CONTRASTIVE RHETORIC IN ENGLISH AND SPANISH COMPOSITION •..

McGILL UNIVERSITY

A CONTRASTIVE STUDY OF THE STRUCTURE OF RHETORIC IN ENGLISH AND SPANISH COMPOSITION

by

GERALD JOHN STREI

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES AND RESEARCH IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

MONTREAL, QUEBEC

SPRING, 1972 c ABSTRACT

AUTHOR: GERALD J. STREI

TITLE OF THESIS: A CONTRASTIVE STUDY OF THE STRUCTURE OF RHETORIC

IN ENGLISH AND SPANISH COMPOSITION

DEPARTMENT: ENGLISH

DEGREE: MASTER OF ARTS

Cultural thought patterns are reflected in the forms of written

composition, an idea suggested by Robert Kaplan in a study of compositions

written by students from different language groups. This thesis attempts

to test this theory by describing the composition forms typical of English

and of Spanish, then examining compositions written in English by native

Spanish speakers and in Spanish by native English speakers to see if a

transference of form has occurred.

Thirty compositions written in each language by students from two

universities were used in the study. Comparisons with the models established

by reference to the cultural and historical development of the (!omposition

in both languages revealed that all but four Spanish speakers and five

English speakers transferred the composition form of their mother tongue

to the composition written in the second language.

This study has particular implications for the teachers of

composition to students whose second languages are Spanish or English.

There are also implications for further study on different levels of

composition comparison. c c ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The writer wishes to express his thanks to his thesis director,

Professor Rose-Marie Weber of the Department of Linguistics at McGill

University, for her generous help in the completion of this thesis.

He would also like to especially thank Gwendolyn S. Newsham for

the encouragement and very helpful sug~estions she provided throughout

the writing of the thesis.

Grateful acknowledgement is extended to Professor A. Stokes of

Sir George Williams University, Montreal, Quebec, and to the Coordinator

of Modern Languages, Mr. Jean Paul Baril, and Mr. Gerald Pratt of Vanier

Colltge (CEGEP), Montreal, for their permission to gather data from

student compositions.

c c TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

I INTRODUCTION. 1

THE GENERAL NEED FOR THE STUDY 1

THE SPECIFIC NEED FOR THE STUDY • 6 PURPOSES OF THE STUDY 9

A STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM • 10

11 THE BACKGROUND TO THE PROBLEM · 11

CULTURE AND COMPOSITION. · 12

Cultural Thought Patterns • 12

Culture and Logic • · 13 Cultural Rhetoric and Composition · 15 THE CHARACTERIZATION OF COMPOSITION FORM • · 26 Characteristics of English Composition Form • · 26

Characteristics of Spanish Composition Form • · 31

III THE R~S~CH DESIGU AND THE SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS • • 36 THE RESEARCH DESIGN . 36

The Limitations of the Study · 37

The Population Sample • 37 The Research Procedure · 40 Samples from the Research Procedure • · 42 THE SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS • · 51 A Statement of the Findings c Some Observations from the Procedure and the Findings. • 52 c CHAPTER PAGE

IV CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FROM THIS STUDY • 56

CONCLUSIONS • 56

IMPLICATIONS FROM THIS STUDY • • 56 For Language Learning • 56

For Language Teaching • 57

For Psycholinguistics • 59 For Anthropological Linguistics · 60 BIBLIOGRAPHY • · 61 APPENDIX A · 64 APPENDIX B • 65 c APPENDIX C · 66 APPENDIX D · 68

c c LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE

1. Model Form Diagram for English • . 30

2. Model Form Diagram for Spanish • • 34

c c CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

I. THE GENERAL NEED FOR THE STUDY

Recently in the expanding field of second and foreign language

teaching there has been a reawakening of interest in the skills of lit­

eracy. The psychological and structural theories which led to the stress

on audiolingual skills in learning and teaching languages have given way

to newer theories which stress the cognitive approach and a return to

some of the values of prescriptive and traditional grammar methods.

