La Conversion À Unix Un Exemple De Prophétisme Informatique?

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La Conversion À Unix Un Exemple De Prophétisme Informatique? La conversion à Unix Un exemple de prophétisme informatique ? Laurent Bloch To cite this version: Laurent Bloch. La conversion à Unix Un exemple de prophétisme informatique ?. Cahiers d’histoire du Cnam, Cnam, 2017, La recherche sur les systèmes : des pivots dans l’histoire de l’informatique – II/II, 7-8 (7-8), pp129-144. hal-03027084 HAL Id: hal-03027084 https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03027084 Submitted on 27 Nov 2020 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. 129 Enquête d'acteur La conversion à Unix Un exemple de prophétisme informatique ? Laurent Bloch Membre de l’Institut de l’Iconomie. Unix survient une vingtaine d’an- va être question ici, selon la perception nées après l’invention de l’ordinateur, et que j’en ai eue de ma position de prati- une dizaine d’années après que quelques cien. Cette perception a été élaborée de pionniers eurent compris qu’avec l’infor- façon rétrospective, aussi l’ordre chro- matique une nouvelle science naissait, nologique n’est-il pas toujours respecté qu’ils eurent tenté de la faire reconnaître dans cet exposé. Ce qui suit est le récit de comme telle, et qu’ils eurent échoué dans l’élaboration d’une vision personnelle, qui cette tentative1. Certains traits d’Unix et assume sa part de subjectivité. certains facteurs de son succès procèdent de cet échec, et c’est de cette histoire qu’il Comme explicité par Benjamin Thierry, historien des techniques et de l’innovation à la Sorbonne, les pratiquants 1 Ce texte est l’adaptation écrite d’une communication de disciplines en principe entièrement donnée par l’auteur, à la demande des organisateurs, lors du colloque « Unix en France et aux États-Unis : sous l’empire de la raison, telle l’informa- innovation, diffusion et appropriation » tenue au Cnam tique, ont fréquemment recours au voca- le 19 octobre 2017. Le sujet a été élaboré collectivement avec les organisateurs de la conférence et le discutant, bulaire religieux pour évoquer les aspects Benjamin Thierry, et ce texte a été revu à la suite des non rationnels de leur pratique, qui n’ont discussions ayant eu lieu autour de l’allocution [URL : en principe pas droit de cité. L’histoire http://technique-societe.cnam.fr/colloque-international- unix-en-france-et-aux-etats-unis-innovation-diffusion- des sciences et des techniques ne nous et-appropriation--945215.kjsp]. Ce texte est laisse pas ignorer la présence en ces do- exceptionnellement placé sous une licence CC BY-NC- maines de phénomènes de croyance qui SA (Licence Creative Commons : Attribution + Pas d’utilisation commerciale + Partage dans les Mêmes peuvent aller jusqu’à des formes quasi-re- Conditions). ligieuses, et ainsi engendrer des manifes- tations typiques de la vie religieuse, telles to the Entscheidungsproblem », 1937) que le prophétisme et la conversion. Le rencontraient peu de succès : la question développement d’Unix m’a semblé doté apparaissait clairement démodée. d’une dimension prophétique, et pour développer ce point de vue j’emprunterai Ce n’est qu’à la rencontre de quelques idées au livre fondateur d’André Herman Goldstine, et, par son entremise, Neher L’essence du prophétisme (1972). des concepteurs de l’ENIAC Eckert et Pour rester fidèle (si j’ose dire) à l’esprit Mauchly, à l’été 1944, que von Neumann unixien, j’invite le lecteur à prendre cette s’intéressa aux calculateurs, et sans le dernière thèse cum grano salis2. moins du monde établir un lien entre cet intérêt et les travaux de Turing dont il avait connaissance. Néanmoins, si Turing avait jeté les bases de l’informatique, von Avant l’informatique Neumann allait inventer l’ordinateur. Samuel Goyet a eu, lors d’une séance du Entre 1936 et 1938 à Princeton, séminaire Codes sources3, une formule Alan Turing avait bien conscience de frappante et qui me semble exacte : faire de la science, mais ne soupçonnait avant von Neumann, programmer c’était pas que ses travaux de logique seraient tourner des boutons et brancher des fiches un jour considérés comme la fondation dans des tableaux de connexion, depuis théorique d’une science qui n’existait von Neumann c’est écrire un texte ; cette pas encore, l’informatique (Bullynck, révolution ouvrait la voie à la science Daylight & De Mol, 2015 ; Haigh, 2014). informatique. Dans les couloirs de l’IAS il croi- Lors d’une séance précédente du sait John von Neumann, parfois ils même séminaire, Liesbeth De Mol avait parlaient travail, mais pas du tout de analysé les textes de von Neumann et questions de logique, domaine que von d’Adele et Herman Goldstine4, en mon- Neumann avait délibérément abandonné trant que