 210 5 480 918 136 4 407 0 176 936 213 930 111 133 34 63 518 331 646 103 363 245 64 gency in Libya, first through Libyan vet regional supervisors, who then made erinary services, under the direction of weekly reports to the SECNA FP. the National Screwworm Committee This meant that a good deal of the sur and with the advice of FAO consult veillance unit's work amounted to su ants. During the preparatory phase, pervision to ensure that the programme significant resources were directed to was operating effectively. It also intro ward strengthening surveillance and duced new methods of reporting to treatment activities in preparation for streamline surveillance activities. the main programme. After August 1990, these activities were incorporated into the SECNA Streamlining surveillance field programme (FP), utilizing the infrastructure of the Libyan veterinary The surveillance unit streamlined re services. Existing inspection teams porting of cases by introducing a sys were maintained and continued to tem of geographic coordinates. Maps work in conjunction with local veter (1 :50 000) were used by the section to inary clinics, which in turn reported to mark the locations of confirmed cases. 93 The New World screwworm eradication programme To simplify the procedure for the field ensure that samples were sent for iden personnel, the maps were divided into tification within an acceptable period a grid. Each square of the grid was (three days from the collection date to numbered and marked with minutes of the date of identification were consid latitude and longitude, enabling field ered acceptable). Containment meas personnel to report each case with the ures could therefore be taken when a square's coded number. This reference positive case was found. was then translated into actual geo graphic coordinates, with the use of tables prepared for each map. Field procedures Animal inspection in the infested area Sampling by teams comprising two Libyan veter inary assistants continued at an inten A system was developed to monitor sive pace throughout the eradication the efficiency of sample reporting, to programme. The number of teams was 21. Treating a wounded animal with coumaphos powder 94 The eradication programme increased in the early stages of the (96 percent) were NWS and 489 (4 eradication programme to 94, over percent) were the larvae of other flies. seen by 21 regional supervisors. A fur In 1990, when infested wounds ther 15 inspection teams were added were located and larva samples taken, in mid-1991 to undertake surveillance it was frequently found that the sam activities outside the infested area. ples contained a mix of both NWS lar During 1991 the teams inspected vae and the larvae of other flies. These just over 30.5 million animals. They cases were always classified as NWS, collected a total of 1 028 larva sam and no separate records were kept on ples, of which six (0.6 percent) were the non-NWS larvae found in these confirmed as NWS and 1 022 (99.4 wounds. Therefore, in 1991, when few percent) were the larvae of other flies. cases of NWS infestation were found, These results should be compared to the number of non-NWS samples re 16.2 million animal inspections during corded was consequently higher. 1990, resulting in the collection of Animal inspections rose 153 percent 12 557 larva samples, of which 12 068 from 1990 to 1991, while the number 22. A wind-oriented fly trap 95 The New World screwworm eradication programme of positive NWS myiases decreased . A They travelled to individual farms to comparison of 1991 inspection statis check herds and flocks. All wounds tics with an adapted version of the Lib were immediately treated with couma yan Secretariat of Planning's 1987 an phos 5-percent powder. If a case of imal census showed that the popula myiasis was found, the wound was tion of animals in the infested zone was treated with coumaphos and a larva inspected several times over. sample taken from the deepest part of the wound. The larvae were placed in a plastic tube with 70-percent metha Inspection and sampling nol or 10-percent formalin, and the in methods spector completed a form supplied with the sampling kit before submitting Inspection teams assembled at their local the sample to the regional supervisor veterinary clinic at around 7:30 AM and (see Photo 21). would leave a map or diagram of the The teams were also responsible for area they intended to visit that day. ensuring that livestock owners under- 23. Libyan veterinary staff explain the function of the fly traps to local farmers 96 The eradication programme stood the need to inspect their animals of the traps was to determine the pro regularly, treat wounds and report any portion of sterile to wild female flies. cases of myiasis. They handed out liter Each trap (see Photos 22 and 23) re ature prepared by the communication sembled a bucket, which was fitted and information unit. with wind flaps and suspended from a During the programme, coumaphos suitable fixed object, such as a tree. packets were distributed to farmers. Flies were attracted to the traps by an However, the task of collecting sam odour bait (swormlure-5). ples was the responsibility of the in An average of 82 traps were oper spection teams . ated during the programme (see Figure 13), with an average of 87 to 386 ster ile NWS flies captured per trap per Biological evaluation week. The total number captured per week was as high as 29 400, and the Wind-oriented fly traps (WOTs) were total number per month was as high as set up in both Libya and Tunisia during 81 318 . The number of non-NWS flies the eradication programme for the pri trapped was also recorded, since the mary purpose of checking the accur figures confirmed that the traps were acy of aerial release of the flies and to functioning correctly under Libyan confirm the proper distribution of ster conditions. Up to 3 700 non-NWS flies ile NWS flies throughout the dispersal were captured each week. area. Trap catches also gave an indica When judging fly quality and the tion of the quality of the released flies Figure 13. Map of infested area, showing main and how they were moving throughout roads and locations of wind-oriented fly traps, the release area. A secondary function September-December 1991 97 The New World screwworm eradication programme adequacy of dispersal, particular atten From 50 to 100 percent of the tion was paid to the traps that did not trapped female flies were examined in catch NWS flies. Checks were made to the SECNA FP laboratory to determine determine if these traps were being if they were fertile (see Photos 24 and operated properly and to ensure that 25). Results of these examinations in their locations were suitable under the the period up until the last fertile NWS prevailing weather conditions. The fly was captured on April 27, 1991 dispersal activities in the area of the showed that the ratio of fertile to sterile traps were also checked. female flies was satisfactory to achieve During the programme it was found eradication (see Table 6). that problems with traps were primarily related to servicing or to location. In one instance where dispersal was identified Dispersal programme justified as the problem, the flight lanes in that particular area were adjusted to ensure a Because the programme required con better distribution of the sterile flies. tinued distribution of sterile flies, it was 24. Counterpart laboratory chief Dr Khalifa Mughadmi examines fly samples to determine if they are NWS 98 The eradication programme TABLE 6: NUMBERS OF SCREWWORM FLIES CAPTURED PER MONTH IN 1991 Males Females Month Captured Captured Dissected Fertile February 10 603 3 824 3 824 15 March 8 565 11 354 5 271 10 April 8 972 10 734 5 301 8 May 7 876 7 638 3 792 1 * Total 36 016 33 550 18 188 34 * Caught April 27, 1991. 25. Thousands of trapped female NWS flies were dissected weekly at the laboratory to determine if they were sterile 99 The New World screwworm eradication programme not easy to get an accurate measure of control the movement of live animals sterile fly survival time after dispersal. between the infested zone and the However, such an opportunity was screwworm-free zone. Prior to the es presented following the last dispersals. tablishment of the stations, Libyan au It was found that within three to four thorities had operated checkpoints at days after dispersal of sterile flies ended roughly the same locations, without fa on October 15, 1991, the number of cilities for quarantine. sterile NWS caught in the traps de The majority of the quarantine sta clined sharply. By October 30, the tions were located on main roads number of trapped flies was insignifi along main animal transport routes and cant, and the last sterile fly was trapped were initially operated by two veterin on November 7, 22 days after the last ary assistants at each station. dispersal. In mid-1991 , nine of the 11 perma The precipitous drop in sterile fly acti nent stations increased their operations vity within three days confirmed the from daylight hours only to 24 hours a earlier judgement that twice-weekly dispersion was necessary for NWS eradication. Sentinel sheep Twenty-eight sentinel sheep pens were maintained in the infested area to ob tain larva samples until June 1991. Nor mally information on the ratio of sterile to fertile egg masses would be record ed to monitor the progress of an erad ication campaign . However, the rapid success of the eradication programme and the fact that the last case of NWS myiasis was found in April meant that no NWS egg masses were collected from sentinel sheep during the main eradication programme. Quarantine Thirteen quarantine stations (1_1 perma BVA nent and two mobile) which had been established during the preparatory phase were maintained throughout the 0 main eradication programme (see Fig ure 14). Their primary purpose was to 31 Figure 14. The location of fi xed quarantine stations, 1991 100 The eradication programme day. Data on animal movement from Data recording the infested zone indicated that about 19 percent of animals were transported Quarantine station staff were required at night. By September, all of the per to fill in reporting forms on each group manent stations were operating 24 of animals passing through the station, hours a day, with four staff members at detailing whether wounds or infesta each station. tion were found. These forms were All transported animals were sent to the regional supervisor, who checked by quarantine station staff for compiled data on a weekly basis for wounds and myiasis. Wounds were submission to the SECNA FP. treated with coumaphos, and animals Any infested animals were to have leaving the infested area (with the ex been placed in quarantine for a period ception of those going immediately to of three days, and larva samples were slaughter) were prophylactically sent to SECNA for identification. sprayed (see Photos 26 and 27). However, during the main eradication 13 15 16 101 The New World screwworm eradication programme programme no NWS-infested animals ed zone, was selected for a pilot study were found at the quarantine stations. on animals leaving the zone. The study Owners were issued a special health was conducted from April 13 to July certificate, valid for one day only, if 26, 1991. Its objective was to deter their animal was NWS-free. mine the origin, destination and distri Figures from the stations showed bution of animal species and, if pos that the number of animals moving into sible, the purpose of their transport. the infested area was consistently The information was considered vital higher than those leaving the area (see in identifying the areas into which Figure 15). animals from the infested zone were moving and in quantifying the risk of NWS spread by animal movement. Special study Abu Qrayn had been selected for the study because 46 percent of the The quarantine station at Abu Qrayn, animals passing through the station in the southeastern corner of the infest- were in transit to NWS-free areas. The 26. Quarantine station staff record information about the origin and destination of a transported horse 102 The eradication programme study showed that 11 percent of the an ities, the distribution centre was re imals came from high-risk areas in the sponsible for preparing fly dispersal infested zone, while 89 percent came grids, based on data received from the from low-risk areas. The main destina field and epidemiology units, which it tion of the animals was the Sabha re then gave to the aviation unit. gion for slaughter. The distribution centre Handling and release of sterile flies The centre had two main functions: handling and storage of the sterile Two units - the distribution centre NWS (as the point of receipt of the in and the aviation unit - worked in sects from Mexico); and quality control close cooperation to ensure the correct testing of the flies before and after each handling and distribution of the sterile flight. insects. In addition to its handling activ- Based at Tripoli airport, the centre 27. A herd of sheep is sprayed with coumaphos as a prophylactic measure 103 The New World screwworm eradication programme 120 000 100 000 80 000 60 000 40 000 20 000 0 JAN91 FEB91 MAR91 APR9 1 MAY91 JUN91 JUL91 AUG9 1 SEP91 OCT91 NOV91 DEC9 1 • ANIMALS ENTERING Summary of data from all 11 fixed quarantine stations, 1991 D ANIMALS LEAVING 28. Unloading the boxed sterile flies from a German Cargo aircraft on arrival at Tripoli airport 104 The eradication programme Figure 15. Animals entering and leaving control ing 24 boxes. The wire baskets were areas through quarantine posts loaded on to standard air freight pallets for the journey from Mexico to Tripoli. was equipped with six refrigerated Once unloaded from the aircraft, the trailers for the storage of the sterile in wire baskets were placed in wheeled sects as well as with the equipment nec dollies, stacked two baskets wide and essary to transfer the boxed insects six high and then wheeled into the ap from the planes to the trailers and vice propriate temperature-controlled trail versa. er (see Photos 28, 29 and 30). Standard air freight equipment was It was crucial that the flies were used to unload the shipment from the placed in the centre's various storage German Cargo planes. The pupae had facilities promptly and maintained at been boxed at the Tuxtla Gutierrez the correct temperature to ensure both plant and then transported in wire bas quality and correct times of emergence kets, especially designed for the SEC NA (to coincide with release days). The en programme, with each basket contain- tire unloading and storage procedure 29. The boxed flies were loaded on to wheeled dollies and placed in the appropriate temperature-controlled trailer at the distribution centre 105 The New World screwworm eradication programme therefore had to be completed in ap to the scheduled days of dispersal (flies proximately one-and-a-half hours. were released four days per week). During the period when shipments The pupae were held in the temper arrived twice weekly, from February 3 ature-controlled trailers at 10°C, 20°C to April 28, the centre received 10.5 or 26°C, depending on the intended million insects every Wednesday eve day of dispersal. Since the pupae had ning and 17.5 million every Sunday been reared and irradiated by consec evening. The pupae were then placed utive production shifts at Tuxtla Gutier in trailers with emergence temper rez, the Tripoli distribution centre cor atures calculated for dispersal either 32 respondingly divided the pupae for re or 54 hours after arrival. lease acqMding to their shift (or age). Following the introduction of direct Those that had been irradiated and charter flights and the increase to 40 packaged first, and were therefore the million sterile flies delivered once a oldest, were kept at emergence tem week, the emergence rate of the adult perature for release the next day, and flies had to be adjusted to correspond so on. 30. The temperature-controlled trailers in which NWS pupae were stored until required for dispersal over the infested zone 106 The eradication programme Round-the-clock checks on the stor for the duration of the programme; age facilities were made to ensure that • a specific system, which allowed the required temperatures and humid for the release of a greater number of ity were maintained. It was also essen flies in heavily infested areas; tial that there was a constant supply of • hotspot treatment, which was fresh air into the trailers, which meant used following the discovery of an iso that they had to be opened on a regu lated case and involved the distribution lar basis to allow for ventilation. The of an additional 500 boxes of sterile trailers were equipped with provisions flies, released in a circle around the to drain condensed water, a temper area where the case was discovered; ature-control system and a cooling unit • river treatment, which was de-. with sufficient overcapacity to com signed for use along river valleys (not pensate for the heat produced by the used during the Libyan programme be flies. cause of the absence of rivers in the in When 80 percent of the flies had fested area) . emerged, the insects were ready to be dispersed. However, storage of the in sects required careful management Dispersal and flexibility. Bad weather, aircraft maintenance prob_lems, military ma The flies were dispersed by the Libyan noeuvres in release sectors and other Aeroclub (see box on pp. 108-109), problems frequently required the re which had been contracted by FAO. scheduling of release flights, which in The Aeroclub provided 10 ex- turn required adjustments in the man . perienced pilots and four (later agement of the stored insects. increased to five) Twin-Otter aircraft, each with the capacity to carry up to 2 000 boxes of flies. The planes were Liaison with aviation unit fitted with specially designed dispersal chutes for fly release. Based on the data and instructions re The dispersal schedule involved 18 ceived from the field and epidemiology flights per week, starting on Sunday units, the distribution centre prepared and ending on Wednesday. On two al fly dispersal grids and instructions on ternate days pilots were required to the number of flies to be dispersed per make five flights, and on the other days square kilometre. These grids were four flights, for a total of about 65 flying used by the aviation unit to calculate hours per week. the number of boxes to be released per It was essential, particularly during square kilometre and for the prepara the hotter months, that flies be dis tion of flight plans, which detailed the persed very early in the morning, since aircraft speed, altitude and the number temperatures could reach 40°C by 10 of boxes to be released during the flight AM. Flights were therefore scheduled and per minute. · to depart between 6 :46 AM and 7 :15 There were four systems on which AM. the distribution centre could base grids The aircraft travelled at an average of for fly dispersal: 277 km per hour, at an altitude of ap • the regular system of flight grids, proximately 460 m. They flew pre four days per week, which was used scribed parallel flight lanes, 4 km apart, 107 The New World screwworm eradication programme The Libyan Aeroclub The Aeroclub was founded in 1973 by Captain Ibrahim Azzabi (now chief a group of Libyan pilots, w ith the aim pilot for the Light Air Transport Co) of training people to fly planes. It was one of the pilots working on the expanded its activities in 1980, with SECNA project. His recollections give the introduction of a commercial some insight into the sometimes division, offering Twin-Otter, De difficult conditions under which the Havilland (DHC-6) planes for both pilots worked - and also into how scheduled and charter flights. With useful it was to have a sense of much of its work involving the humour. transport of experts and goods to and One of Capt. Azzabi's strongest from Libyan oil fields, the Aeroclub's memories was of the smell which pilots are experts in desert operations, emanated from the boxes of sterile including flying at low altitudes, and its flies (probably from their food) . planes are equipped to land on desert "It was horrible, really unpleasant," airstrips. he said. "But you got used to it in In 1991 the Aeroclub was partially time. Although it was very bad during privatized and renamed the Light Air the month of Ramadan, because when Transport and Technical Services Co. you are fasting, your sense of smell is As well as taking over responsibility for much stronger. " (The pilots were all private, executive and commercial exempted from fasting, because of the and training operations of the former nature of their work, but many still Aeroclub, the new company also decided to observe Ramadan .) provides maintenance services and But, worse still, the pilots had to technical assistance to other light deal with fly "escapees" - those which . aircraft operators in Libya and runs managed to get out of the boxes search and rescue missions. during the flights. Its main fleet includes two Merlin "You know that when the flies were lllB SA 226s, 14 De Havilland Twin put on the plane they were virtually Otter aircraft, three Cessna 402s and asleep because they had been kept at seven Cessna 31 Os. a low temperature, but after a while The contract to fly for the SECNA they would start to wake up and some programme represented not only one would escape from the boxes," said of the Aeroclub's major contracts for Capt. Azzabi. 1990-1991 , but was also seen by "By the time we finished some pilots as an important opportunity to flights, there would be thousands of do something for their country. flies in the cockpit. And they are very However, while the type of work sticky flies. Once one landed on your was new, interesting and challenging face, you couldn't get rid of it and we for the Aeroclub pilots, it also had its didn't want to kill them because they drawbacks. cost a lot of money. 