Leon Jakobovits has pointed out that the stress on oral proficiency

and the resultant neglect regarding writing skills was a product of the

habit notion of the behavioristic approach to foreign language teaching.l

This Skinnerian notion that foreign language learning is simply a mechan­

ical process of habit formation has been demolished by such authorities

as Chomsky (1959). In 1966 John B. Carroll summed it up this way:

What is needed .•• is a profound rethinking of current theories of foreign language teaching in the light of con­ temporary advances in psychological and psycholinguistic theory. The audiolingual habit theory which is so prevalent in American foreign language teaching was, perhaps, fifteen years ago in step with the state of psychological thinking at that time, but it is no longer abreast of recent develop­ ments. It is ripe for major revision, particularly in the direction of joining with it some of the better elements of the cognitive code-learning theory.2

lLeon A. Jakobovits, Foreign Language Learning (Rowley: Newbury House Publishers, 1970), p. 224.

2John B. Carroll, "The Contribution of Psychological Theory and Educational Research to the Teaching of Foreign Languages," Trends in c Language Teaching, ed. Albert Valdman (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966), p. 105. 1 2

c Current advances in the field of second language teaching suggest

a reevaluation of the importance of reading and writing skills. Only

recently are teachers becoming aware that students learning a second lan­

guage dontt necessarily have to learn them in the order in which they

learned their first; reading and writing are no longer being left until

1I1ater on." A well known authority in the field of teaching English as a

second language~ Mary Finocchiaro, speaks of this idea of a primacy of

order in teaching language skills as a "myth" which must be exploded:

The first myth is that a long aural-oral period should pre­ cede the students' introduction to the printed word. To my knowledge, no experiment has ever been performed that would jus­ tify a long, rigidly-adhered-to time lag between the students' reasonably good oral production of an utterance and their seeing it in print. 3

Although it is not the intention of this study to explore the re­

lationship between speaking and writing, it does serve to point out here

how they are different. L.S. Vygotsky in Thought and Language states

that:

. . • the development of writing does not repeat the develop­ mental history of speaking. Written speech is a separate lin­ guistic function, differing from oral speech in both structure and mode of functioning. Even its minimal development requires a high level of abstraction. It is speech in thought and image only. 4

Vygotsky goes on to point out that there are certain factors involved in

the writing process which sometimes create problems in developing this

3Mary Finocchiaro, "Myth and Reality: A Plea for a Broader View," English_Teachin~Forum, X, 2 (March-April, 1972), 3.

4Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, Thought .and Language, trans. Eugenia Hanfmann and Gertrude Vakar (Cambridge: The M.I.T. Press, 1962), p. 98. c 3 c skill in the learner.

Our studies show that it is the abstract quality of written language that is the main stumbling block (in learning it)~ ••• not the underdevelopment of small muscles or any other mechanical obstacles. Writing requires deliberate analytical action. • • . The change from maximally compact inner speech to maxi­ mally detailed written speech requires what might be called deliberate semantics - deliberate structuring of the web of meaning.5

It is this "abstract quality" and the "deliberate structuring" involved

in the writing process which need further explanation and investigation

for application to the field of second language teaching.

Composition writing, however, is a different skill from that of

sentence writing. Recently in the field of communications, visual media

has sometimes been emphasized to the point where written discourse has

nearly been pronounced obsolete, but the ability to structure sentences

into a whole composition has much significance today. The importance of

composition teaching is discussed by one textbook author in the following

terms:

. • • properly conceived the teaching of composition involves the development of student sensitivity to the physical world, the world of human relations~ and the inner mental world in which every human being does much of his living. It includes developing in students patterns of productive thought - both rational and emotional - for varying purposes. It includes conveying accumulated humanistic and conventional patterns to the student for adaptation to his new "now." And composition teaching includes developing a morality of language and language usage, so that in work habits~ selection of messages, employment of message forms, and all other aspects of communication, students will show a respect for language as the fabric connecting human society.6

5Ibid., pp. 99-100.

6Lionel R. Sharp, ua e: A Teacher's Guide (Boston: Ginn and 4 o Although some universities and colleges in North America have begun

to experiment with the student use of audio-visual forms and methods of

report making, composition writing remains as an important facet of student

work at the university level.