tout en écrivant des programmes, après la publication des travaux de Gödel ils n’avaient qu’une conscience encore (Corry, 2017). En fait, ils étaient tous imprécise du type d’activité à laquelle ils les deux mathématiciens, et ils parlaient des zéros de la fonction ζ(s) et de l’hy- pothèse de Riemann (RH). Les efforts 3 Samuel Goyet, « Les interfaces de programmation (api) web : écriture informatique, industrie du texte et d’Alonzo Church pour éveiller l’intérêt économie des passages », séminaire Codes source, de ses collègues pour les travaux sur les séance du 8 juin 2017 [URL : https://codesource. fondements de son disciple Turing (« On hypotheses.org/241]. computable numbers, with an application 4 Liesbeth De Mol, « Un code source sans code ? le cas de l’Eniac », séminaire Codes source, séance du 22 juin 2016 [URL : https://codesource.hypotheses. 2 org/219]. 130 131 s’adonnaient. C’est donc une douzaine travaux6 me semblent marquer un point d’années après le « First Draft of a Report de non-retour dans la constitution de l’in- on the EDVAC »5 de von Neumann formatique comme science. Jusqu’alors (1945) que s’est éveillée la conscience la programmation des ordinateurs était de l’arrivée d’une science nouvelle, et considérée un peu comme un bricolage j’en retiendrai comme manifestations les empirique, qui empruntait sa démarche à plus explicites la naissance du langage de d’autres domaines de connaissance programmation Algol, puis la naissance et la diffusion du système d’exploitation Fortran, le premier langage dit Multics. Il faudra encore une bonne quin- évolué, était conçu comme la transposi- zaine d’années pour que la bonne nouvelle tion la plus conforme possible du forma- se répande quelque peu parmi les prati- lisme mathématique. Du moins c’était ciens de l’informatique, dont l’auteur de son ambition, déçue comme il se doit7, ces lignes, d’abord sous les espèces de la et le caractère effectuant du texte du pro- Programmation structurée (Dahl, Dijkstra gramme, qui le distingue radicalement & Hoare, 1972 ; Arsac, 1979), qui semait d’une formule mathématique, plutôt que l’espoir d’une sortie du bricolage. Inutile d’être signalé, était soigneusement dissi- de préciser que l’esprit de bricolage est mulé, notamment par l’emploi du signe encore présent parmi les praticiens. « = » pour désigner l’opération d’affecta- tion d’une valeur à une variable, variable au sens informatique du terme, lui aussi distinct radicalement de son acception Algol et Multics Algol et Multics sont les cadavres 6 Voir le chapitre « The American Side of the dans le placard d’Unix, même si les meur- Development of ALGOL », in Perlis (1981, pp. 75-91). triers ne sont pas clairement identifiés. 7 Un énoncé mathématique est essentiellement déclaratif : il décrit les propriétés d’une certaine entité, ou les relations entre certaines entités. Un programme informatique est essentiellement impératif (ou Algol performatif) : il décrit comment faire certaines choses. Même écrit en style fonctionnel avec Lisp ou logique La composition des comités de avec Prolog il sera finalement traduit en langage machine, impératif. Il est fondamentalement impossible rédaction des rapports Algol successifs de réduire l’un à l’autre, ou vice-versa, ils sont de natures (Backus & al., 1960) et la teneur de leurs différentes. Il est par contre possible, dans certains cas, d’établir une relation entre le texte d’un programme et un énoncé mathématique, c’est le rôle notamment des systèmes de preuve de programme. Ou, comme l’écrivent Harold Abelson et Gerald Jay Sussman (2011 [1985], 5 John von Neumann, « First Draft of a Report on the p. 22) : « In mathematics we are usually concerned EDVAC », Rapport technique, University of with declarative (what is) descriptions, whereas in Pennsylvania, 1945 [URL : http://www.virtualtravelog. computer science we are usually concerned with net/entries/2003-08-TheFirstDraft.pdf]. imperative (how to) descriptions ». mathématique. La conception même du sont des universitaires, l’influence des langage obscurcissait la signification de industriels est modérée, Américains et ses énoncés, ce que l’on peut pardonner Européens sont à parité. En témoigne à John Backus parce qu’il s’aventurait le tableau suivant, auquel j’ai ajouté dans un domaine jamais exploré avant quelques personnalités influentes qui lui : « Fortran montrait qu’un langage n’appartenaient pas formellement au de programmation pouvait introduire comité International Algebraic Language de nouvelles abstractions qui seraient (IAL) initial, ou qui ont rejoint ultérieu- codées par un compilateur, plutôt que rement le comité Algol 60, ou qui simple- directement implémentées par le maté- ment ont joué un rôle dans cette histoire.
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