108 The eradication programme adjusted to a separation of 3 km for the alternate release days. Two pilots flew in each aircraft, and two people were employed as disper sers, who released the boxed sterile in sects according to the prescribed release programme. The dispersers were also responsible for loading the boxes on to the planes (see Photos 31 , 32 and 33). "We used a shield between the cockpit and the cabin to try to prevent Laboratory and quality control them coming in, but they would usually find a way to get in to us. " To deal with the invasion of NWS SIT experts have noted that the quality of flies into the cockpit, the pilots devised sterile flies is more important than the methods to get rid of the insects number of flies released. The success of without killing them. SIT depends on the ability of the factory "We used to vacuum them out of reared sterile males to compete with the cockpit," explained Capt. Azzabi. wild males and mate with a sufficient "You put one end of a garden hose percentage of the wild female popula out of the cockpit window and used tion to break the wild pest's life cycle. the other like the nozzle of a vacuum - because of the difference in Quality control was therefore a key pressure between inside and outside factor in the Libyan eradication pro the plane, the flies would be sucked gramme. The monitoring of fly quality out." at all stages of the operation was im The pilots would also evacuate large portant to identify problems promptly numbers of flies from the cockpit by and take corrective action when nec herding them toward the window and essary. then opening the window. The Quality control tests were conduct resulting vacuum effect would suck ed on every shipment at the produc them out en masse, however it would tion plant in Mexico, at the distribution also have the effect of sucking more flies from the rear of the plane into the centre in Tripoli and at the SECNA field cockpit - and so the exercise would programme laboratory. be repeated . As Capt. Azzabi recalled: At the production plant the tests in "When you think back, we had fun cluded measuring larval and pupal with the flies." weight during the production phase, The commitment of the Libyan followed by sterility tests to ensure Aeroclub to the dispersal operation proper radiation exposure. Samples of contributed greatly to the success of boxed pupae were taken from each the SIT campaign. SECNA would like batch before every shipment to con to acknowledge the work of Mr M. duct quality control tests in line with Zaidan, Capt. M.M. Tumia, Capt. T. Sodik, Mr T. Tagiury, Capt. M. Fituri those conducted in Tripoli. and Capt. A. Tawil. Quality control tests were developed to meet the specific needs .of the erad ication programme and were conduct ed at the Tripoli distribution centre both pre- and post-flight. 109 The New World screwworm eradication programme Overview ony of the North African NWS strain was maintained in a specially The quality control tests conducted in equipped quarantine unit for research Tripoli during the SIT programme purposes. showed that consistently good-quality The identification of female flies flies had been released. They also trapped in the dispersal area has al demonstrated that transport of the flies ready been discussed. Up to 6 000 from Mexico to Libya and handling trapped flies per day were received at procedures on arrival did not cause the laboratory at the height of the pro any measurable negative effect. gramme, and NWS flies had to be identified to obtain data on how effi Biological evaluation and ciently they dispersed after release. A identification proportion of the female NWS were dissected to determine fertility (see box Biological evaluation of trapped flies on page 113). Results of these examina was carried out; until June 1991, a col- tions were useful in determining the ra- 31. The boxed flies being loaded on to a Libyan Aeroclub Twin Otter aircraft 110 The eradication programme tio of fertile to sterile female flies. emerged flies. In general, it was consid The laboratory staff also examined ered that the bigger the fly, the better it all samples collected from myiasis was expected to perform in terms of cases from the field to identify them as mating, agility and longevity. In Mexico, NWS or caused by other species. however, it had been found that flies reared on the newly introduced gelled diet were smaller than those previously Laboratory tests reared on a liquid diet, while their qual ity appeared unchanged. Tests were conducted in a stable envir The pupae arriving in Tripoli had an onment to achieve general base-line average weight of approximately 40 mg. data on flies originating from the differ Because the pupae were weighed in ent production shifts. Mexico and Tripoli at different stages of their development, no comparisons Pupal weight. This test is used to indi were made between test results at both cate the size and energy reserves of the locations. 32. One of the Libyan Aeroclub's Twin-Otter aircraft, used during the SIT operation for fly dispersal 111 The New World screwworm eradication programme 100 80 60 40 20 0 DEC90 JAN91 FEB91 MAR91 APR91 MAY91 JUN91 JUL91 AUG91 SEPT91 OCT91 • MEXICO D TRIPOLI Figure 16. Percentage of adult fly emergence 33. A box of sterile flies is dispersed from the aircraft 112 The eradication programme At the SECNA laboratory On a good day in the SECNA Tripoli laboratory, Dr Samira Ashur Oumar sometimes dissected 1 000 flies. For a newly graduated veterinary doctor it was hard work. But, as Dr Ashur Ou mar said : "Only the first fly was difficu It." Dr Ashur Oumar was one of the women veterinary doctors who worked as laboratory assistants at the SECNA field programme's Tripoli headquarters. Their work involved quality control testing but, during the main eradication programme, their time was taken up mainly with identification of flies caught in traps and identification of larva samples. According to the head of the laboratory unit, Dr Rene Carda, up to 6 000 flies per day were received at SECNA FP laboratory assistant Dr Samira the laboratory during the main Ashur Oumar dissecting female screwworm eradication programme. Only female flies NWS flies were dissected, to determine whether or not they were sterile. A sterile female could be enrolling to study veterinary science. identified by her atrophied ovaries - Dr Ashur Oumar will continue to work the result of irradiation. at the Tripoli central veterinary Dr Ashur Oumar started work for laboratories and plans to specialize in SECNA immediately after graduating epidemiology. from Al-Fateh University in 1990. Women have been encouraged to attend university in Libya only in recent years, and Dr Ashur Oumar was the only woman in her year. She is now one of only a few hundred Libyan women veterinary doctors, although each year sees more women 113 The New World screwworm eradication programme Emergence. The percentage of adult reserves of newly emerged flies. For emergence was useful as an additional practical purposes, it provided infor indicator of fly vigour. Eighty percent mation on the life expectancy of flies adult emergence was considered to in released under unfavourable condi dicate that the flies were of good qual tions. ity. Emergence in Libya was consistent Test results showed that the average ly around 88-90 percent throughout longevity of flies was higher in Libya the SIT program me (com pared to than in Mexico for eight out of the around 90 percent emergence in Mex 11 months during which tests were ico) (see Figure 16). conducted, although overall results showed there was no difference in Malformed pupae/adults. The tests quality of flies before and after trans on pupae were used to determine the port from Mexico (see Figure 17). impact of handling on boxed pupae. A malformed pupa was defined as one Longevity with food and water. Re that was cracked. Tests showed an sults showed that flies survived longer average of below 2 percent cracked in Mexico than in Libya. It was be pupae throughout the programme, lieved that the most likely cause of this which was not considered to be a variation was related to the different significant loss. No malformed adult conditions under which the tests were flies were detected by laboratory tests. made. In Tripoli, the tests were conducted Sex ratio. Tests found that the sex ratio under continuous light, while in Mexico ranged between 35 and 65 percent they were conducted in 14 hours of males, with an overall average of 50 light and 10 hours of darkness. The flies percent. tested in Tripoli were therefore active for 24 hours a day. Insects live longer if Longevity without food and water. they get daily rest. This test measures the initial energy Sterility. Trapped female flies were Figure 17. Total hours of longevity without food and water dissected to confirm that they were 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 DEC90 JAN91 FEB91 MAR91 APR91 MAY91 JUN91 JUL91 AUG91 SEP91 OCT91 • MEXICO D TRIPOLI 114 The eradication programme 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 DEC90 JAN91 FEB91 MAR91 APR91 MAY91 JUN91 JUL91 AUG91 SEP91 OCT91 • MEXICO D TRIPOLI Figure 18. Percentage of mortality At the distribution centre Tests were conducted at the distribu sterile. As anticipated, results showed tion centre to detect any impact on fly 100 percent sterility in sampled flies. quality attributable to transport, hand- 1ing and temperature manipulations Tripoli longevity. This test was devel during storage in the temperature oped and conducted only in Libya, controlled t railers. The tests were since it was felt there was a need for done on dispersal days, both before data that reflected the estimated lon the flight and post-flight, on boxed gevity of flies after emergence and just flies which had been carried on the prior to release. These tests were con aircraft. ducted without food and water in stan dard quality control cages. Average longevity was 2 .5 days. Figure 19. Results of flight agility tests (percent) 100 80 60 40 20 0 DEC90 JAN91 FEB91 MAR91 APR 91 MAY91 JUN91 JUL91 AUG91 SEP91 OCT91 • MEXICO D TRIPOLI 115 The New World screwworm eradication programme Emergence. The data were used to clar planned and conducted specifically to ify that fly quality was not affected by meet the defined needs of the pro temperature manipulations and to en gramme. sure that the required number of adults had emerged by the programmed dis Bioassay. All facilities, equipment and persal day. Results corresponded to diet to be used during the SIT pro those produced by laboratory tests. gramme in Libya were tested to ensure that no insecticides or other toxicants Mortality. This important test pro were present. This involved exposing duced results that generally showed sterile NWS or, preferably, Mediterra negligible differences between fly nean fruit-flies (because they are more mortality in Libya and Mexico. During sensitive to insecticides and toxicants) January, February and July, brief peri to surfaces, cages and food to be used ods of significant fly mortality were de in the eradication programme. No tected in Libya. Temperature-con problems were encountered with trolled trailers malfunctioned in January either insecticides or toxicants. and February; in July, extended hold ing periods attributable to delayed dis Biological base-line data. A Libyan persal flights, combined with extremely NWS colony, known as T A-90, was hot weather, contributed to fly mortal maintained at the SECNA FP laboratory ity (see Figure 18). to obtain biological base-line data be fore shipment of sterile NWS flies Malformation. Tests found a low oc began. Ranges in the data obtained currence of malformed flies throughout were wide because the strain was not the programme, ranging from 0.3 to colonized long enough to become lab 0.8 percent. Each release box con oratory-adapted. tained 1 600 pupae, which was not The strain originated from egg mass considered to cause overcrowding es collected in November 1990 and after fly emergence. was reared on the gelled diet used in Mexico. Pupae were transferred to the Flight agility. This empirical test was USDA laboratory at Fargo, North Da considered very important, since it kota for studies to ensure that the strain tested the boxed flies' ability to fly on was sexually compatible with a new the day of release. Tests were conduct strain being considered for mass-rear ed outdoors, and results showed an av ing at the Mexican facility, known as erage ranging from 87.6 to 93.5 per Costa Rica-91. The colony was de cent agility throughout the programme stroyed in June 1991. (see Figure 19). Trailer check. Two release boxes per shift were sampled from each of the Special tests temperature-controlled trailers. The boxes were opened and the emerged Tests were developed in Libya to meet adults allowed to fly out. Rough esti the special requirements of the pro mates were then made of emergence gramme. Their results provided the and mortality rates, which later corre programme with valuable information, sponded well with the results from since the tests had been motivated, standard flight agility tests. 116 The eradication programme Emergence upon arrival. A quick test Chilling of emerged flies. When (30 minutes) was developed to deter planned dispersal flights were delayed, mine the emergence of flies for each of emerging flies had to be inactivated by the production shifts on arrival in Trip lowering holding temperatures. If ac oli. Data collected from this test were tive flies were kept for longer than 36- used to determine the weekly strate 48 hours, they consumed food and gies for holding temperatures in the were subjected to overcrowding and temperature-controlled trailers to stress, lowering fly quality. Tests on ensure that adequate numbers of maintaining the emerging flies at low flies emerged for each of the four re temperatures for prolonged periods lease days. The test involved sampling were conducted. Results indicated that four boxes of flies per shift at random, chilling the emerging boxed flies at as the transport plane was being 10°C for 24 and 48 hours did not affect unloaded. The boxes were placed in a fly quality. microwave oven set at high energy lev el for two minutes to kill the emerged Prolonged chilling of boxed pupae. flies. It was found that pupae could be The percentage of emergence was chilled for up to 72 hours without any rapidly calculated by counting the significant loss of quality. Tests to deter dead flies. A rate of 10 percent emer mine the actual time limit for chilling gence upon arrival would mean that 24 boxed pupae without quality loss were hours at 25-27°C was required to reach conducted in Mexico. Preliminary re 85-90 percent emergence for release sults indicated that the upper threshold the following day. was 110-120 hours at 10°C although one series of tests showed that a chill Temperature strategies. Alternative ing period of 180 hours did not affect strategies were needed to meet the fly quality. programme's requirements for proper ly emerged, good-quality flies on each Heat stress: boxed pupae/flies. The dispersal day. Libyan climate and the possibility of Investigations were carried out to breakdowns in cooling systems neces determine if quality was affected when sitated tests to determine the flies' heat flies were subjected to an accelerated tolerance. Preliminary test results emergence in high temperatures (2 7°C showed that pupae could be held at for 36 hours) as opposed to recom 30°C for 48 hours. After 72 hours the mended temperature (21 °C fo r 60 mortality rate increased, and flight agil hours). No differences in fly quality ity declined. were detected between the two strate Tests done on emerged flies showed gies, and it was concluded that accel that there was a high mortality rate after erated emergence was not hazardous 24 hours at 32-35°C1 which was caused to the flies. solely by heat stress. Complementary tests were conducted in Mexico. Bag test. Preliminary tests showed that ordinary paper bags might be used to Hypoxia. Consideration has been given replace emergence/ dispersal boxes. to the prospect of long-distance trans However, more testing would be re port of sterile NWS flies under hypoxia quired to confirm this finding. (reduced oxygen to delay emergence). 117 The New World screwworm eradication programme The pupae would then be shipped in measure fly quality. Results showed bulk, rather than in boxes. that the average field longevity was Studies were therefore done at the three to four days and that flies spread SECNA laboratory and by the Mex rapidly in all directions up to 5 km. ico-US Commission on emerged flies that had been transported under hy poxia as pupae. Quality was measured The epidemiology unit using the standard laboratory quality control tests; emerged flies originating This unit played a significant, central from pupae that had been shipped role in the SECNA field programme. Its normally were used as controls. role was to collate and analyse all pro Preliminary results indicated in gram me data. The unit analysed all creased mortality among flies which field, laboratory and dispersal data on had emerged from pupae held under a weekly basis and also made obser hypoxia. However, other quality con vations on plans and measures for the trol tests on surviving flies showed sat execution of the programme, taking isfactory emergence, longevity and into account other experiences in NWS flight agility in flies emerged from pu and animal disease eradication pro pae which had been held for 24 hours grammes. under hypoxia. After 48 hours under The unit advised the programme dir hypoxia, results showed variable and ectors on programme strategy and had · slightly poor emergence, longevity and the latitude to develop and present any flight agility. information that could assist in the de termination and modification of the strategy. Release/capture study Based on the data from other units, the epidemiology unit prepared plans A special release/capture study was for the distribution of flies, including conducted to determine dispersal and the number of flies to be released in a longevity of sterile NWS flies. Ground given area. It conducted studies on the releases were made of sterile flies impact of weather on SIT effectiveness marked with a fluorescent dye, and and analysed available data to deter standard traps baited with swormlure-4 mine the role the cold winter of 1990- were set up to capture them. 1991 had played in the significant re The study was conducted in the Tar duction in the wild NWS population. huna area, from August to the end of the SIT programme. Under the study, 100 000 marked flies were released Data analysis twice a week, using a different colour dye for each release batch. Twenty Detailed data analysis by the epide eight baited wind-oriented traps were miology unit was carried out after the installed. Seven traps were placed in completion of SIT. It used two major each of the cardinal directions, at dis computer software packages for this tances of 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 3, 4 and 5 km purpose: dBASE IV for data manage from the release point. ment and ILWIS GIS (Geographical In The traps were sampled daily, and formation System) for spatial analysis. It quality control tests w,ere conducted to also used Lotus 1-2-3 for numerical 118 The eradication programme A phenological analysis of screwworm 1n Libya Dr Krafsur's study of the relationship At Gharyan, 40 km south of Tripoli, between weather and screwworm with an elevation of 600-800 m, the survival and reproduction was mean winter temperature for 1990- important in clarifying the effect that 1991 was 8.6°C, which was lower temperatures during the unusually cold than the threshold and would not winter of 1990-1991 had on the rapid permit overwintering by NWS. success of the SIT programme. Other main points of Dr Krafsur's The report in fact concluded that report are as follows: the accumulated evidence supported • The high rate of animal the view that the elimination of the inspections suggested a strong NWS population from January to June probability of detecting breeding 1991 was attributed to the release of screwworm populations wherever and sterile flies. whenever they occurred. Data in the report indicated that the • Generation times and life winter climatic conditions on the expectancies among adult flies were coastal plain of Libya were very similar estimated. From these data, based on to those of southern Texas and the Rio historical experience in Libya from Grande Valley, where the screwworm 1989 to 1990 and in Texas from 1962 readily overwintered until it was to 1983, predictions of NWS eradicated by means of the sterile population growth in Libya in 1991 insect technique. were made. Case reports for January Dr Krafsur's analysis of data, mainly to June 1991 were consistently less from Texas, established that the than these estimates, confirming the parasite could overwinter successfully, effectiveness of the eradication as long as the mean temperature for campaign. three consecutive months was not • Phenological simulations of sterile below 9.7°C. He reported that mating among feral screwworms successful overwintering of NWS was supported the contention that sterile highly probable in the coastal plain of fly dispersions were related to the case Libya during 1990-1991, but unlikely incidence in the Zawia and Zuwarah in the interior highlands. districts from late January to July. The mean temperatures (from December to February) for Sorman and Zawia (on the coastal plain west of Tripoli) were above the overwintering threshold (9.7°C) for three consecutive winters from 1988 to 1991 . The data showed that temperatures in both areas were not as severe during the winter of 1990-1991 as they had been in 1988-1989. However, the screwworm had survived the earlier winter. / 119 The New World screwworm eradication programme analysis and the creation of graphs and not account for the early suppression charts as well as Harvard Graphics. of the population. The NWS had sur vived three winters in Libya, indicating that it was well adapted to local condi NWS and weather tions and that weather alone was not enough to eradicate the pest. Two comparative studies by the epide Having survived the winter, the pop miology unit produced results that had ulation would normally have expand enabled SECNA to conclude that, ed in March and April. However ster while low winter temperatures slowed ile flies were already being dispersed NWS activity, climatic conditions did over the entire infested zone by early 34. Libyan people, including children, were encouraged to assist with fly dispersal by opening any boxes of sterile flies that failed to open automatically