In a recent survey undertaken by this writer at one university in

Canada, a questionnaire was submitted to 162 students representing four

different faculties. 7 The questionnaire asked students to indicate the

relative importance of each of the four language skills - reading, writing,

speaking, and listening - in terms of "expected use" in courses they were

taking other than languages. The results showed that approximately 90

per cent felt that the skill of writing was expected of them "much of the

time" as opposed to the speaking skill which was required "little" or

"none of the time."

As one textbook writer puts it,

Skill in writing is an invaluable permanent asset not only in college but later in the business and professional worlds • ••• Further, writing skill is a highly personal asset and one not likely to be automated. In fact, the demand for it grows daily. For most people the four undergraduate years are their last crack at acquirigg a solidly based, flexible, and permanent writing technique.

The problem of teaching composition demands special attention in the

area of second language teaching. Robert B. Kaplan makes reference to the

situation in English:

7A sample copy of the questionnaire is provided in Appendix A. 8 Thomas H. Cain, Common Sense about Writing (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1967), p. 4. 5 c In the teaching of English as a second language, what does one do with the student who is reasonably proficient in the use of syntactic structure but who needs to learn to write themes, theses, essay examinations and dissertations? The advanced student has long constituted a problem for teachers••••9

There is an apparent need for study and research in the area of

second language compositon teaching. The foreign student population in

English language colleges and universities is sufficiently large to merit

attention in this important skill area. A survey made by Harold B. Allen

of the teaching of English to non-English speakers in the United States

shows that "••• the greatest stress intended in college TENES (Teaching

of English to Non-English Speakers) programs is upon reading, writing,

and wr1Ott en compos1°t' 1on. ,,10 The need for research is made clear by

Eugene J. Briere in an article on second language composition.

Due to the tremendous lack of any empirical evidence derived from controlled observations in the classroom, the most honest statement we can probably make about teaching the writing of compositions in any second language at the university level is that we know very little about it. Further, the few reasonable assumptions which have been made about teaching writing in a second language are primarily concerned with the elementary or beginning levels of learning.ll

In the preceding paragraphs attention has been focused on the over­

all need for stUdy and research in the area of composition teaching, spe­

cifically as it applies to the student of a second or foreign language.

9Robert B. Kaplan, "Cultural Thought Patterns in Inter-Cultural Education," Language Learning, XVI, 1 and 2 (1966), 15.

10Harold B. Allen, TENES: A Survey of the Teaching of English to Non-English Speakers in the United States (Champaign: National Council of Teachers of English, 1966), p. 56.

llEugene J. Briere, "Quantity before Quality in Second Language Composition," Language Learning, XVI, 3 and 4 (1966), 141. 6 c The following section is an examination of the need for considering culture

as a factor in composition writing.

II. THE SPECIFIC NEED FOR THE STUDY

An article entitled "Cultural Thought Patterns in Inter-Cultural

Education" by Robert B. Kaplan provides the inspiration for this study.12

Many of the problems related to the teaching of composition to foreign

students arise from a lack of understanding of certain cultural implications

involved in the composition writing process. Professor Kaplan's article

provides some general and other very specific suggestions about these

implications. The paragraphs which follow explore these and some related

suggestions from other authors in the field of language teaching.

In the beginning of his article Kaplan states that "Language

teachers, particularly teachers of English as a second language, are

late-comers in the area of international education.,,13 Although anthro­

pological linguistics has shed some light on the general problem area of

cross-cultural language study, more information from this field needs to

be broken down and applied to the teaching of foreign languages.

The absence of an inter-cultural approach to understanding problems

of foreign students writing compositions in English is the basis for what

Kaplan calls a popular "fallacy. 11

12Kaplan, .£E.. cit., 1-20.

13Ibid., 1. c 7 c A fallacy of some repute and some duration is the one which assumes that because a student can write an adequate essay in his first language, he can necessarily write an adequate essay in a second language. That this assumption is fallacious has become more and more apparent as English-as-a-second-language courses have proliferated at American colleges and universities in recent years. Foreign students who have mastered syntactic structures have still demonstrated inability to Rompose adequate themes, term papers, theses, and dissertations.l

Other writers in the field of second language teaching hint at the

need for a cross-cultural awareness on the part of the teacher of compo­

sition. Some of these comments which follow are of a broad general nature,

while others actually point to the need for more definitive study in this

area.