after dispersal from the aircraft 120 The eradication programme February. These flies would therefore substantial numbers of adults emerged have been available for mating with from pupae that had overwintered in newly emerged indigenous flies. Libya. In 1991, 35 wild females were cap Many cases of myiasis caused by tured in wind-oriented traps. Using species other than screwworm were standard population estimation meth discovered in 1991, which suggested ods (the Lincoln Index) this indicated that the screwworm population had that in excess of 100 000 wild females been selectively eliminated. Only six were present in Libya during March NWS cases were found in 1991. and early April. The last wild fly was The relationship of weather to captured on April 27, indicating that screwworm survival and reproduction was reviewed by Dr E.S. l Communication and information The cooperation of the public, in par ticular livestock owners, is another es sential factor in a successful SIT pro gramme and, in Libya, a carefully planned multimedia communications campaign ensured that Libyan people were extremely well informed about the screwworm and the use of the ster ile insect technique. A wide range of information mater ials were prepared and distributed to livestock owners throughout the coun try, concentrating on the infested zone, to gain their cooperation in surveil lance, treatment, quarantine and an imal movement control activities. The public was kept informed about the programme through radio, televi sion and face-to-face meetings, as well as through the broad distribution of printed materials. During the SIT oper ation the public was also encouraged to assist the campaign by opening any boxes that had failed to open during dispersal (see Photo 34). The com- 121 The New World screwworm eradication programme munication and information campaign During the preparation of each ship is detailed in Chapter seven. ment, the coordinator/representative was required to verify that the flies were sterile and to confirm the quality SIT coordination in Mexico of the flies. Reports were then made to SECNA on the results. SECNA was also To streamline the process of transport notified of the departure times of each ing the sterile flies from Mexico to Trip flight and the estimated time of arrival oli, and to ensure the consistent com in Tripoli. munication and coordination with MACES and the Tuxtla Gutierrez pro duction plant, SECNA posted represen Technical evaluation tatives in Mexico. A site coordinator was based in Mexico City, and a pro Independent technical evaluation gramme representative was based at of the programme was carried out the production plant. These positions by a Technical Advisory Committee were merged during the programme, (TAC), which was made up of three and the coordinator/representative experts who visited Libya twice dur was stationed at the production plant. ing the programme, in May and Sep The FAO/SECNA coordinator/repre tember. The committee was re sentative was for the most part re quired to review the programme quired to liaise with MACES and Ger and recommend specific actions man Cargo Services during the pro (see box on th is page). Following gramme, handling administration and the visits to Libya, the TAC pro reporting and compiling data for pre duced two reports which provided a sentation to SECNA headquarters and valuable overview of the pro the field programme. gramme's progress. The Technical Advisory Committee The TAC's responsibilities were • evaluate resu lts of the eradication specified in the Action Plan for the programme to the date of reporting; eradication programme. The experts • recommend a specific were to: programme of action to be followed • review the technical operations of after the eradication of the the screwworm eradication screwworm. programme in Libya and surrounding countries; • review physical facilities availab le to the SECNA fie ld programme; 122 The eradication programme Ongoing activities ence laboratory in London, and a re quest made to the Mexico-US Com Although the SIT campaign ended in mission for the supply of flies (3 .5 mil October 1991, the SECNA programme lion initially together with an order for did not stop. To ensure that the coun 14 million flies per week for 14 weeks). try was in fact screwworm-free, surveil On the same day, surveillance and lance, treatment, animal movement trapping activities would be initiated, control and quarantine activities had to and all animals in the immediate area be maintained for at least eight to nine of the screwworm case treated as a NWS life cycles. preventive measure. Backed up by intensified ground act ivities, flies would be released using Emergency restart plan hotspot treatment. The emergency SIT operation would then continue for at These activities continued at an inten least 84 days if no further cases were sive pace throughout 1991 and into detected. 1992. An emergency SIT restart plan SECNA therefore continued its activ was prepared, which would enable the ities in North Africa until the official resumption of sterile fly releases within declaration that the region was screw four days of any positive identification worm free on June 22, 1992, when re of NWS infestations. sponsibility for the maintenance of the Within 24 hours of any positive iden preventive programme, the final phase tification of screwworm larvae, the of the eradication campaign, was case was to be reported to SECNA in handed over to Libyan veterinary au Rome, samples sent to the FAO refer- thorities. 123 Chapter five Managing. the campaign 35. The distribution centre and aviation unit team The New World screwworm eradication programme here had never been any doubt were coordinated by the department's that the presence of NWS in Animal Production and Health Divi T North Africa represented an sion, headed at the time by Director Dr emergency and that the only way to Jasiorowski. Within that division, the prevent this devastating insect pest animal health service and its veterinary from spreading throughout the Eastern services group were largely respon Hemisphere was through immediate sible for planning and development and decisive action. work in the early stages of the emer Prompt action by the Libyan author gency. ities in the early stages of the crisis had The animal health service worked in been crucial in containing the NWS. close cooperation with the Agricultural Close liaison was maintained by FAO Operations Division, specifically its re with the Libyan government, the gov gional operations service. ernments of neighbouring countries, Numerous other FAO divisions and and the relevant international organi services were involved in the complex zations; within months of receiving no process of planning and development, tification of the NWS presence in the approval of finances and contracts Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, FAO had ap throughout the programme. proved and financed technical cooper ation projects worth more than US$2 million for Libya and other threatened The Action Group North African countries. The Libyan government took prompt The FAO Screwworm Action Group action to set up the appropriate man (later the FAO/IAEA/IFAD/UNDP Ac agement structures to deal with the tion Group) was formed on April 27, screwworm problem, establishing a 1989 to act as a coordinating body in National Screwworm Committee un the North African screwworm cam der the direction of the Secretary of paign. Agriculture in May 1989. Original members of the group in In June 1990, as work in North Africa cluded representatives of the FAO Ani moved toward the implementation of a mal Production and Health Division, formal eradication programme, FAO's the Agricultural Operations Division, Director-General formed the Screw the Information Division and the Joint worm Emergency Centre for North FAO/IAEA Division. Africa (SECNA) with wide-ranging au IFAD, which had also received a re thority to handle all of FAO's re quest for assistance from the Libyan sponsibilities and activities in response government, joined the action group to the emergency situation. on July 31, 1989; UNDP joined on No vember 16, 1989. The main role of the action group Initial phase was to act as the central coordinating body du ring the early stages of the Responsibility for the programme dur screwworm programme. It functioned ing the initial phase had been taken by in this capacity until the formation of FAO's Agriculture Department, headed SECNA in June 1990, and its weekly at the time by Assistant Director~Gen meetings were attended by representa eral, Dr Bonte-Friedman. All activities tives of the various FAO divisions and 126 Managing the campaign other organizations involved in the Agriculture and coordinated by the programme. Department of Veterinary Services. The National Screwworm Commit tee, formed to oversee all surveillance, The Libyan national NWS quarantine and control activities, was i nfrastru ctu re first chaired by Dr Ali Guma, the na tional coordinator for FAO projects in In the early stages of the crisis, the Lib Libya. After one month, the chair was yan government had established the transferred to the director of veterinary infrastructure for surveillance, control services, Dr Masood Abusowa. The and prevention activities, based on its committee comprised the chairmen of vast network of veterinary facilities the animal health divisions in the five spread throughout the country. There municipalities in the infested zone; were 104 clinics in the infested area representatives of the Veterinary Ser- alone, operating within a government Figure 20. The National Screwworm structure headed by the Secretariat of Committee The National NWS Programme Secretariat of Agriculture and Land Development Faculty of Human Medicine Faculty of Veterinary Medicine National Farmers Association The National (Central) Committee -----1 Department of Veterinary Services t Municipality Municipality Office of Central Office of animal health animal health Veterinary Veterinary Animal divisions divisions/ Supplies Laboratory Health (7 uninfested municipallty municipalities) committees (5 infested municipalities) t t Veterinary clinics, Veterinary clinics, inspection centres, inspection centres, local markets, local markets, livestock owners livestock owners 127 The New World screwworm eradication programme vices Department, the Faculties of Hu Department of Veterinary Services, man and Veterinary Medicine of Al-Fa which provided the required veterinar teh University and the National Farm ians and technicians. The service em ers Association (see Figure 20). ployed approximately 300 veterinar The national committee reported dir ians and 1 200 technicians and veter ectly to the Secretary of Agriculture inary assistants, who worked at the and Land Development. It received central animal health and veterinary weekly reports from the municipal laboratories in Tripoli and in the net committees, which in turn received work of veterinary clinics distributed daily reports from the inspection teams throughout the country. They all com working in the infested areas. The chief bined their normal work with screw veterinary officers in the seven NWS worm campaign activities. free municipalities were also required The central committee formed in to undertake surveillance activities and spection teams to undertake preven report to the committee. tion, control and surveillance work in This structure was supported by the the infested municipalities. There were 36. The late Mr Bashir Said El Mabrouk, former Libyan ambassador to FAO (far left), chairing a screwworm action group meeting 128 Managing the campaign 94 teams operating by August 1989 SEC NA under the supervision of the municipal The FAO Director-General formed the committees and working from the vet Screwworm Emergency Centre for erinary clinics. North Africa (SECNA) on June 15, In Rome, the Libyan ambassador to 1990, instructing all FAQ departments, FAQ, the late H.E. Mr Bashir Said El divisions, regional and field officers to Mabrouk, was instrumental in coordi give the highest priority to any requests nating his government's effort with the by the centre for support. activities of FAQ and donors. He took several initiatives which contributed to the success of the preliminary stages of SECNA structure and functions the campaign . Mr Bashir Said died in a car accident in Libya, on November In line with the emergency nature of the 12, 1990, after chairing one of the most screwworm situation in North Africa, critical action group meetings of the Figure 21. Orga nization of the Screwworm programme (see Photo 36) . Em ergency Centre for North Africa (SECNA) Organization of the Screwworm Emergency Centre for North Africa (SECNA) DIRECTOR-GENERAL, FAO . SECNA HQ, ROME Director Coordination Senior operations officer Mexico-US Committee ""-- Technical officer ·-- Commission Information liaison officer representative Data management officer SECNA FIELD HEADQUARTERS, TRIPOLI Director Co-director Administrative officer I I I I I I cc 0 0 >- c 0) c ~~ 0 c 0 -.:: 0 g :;::; Cl> 0 E :J ~ 0 :J c ~ ~ :J 0 .0 c ~ .E l:J ·:; ·c a.> 0 QJ Qi Ee u .0 <( ti Cll l:J u:::: E:; __J 'Ci 0 c 0 UJ 0 Cll 129 The New World screwworm eradication programme FAO created SECNA with special Operations (ECLO), which he had di authority, designed to avoid any delays rected with considerable success. On in implementing the eradication pro November 1, 1991, after Dr Brader left gramme. FAO to take up the position of director The centre operated under the in general of the International Institute for structions of FAO's Director-General Tropical Agriculture (llTA), SECNA was and dealt directly with donors, coun transferred to the FAO Animal Produc tries at risk of NWS infestation and oth tion and Health Division, and the divi er relevant organizations. sion's new director, Dr E.P. Cunning Its director was given extensive del ham, was appointed SECNA director. egated authority to permit fast deci The immediate priorities for the new sions and to expedite operations for director were to continue the complex the programme, including the procure negotiations to finalize a contract with ment of supplies. the Mexico-United States Commission SECNA's structure - management and maintain efforts to ensure funding headquarters in Rome and a field pro for the eradication programme. gramme in Libya (see Figure 21) - was designed to facilitate a rapid flow of command and action. It was comple Headquarters mented by two committees: • an independent Technical Adviso SECNA headquarters in Rome com ry Committee, which undertook two prised the director and two full-time missions to Libya to monitor and eval specialists, senior operations officer Dr uate the technical aspects of the erad A.E. Sidahmed and technical officer Dr ication programme; M . Vargas-Teran. Later, the team was • a Coordination Committee, com joined by a computer data manage prising representatives of all involved ment officer, an information officer and UN agencies (FAO, IFAD, UNDP and a part-time media liaison officer (see IAEA), donors and the affected coun box on page 133). tries. The committee was responsible The headquarters team was respon for the coordination of all activities and sible for coordination of the technical for reviewing the progress of the pro and managerial aspects of the pro gramme, overviewing policy, endors gramme, including all financial matters, ing any major changes to the pro liaison with other FAO divisions and gramme and advising on administrative units, the recruitment of consultants and financial considerations. and coordination with donors and the countries at risk of infestation. It was also responsible for meetings Staffing of SECNA of the Coordination Committee and the Technical Advisory Committee Initially, SECNA was placed under the and for the preparation of detailed direction of Dr Lucas Brader, then dir progress reports on the eradication ector of the FAO Plant Production and programme. Protection Division; he was considered Management meetings, chaired by the most appropriate person to head the SECNA director and attended by the new body since it was modelled on the senior operations officer, the tech FAO's Emergency Centre for Locust nical officer and the field programme 130 Managing the campaign director and co-director, together with component of the eradication pro other senior staff as appropriate, were gramme (see box on page 133). held every two to three months Initially two SECNA staff members throughout the programme. They were were posted in Mexico, one as a spe held both in Tripoli and in Rome and cial programme representative at the were designed to streamline decision sterile fly production plant in Tuxtla making on programme activities (see Gutierrez and another as site coordina Photos 37 and 38). tor, based in Mexico City. The two po sitions were merged during the pro gramme into the role of site coordina Mexico site coordinator tor, based at Tuxtla Gutierrez, respon sible for general supervision and coor A SECNA representative was appoint dination of the weekly sterile NWS ed to the Mexico-US Commission, shipments to Libya and for the link be based at Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico, to tween MACES and SECNA during the assist in the coordination of the SIT eradication programme. The site coor- 37. A SECNA management programme co-director Dr M. officer Capt. L. Messick; and meeting. From right, field Abusowa; counterpart laboratory quality control chief, Dr J. programme director Dr D.A. chief Dr K. Mughadmi; Chirico Lindquist; SECNA director Dr communication and information E.P. Cunningham; field officer Dr M. Husni; aviation 131 The New World screwworm eradication programme dinator was also required to verify the was ostensibly in place by the end of sexual sterilization of the NWS flies 1990 (see box opposite). sent to Libya and to confirm the quality As is normal practice in United Na of the flies. tions field programmes, all senior inter national staff worked with local counter parts who were funded by the Libyan The field programme government. The SECNA field programme was established in Libya in August 1990, The field programme structure and a director, Dr D.A. Lindquist, appointed on August 17. Dr M. Abuso The field programme director reported wa was appointed co-director of the directly to the SECNA director at FAQ field programme in September. headquarters and was responsible for In Libya, the SECNA field pro all field activities, including manage gramme staff of international experts ment of all resources, programme 38. During the same programme director Dr D.A. Liera; senior epidemiology management meeting, from left, Lindquist; senior operations officer Dr R. Reichard administrative officer Mr F. officer Dr A. Sidahmed; Salvatori; SECNA director Dr technical officer Dr M. Vargas E.P. Cunningham; field Teran; surveillance chief Dr L. 132 Managing the campaign SECNA professional staff SECNA headquarters, Rome Dr E.P. CUNNINGHAM, Director AGA/ SECNA (Ireland) Dr A.E. SIDAHMED, Senior Operations Officer (Sudan) Dr M. VARGAS-TERAN, Technical Officer (Mexico) Mr S. BARNES, Information Officer (Australia) Ms M. KASSA, Computer Data Management Officer (Ethiopia) Mr P. McCORMICK, Media Liaison (United Kingdom) Field programme Director's office Epidemiology Dr D.A. LINDQUIST, Director (USA) Dr Robert E. REICHARD (USA) Dr M. ABUSOWA, Co-Dir. (Libya) Dr Mohammed ABU-DIAH (Libya) Dr Lennart SJOELAN D (Sweden) Mr Harry LAME (Netherlands) Administration Dr F.A. POUDEVIGNE (France) Dr Adele BENGERE (Libya) Mr Fernando SAL VA TORI (Italy) Field Aviation Dr Luis F. LIERA (Mexico) Capt. Larry MESSICK (USA) Dr Abubaker BELAZI (Libya) Mohammed EL-SHAWSH (Libya) Dr Arturo MARTINEZ (Mexico) Dr Musadek AMARA (Libya) Communication and information Dr Ju ma HAL OUN (Libya) Dr Lutfi TUNIS! (Libya) Dr Mohammed HUSNI (Libya) Dr D. BRUZZONE (Italy) Mr Fourat DRIDI (Tunisia) Mr Saydil-Moukhtar TOURE (Senegal) Distribution centre Laboratory Dr Eduardo RIOS (Mexico) Dr Rene GARCIA (Mexico) Dr Omar EL-RAIS (Libya) Dr Khalifa MUGHADMI (Libya) Dr Miguel Arturo CRUZ (Mexico) Dr Jan CHIRICO (Sweden) Mr Mamdouh TAHER (Jordan) Mexico Dr Salem EL-A YAN, Special Representative to Commission (Libya) Mr Fabio RODRIGUES-TORRES, FAO/SECNA Site Coordinator (Colombia) 133 The New World screwworm eradication programme strategy and its implementation. He • Epidemiology: headed by a senior also maintained close contact with the epidemiologist and staffed by an epi Libyan government on all matters re demiologist and two associate profes lated to the eradication programme. sional officers - an agricultural engi The co-director (who was also chair neer and a junior epidemiologist; man of the Libyan National Screw • Distribution centre: based at Trip worm Eradication Committee), was oli airport and headed by a senior offi jointly responsible for supervising the cer and various staff including disper field activities and for ensuring the sers (see Photo 35, the chapter open availability and coordination of Libyan er); government inputs to the eradication • Aviation: headed by an aviation programme. officer, who was responsible for coor The co-director also helped to dinating the aerial dispersal operations; streamline activities in Libya, by advis • Communication and information: ing on matters involving Libyan author headed by a Libyan communications ities and ensuring that effective and officer; continuous communication was main • Administration: headed by an ad tained with the Libyan government at ministrative officer. the highest levels. The Coordination Committee The field programme team This committee was established, as The SECNA field programme operated stipulated in the plan of operation for from a base in the central veterinary the screwworm eradication pro laboratories in Tripoli, with facilities in gramme, to coordinate all activities of cluding a diagnostic laboratory, a la the programme, overview policy, en boratory for quality control and a re dorse any major changes to the pro search and development department. gramme and advise on administrative As detailed in Chapter four, the field and financial matters. programme was divided into seven The committee's meetings were units, each headed by an international chaired by Assistant Director-General expert and his or her Libyan counter (Agriculture) Dr H. de Haen, and the part. A number of Libyan professional SECNA director Dr E.P. Cunningham, staff also worked in the units (see box with the SECNA senior operations offi on page 1 33). cer Dr A. Sidahmed acting as secretary. The staffing of the units was as fol It comprised representatives of all in lows: volved UN agencies, donors and af • Field unit: staffed by a senior sur fected countries (see Annex 3 for a full veillance officer, a trapping and collec list of representatives). The committee tion officer and two quality control ex met four times during the programme perts; - on June 11 and October 15, 1991 • Laboratory: headed by a senior and on February 12 and June 25, 1992. laboratory research and development Reports documenting the progress of officer and staffed by a quality control the eradication programme in detail chief and a quality control laboratory and providing up-to-date information development expert; on the programme's budget and fund- 134 Managing the campaign ing status were presented to partici progress of the eradication programme pants at each meeting. in Libya. It conducted two missions to These reports in fact form an impor Libya and prepared reports for presen tant chronological summary of the tation to the coordination committee. eradication programme, detailing all The members of the Technical Ad activities relating to the distribution of visory Committee were: sterile flies, surveillance, control and Dr N. Pineda Vargas, former director, quarantine activities, research and de Screwworm Eradication Programme in velopment work, the information and Mexico; Dr W. Takken, department of communication campaign and activ entomology, Wageningen Agricultural ities in neighbouring countries. University, the Netherlands; and Dr The progress report detailing the D.W. Anderson, former MACES general period from February 1 to May 31, 1991 subdirector, Mexico. was accompanied by a Technical Ad The committee's first mission to Lib visory Committee report and a special ya was from May 5 to 10 and the sec report on surveillance and prevention ond from August 31 to September 61 activities in neighbouring countries. 1991. The progress report for the period June Following its first mission the TAC 1 to August 31, 1 991 was accompa commented that SECNA, working in nied by the second report of the Tech collaboration with the Libyan govern nical Advisory Committee. Participants ment, had done an excellent job in es were also given executive summaries tablishing an effective management of three special studies on specific mat structure in a short time and in imple ters relating to the programme: A menting the many technical tasks nec Phenological Analysis of Screwworm essary for the programme. The TAC in Libya; Computerization and Analysis recommended that the fly release pro of SECNA Technical Data; and Eco gramme be maintained at least until nomic Impact of NWS Eradication from October of that year and that a full sur North Africa. veillance and quarantine programme Apart from the printed reports, mem should continue until at least May bers of the committee were given ver 1992. Based on observations of the bal presentations on the progress of the field programme's operations the TAC programme and were given the oppor made various recommendations on tunity to ask questions and discuss any how its activities could be strength relevant matters. ened. In this respect the meetings were an After the second mission, based on important opportunity to clear up any the excellent progress made in the concerns held by the representatives of eradication programme, the team con donor countries and organizations cluded that evidence was sufficient to about the programme. justify ending sterile fly releases in October of that year. The Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) Data analysis This committee acted as an indepen The emergency nature of the SECNA dent body to monitor and evaluate the programme meant that comprehensive 135 The New World screwworm eradication programme data analysis was retrospective, since Graphics, to enhance the quality of Lo time was insufficient during the actual tus 1-2-3 graphs; and WordPerfect, for campaign to conduct anything more report writing. Custom software was than basic and essential work in this written to handle such tasks as the clas area. A vast data base was accumulated sification of data and the transfer of during the programme, ranging from real-world coordinates to ILWIS coor census and environmental data dinates. through precise records of all surveil lance, quarantine and laboratory activ ities. Data As both hardware and software be came available, computers were used Data were gathered for inclusion in for data analysis relating to the pre dBASE IV in late 1991 from the SECNA paration of weekly and monthly re programme (case, trapping and quar ports by the field programme. antine data, for example) and from ex ternal sources including the Libyan Ministries of Planning and Agriculture, Staff regional development plans and agricultural census reports for 1987 as In Tripoli, the epidemiology unit had well as from satellite images and vari two experts working on computer data ous topographical and navigational analysis and, in Rome, the computer maps. data management officer was respon Staff were confronted with a major sible for compiling data for inclusion in problem in the area of spatial analysis reports. because of the lack of a consistent no menclature in the information available on geographical and administrative Software units in Libya. They found that, in Libya, there was The SECNA programme used three no common denominator for the differ main software packages for data analy ent administrative subdivisions, apart sis: Lotus 1-2-3 and dBASE IV for nu from areas called " branches" (the merical analysis and creation of graphs largest sub-unit of each municipality); a and charts; and ILWIS GIS (Integrated single branch could cover an area of Land and Water Management Informa several hundred square kilometres and tion System Geographical Information stretch from coastline into the desert. System) for spatial analysis. Staff at the SECNA field programme, To avoid the necessity of re-entering however, managed to adapt the data for every single analysis, master branch system to create a series of data bases were created using dBASE maps that detailed the number of NWS IV, which enabled the transport of data myiasis cases by animal species per to other software packages, using cus year, using ILWIS GIS. tom-written applications or standard Using GIS, maps were also pro software. duced which combined data on the lo Additional software used by SECNA cation and number of NWS myiasis included AutoCAD, to make high cases with data on the status of the quality output maps possible; Harvard land. 136 Managing the campaign Reporting system Laboratory • results of quality control tests on Technical information, compiled on a fly emergence, sex ratio, malformed weekly basis, was crucial to the effec adults, longevity tests (with and with tive planning, management and imple out food and water), sterility and total mentation of the SECNA field pro longevity by shift (meaning the shift of gramme operations. Data were pro workers handling the flies in Mexico); duced by the field programme's indi • results of pre- and post-release vidual units and submitted to the epi mortality and mobility tests by date, demiology unit for analysis; a final, shift, release area and flight time; weekly summary was sent to SECNA • transportation data, including pu headquarters in Rome for tabulation, pation date, irradiation date, packaging analysis and preparation of reports. date, number of boxes and pupae, Based on these reports, monthly date of transportation, duration of summaries were prepared, which then transportation, maximum and min provided the basis for the preparation imum temperature during transporta of the main progress reports on the tion (all by shift); programme, produced every four • graphs of temperature against time months for submission to the Coordi during transportation, by pallet posi nation Committee. tion in aircraft; The type of data produced on a • numbers of positive and negative weekly basis by the field programme is egg masses collected; summarized as follows: • numbers of sterile and fertile fe Field unit male flies dissected; • number of animals inspected • numbers of negative and positive weekly in the surveillance areas, by larvae identified; species and municipality; • results of research and develop • number of larva samples submit ment activities. ted by inspection teams for laboratory Aviation and distribution identification (whether positive or neg • map of distribution grids showing ative for screwworm) by species and densities of sterile flies dispersed; municipality; • detailed data on distribution • date, host species and location flights, including kilometres flown, time (using municipality and map coordi of flight, altitude, boxes dispet'sed and nates) of positive and negative larva frequency of dispersal by grid. samples (done monthly); Epidemiology • all details on quarantine activities, These weekly reports consisted including the number of animals enter basically of additional analyses of data ing and leaving the control areas, by provided by the other units and the species and inspection post, the num production of relevant maps and ber of animals sprayed, the number of charts, including: wounds detected and .treated; • maps and charts of animal census • reports on fly catches, including data; data on the total number of male and • maps showing surveillance areas female screwworm flies, number of and distribution of surveillance teams, traps operating and data on temper fly traps and control posts; ature and rainfall. • maps showing geographical 137 The New World screwworm eradication programme distribution of screwworm and non area in Libya. The preparation of con screwworm myiasis cases by time period; tracts for these activities was handled • maps of trap catches of fertile and by the contracts branch of FAO's Ad infertile NWS flies by time period; ministrative Services Division. The • maps showing dispersal grids and branch was headed at the time by Mr densities of flies dispersed; Anton Doeve. • analysis of myiasis cases by spe cies and municipality; • analysis of the relationship be The Mexico-US Commission tween climate and screwworm cases; agreement • analysis of ratios of sterile and wild female flies captured by trap group. The Commission's sterile fly produc The unit was also involved in: tion plant at Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico, • analysis of data from quarantine was the only place in the world which posts to give more precise information produced sterile flies. At the time the on the sources and destinations of an Mexico-United States agreement was imals moving into and out of the con signed, in 1972, the NWS had never trol area; been found outside its natural range in • revision and review of reporting the Americas, thus it stipulated that formats; sterile flies could not be sold or sent • preparation of contingency oper outside the Americas. ational control plans under different FAO had made an initial approach outbreak scenarios within and outside to the US government in No"vember the control area, and under different 1989, requesting the provision of ster degrees of operational difficulty. ile flies from the plant for use in a North Following the end of the main erad African eradication programme. Con ication programme, the unit undertook sequently, in March 1990, US Presi a comprehensive analysis of all data dent George Bush signed legislation generated during the programme. permitting the sale of the flies any where in the world. The achievement of a contract Contracts which was suitable to both FAO and the joint Mexico-US Commission was a Following the decision to eradicate time-consuming process, involving the NWS in North Africa using the complicated and protracted contrac sterile insect technique, it was neces tual negotiations from July to Novem sary to determine which aspects of ber 1990. It was necessary to have the the eradication programme could be agreement of not only the two organi performed by FAO and which need zations, but also of the US State De ed to be subcontracted to outside partment, the US Department of Agri bodies. culture (USDA) and the US Treasury, It had become clear that three ma as w ell as the equivalent bodies in jor components of the programme M exico. should be undertaken by contractors: Since the Commission was jointly the production of sterile flies; the funded by the United States and Mex transport of the flies to Libya; the dis ican governments, it was necessary to persal of the flies over the infested determine how it would deal with 138 Managing the campaign funds being provided by a third source tations; SECNA staff were extremely (FAO) before a final agreement could worried about the impact on the pro be reached. gramme' s effectiveness if the com A contract was originally drawn up mencement date for the pilot pro by FAO's contracts branch and submit gramme was further delayed. ted to the Commission. After consider In November, a final version of the ing this draft, the Commission drew up agreement was presented to FAO by another contract, which, after several the Mexico-US Commission, with the months of negotiations and modifica proviso that no further alterations tions, became the final agreement be could be made. However, the con tween the two bodies. tract contained a clause in which Under the agreement, the Mexico MACES specifically disclaimed liability US Commission agreed to provide the in the event that a screwworm fly maximum number of sterile NWS flies was not sterilized, thus resulting in the required for the eradication pro release of a fertile screwworm fly in gramme per week, at cost price. For Libya. mulae for the calculation of this cost The issue of liability posed a signif price were agreed ,on. icant obstacle to achieving a final The Tuxtla Gutierrez plant was also agreement as all three parties - responsible for packaging the flies and MACES, FAO and the Libyan govern performing predeparture quality con ment - in effect refused to accept le trol tests. Records were to be provided gal responsibility for the release of a to FAO on production, sterilization, fertile fly. quality control, packaging and trans Concerned at the prospect of vexa portation of the flies. tious litigation by a country with which FAO agreed to fund the necessary it had no legal or diplomatic relations, remodelling of the Tuxtla Gutierrez the United States government had en plant and the purchase of equipment, sured that the liability disclaimer was to enable it to increase sterile fly pro inserted into the contract. duction to the required level. The Libyan authorities, concerned that there may not be 100 percent ster ility, also stood firm on the issue and Complex negotiations refused to accept liability. This created significant problems for FAO, which As contractual negotiations continued normally operated projects with in into November, the need to finalize demnities by national governments and sign the agreement became ur against legal claims and therefore gent, and the situation took on an air of could not accept liability under the high drama. The pilot release of sterile MACES contract. flies in Libya had originally been sched Confronted with the reality that ur uled to begin in November 1990 to gent action needed to be taken in Lib take advantage of the naturally low ya, FAQ's Director-General instructed screwworm population during the that the contract be finalized, despite cooler months of the year. the serious concerns about the liability Screwworm cases had been very issue. He stipulated, however, that high from July to November, peaking there had to be an agreement with the in September at 2 932 confirmed infes- Libyan government on the matter. 139 The New World screwworm eradication programme Agreement reached Tuxtla Gutierrez by truck for Mexico City airport. The only further require Following two days of intensive discus ment was that the fully signed docu sion in Tripoli between SECNA and ment be registered with the appropri Libyan authorities, including the late ate officer at the United States Embassy Libyan ambassador to FAO, Mr Bashir in Mexico City. Said El-Mabrouk, the liability issue was A major, last-minute hitch occurred resolved on November 12, 1990 to the when it was discovered that the offi extent that an agreement could be cer had left the city and could not be reached. contacted. At this stage the truck car In a major show of diplomacy, Mr rying the first shipment, which was Bashir Said suggested that the pro half-way between Tuxtla Gutierrez gramme should go ahead on the basis and Mexico City, was called back to of the contract document as it stood, the production plant and the shipment which meant in effect that the Libyan cancelled because the agreement had government accepted liability. Mr not been finalized. Bashir Said was killed in a car accident The action was greeted with incre following the meeting. His contribu dulity at FAO in Rome. Frustrated by tion was later described by the SECNA the delay to the start of the eradication director as "a victory for common programme, FAO ensured that the sense". shipment could be transported to Trip oli the following week. Two days after all bureaucratic Problems continue obstacles were finally overcome, on December 12, 1991 , the first shipment The problems were not yet over, as of flies left the Mexico plant, arriving in FAO discovered when the signatures of Libya on December 14. the relevant authorities in the United States and Mexico were required. FAO had already set the date for the German Cargo Services first shipment of sterile flies to leave Mexico on December 1, 1990, and all The massive and complex task of trans arrangements were in place for their porting the sterile flies to Libya was put transport from Tuxtla Gutierrez to Trip to international tender by FAO. A ma oli. Following the agreement with the jor consideration in awarding the con Libyan authorities on November 12, tract was that the successful tender the contract went back to the United submitted the right specifications for States, where it remained for some transport of the flies. weeks in Washington, D.C., waiting for Two tenders were called, one for the signatures from the US State Depart pilot project of the preparatory phase ment and the USDA. and another for the main eradication It was then sent to Mexico for signa programme. For the first contract, three tures from the Ministries of Agriculture firms submitted bids, and for the sec and Foreign Affairs. FAO's representa ond 22 firms from 14 countries. Ger tive in Mexico obtained the final signa man Cargo Services was eventually ture on November 30, one day before awarded both contracts to transport the first shipment of flies was to leave the sterile flies to Libya. 140 Managing the campaign Contract details Tripoli, the first leg of the journey being by regular scheduled air freight. From To ensure the quality of the flies arriv May 3, it was responsible for their ing in Tripoli, their transportation ac transportation directly from the plant at cording to exact specifications was Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico to Tripoli air critical. The contract therefore outlined port. requirements regarding loading and unloading time, the manner in which the flies were loaded on to and stored The Libyan Aeroclub in the aircraft, the temperature within the aircraft, the duration of the flight The Aeroclub was awarded the con and other considerations. tract for the aerial dispersal of the ster Under the contract, the contractor ile flies in Libya after responding to the was also required to provide details to call for international tenders with the FAO on the conditions under which lowest bid. each flight took place - information which would be useful in determining the causes of any reduction in the qual Contract details ity of the flies. The contract outlined exact specifica tions for the actual aircraft, the qualifi Transport arrangements cations of the crew, the conditions of dispersal (including handling of the During the pilot phase and the first boxed flies and the method of disper months of the main eradication pro sal), the frequency of flights, the neces gramme, German Cargo Services was sity of maintaining detailed flight rec responsible for the charter transport of ords and modifications to the aircraft to the sterile flies only from Frankfurt to accommodate the dispersal chutes. 141 Chapter six Money matters The New World screwworm eradication programme he outstanding and rapid suc TABLE 7: NEW PROGRAMME BREAKDOWN OF OVERALi cess of the screwworm eradica FUNDING SOURCES (in US$) Ttion programme in North Africa not only saved the Eastern Hemisphere Initial phase 3 700 000 from the threat of a dangerous pest, but (FAO, Libya, UNDP) it also saved the international com munity millions of dollars. Pilot phase * 10 700 000 Originally estimated to cost (Libya, IFAD, AfDB, UNDP, IAEA, FAO) US$117 .5 million in 1990, the actual eradication programme was complet Eradication programme 60 600 000 Multidonor funds** 32 600 000 ed in one year instead of two at a cost Libyan co ntribution (cash) 11 400 000 of US$66.6 million. The entire pro Libyan contribution (in kind) 14 600 000 gramme, including the initial and pre Neighbouring countries (in kind) 2 000 000 paratory phases, the eradication pro gramme, the continuation of ground Total 75 000 000 operations until June 1992, an emer gency restart plan and a preventive * The major share of this cost (eq uivalent to $7 .5 million) was the Lib programme, cost US$75 million (plus yan government contribution which also included some expense~ incurred during the initial phase. an additional US$5.1 million in bilat ** Does not include bilateral donations: The EC allocated an addition eral donations to Libya and neighbour al $1 .1 million to Egypt, $1 .1 million to Tunisia and $438 000 to Al ing countries) (see Table 7). geria; lsDB allocated an additional $1 million to Libya and $1.5 mil· lion divided equally among the neighbouring countries - Algeria In addition to these major savings, Chad, Egypt, the Niger, Morocco, the Sudan and Tunisia; the USP an independent study on the econom allocated an additional $1 million to Egypt. ic impact of the screwworm in North Africa put the annual regional benefit of eradication at more than US$300 million at a benefit/cost ratio of 50:1 (see box on opposite page). TABLE 8: TECHNICAL COOPERATION Revised budgets for the programme PROGRAMME PROJECTS FOR NWS were prepared in planned stages, with CONTROL/ERADICATION (in US$) summaries of expenditure and esti mates presented to donors at each meet First-line countries ing of the Coordination Committee. Algeria 250 000 Chad 305 000 Egypt 250 000 Funding arrangements Libya 345 000 Niger 250 000 Funding sources for the programme Sudan 150 000 Tunisia 250 000 were divided into three main groups: multidonor (including governments Regional project 400 000 and institutions), United Nations agen cies and the Libyan government, which Second-line countries 225 000 contributed both in cash and in kind to Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Djibouti, each phase of the programme. Neigh Ethiopia, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, bouring countries contributed in kind Nigeria, Senegal, Somalia for their own surveillance and control Total 2 425 000 programmes. 