Harold B. Allen , in an introductory section of a book of readings

in the field of teaching English as a second language, comments on how the

teacher of composition must be aware of the cultural aspects of language

usage. But the cultural differences which should be of concern to the

composition teacher are not so much those of usage or grammar, or even

writing systems for that matter. As Robert Lado puts it, "It is not enough

to make a broad comment on differences between writing systems if we wish

to know specifically what the learning problems (involved in writing) will ,,16 be.

14Ibid., 3.

15Harold B. Allen (ed.), Teaching English as a Second Language (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965), p. 237.

16Robert Lado, Linguistics across Cultures (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1957), p. 97. c 8 c The problems related to foreign student composition writing should

be approached on the basis of cultural contrasts rather than purely lin­

guistic contrasts. For example, Mary Finocchiaro points out the;t the stu­

dent of English as a second language is usually at a disadvantage in the

writing situation not only because of difficulties with grammar, but also

because of his different experiences and concepts.17 In a recent article

she makes specific mention of the "culturalll aspect of student difficulties:

Each student will come to class with deeply ingrained values and with an experiential background that may color his motivation for learning and his acceptance or rejection of the linguistic or cultural material we may be trying to inculcate.18

Specific problem areas in composition writing are referred to in an

article by Donald Knapp. He reports that among a group of intermediate

and advanced students in a composition course, " • •• almost all retained

serious trouble-spots that reflected their native language backgrounds.

• • • Most were not aware of topic sentences, supporting statements focusing

on the central idea of the paragraph , transitional elements, and the like. ,,19

Why these particular structural elements of composition present difficulty

for the non-native speaker of English may be explained by referring to cer­

tain cultural conventions native to the foreign student. Kaplan states

that cultural differences in the nature of rhetoric _ a culture's mode of

l7Mary Finocchiaro, "Secondary School Composition: Problems and Practices," TESOL Quarterly, I, 3 (September, 1967), 40-46.

l8Finocchiaro, "Myth and Reality: A Plea for a Broader View," 5.

19Donald Knapp, "A Focused, Efficient Method to Relate Composition Correction to Teaching Aims," Teaching English as a Second Language, ed. Harold B. AlIen (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965), p. 274. 9 c thinking - supply the key to understanding and correcting student diffi­ 20 culties of the kind which Knapp refers to above. Kaplan says that many

times "The foreign-student paper is out of focus because the foreign stu­

dent is employing a rhetoric and a sequence of thought which violate the

expectations of the native reader. ,,21

The need for this study, then, points to the relevance of under­

standing one aspect of these cultural differences in the nature of rhetoric.

In this study that aspect of "cultural rhetoric" is the structural form

which composition takes in English and in Spanish. Kaplan's remark that

"This approach, the contrastive analysis of rhetoric, is offered as one

possible answer to the existing need•••.,,22 provides the starting

point for this study.

Ill. PURPOSES OF THE STUDY

The specific purposes of this study are:

1. To examine English composition and its form in the light of

certain historical, cultural, and pedagogical traditions

2. To examine Spanish composition in the same way

3. To characterize English composition form by defining its struc­

tural elements and by indicating how these elements are ordered and se­

quenced in expository composition

20 Kaplan, .Q.E.. cit.,l.

21lbid., 4.

22Ibid• , 15 • .'0 10 c 4. To characterize Spanish composition form by defining its struc­

tural elements

5. To use these characteristics in a research design in order to

investigate the problem of transference of composition form from one lan­

guage to another.

IV. A STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The problem to be investigated in this thesis can be formally stated

as follows: When the native speaker of Spanish writes a composition in

English or when the native speaker of English writes a composition in

Spanish, is there a transference of the culturally thought-based form of

composition from the native language to composition written in the second

language?

The hypothesis, based on the problem, is that there is such a

transference.

Transference refers to the process whereby something learned in one

situation manifests itself in another situation. 23 The form of composition

is defined as the underlying structural organization of idea content in an

expository composition. Expository composition refers to that kind of

composition which defines, explains, or interprets its subject matter in

a factual way. Its basic purpose is to inform.