144 Money matters Economic impact NWS eradication from North Africa and production losses were based on resulted in an annual benefit of a decline in production of 4 percent US$300 million for the region, and an annual treatment/ surveillance according to a special study cost of US$1.10 per head of livestock. commissioned by SECNA and To reflect values more accurately in completed in September 1991. international terms, the dollar figures The study, The Economic Impact of were calculated at a "parallel" NWS Eradication from North Africa, by exchange rate rather than at the Mr John Grindle of Rural Development official direct exchange rate. In International, showed a benefit/cost addition, international prices rather ratio for the region of 50: 1 . than local prices were used . Assessments were also made for the The benefit/cost ratios were more infested area alone and for Libya. In favourable when accounted in Libyan the infested area, the saving was prices. They were 5: 1 for the infested estimated at US$9.3 million annually, zone and 10: 1 for the whole of Libya. with a benefit/cost ratio of 1.5 :1. For Libya as a whole, the saving was US$18.9 million annually, with a benefit/ cost ratio of 3:1. On the basis of these figures, the study concluded that the eradication programme was clearly justified on the basis of the benefits to Libya alone. " For the region as a whole the returns depend on the risk of spread and the rate of spread . Even a 50 percent chance of its spread over a period of ten years would suggest a benefit/cost ratio of around 10:1 ," the study concluded. The study noted that the high returns were not surprising, since the costs related to a small area within Libya, while the benefits accrued to the entire region and beyond. The figures presented in the Stl!dY were calculated by comparing the savings made by avoiding the costs of ongoing treatment and production losses with the actual cost of the programme and a continuing annual cost for surveillance and control. Estimates of the cost of treatment 145 The New World screwworm eradication programme TABLE 9: SOURCES AND ALLOCATION OF FUNDS FOR THE PREPARATORY PHASE (in US$) Sources Equipment Purchase Transport Dispersal GOE of funds Personnel and Total of flies of flies of flies and DOR* supplies · 1FAD 361 168 157 843 286 610 138 600 105 779 1 050 000 AfDB 839 750 37 8 064 32 186 800 000 UNDP 205 000 325 000 530 000 IAEA 507 000 FAO 200 000 30 000 230 000 Libya 7 500 000 Total 405 000 1 105 918 157 843 664 674 138 600 137 965 10 617 000 * General operating expenses and direct operating expenses. The US$3.7 million initial phase was TABLE 10: NWS ERADICATION PROGRAMME, funded by FAO through Technical SOURCES OF MULTIDONOR FUNDS (in US$) Cooperation Projects (US$2.5 million) (see Table 8) and the joint Libyan gov Sources of funds Payments ernment/UNDP US$1.25 million cost Governments sharing project, to which the Libyan Australia 232 558 government contributed US$1 million Austria 755 487 Belgium 1 000 000 and UNDP contributed US$250 000. Finland 761 85 3 The US$10.6 million preparatory France 2 000 000 Germany 3 639 000 phase (including the pilot release of Ireland 200 000 sterile flies) was funded by the Libyan Italy 894 784 government (US$7.5 million), IFAD Luxembourg 143 300 Netherlands 2 045 824 (US$1 .05 million), the African Devel Spain 160 000 opment Bank (AfDB) (US$800 000), Sweden 2 287 082 UNDP (US$530 000) and IAEA United Kingdom 1 884 550 United States* 6 000 000 (US$507 000) as well as FAO Institutions (US$230 bOO) (see Table 9). Further AfDB 4 000 000 funds were provided by UNDP, AfDB EC ** 2 466 583 and IFAD for activities in neigh IFAD 4 000 000 lsDB*** 2 458 109 bouring countries. UNDP provided OPEC fund 200 000 US$108 333 each to Tunisia and WWF 10 000 Egypt; IFAD provided US$105 875; Total 35 139 130 and the AfDB provided US$71 250 to * Additional $1 million allocated for activities each of Algeria, the Sudan and Moroc in Egypt. co and a further US$32 186 for the ** Additional $1 million allocated for activities in Egypt, 1 million for Tunisia and 438 000 programme. for Algeria. In total, the multidonor component *** Additional $1 .042 million contributed direct of the main eradication programme ly to Libya and $1 .5 million disbursed equally among the neighbouring countries: amounted to US$35.1 million (US$2.5 Algeria, Chad, Egypt, the Niger, Morocco, million were pledged but not received the Sudan and Tunisia. 146 Money matters as of May 1992) (see Table 10). The TABLE 11: LIBYAN CONTRIBUTION IN CASH Libyan government contributed (in US$) US$11 .4 million in cash and US$14.6 million in kind (see Tables 11 and 12). Description Amount A further US$2 million was contributed in kind by neighbouring countries in Personnel (national incentives) 8 842 868 support of their own programmes. General operating expenses 2 536 235 The funds provided from these Total 11 379 103 sources were also used for the continu ation of ground operations, at a cost of just under US$4 million, from the end of the main eradication programme in October 1991 to the declaration that Libya was screwworm-free in June 1992; they were also put toward the US$2.5 million preventive programme, TABLE 12: LIBYAN CONTRIBUTION IN KIND designed to complete the eradication programme by securing the gains Description Libyan dinars* made and to minimize the possibility of Personnel (national counterparts) 2 152 800 any further outbreaks in the region (see supporting field staff, Table 13). administrative support Duty travel 986 500 Supplies 100 000 Donors Premises 660 000 The first donors pledging conference, Training 10 000 held in July 1990 at IFAD headquar Total 3 909 300 ters, was organized jointly by IFAD and Total in US$ $14 641 573 FAO. It had been preceded by two do * 1990 US$1 = 0.267 Libyan dinars. nor consultations, held in January and May 1990 (the first convened by !FAD and the second by FAO). The purpose of the consultations had been to advise potential donors of the screwworm situ- ation in North Africa and to outline pro- posals for an eradication programme. TABLE 13: PREVENTIVE PROGRAMME In June 1990, FAO had led a tech- BUDGET (in US$) nical formulation mission to Libya (with the participation of IFAD, UNDP and North Africa risk reduction 1 340 000 IAEA) which resulted in the preparation Risk reduction in endemic areas 250 000 of a programme for the eradication of Research contracts 520 000 the NWS from Libya using SIT. The members of this important Travel 150 000 mission were: Dr A. Sidahmed, Dr General operating expenses 120 000 D.A. Lindquist, Dr M. Vargas-Teran, Direct operating expenses 91 000 Dr M. Abusowa and technical officer Total 2 471 000 Mr G. Panayoti, IFAD representative 147 The New World screwworm eradication programme Dr M. Shagroun and UNDP represen Budget revisions tative Mr E. Murat. The resulting document outlined in Responsibility for the preparation and detail both a plan of operation and review of budgets was held by the the financial requirements of the pro SECNA senior operations officer. posed US$117.5 million two-year In line with the agreed financial man programme, covering the cost of the agement of the programme, budget re p u· r c h as e of st e r i I e fl i e s a n d t h e i r views were conducted in regular inter transportation to Libya, staffing, logis vals throughout the eradication pro tic support, training and equipment. gramme. Apart from the original bud At that point the Libyan government get estimates of July 1990 and the re was expected to contribute US$26 vised version of January 1991, five ma million while US$91 million was re jor revisions were made. quired from donors. (Since the activ The first revision was presented to the ities funded by the Libyan govern Coordination Committee meeting on ment contribution were largely con June 11, 1991. Based on the rapid suc nected with monitoring, surveillance cess of the sterile fly dispersal operation and quarantine, its final contribution during the early months of 1991, the ac remained the same). tual project was revised. Plans to con The document was presented to tinue the use of SIT in 1992 were sus donor representatives at the pledging pended, and it was decided to reduce conference as the basis on which they the maximum deliveries of sterile flies in would then make their funding com 1991 to 40 million per week. The conse mitments. quent budgetary changes meant that the The conference yielded US$30.2 multidonor funds required were scaled million in funding pledges from 13 down from the original US$91 million to countries and six agencies, of which US$45 million. US$5 million was made available im In July, following three months of mediately. These funds enabled the freedom from screwworm cases and recruitment of international experts no further evidence of wild NWS flies and the ordering of US$3.2 million in the infested zone from trapping data, worth of equipment for the main erad it was decided to end the SIT operation ication programme in 1990. on October 15, 1991 (provided no fur A second donors conference, called ther cases occurred). The second bud jointly by FAO and !FAD and held at get revision, therefore, further reduced IFAD headquarters, took place on Feb multidonor fund requirements to ruary 12, 1991, as the programme's pi US$34 million for 1991; a third revi lot phase was being completed and the sion in September reduced it again to main eradication was getting under US$31 million. way. A revised eradication programme However, at the same time, plans project document was presented to the were formulated to secure the gains of donors. The conference resulted in a the eradication programme by undertak further US$8.6 million being pledged, ing appropriate preventive action. Plans with another US$9 million indicated as for this final phase of the programme a possibility, bringing the total amount were presented at the October 15 Coor to be provided for the programme to dination Committee meeting. US$46 million. Apart from provisions for the orderly 148 Money matters run-down of the programme, including revision reflected a reduction in the to the maintenance of ground operations tal programme requirement (including to the end of June 1992, a US$2.2 mil the preventive phase) to US$32.6 mil lion emergency restart programme to lion. Most of the savings were under cope with any further outbreaks and a the equipment component and reflect · US$3 million preventive programme ed the closing figures of the accounts for the region were proposed, at a total for 1991. cost of US$7 million, bringing the total requirement for multidonor funds to just over US$38 million. Institutional arrangements At this point (the end of September 1991 ), it was estimated that the cost of Project agreements for the pilot pro the entire project, incorporating all gramme and the main eradication pro phases, would be US$81.7 million. gramme provided the necessary finan cial and legal support. A tripartite agreement was signed by Final budget arrangements the Libyan government, FAO and IFAD for the pilot project in June 1990. The continued success of the eradica In February 1991, FAO, IFAD and tion programme enabled a further re the governments of Libya, Algeria, duction in the budget in February Chad, Egypt, the Niger, the Sudan and 1992. The revised estimates were dis Tunisia signed the agreement for the cussed at the third Coordination Com main eradication programme. mittee meeting on February 12, 1992. The internationally funded compon Revised estimates for the preventive ents of the main programme were fin programme were reduced to US$2.5 anced from a single trust fund, estab million and the total requirement for lished by FAO in Rome. Another trust multidonor funds was reduced to fund was established by FAO in Tripoli US$35.7 million, bringing the total cost for the deposits of the Libyan govern of the programme to US$78.2 million ment cash contribution. (as previously outlined). While SECNA headquarters was res The preventive programme is de ponsible for all financial matters during tailed in the Conclusion. the campaign, the field programme A further revision was discussed at was given authority to disburse US dol the SECNA management meeting, held lars and local currency through UNDP in Tunis on April 29 and 30, 1992. This and a local bank account respectively. 149 Chapter seven Involving the public 39 . A successful communication campaign was implemented in Libya by a team led by veterinarian Dr Mohammed Husni The New World screwworm eradication programme ommunication and information mation unit. The strategy was then im activities were more than a plemented by the unit, under the direc C support to the resolution of the tion of Libyan veterinarian, Dr Mo screwworm problem in North Africa - hammed Husni, whose considerable they were part of the solution. skills and communication flair resulted An intensive campaign to inform the in a highly successful local campaign. general public and livestock owners in • International public information the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya of all stages and publicity had the support of the of the control and eradication pro FAO Information Division, coordinated gramme and enlist their support and by the director, Mr R. Lydiker. participation in the NWS activities, SECNA headquarters' information combined with similar activities in activities were further strengthened by neighbouring countries and a well the employment of a part-time, Rome coordinated international publicity based information officer, who was campaign, ensured that the NWS had responsible for the preparation of a an extremely high profile for the monthly NWS newsletter which pro duration of the programme. vided constant updates on the eradica In Libya, a dynamic multimedia com tion programme. For a number of munication and information campaign months SECNA also employed a media kept public attention focused on the liaison officer to coordinate contacts NWS at all stages of the programme. with the media. Even young children knew about the pest and the danger it posed both to animals and themselves. Meanwhile, FAQ activities the obvious news potential of the North African emergency ensured that In July 1989, the development support the international media was keen to communication branch became in pick up the story. The Italian press volved in the Screwworm Action dubbed the NWS the "mosca assas Group to assist with the development sina" and the English described it as a of a communication strategy and ac type of "flying piranha": evocative tion plan to support the screwworm phrases which quickly drew public at programme. tention to the dangerous insect. A communication consultant was The communication and information sent to Libya in July to act as a resource component of the screwworm eradica person for the regional training work tion programme was divided into two shop held in Tripoli. Later in the year main areas: another consultant, a graphic artist, • Communication activities in the was employed to prepare a commun field, mainly addressing livestock own ication and information strategy for the ers, were initially developed and coor screwworm campaign. He visited dinated by the development support Egypt and also collected and reviewed communication branch (under the di visual material that had been used in rection of Ms S. Balit) of the FAO In the Mexican screwworm eradication formation Division. A strategy was fur campaign. ther developed by an FAO expert in The consultants were employed consultation with the SECNA field under FAO Technical Coopera programme communication and infor- tion Programme projects, already 152 Involving the public approved for the North African region, to assess national resources in the re Egypt, Algeria, Chad and the Niger. gion to implement a communication They were graphic artist Mr S. Willby strategy. and communications experts Mr M. Two sets of four posters and si x in Agamia and Mr L. Boukchina. formation cards were produced: one Mr Willby was required to identify set for use in Libya, Tunisia and Alge the necessary communication activities ria, where livestock owners generally in the North African region, identify wear trousers (see Photos 40 and 41) and create initial messages and pre and another for use in Egypt, the Sudan pare a draft communication strategy. and parts of Chad, where livestock The two other consultants were re owners generally dress in a long white quired to provide back-up support, to garment called a ga/abia. The material test the visual materials produced and was field-tested in Egypt with good 40. Examples of the printed JJ-:l-1 J..UI IL - " material produced for the ~ o~ ;i,.;.JW ~~ ....-----...,..,...,~.-----. eradication programme .:..J.t.J' ; .. 4 :;,_,\._:..1 iJ'..=-"\"1 .:)~.._, y,., . ~ .!.l;,u.U .:...~·. .1..-\.:,la...:! · y~~" t!t': 153 The New World screwworm eradication programme results and was printed in Arabic, and crossbones with the message English and French and distributed in "Screwworms can attack all your an Libya and surrounding countries. imals"; on the reverse side, they car All posters carried the simple mes ried illustrations and messages on the sage " Protect your animals against need for inspection and treatment of screwworm", supported by particular animals, reporting of myiasis and how messages relating to the activity depict to use the larva sampling and treatment ed on each poster such as "Treat all kit. wounds with the preventive and cura Slide sets showing cases of screw tive powder", "Take samples of larvae worm myiasis were compiled for use in from deep in the wound and report to the regional training programmes and the veterinary or agricultural official" local training activities. A video pro and "Do not transport animals with gramme on the Mexican eradication wounds or larvae infestation". programme was translated into Arabic The set of six cards depicted a skull and French for use in information and 41. Messages related to the activity depicted on the poster l;J>i o~J~I ~ ~U~ ~ filb ~~IJ ~1'jl J~ C~ ~ j ~ ~ 154 Involving the public training in the affected North African Communication and public countries. It was also shown on tele information in Libya vision in countries throughout the region, including Libya. When the Libyan government formed its National Screwworm Committee in May 1989, the director of the Tripoli Zoo veterinary hospital (Dr Husni), was Communication strategy appointed to head a communication and information unit with the aim of in Following the decision to use the sterile forming and educating the public, par insect technique to eradicate the New ticularly livestock owners, about the World screwworm in North Africa, a NWS. communication strategy was prepared The campaign drew on local knowl for the programme in March 1990. Its edge of the social and cultural charac main objective was to assist the gov teristics of Libyan livestock owners. ernments of Libya and neighbouring Si nee the pest had never before countries to develop their own com been found outside its natural range in munication campaigns. the Americas, it represented a com The strategy proposed a multimedia pletely new threat in Libya. Farmers campaign, including the use of posters, and veterinarians alike had not seen leaflets, radio and television spots, the screwworm larvae before and were videos, slide sets and film strips, as understandably shocked by the de well as face-to-face communication struction and suffering they caused. with the public, specifically livestock An action plan was developed to owners. alert farmers and the general public to The aim of the communication cam the screwworm threat and to support paign was to create an awareness the work of the inspection teams by among livestock owners and the gen advising and encouraging livestock eral public of the screwworm control owners to inspect their animals regularly, and eradication programme to gain to treat all wounds and to report all both their support and participation in cases of myiasis to the local veterinary the programme. clinic or the inspection teams. A Regional Information Committee Using FAO communication strategy for North Africa was formed by IFAD, as a guide, the unit implemented a with representatives from Libya and campaign that was without doubt a the neighbouring countries to ensure a major success. coordinated approach to the commu The campaign was divided into three nication campaign. main phases: A communications officer was em • an initial phase to inform and edu ployed by SECNA in September 1990 cate the public and livestock owners to work in Libya to assist in planning about the danger of the screwworm and implementing a communication and to encourage them to treat all an programme. After his departure, the imal wounds, report cases of myiasis national team took full responsibility and cooperate with local veterinary for communication and information staff, livestock inspection teams and activities (see Photo 39, the chapter quarantine stations; opener). • the eradication phase, involving 155 The New World screwworm eradication programme an intensive communication drive to information about the use of chemicals inform the public and livestock owners to treat wounds and warned about the about the sterile insect technique and need to protect children from the flies. the distribution of sterile flies. During this phase the basic education and in formation campaign was strengthened. Television and radio • the follow-up to the eradication programme, which aimed to ensure Radio was used extensively, because it that people understood that, while it was the best medium for reaching an had been announced that the pest had imal herders, who generally worked in been eradicated, it was extremely im isolated conditions. During the erad portant to remain vigilant. Livestock ication programme, regular radio and owners were urged to continue treat television programmes were broad ing wounds, to report all cases of myia cast, including interviews, talk shows sis and to continue to support the work and up-to-date bulletins on the pro of inspection teams and local veterin gress of the programme such as details ary staff. of the numbers of flies released and The campaign used posters and leaf whether any screwworm cases had lets, radio and television. It also con been confirmed and where. The com centrated on face-to-face meetings munication unit also participated in a with livestock owners and the general weekly agricultural programme on the public. radio. The target audience was divided into A 20-minute special television pro three main groups - livestock owners, gramme, outlining the screwworm the general public and veterinary staff campaign in detail, was also produced. and technicians. Television and radio programmes were generally produced in coopera tion with the Agricultural Information Assessing needs Service of the Libyan Secretariat of Agriculture. Livestock owners in the infested area As required, news bulletins were were surveyed to determine literacy released for television and radio levels, reading habits, whether or not broadcast and for publication in Arabic they watched television and listened to language newspapers. the radio and whether they preferred Several videos were produced for to receive information in their own television broadcasts and for use at local language or in formal Arabic. They meetings with farmers and the public. were also questioned on their daily One short animated video depicted activities to determine the most appro what happened when a sterile male priate times to broadcast information NWS mated with a wild female. Anoth on radio and television. er was produced to explain, in story On the basis of the survey, a series of telling style, about the sterile flies and posters and leaflets were developed, their production in Mexico. and television spots showing the In collaboration with the Agricultural screwworm fly and larvae and the Information Service of the Secretariat NWS life cycle were produced and of Agriculture, a film for television and broadcast. Other television spots gave several radio dramas were produced 156 Involving the public about the screwworm; in collaboration ing a giant fly standing over a herd of with Egypt and Tunisia a light drama frightened sheep and another showing was filmed about how one family dealt an NWS fly buzzing around a cow with their screwworm-infested cow looking for a wound in which it could and dog. lay its eggs. The cow, however, happily informed the fly that it had no wounds because of the vigilance and care of its Posters and printed materials owner. The written messages were simple and concise, stressing the need A popular and able Libyan cartoonist, to inspect animals and treat all wounds Mr Mohammed El-Zawawi, was com (see Photo 42). missioned to design posters for the A series of brochures was produced campaign, using his popular caricature to coincide with the launch of the SIT style. programme. Four brochures, printed in The emphasis in the posters was on Arabic, were designed to strengthen strong visual images, with one portray- communication and information ac- ·· UM.! ' ~ ' ~ ~~::~:~,t.~: .c.:,.'i.-\~\Uz:,_>.1~,_.c.1.,\a; • . ;.,.~;a,IJl,.'fz:;.fAIC:Ju. • ~ .Jpol \~1.;...~~:.i1>\3.>~J . l'~~ij~,; ~~\-:~~·~;;;:r;; . -;:-:' ' ,;':"'.' -::".' ;:7.'" 7: .. -:--~: ' ~~ " • O " ~ 0 0 I ~ 0 • I 0 D 0 I ' 0 0 ft O 0 o I ..:.-'t 0 Q 0 ' I • o 0 I 0 o • I 0 0 o I " ~ o I o 0 ' o ..._,, ...... ~. "" " '' ., . , ...' ... ' _.,, ' . ;: ~ : ::: :: ·:;:: :::: ::~: :::;: ~7. ,' ' .JJJ. - u:" :· -' : J'- .JJ> f ..r).J.J. ' ... , l)ut1 / Ui . '0 1 J.."• -ll~l'lt-" -lLl't~.b ) J... "' ...... · ~ .... . ~. >....; - >4 ... ' ...... " '' " "''" • ••• ••• • • • O• • •• • ..__,, : ::: ~ :: : :::: :;::: :::: ~: : : s . : :~ ::~ ; · ~ :: ;::; ~ ::: :,·; : :~· ••.\) .... ····· ... , ...... __ ,.. ~ i'lll ~- ~, ._,J l)...o: • ...... ,_... - ·.:.. ,. ~::: ~ ; :::: · :::: ~·:: : : . : ~!::: :::: ':~ ~::::r : :::: ::: :-. ~: :: : :'. ~: : : . ::: :; ~ = l, • _-.!' < ill • • • O • • • .! . I )I • • • o ; ~ • IO • I • " • • I ; A.o\.JI s 1t••, • ••••·: • • • •• t- •••• 'l ••••• r ••• , ,_..,.. ~...... ~ . ~ ;;:-.;. ; ;..-_;; ~,;.; -.- ~ ,;.:'" ~ ~ = :; y; ~: :: ;:: :: ~-~ ::;: '. :~ ::: c;~:: ~ ;a '.• 0 •• • '11 •••• -· · •• rt ...... ; ..... ,~ . ••••• <.;;.11 , •• "" ••._ !':ii • • ••• ~ , ... ~·.. •••• . · ·~ : A!I!. . •••• ):!; •••• ...... ·· :.c-...... ,._..Al •~ •O"'"I• ~. •a.J I• "' · " • a • • ."'llL'!.•. !•• :. ~ _ I ll•-· ~ 42. A popular Libyan cartoonist was commissioned to design posters and other printed material for the campaign 157 The New World screwworm eradication programme tivities and conveyed messages on an A highlight was certainly a visit by imal quarantine, precaution measures, the Libyan leader, Colonel Moammar treatment of wounds, protection mea El Quadaffi, on July 28, 1991, to the sures for humans and on the SIT itself SECNA field programme headquarters. (see Photo 43). Col. Quadaffi toured the facility, spoke A screwworm campaign logo was with staff and was given an outline of designed specifically for use in Libya, the programme. The event was widely to draw public attention to the pro covered in the Libyan media. gramme (see Photo 44). The post-eradication Face-to-face meetings programme With the launch of the main eradica During the final phase of the strategy, tion programme, the emphasis shifted livestock owners were encouraged to toward direct contact with livestock continue surveillance activities by in owners and the public. Regular meet specting their animals and treating all ings were organized through the net wounds in case of another outbreak. work of farmers' cooperatives. The For this final phase the field pro meetings were generally held in village gramme communication and informa community halls; slide and video pro tion unit produced T-shirts, caps, ash grammes were shown and printed ma trays, key-rings, pens, pencils, calen terial distributed. Discussion and ques dars, cigarette lighters and other items. tions were encouraged, and the meet A new set of posters was designed ings were generally lively affairs. and produced with the message that it From mid-1991, monthly meetings was necessary to remain vigilant, were also held in schools in the four in even though eradication had been fested municipalities. A documentary achieved. Billboards, featuring the film on the NWS was shown, and stu drawings of Mr El-Zawawi, were also dents who gave the best answers to used during this phase. questions about the eradication pro gramme were given gifts at the end of the meetings. Review FAO headquarters communication Other activities officer for the programme, Mr A. Heidoub, travelled to Libya in October An exhibit promoting the screwworm 1991 to review the screwworm com eradication programme was prepared munication and information campaign. for the Tripoli International Fair in His visit followed an earlier one by March 1991. Apart from the use of Ms Balit. posters, photographs and videos and Observing that the campaign was the distribution of information material, highly successful - because of its in the exhibit featured one live sterile tensive use of multimedia, the role of screwworm fly housed in a large glass Dr Husni and the willingness of the case, which succeeded in attracting public to cooperate - Mr Heidoub much attention. recommended that it should be 158 Involving the public documented and used as an example Public information for emergency programmes in other countries. The international publicity campaign During his visit to Libya, the commu was a key to the success of the pro nication officer was impressed by how gramme, because the amount and type well-informed local people were about of media coverage given to the North the screwworm, about the need for African emergency could determine surveillance and treatment and about world opinion on the issue; it therefore the operation of the eradication pro had great impact on the sensitive area gramme itself. of donor funding of the eradication While on a field trip in a village lying programme. outside the infested area, he took the Since donor countries would be in opportunity to question a group of fluenced not only by public opinion, schoolchildren, aged from seven to 12 but also by the potential for the screw years, about the screwworm pro worm to spread throughout the Eastern gramme. A dispersal plane happened Hemisphere, it was crucial that interna to be flying overhead, dropping boxes tional media coverage gave a clear of flies . He found that the children picture of the screwworm threat and were well-informed and could answer the various stages of the eradication all questions put to them about the programme. pest, the purpose of dropping the flies The media campaign involved the and the details of the sterile insect tech Information Division' s press section nique itself. and the radio and television section. A media liaison officer was appointed to work specifically on the screwworm Activities in the region issue in June 1991. Attached to SECNA, the officer was responsible for writing An FAO consultant visited Algeria, the press releases, in liaison with the press Niger and Chad in October and section chief, and for organizing press November 1989 to explain the screw conferences. He accompanied a group worm communication and information of journalists on a field trip to Libya strategy and to advise governments on during the eradication programme. the development of their own strate FAO's media campaign was gies. Another mission was conducted launched on April 18, 1990 when FAO in second-line countries in 1991. called an international press confer Neighbouring countries were sup ence at Stampa estera (the association plied with slide sets and the Mexican for foreign correspondents) in Rome, to screwworm video as well as the poster announce to the media the presence of and information card sets. Photographic the NWS in Libya and the threat to and radio equipment and a slide projec Africa, the Near East, southern Europe tor were also supplied to Algeria, while and Asia, as well as outlining FAO's radio equipment was supplied to Chad. plans to eradicate the pest using the An FAO communication specialist sterile insect technique. also visited the ten second-line coun It was the first time FAO had orga tries in 1991 to assist and advise in the nized a large-scale formal technical implementation of communication and briefing at Stampa estera, and it was at information campaigns. tended by more than 90 journalists 159 The New World screwworm eradication programme representing the international press, ra The story was given vast coverage dio and television - one of the highest around the world in major newspapers attendance levels ever recorded at and by radio and television networks. Stampa estera. Seven journalists from key media organizations in London and Paris, including the BBC and The press section Le Monde, were specifically invited to the conference by the Information The press section issued a total of 1 2 Division. press releases, coinciding with the vari During the conference a six-minute ous stages of the North African screw video was shown to outline the prob worm programme and culminating in ! em. The London-based television the announcement in Washington on news agency, Visnews, later sent by October 7, 1991 that the pest had satellite a three-minute story based on been eradicated from Libya. the video to more than 60 outlets Apart from the initial press briefing at worldwide. Stampa estera, a second major press .H'.,,.;. i .,,....,,. .,.,.,,IA<~l,l/lol• t;"' £'!d;J,µ~ ,.. ~~,.a;,~•..::.'!..,t;r!} JAU l ~~JJ1~D\tJ:t~4:i.:I:)..,- '°'"" . ., ;iµ.. ,,,.,,,,..,.; .,9 : l,l\:D.:.6 U.1'flJ~tJA 43. A set of brochures conveyed simple messages about animal inspection, treatment and quarantine to livestock owners and the general public 160 Involving the public conference was held at FAO in con The radio and television junction with the first donors confer section ence in May 1990; a third was held in Washington when eradication was an This section assisted a team from the nounced. Libyan Secretariat of Agriculture in the Two major field trips to Libya were production of three hours of footage organized for journalists during the on the pest. It also distributed footage eradication programme, one of them from this video to television stations partially funded by Lufthansa, the and produced the six-minute video parent company of German Cargo press release, which was shown during Services, which was contracted to the first FAO press conference at transport the sterile flies from Mexico Stampa estera and to delegates at the to Tripoli. IFAD also organized media first donors consultation. The video visits to Libya, including one major was produced in Arabic, English, group visit and several individual field French, Italian and Spanish, and was trips. distributed worldwide. It was given 44. The Libyan NWS logo 161 The New World screwworm eradication programme significant airing on European and Afri produced and broadcast throughout can television stations. Europe and Africa. An edited version, sent by satellite The section has compiled an archive to more than 60 television stations by of video and radio programmes pro the television news agency, Visnews, duced about the screwworm. was seen by more than 50 million viewers. Other activities by the section in Information materials cluded translation of a Mexican film on production NWS eradication into Arabic, English and French, which was then distri The Information Division's information buted to interested countries. Several materials production branch prepared radio information programmes on an exhibit for the FAQ donors consulta the NWS project, including interviews tion in May 1990 and was also respon with FAQ specialists and staff of the sible for preparing a screwworm infor Libyan Secretariat of Agriculture were mation kit for distribution to delegates. ®N·ws NEWSLE-TIER NUMBER 22 \ NEW WORLD SCR.EWWORM HEWS LETTER ISSUED 07/91 45. An NWS newsletter was produced and distributed by SECNA on a monthly basis during the eradication programme 162 Involving the public The SECNA information officer was designed the newsletter. After the de employed jointly by this branch and by claration that the NWS had been erad SECNA. He was responsible for the icated in Libya, he wrote and designed production of a monthly NWS news a 16-page booklet on the programme letter, which was designed to publicize for general readership. the eradication campaign and to A series of photographs was taken of keep donors and the international SIT activities in Mexico to document community informed of its progress every stage of the fly rearing, steriliza (see Photo 45). tion and packaging processes and the The officer researched, wrote and eradication programme in Libya. 163 Chapter eight Activities in neighbouring countries c 00 MAURITANIA SENEGAL 'o BURKINA FASO 'V Libyan focus Surveillance area TUNISIA .GERIA LIBYA EGYPT SUDAN • The New World screwworm eradication programme t had been acknowledged from the Egypt, the Niger, the Sudan, Tunisia outset that, left untreated, the New and Libya to discuss the emergency. I World screwworm would inevi- Emergency measures were immedi tably spread throughout the entire ately initiated by these countries, in the North African region and beyond. areas of surveillance, treatment and In particular, the six countries bor control, as well as in the development dering Libya were under constant of public communication and inform threat of infestation by the NWS. It was ation campaigns, with the support of estimated that the cost of controlling FAO, IFAD, UNDP and IAEA. the pest without eradication would Activities targeted the region by di amount to more than US$280 million viding the countries into two main per year. groups: those countries under immedi The combination of suitable climate ate threat of infestation (Algeria, Chad, and an abundance of hosts in the re Egypt, the Niger, the Sudan and Tuni gion provided ideal conditions for the sia), and second-line countries (Burki NWS to become established. na Faso, Cameroon, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Of particular concern was the pro Mali, Morocco, Mauritania, Nigeria, spect that the NWS could use the Nile Senegal and Somalia) (see Figure 22, Valley through Egypt and the Sudan to the chapter opener). move into sub-Saharan Africa. These countries took extensive pre In this region, where livestock pro cautionary action throughout the duction is the most important income screwworm campaign, first to ascertain earning activity for the majority of the the pest's possible presence and then people, the NWS would have caused to prevent its introduction. immense losses. Already endangered The common activities undertaken wildlife in the region would have been by all countries, with the support of significantly threatened, and the large FAO, IFAD, UNDP and IAEA, included migrating game herds would have pro the training of personnel; the implement vided a reservoir for the pest, making it ation of measures for screwworm pre impossible to control at any price. vention, surveillance and control; quar antine procedures; and public informa tion and awareness campaigns. Emergency action These activities were conducted in strategic areas of each country (a total 2 When the NWS was first confirmed in area of 15.6 million km ) and involved Libya, the extent of its spread was un the inspection of just under 14 million known. Therefore, one of the first head of livestock. Rural populations, actions taken by FAO, after receiving particularly those involved with live notification of the NWS presence in stock and in the areas bordering Libya, Libya, was to contact all countries in the were alerted to the danger and in North African region requesting informa structed in the practical measures nec tion. Following further confirmation essary to support national actions taken by the first FAO mission to Libya in April by their governments. 1989 that the pest was established While the screwworm did not in Libya, the Director-General of spread out of Libya, the actions taken FAO met with the permanent represent were essential during the campaign. atives to the organization from Algeria, They also resulted in increasing the 166 Activities in neighbouring countries capability of national organizations in March 1990, to train veterinary officials these countries to react to animal from these countries in screwworm health emergencies. biology, identification, surveillance, prevention and control. Activities Surveillance activities Throughout 1989, FAQ missions were conducted in the countries bordering Algeria. Activities were concentrated Libya to determine whether the pest along the Tunisian border. Thirty-five was present in these countries and to checkpoints were established and, in discuss and advise on actions neces the course of surveillance activities in sary to prevent its spread. 1990, more than 580 000 animals Assistance under FAQ's Technical were inspected and 1 7 41 of non Cooperation Programme was provided screwworm myiasis cases were treated through: with coumaphos. In 1991, more than • a US$400 000 regional project for 255 000 animals were inspected, 1 543 Libya and the six neighbouring coun wounds were treated with couma tries, which aimed to determine the phos, and 1 8 cases of myiasis were de spread of the pest, advise govern tected, but none were caused by ments on screwworm treatment, con screwworm. trol and eradication measures, and provide basic training on screwworm Chad. Priority surveillance areas were biology, identification, surveillance, in the northern and northeastern pro prevention and control. The first train vinces, bordering Libya. In 1990, al ing programme, conducted in Tripoli most 4.5 million animals were inspect in July 1989, was funded under this ed, 4 535 wounds were treated, and project. 85 larva samples were collected, al • projects approved for the individual though none were identified as NWS. first-line countries, to provide a total In 1991, 2.8 million animals were in of US$1 .8 million in assistance, includ spected, and 418 non-screwworm lar ing the provision of urgently needed in va samples were collected. secticides and equipment. Visits by FAQ consultants to the individual Egypt. Surveillance, treatment and countries were also organized and quarantine activities were concentrat funded under these projects. Algeria, ed in the Libyan border area, in the Egypt, the Niger and Tunisia were each northeast of the country. During 1990, allocated US$250 000, Chad received more than 830 000 animals were in US$316 000 and US$150 000 were al spected, and 3.4 million animals were located to the Sudan. sprayed with coumaphos to prevent in • a US$225 000 project approved festation. Eighty larva samples and 19 for the ten second-line countries to ad adult flies were identified as non vise governments on screwworm con screwworm. In 1991, 432 000 animals trol measures and provide an emer were inspected, and 20 larva samples gency stock of insecticides and sampling were tested and found to be non kits for treatment. This project also screwworm. More than 2.6 million an funded a course, held in Tripoli in imals were sprayed. 