23Jakobovits, .2J2.. cit., p. 95. c c CHAPTER 11

THE BACKGROUND TO THE PROBLEM

This chapter is divided into two sections: (1) culture and composi­

tion and (2) the characteristics of composition form. The first section

represents a broad survey of information and literature related to the

problem of this study and to the char~cterizations presented in the second

section. The second section provides the framework and the related under­

lying assumptions for the actual research. Throughout this chapter signif­

icant terms are defined.

I. CULTURE AND COMPOSITION

This section deals with literature pertaining to certain cultural

aspects of composition writing. The literature is reviewed and discussed

in the following SUb-sections: (1) cultural thought patterns, (2) culture

and logic, and (3) cultural rhetoric and composition. These areas have

been chosen for discussion because of the underlying assumption that cul­

tural variation is a factor in composition writing.

Cultural Thought Patterns

As a working hypothesis for this study, an assumption can be made

concerning thought patterns and the form of written discourse. This

assumption is that the ways in which members of a culture organize and

pattern their thinking in order to arrive at certain conclusions and

assumptions is reflected in the structural form which their formal, written c discourse takes. This assumption is discussed in the following paragraphs. 11 12 c Cultural thought patterns may be defined as the ways in which mem­

bers of a given culture organize their thinking for the achievement of a

designated end. Sapir's notion that each language group has its own way

of looking at the world - its own perceptual and conceptual framework - is

applicable to this definition in that one aspect of a culture's "concep­

tual framework" might be the way in which thinking is patterned toward a l given end in that culture. Whorf says that ", •• the thinking process

, • • will be found to be fundamentally different for individuals whose

languages are of fundamentally different types. 1I2 One might conclude that

different cultures manifest different routes and ways of thinking for the

achievement of designated ends.

These culturally evolved thinking patterns reflect the ways in

which speakers of a given language group structure and deal with reality.

Ward H. Goodenough points out that one society does not necessarily sim­

plify reality in the same perceptual way as another. 3

A specific example of what is meant by the cultural thought patterns

of a given language group can be seen in Kaplan's definition of these

patterns in reference to the English language group. "The thought patterns

which speakers and readers of English appear to expect as an integral part

of their communication is a sequence that is dominantly linear in its

lEdward Sapir, Culture, Language, and Personality, ed. David G. Mandelbaum (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1958) pp. 6-20.

2BenJamin Lee Whorf, "A Linguistic Consideration of Thinking in Primitive Communities," Language in Culture and Society, ed. Dell Hymes (New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1964) p. 130.

3Ward H. Goodenough, Cooperation in Change (New York: Russell Sage c Foundation, 1963), pp. 149-150. 13 o development."4

It is the contention here that a given culture's system of thought

patterning is reflected in the structural and organizational form - be it

linear, circular, or digressive -which expository composition takes in

that culture.

Culture and Logic

Related to the concept of cultural thought patterns is the concept

of logic as seen from a cultural viewpoint. Some aspects of logic are

products of cultural traditions. The term logic can refer to the way

people of a given culture arrive at certain inferences or conclusions.

Kaplan writes that "Logic (in the popular, rather than the logician's

sense of the word) which is the basis of rhetoric, is evolved out of a

culture ~ it is not universal. ,,5

The fact that the thinking and beliefs of one society may appear to

be "illogical" to those of another society has been pointed out by

Goodenough. In his words "There is no society without a logic;" it is

just that there are differences from society to society in how the propo­ 6 sitions of logic are manipulated.

Jespersen comes close to admitting the existence of different

logical systems in different languages when he makes value statements

4 Robert B. Kaplan, "Cultural Thought Patterns in Inter-Cultural Education," Language Learning, XVI, 1 and 2 (1966), 15.

5Ibid., p. 2.

6Goodenough, 2£.~.,"t p. 151. 14 o concerning these systems. He bases his value judgements on what he calls

"the standard of logic. ,,7 He states that "We may • • . compare different

languages and Judge them by the standard of logic, and here again I thi.nk

that, apart from Chinese, which has been described as pure applied logic,

there is perhaps no language in the civilized world that stands so high as

English."B By applying his own one standard of "Western" logic, Jespersen

fails to realize that essentially, in the cross-cultural sense, the two

languages (cultures) which he mentions have different logical systems.