167 The New World screwworm eradication programme The Niger. Surveillance activities were with two representatives from Egypt intensive in the four provinces near the and 23 from Libya. Libyan border. During 1990, as part of As with the first course, participants the country's annual vaccination cam attended lectures on screwworm bio paign, 2 453 wounded animals were logy, identification, surveillance, pre inspected and treated, and 1 50 larva vention, treatment and control meth samples were collected, none of which ods, information, epizootology, erad was identified as NWS. ication campaigns in Libya and Mex ico, the economic significance of the The Sudan. The country's border with parasite, field practice in the use of sen Libya extends over 200 km. In this tinel animals and guidelines for national area during 1990, more than 1 million and international reporting of the disease. animals were inspected, and no cases of Practical field demonstrations in New World screwworm were reported. cluded the use of sampling kits, field in In 1991, more than 5 million animals spection, wound treatment, use of rec were inspected with no NWS infesta ord sheets and public information ac tions found. tivities. Also covered were the control of animal movement, inspection of do Tunisia. This was the country consid mestic animals, dipping and spraying, ered to be at greatest risk of infestation the principles of SIT, production of by NWS. In September 1990, NWS sterile flies, packaging, storage, trans cases were reported in Libya within 20- port and aerial release, and the use of 40 km of the Tunisian border. More wind-oriented traps. than 1 .5 million animals were inspect Following the second course, the at ed in the border area of Tunisia in tending professional officers imple 1990; in other areas of the country mented training programmes in their more than 6 million animals were in own countries. spected as part of other zoosanitary activities. No NWS cases were detected. Training manual In early May 1991 the eradication programme was expanded to encom The Manual for the Control of the pass a 2 500 km 2 area of Tunisia, just Screwworm Fly, Cochliomyia homini inside its border with Libya. In 1991 , vorax (Coquerel) , which had been more than 3 million animals were in published by FAO in late 1989, was spected in the border area, and 44 lar distributed throughout all neighbouring va samples were identified as non and second-line countries. Containing screwworm. information on biology, identification, myiasis, guidelines for control and Second-line countries. Surveillance economic considerations, the manual and public information activities were was intended as a training guide and a initiated in each of these countries and practical reference for veterinary staff. continued throughout the campaign . One thousand copies of the manual No cases of NWS were ever detected. were produced in each of three lan Ei ghteen representatives of these coun guages - Arabic, English and French - tries attended the second training and were distributed to chief veterinary course in Tripoli, in March 1990, along officers of the countries involved. 168 Activities in neighbouring countries Study tours Communication and information From July 1989 to November 1990, seven Tunisian professional officers vis An FAO consultant visited all countries ited Libya for training in surveillance at risk, to assist in establishing commu and control activities. The visits also nication and information programmes. aimed to strengthen cooperation As in Libya, the campaigns were de between the two countries to prevent signed to gain the cooperation of the infestation by NWS along the inter public, specifically livestock owners, in national border. surveillance, treatment and control. In In the same period one Egyptian and formation was disseminated via televi eight Tunisian professional officers sion, radio, pamphlets, newspaper arti visited Mexico and Belize to study ac cles, public gatherings and in schools. tivities related to national and interna IFAD sponsored a Regional tional control of animal movement and Communication and Information quarantine. They also toured the sterile Committee, involving Libya, Egypt, the fly production plant at Tuxtla Gutierrez Sudan and Tunisia and provided to study the production and sexual US$300 000 for development of public sterilization of the NWS. information campaigns in the region. 169 Chapter nine Support organizations The New World screwworm eradication programme part from FAO, three other • providing loans to individual United Nations organizations countries for development projects, Awere involved in the pro which are then executed by national gramme to eradicate the screwworm governments; from North Africa: the International • providing funds for research, train Fund for Agricultural Development ing and small-scale non-government (!FAD), the United Nations Develop organization projects through its Tech ment Programme (UNDP) and the Inter nical Assistance Grants (TAG) pro national Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). gramme. This programme focuses on !FAD raised funds for the pro supporting agricultural research and gramme as well as helping to develop emergency activities such as the NWS and partially fund the pilot phase. programme in North Africa. UNDP, the only UN agency with a !FAD played a leading role in the resident representation in the Libyan preparation of the pilot phase of the Arab Jamahiriya, provided funding in eradication programme, under the dir 1989 for a project to develop and ection of Dr A. M. l Pilot project IFAD Following the mission, !FAD recruited A multilateral financial institution with screwworm experts, who worked in in the UN system, !FAD is responsible conjunction with !FAD staff to prepare for financing development initiatives in a project document for a pilot SIT pro the agricultural sector. It has two main gramme. The resulting document, functions: which took account of an earlier pilot 172 Support organizations programme's documents prepared by the agreement, IFAD pledged an addi the Joint FAO/ IAEA Division, was pre tional grant of US$4 million from its sented to IFAD's donor partners in late regular resources for the eradication 1989 and then to its executive board in programme, as part of the funds December 1989. The board approved pledged at the first donors conference. the project and US$1 .5 million in funds on December 4. It had originally been proposed to Donors start the project immediately. How ever, legal barriers to the sale of ster IFAD played a crucial role in lobbying ile NWS outside the Americas were not for donors' funds for the eradication removed until March 1990, and pro programme. The first donors pledging tracted negotiations with MACES fur conference, in particular, resulted in ther delayed the start of the actual pilot pledges that were higher than antici phase until December 1990. pated; IFAD described the response of A preparatory phase, incorporating donors as demonstrating "an excep the pilot release of sterile flies got un tional sense of international solidarity". der way in July 1990. Communication and Main programme information An IFAD consultant again travelled to IFAD allocated US$300 000, as part of Libya in June 1990 to work in conjunc its funding for the pilot phase, to sup tion with an FAO mission in the prep port communication and information aration of the project document for the activities in Libya and neighbouring main eradication programme. As a re countries. sult, IFAD presented two " alternative It formed a Regional Communication scenario" budgets for the main pro and Information Committee, with rep gramme, which was presented at the resentatives from Libya, Egypt, the Su first donors pledging conference, in dan, Tunisia and IFAD. The aim was to conjunction with the budget estimates provide the support and funding to en prepared by FAO. able the individual countries to devel One of IFAD's alternative budgets op their own programmes. was based on a two-year campaign IFAD produced an information with the release of a maximum of 50 video on the screwworm and funded million flies per week and the other on other videos produced by individual a maximum of 100 million per week; countries, which were used to educate estimated total costs were US$62.7 livestock owners and the general pub million and US$81 .6 million respec lic about the screwworm. Funds were tively. also provided for the joint production FAO and IFAD entered into two by Libya, Egypt and Tunisia of a light Memoranda of Understanding, one for television drama about the screw the pilot phase and another for the worm. Brochures, posters and other in main programme, which outlined an formation materials were prepared and agreement on the financial aspects and distributed in Egypt, Tunisia and the execution of the programme. Under Sudan. 173 The New World screwworm eradication programme !FAD coordinated its own media UNDP was also involved in ensuring campaign about the screwworm pro that any problems related to adminis gramme, which included the distribu trative and financial matters were re tion of press releases and the organiza solved promptly. Going beyond nor tion of media visits to Libya. !FAD also mal requirements, it provided a mech organized a special ceremony on Janu anism to enable the employment of ary 8, 1991 to mark the pilot release local staff and the purchase of equip project. ment during the initial months of the SECNA programme. UNDP The largest specialized agency of the IAEA UN system, UN DP is essentially a funding body. UNDP is the highest UN IAEA had a major support role in the authority in all countries where the screwworm campaign: in planning for United Nations has a presence. The or both the pilot and main eradication ganization funds development projects programmes; in research and develop through its Country Development Pro ment; and in the provision of staff, gramme, which is funded by a large equipment and funding (see box op budget on the basis of five-year plans. posite). UNDP is also responsible for providing IAEA was involved through the Joint administrative, financial and logistical FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Tech support to the field projects of other niques in Food and Agriculture and al UN agencies. so through its Department of Technical UNDP is the only UN agency with a Cooperation. Funding for the Joint Di permanent presence in Libya and is vision's activities was provided by headed by resident representative Dr IAEA and Swedish International Devel A. Al-Ani and deputy resident repre opment Aid (SIDA) (a total of just over sentative Mr E. Murat. US$507 000), FAQ (US$25 000) and USAID (US$20 000), which funded re search to establish the sexual compat Activities ibility of the Libyan and Mexican NWS strains. UNDP activities during the initial phase A further US$324 000 was provided of the North African screwworm pro by the Austrian government for the gramme were crucial in supporting purchase of computer-enhanced satel FAO action against the emergency. It lite maps of northern Libya. On a scale provided funds in June 1989, in a cost of 1 :50 000, the maps were created by sharing arrangement with the Libyan combining Landsat and SPOT imagery government, for a project which assist and showed not only topographical ed in establishing surveillance and features such as roads, but also the treatment activities, as well as provid locations of green vegetation, which ing the essential support and equip signified the presence of water - ment for consultants working in Libya an important factor in being able to under an FAQ Technical Cooperation identify potential areas of New World Programme project. screwworm infestation. 174 Support organizations Planning IAEA involvement With expertise in the sterile insect tech nique, staff at the Joint Division provid ed invaluable assistance during the IAEA activities in support of the early stages of the programme. The screwworm programme were: head of the Joint Division's insect and • arranging for tests in Fargo, North Dakota, to study the sexual pest control section was assigned to compatibility of the Mexican mass FAO headquarters in April 1989 to join reared and the North African strains of FAO's Screwworm Action Group and NWS; prepare an action plan for the eradica • making available the facilities and tion of the NWS from North Africa. staff of the IAEA laboratory at IAEA staff who had an involvement Seibersdorf, Austria; in the screwworm programme were: • supporting research, including trial Dr H. Blix, Director-General; Dr B. shipments of sterile NWS pupae from Sigurbjornsson, director of the Joint Mexico to study the effects of FAO/IAEA Division; Dr M. Zifferero, shipment on fly quality; • providing modest equipment, Deputy Director-General, Department supplies and training to the of Research and Isotopes; Dr W. Klas programme in Libya through an IAEA sen, head of the insect and pest control Technical Assistance Project; section (who replaced Dr D.A. Lind • making available staff to assist in quist after his appointment as SECNA programme planning and imple FP director); Dr Andre van der Vloedt, mentation, both in Rome and in Libya. technical officer, Insect and Pest Con trol Division (see box on this page); Dr R.E. Gingrich, head of the entomology unit, Seibersdorf Laboratories. The Joint Division also prepared a pi lot test project proposal in July 1989, Dr Andre which, after several revisions, formed van der Vloedt the basis of the project document for the IfAD-funded pilot phase. In January 1990, an IAEA consult On December 31 , 1991 , Dr Andre ants' group prepared a key document van der Vloedt died in Vien na of an undiagnosed ill ness contracted during that outlined a programme for the a field mission. eradication of the NWS from North A respected member of the Joint Africa. Published in April, the docu FAO/ IAEA Division team, Dr van der ment was designed for use by the Joint Vloedt was well known for his Division as a guide in its support activ enthusiasm, energy and commitment ities for the eradication programme. It to his work in animal health. He was formed the basis of the later FAO/IFAD an early proponent of the SIT project document and plan of action eradication programme adopted by for the actual programme. SECNA, to which he made extensive The consultants were Dr J. Novy, contributions through early research and planning work. assistant chief, Policy and Programme Development, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, USDA; Dr 175 The New World screwworm eradication programme L.F. Liera, area coordinator, MACES, Research and development Mexico; Dr J.W. Mackley, supervisory entomologist, Animal and Plant Health Since the screwworm had been estab- Inspection Service, USDA and MACES, 1is h e d i n L i by a for a sh o rt p e r i o d 1 Mexico. research on field ecology, population The IAEA document outlined a work dynamics and population genetics was plan for the eradication programme particularly important. The Joint Divi and detailed the prerequisites for its sion was given responsibility for short implementation, as well as estimating term research projects, including: the required donors' contribution at • quality control studies to deter US$80 million, later revised by FAO in mine the most appropriate packaging, the preparation of financial estimates transportation and short-term, pre for the actual programme. release storage conditions for NWS; •studies of the relationship between screwworm activity and environmental and meteorological conditions; Field and training activities • field and laboratory experiments to determine more specific details The Joint Division sent several staff on about the screwworm life cycle. missions to Libya, to assist in the re In February 1990, the Joint Division gional training programmes, to provide prepared a research and development technical backstopping during the pro proposal that outlined possible activ gramme and, most important, to gather ities in support of the North African live screwworm material for transport screwworm programme. It was submit to the United States for vital tests, which ted to SI DA as the basis of a request for would determine whether the wild funding. SIDA responded with a grant Libyan NWS strain was sexually com of just over US$390 000 for the re patible with the mass-reared Mexican search and development programme. strain. After three unsuccessful at It also provided two experts to work for tempts to gather live pupae, these tests the SECNA field programme for one proved positive. year. After receiving the approval of the A screwworm research planning Austrian government in July 1989, the workshop, organized by the Joint Divi Seibersdorf laboratory received live sion and held at the IAEA headquarters NWS from the United States and Mex in Vienna in December 1990, con ico to evaluate the effects of shipment firmed the agenda for research to sup on the quality of the flies. port the SECNA programme. Prior to the release of sterile flies in Libya, the Joint Division's Seibersdorf laboratory fabricated, or contracted British Museum (Natural construction of, the equipment for the History) eradication programme that was not commercially available, including fly The British Museum accepted an FAO traps. invitation in October 1989 to act as its IAEA also sponsored a one-month reference laboratory for screwworm study tour to Mexico for three Libyan and animal myiases during the North veterinarians in January 1990. African screwworm programme. 176 Support organizations Through its department of entomol It participated in the second regional ogy, the museum had three main func training programme in Libya and gave tions as a support body to the North lectures and demonstrations to African screwworm programme. The students in the United Kingdom. After museum staff associated with the refer several experiments with various ence laboratory were Dr M. Hall and processes, the laboratory developed a Mr N. Wyatt. method to mount larvae and flies in a The laboratory was required to: polyester resin. • identify entomological specimens The laboratory also acted as a point submitted by individual countries or of reference for the international by FAO, which were suspected to be media, organizations and countries Coch/iomyia hominivorax; requiring information about wound • notify immediately FAO and the myiasis and screwworm biology. senior veterinary official of the country where a specimen had originated of any positive identifications; Research • advise on animal myiasis biology, identification and control measures. Reference laboratory staff collaborated The reference laboratory received with the Natural Resources Institute no samples of NWS for identification in and the Tsetse Research Laboratory, 1990 and received only samples from aiming to develop a system to suppress the Zawia municipality in Libya during adult fly populations and improve 1 991 . Scientists associated with the monitoring systems (including traps laboratory were involved in research and odour baits). and training activities related to the A mission was undertaken to Libya screwworm, provided information on to assess the potential for the use of the pest throughout the campaign and electric nets to improve monitoring contributed to several papers on the and control of the New World screw NWS for publication. worm (funded by the Joint FAO/IAEA Division). Tests in Mexico and Libya demonstrated that NWS flies could be Laboratory activities attracted to baits by using a black cloth screen (impregnated with sworm To establish basic data on myiasis as an lure-4). The majority of flies remained animal disease in Africa, the laboratory on the cloth long enough to acquire a contacted chief veterinary officers in lethal dose of the insecticide. They 46 African countries, requesting any found that in Mexico greater numbers information on wound myiasis, par of flies were attracted to the black ticularly in relation to the Old World cloth baits than were caught by wind screwworm, Chrysomya bezziana. oriented traps. 177 The New World screwworm eradication programme allowing the official declaration Conclusion that North Africa was screw Fworm-free on June 22, 1992, re sponsibility for the Libyan component of the final phase of the eradication programme was handed over to the Libyan veterinary authorities, with FAO retaining responsibility for its imple mentation in the region. The US$2.5 million preventive phase, which was to continue for at least one year, was conceived to se cure Libya, the entire North African re gion and southern Europe against any further introduction of the NWS. The three main objectives of the pre ventive phase were to: • reduce the risk of future outbreaks of NWS or other exotic threats to the livestock sector in North African coun tries; • reduce the risk of spread of NWS from enzootic areas; • improve the technology of NWS eradication. It was anticipated that, on the basis of these objectives, the preventive phase would result in: • the establishment of diagnostic systems to detect and monitor myiasis in the North African region; • a study to establish and implement strategy for controlling live animal movement to prevent introduction of NWS to countries free of the pest; • a report on the worldwide situa tion of infested and NWS-free coun tries and on risks involved in interna tional trade; • the improvement of methods for rapid and economical deployment of the sterile insect technique. In preparing this phase of the erad ication programme, it was acknowl edged that there would always be the threat that the region could be re infested. Millions of live sheep and 178 Conclusion other animals are imported annually into Activities countries in North Africa and the Near East and, in many cases, the develop During the one-year phase, a range of ment of control procedures necessary activities was to be undertaken to to protect the health of the domestic achieve these objectives. animal populations have not kept pace Diagnostic systems were to be estab with the growing scale and speed of lished to detect and monitor myiasis in these international animal movements. the region, including the upgrading As a result, SECNA took into account of capabilities for collection and iden the constant risk of the introduction of se tification of myiasis samples and the rious diseases into the region, as under preparation of national and regional lined by the screwworm emergency. NWS emergency plans. Recommenda tions were also to be developed for a cooperative agreement and legislation The Libyan campaign to avoid reintroduction of NWS. A strategy to control an.imal move The implementation of the preventive ment to prevent introduction of NWS phase as the final phase of the erad into NWS-free countries was to be es ication campaign provided the oppor tablished and implemented. The actual tunity to increase security against the sources and routes of live animals en threat of further infestations as well as tering into and crossing boundaries be to consolidate the lessons of the whole tween North African countries had programme. therefore to be determined. Interna While much valuable experience tional quarantine stations were to be was gained from the United States and identified and guidelines prepared on Mexican eradication programmes, the technical and legal procedures. North African campaign presented a new set of technical problems that had to be resolved. Many of these con Research cerned the logistics and biological con siderations of long-distance transport A method was to be developed for and delivery of sterile flies. Since the rapid, economical and biologically ef transportation of flies accounted for fective long-distance transportation of half of the total cost of the North Afri sterile insects and a manual prepared can programme, the efficiency of this on the practical aspects of using SIT for operation in any future campaigns was NWS eradication. considered critically important. The programme would also aim to Technical challenges in the area of increase the efficiency of monitoring population suppression were also taken release operations and would identify on by the SECNA pmgramme. While suitable and environmentally safe in some experience was gained in North secticides. The possibility of modifying Africa, the short duration of the cam the screwworm adult suppression sys paign meant that further work was tem to make it environmentally safe for needed to develop the experience to use in tropical and arid regions was provide clear guidelines on increasing also to be investigated. the efficiency and reducing the cost of Based on operational experience responses to any future outbreaks. gained in Libya, the ILWIS GIS computer 179 The New World screwworm eradication programme information management system was SECNA disbands to be modified and upgraded, and a simple computerized system was to be The final report on the Screwworm developed for monitoring day-to-day Emergency Centre for North Africa worldwide geographical distribution of programme was presented to the last NWS and other exotic diseases under meeting of the Coordination Commit regular and outbreak conditions. tee on June 25, 1992, three days after Several training courses for veterin the formal declaration that North Africa ary officials in the region were to be was screwworm-free. SECNA was conducted, post-graduate fellowship to continue for a further six months and study tour programmes initiated to finalize activities and was to be and consultancy missions organized. disbanded as of December 31, 1992. 180 Annex one 1988 March New World screwworm Cochliomyia ho FAQ chronology minivorax (Coquerel) discovered in the Libyan of events Arab Tamahiriya 1989 January 28 First published report of NWS in Libya in the Veterinary Record by Dr El-Azazy. February 1 FAO receives CAB report on identification of NWS samples received from Libya in November/ December 1988. February 7 FAO sends Libya's NWS information to IAEA, APHIS, OIE and WHO. FAO telexs to Libya, requesting confirma tion of and details on NWS presence. FAQ telex to OAU / IBAR advising of NWS presence in Africa. March 19 FAO telexes to Tunisia and Algeria request ing information. April 22 IAEA receives Note verbale from the Libyan Permanent Mission requesting the agency's assistance . April 15-22 FAO mission to Libya, which confirmed NWS presence. April 24 FAO meeting with permanent representa tives to FAO of North African countries (Al geria, Egypt, Libya, the Niger, the Sudan and Tunisia). April 27 FAO Screwworm Action Group formed. FAO Technical Cooperation Programme (TCP) project approved for emergency as sistance to Libya (initially for US$182 000, later increased to US$345 000). May 2 FAO Director-General telexes member countries concerning: risk of NWS. 181 May 9-13 which was worth US$250 000. FAQ mission to Tunisia. June 14 May 12 Libya organizes 55 surveillance teams in in Meeting in Paris of directors of Veterinary fested area, gradually increased to 94. Services of countries at risk in North Africa. The General Session of QIE agrees to June 18-22 include screwworm myiasis caused by FAQ/ IAEA mission to Libya. C. hominivorax in List B of international notifiable animal diseases. June 21 FAQ Director-General writes to Ministry of May 13-17 Agriculture, Mexico, regarding Mexican ex FAQ mission to Egypt. perts and provision of sterile flies. May 27-31 June 27 FAQ/ IAEA mission to Algeria. FAQ TCP project approved for Algeria, First FAQ Screwworm Information Note worth US$250 000. issued. FAQ employs a Mexican screwworm spe July 2-13 cialist as a four-month consultant. IAEA mission to Libya collects NWS egg masses from sentinel sheep. May 27 Libya forms National Screwworm Commit July 4 tee. First FAQ consultants arrive in Tripoli. Libya pledges to cover most of expenses for screwworm control programme. July 14 FAQ TCP project approved for Egypt, May 30 worth US$250 000. Libyan National Screwworm Committee commences its monthly meetings. July 22-27 FAQ-sponsored training course in Tripoli June 4 for North African countries at risk. Libya, UNDP and FAQ approve US$1 .2 5 million cost-sharing project, funded by Lib July 24 ya (US$1 million), UNDP (US$250 000) .IAEA receives official Austrian government and executed by FAQ. authorization to import sterile NWS from Mexico, for research work at Seibersdorf. . June 5-6 FAQ holds preparatory meeting in Rome July 27 on the formulation of a regional strategy for FAQ TCP project approved for Chad, worth control and eradication of the screwworm US$316 000. in North Africa. Representatives of North African countries, Mexico and the United July 28 States attend. FAQ sends letters to all chief veterinary offi cers worldwide, notifying them of the June 6 screwworm threat in North Africa, with ac FAQ TCP project for the region approved, companying Screwworm Information worth US$400 000 in technical support Notes. and training. July 31 June 8 IFAD joins the FAQ Screwworm Action FAQ TCP project for Tunisia approved, Group. 182 FAO designates the British Museum (Nat November 29 ural History) as FAQ reference laboratory FAQ mission to OIE to present NWS diag for screwworm and animal myiasis identifi nosis prevention and eradication informa cation . tion to Commission on FMD and Other Epi zootic Diseases. August 4 FAO TCP project approved for the Niger, December 14 worth US$250 000. FAQ TCP project for second-line countries approved, worth US$250 000. Sexual compatibility of Mexican and Libyan September 25-26 strains confirmed by USDA. Libyan National Screwworm Committee chairman visits IAEA, Vienna. 1990 January 8-19 October 4 Consultants' group meeting in Vienna to FAO Animal Health Service chief provides draft a project document for NWS eradica chief veterinary officers worldwide with an tion programme (experts from FAO, IAEA, update on the screwworm situation and An United States and Mexico). Abbreviated Guide to Identification of the Screwworm, provided by the British Mu January 16 seum (Natural History). Three Libyan veterinarians undertake a one-month study tour in Mexico, spon October 23-27 sored by IAEA. FAO/IAEA mission to Libya for collection of NWS pupae, for transfer to Fargo, North January 1 7 Dakota for compatibility studies on Libyan Meeting of representatives of the Arab Or and Mexican strains. ganization for Agricultural Development of countries under direct threat of spread of October 24 NWS. FAQ holds second briefing session on the NWS in North Africa, attended by perma January 28 nent representatives to FAO from Algeria, FAO/IAEA mission to Libya for preparatory Egypt, Ethiopia, Libya, the Niger, the Su work related to experimental rearing of dan, Tunisia, Yemen and Yemen Arab Re NWS for quality control. public and representatives of !FAD. February 1 2-1 7 FAO mission to Washington, D.C. to dis November 5 cuss provision of experts, sterile flies and Libya initiates strict control of stray animals. materials. November 7- 1 2 March 15 Study tour of Libyan specialists in Mexico. US President George Bush signs legislation to permit the sale of sterile screwworm any November 16 where in the world. Conversion of FAO/ IAEA/ IFAD Action Group to FAO/IAEA/IFAD/UNDP Action March 17-22 Group. Training course in Tripoli for representa FAO sends letter to Minister Counsellor of tives of second-line African countries. United States Permanent Representation, requesting provision of sterile flies and per March 30 mission for US nationals to take part in the Technical responsibility for screwworm as eradication campaign. signed to Animal Production and Health 183 Division. Animal Health Service Task Force July 1 7 established. IFAD/ FAO donor pledging conference held at IFAD, Rome, resulting in pledges for April 1 2 US$30.5 million. Third letter to chief veterinary officers July 23-August 1 worldwide, updating screwworm situation FAO/ IAEA mission to United States for ne and making recommendations of use of in gotiations on NWS programme and mission secticides for screwworm prevention and to Mexico to make arrangements for SIT control and emphasizing the need for im programme. mediate reporting of screwworm (as a noti fiable disease). August 17 SECNA field programme established in Libya April 18 and field programme director appointed. FAO press conference on NWS, Rome. September May 18 OIE/ FAO finalize proposal for NWS im FAO donors consultation, Rome. port/export control . FAO/IFAD Technical Assistance Execution Agreement signed for implementation of September 2 Libya assigns counterpart staff to SECNA the preparatory phase. field programme. May 26-June 1 September 27 Formulation mission to Libya to draft final Libyan co-director assigned to SECNA field project document for eradication pro programme. gramme. Just under 3 000 cases of NWS infestation recorded in Libya during September. June 1 First batch of sterile pupae from Mexico re October 28 ceived at Seibersdorf for research and de SECNA field programme starts Libyan NWS velopment work. strain in laboratories. June 15 October 29 FAO Director-General establishes the FAO transfers SECNA to Animal Production Screwworm Emergency Centre for North and Health Division. Africa (SECNA), under the Plant Production and Protection Division. Action Group en November 10-1 6 FAO/IAEA mission to Libya to discuss tech larged to include donors and other organi nical backstopping of NWS programme. zations. December 5 June 19 International Union for Conservation of Na FAO Director-General assigns FAO person ture and Natural Resources urges funding nel to SECNA. support for NWS programme. June 29 December 1 2 Joint FAO/IFAD press briefing, hosted by The contract under which MACES would IAEA in Vienna. provide sterile NWS finalized. July 1 December 13-14 Animal Health Service Task Force dis FAO/IAEA Research Planning Workshop banded. on NWS at IAEA, Vienna. 184 December 1 5-1 8 May 18 2 SECNA field programme receives first ship Sterile fly dispersal starts over a 2 500 km ment of sterile NWS (3.5 million) from Mex area of Tunisia, near its border with Libya. ico for dispersal during the preparatory SECNA management meeting held in Trip phase. SECNA begins case reporting by ge oli . ographic coordinates. Second month in Libya with no recorded cases of NWS infestation. 1991 Number of animals inspected per month January 24 exceeds 2 million. Donors consultation held at FAO, Rome. Number of inspection teams working out side the infested area is increased. February 1 Main eradication programme started. Ster June 11 ile flies transported twice weekly from Mex SECNA holds first Coordination Committee ico (28 million per week). meeting in Rome . February 1 2 A number of quarantine stations in Libya IFAD/FAO donors pledging conference begin 24-hour control. held at IFAD, Rome. A further US$8.6 mil lion pledged. July Number of fly traps increased. February 13 NWS expert studies relationship of weather First dispersal of sterile NWS over entire to NWS and concludes that use of SIT elim 2 known infested area (25 000 km ). inated the NWS population. February 25-March 2 FAO mission to Mexico to arrange expand July 15-16 SECNA management meeting held in Trip ed transport schedule for 40 million sterile oli. flies per week. North African chief veterinary officers meet March at SECNA field programme offices in Trip First month in Libya with no NWS cases re oli. ported. July 28 April 7 Libyan leader Col. Moammar El Quadaffi The last recorded case of NWS infestation visits SECNA in Tripoli. in Libya. FAO Director-General and SECNA director address the second regular session of the April 27 Economic and Social Committee of the UN Last fertile NWS fly trapped in Libya. (ECOSOC) in Geneva on the NWS pro May 3 gramme. Direct charter flights from Tuxtla Gutierrez to Tripoli start, carrying 40 million sterile August flies once a week. Number of animals inspected per month exceeds three million. May 5-1 O SECNA Technical Advisory Committee August 31-September 6 holds first meetings in Tripoli and Rome. Second TAC mission v1s1ts Libya and May 5-6 SECNA headquarters, Rome. Dispersal area is expanded to include a protective barrier around known infested September area. .Livestock economist commissioned to 185 study the economic impact of NWS erad- February 12 ication. Coordination Committee meeting at FAO, Rome. October 12 Last shipment of sterile flies leaves Mexico April 8 for Tripoli. SECNA management meeting, Rome. October 15 April 29-30 Final day of sterile fly dispersal in Libya. SECNA management meeting, Tunis. October 21-23 SECNA management meeting held in June 22 Rome. Formal declaration of Libya as screwworm Second Coordination Committee meeting free and responsibility for Libyan compo held at FAO, Rome. nent of the preventive phase handed over to the Libyan authorities. November 5 Ors Knipling and Bushland presented with June 25 FAO awards for their pioneer work in de Final meeting of the Coordination Commit veloping SIT. tee and presentation of final reports on the eradication programme. 1992 January December 31 NWS outbreak reported in Mexico. SECNA disbanded. 186 Annex two More than 100 documents were produced during the North African NWS eradication campaign, which detail all aspects and SECNA documents stages of the programme. They are avail able in the Animal Health and Production Division registry, FAO, Rome. Project documents Regional Pilot Biological Control Pro gramme for the NWS in North Africa. IFAD/FAO/ Libyan government. June 21 , 1990. Programme for the Eradication of the NWS from North Africa. FAO in collaboration with IFAD. July 1990, revised January 1, 1991. Programme reports Pilot Project for the Eradication of the NWS from North Africa. Report on Preparatory Phase and Pilot Project. SECNA. March 1, 1991. Progress Report for the Period February 7 to May 3 7, 7997. SECNA. June 1991. Progress Report for the Period June 7 to August37, 7997. SECNA. October 1991. Progress Report for the Period September 7 to December 3 7, 799 7. SECNA. February 1992. Technical Advisory Committee Reports Report of a Mission to the SEC NA Field Pro gramme in Libya. May 5-10, 1991. Report of a Second Mission to the SECNA Field Programme in Libya. August 31-Sep tember 6, 1991. Consultants' reports A Phenological Analysis of Screwworm in Libya. E.S. l 187 Computerization and Analysis of SECNA ernment (Pilot Test for the Eradication of Technical Data. S.N. Putt and A. Mcleod. NWS from North Africa). June 21, 1990. August 1991. Memorandum of Understanding between Economic Impact of NWS Eradication FAO and /FAD (The Regional Programme from North Africa. J. Grindle. September for the Eradication of NWS from North Afri 1991. ca). October 1, 1990. The Potential Impact of the Ne\i\1 World Agreement between FAO, /FAD and the Screwworm on Wildlife in Africa, the Medi Governments of Libya, Algeria, Chad, terranean Basin, the Near East and Asia. Egypt, the Niger, the Sudan and Tunisia. M.H. Woodford. March 1992. August 1, 1990. Agreements Special documents Technical Assistance Execution Agreement A Programme for the Eradication of the between FAO and /FAD. March 22, 1990. NWS from North Africa. Consultants' Group, IAEA, Vienna. January 8, 1990. Technical Assistance Execution Agreement between FAO and /FAD. April 27, 1990. Information Technical Assistance Execution Agreement between FAO and /FAD. May 18, 1990. NWS Newsletter. SECNA. Nos 72-29 (is sued monthly from November 7 990 to Project Agreement /FADI FAO!Libyan Gov- April 7992 ). 188 Annex three Donor countries Peter Franklin Coordination Counsellor (Agriculture and Minerals) Embassy of the Commonwealth Committee of Australia Rome Ernst Zimmer! Permanent Representative Permanent Representation of the Republic of Austria to FAO Rome Antoine Saintraint Ambassadeur aupres de la FAO Representation permanente du Royaume de Belgique aupres de la FAO Rome Franc;ois Roux Representant permanent adjoint Representation permanente du Royaume de Belgique aupres de la FAO Rome Gunilla Kurten Counsellor Charge d' Affaires a.i. Embassy of the Republic of Finland Rome Jean-Pierre Poly Conseiller scientifique Representation permanente de la France aupres de l'OAA Rome Christian Berger Conseiller scientifique Representation permanente de la France aupres de l'OAA Rome JUrgen Oestreich Ambassador to FAO Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany Rome Alois Baier Minister Counsellor and Deputy Representative to FAO Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany Rome 189 John Gaule Dawson Ahalt Alternate Permanent Representative Attache (Food and Agricultural Affairs) to FAO Permanent Representation of the Embassy of Ireland, Rome United States of America to FAO Rome Gian Luigi Valenza Ambassadeur aupres de la FAO Richard Seifman Representation permanente de l'ltalie Attache (Development Affairs) aupres de la FAO Permanent Representation of the Rome United States of America to FAO Rome Milad Abdessalam Shmeyla Ambassador to FAO Permanent Representation of the Institutions/organizations Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya to FAO M.S. Al-Mahdi Rome Assistant Director-General OPEC Fund Mansour Mabrouk Seghayer Vienna, Austria Technical Counsellor Permanent Representation of the Socialist Charles de Haes People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya to FAO Director-General Rome World Wildlife Fund International World Conservation Nicolas Mosar Centre Ambassadeur Gland, Switzerland Ambassade du Grand-Duche de Luxembourg Rome Participating countries Frederik Ch. Prillevitz Amina Boudjelti Minister Plenipotentiary of the Delegue permanent adjoint Netherlands to FAO Ambassade de la Republique algerienne Permanent Representation of the democratique et populaire Kingdom of the Netherlands to FAO Rome Rome Yousef A.M. Hamdi Tommie Sjoberg Agricultural Counsellor Counsellor (Agricultural Affairs) Embassy of the Arab Republic of Egypt Royal Swedish Embassy Rome Rome Milad Abdessalam Shmeyla Margaretha Arnesson-Ciotti Ambassador to FAO Assistant Permanent ·Representation of the Socialist Royal Swedish Embassy People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya to FAO Rome Rome John Redman Goldsack Mansour Mabrouk Seghayer Permanent Representative of the Technical Counsellor United Kingdom to FAO Permanent Representation of the Socialist British Embassy People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya to FAO Rome Rome 190 Francis Montanaro Mifsud Gian Paolo Papa Ambassador to FAO Representant permanent Permanent Representation of the Republic Communautes economiques of Malta, Rome europeennes Rome Ricardo Velazquez Huerta Sara Gualandi Minister Embassy of the United States of Mexico Attache Communautes economiques Rome europeennes Rome Mustapha-Menouar Sinaceur Representant permanent adjoint Abbas Kesseba Ambassade du Royaume du Maroc Director Rome Technical Advisory Division IFAD, Rome Angel Barbero Martin Advisor (Agriculture, Fisheries Suleiman Ahmed Salem and Food) Director Embassy of Spain, Rome Operations and Projects Department Islamic Development Bank Gamal Mohamed Ahmed Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Counsellor (Agricultural Affairs) Embassy of the Republic of the Sudan Jose Miguel lrastorza Rome John H. Wyss Mexico-US Commission for the Rudolph de Pourtales Eradication of the New World Ministre Screwworm Charge d' Affaires a.i. Mexico Representation permanente de Suisse Awni Al-Ani aupres de la FAO, Rome Resident Representative of the UNDP Amor Ben Romdhane Tripoli, Libya Ministre plenipotentiaire aupres de la FAO Jeffrey Lewis Representation permanente de la Agricultural Economist Republique tunisienne aupres de la FAO Technical Agricultural Division Rome Europe, Middle East and Africa Region World Bank Washington, D.C. , USA Institutions/organizations Bjorn Sigurbjornsson Babacar N' Diaye Director President Joint FAO/ IAEA Division of Nuclear African Development Bank Techniques in Food and Agriculture Abidjan, Cote d' Ivoire Vienna, Austria Lucio Guerrato W. Klassen Chef de Division Head, Insect and Pest Control Communautes economiques Joint FAO/ IAEA Division of Nuclear europeennes Techniques in Food and Agriculture Bruxelles, Belgique Vienna, Austria 191 SECNA M. Vargas-Teran Technical Officer H. de Haen Animal Production and Health Assistant Director-General Division Agriculture Department E.P. Cunningham D.A. Lindquist Director Director Animal Production and Health SECNA Field Programme Division Tripoli, Libya A.E. Sidahmed M. Abusowa Senior Operations Officer Co-director Animal Production and Health SECNA Field Programme Division Tripoli, Libya Graphic design: Studio Parole, Milano Editing: Claudia Fuchs, Lewis McClellan Production, typesetting and colour separation: Sfera srl, Milano Printing: Officine Grafiche Garzanti, Cernusco S.N. 192 ISBN 92-5-103200-9 11111111111 9 789251 032008 M-27 T0629E/116.9215000