Both Kaplan and Edward T. Hall are aware of the relativity of logic

when approaching it in terms of culture. Kaplan points out that ". • • it

has long been known among sociologists and anthropologists that logic •

is a cultural phenomenon ••• and varies from culture to culture.•.,,9

Hall draws parallels between learning and logic in the inter-cultural

setting.

What complicates matters is that people reared in different cultures learn to learn differently. Some do so by memory and rote without reference to "logic" as we think of it, while some learn by demonstration but without the teacher requiring the student to do anything himself while "learning." Some cultures, like the American, stress doing as a principle of learning, while others have very little of the pragmatic. The Japanese even guide the hand of the pupil, while our teachers usually aren't permitted to touch the other person•.•• Education and educational systems are about as laden with emotion and as

10tto Jespersen, Growth and Structure of the English Language (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1967), p. 12.

B1bid.

9Kap1an, .£E.. eit., p. 2. characteristic of a given culture as its language. It should not come as a surprise that we encounter real opposition to our educational system when we make attempts to transfer it overseas.10

In addition to what Hall says about "logic," his remarks about transferring

methods of learning from one culture to another are of particular importance

in this study. It is precisely this difficulty - the problem of trans­

ference - when applied to learning the rhetoric of another language, and

more specifically, when applied to learning the compositional form of

another language, which this study attempts to investigate.

Cultural Rhetoric and Composition

Cultural rhetoric refers to the ways in which members of a given cul­

ture organize their thinking for expression in different modes of communi­

cation. How, then, is composition related to cultural rhetoric? And to

be even more specific, what is the relationship between the cultural thought

patterns involved in rhetoric and the actual form composition takes in

English and Spanish?

The literature concerning cultural rhetoric and composition is

referred to in this section to answer and discuss these questions. Several

areas are dealt with in the following paragraphs: (1) cultural conventions

of rhetoric, (2) historical backgrounds of rhetoric and composition in

English, (3) the "linear" tradition in English composition and some peda­ gogical amplifications and applications of this tradition, and (4) his­

torical and pedagogical traditions of Spanish composition.

10 Edward T. Hall, The Silent Language (Greenwich: Fawcett Publi­ c cations, Inc., 1959), p. 53. 16 c Cultural conventions of rhetoric Kaplan views rhetoric in somewhat

the same way he views "logic:!I . "Rhetol'ic, then, is not universal either,

but varies from culture to culture•••,,11 He applies the concept of a

culturally-based rhetoric to the teaching of writing: "The teaching of

reading and composition to foreign students does differ from the teaching

of reading and composition to American students, and cultural differences

in the nature of rhetoric supply the key to the differences in teaching 12 approach."

Further mention is made of the cultural conventions of writing by

Lionel R. Sharp:

Mankind has developed, through cultural accretion, a number of effective patterns for standard kinds of communications. Though these are susceptible to extreme adaptation by any writer, most students are effective in direct proportion to their native background in conventional forms of writing.13

Historical background of rhetoric and composition in English

Some reasons for the relationship between thinking and writing can be seen

by looking into the historical backgrounds of rhetoric and composition.

Referring to the origins of English rhetoric, Kaplan points out that

The English language and its related thought patterns have evolved out of the Anglo-European cultural pattern. The expected sequence of thought in English is essentially a Platonic­ Aristotelian sequence, descended from the philosophers of ancient

11 Kaplan, loco eit.

12Ibid., p. 1­

13Lionel R. Sharp, =E=n-=l=i=s=h~~~~~==~~_L==a~=a=we~:~A~T~e~a~c~h~e~r~'s~ Guide (Boston: Ginn and Company, c 17

Greece and shaped subsequently by Roman, Medieval European, and later Western thinkers. It is not a better nor a worse system than any other, but it is different.14

Thomas H. Cain, in a further discussion of these origins, goes so far as to quote Aristotle: "'A whole is that whieh has beginning, middle, and end.' Aristotle made this statement about the abstract nature of things as they exist in time and spaee.,,15 Cain goes on to explain that the first surviving book about writing is Aristotle's Techne Rhetorike in which the

Greek philosopher points the way to the linear concept in writing exposition.

In general, Aristotle's book sets forth an orderly, step-by-step method applicable to composition, and he organizes his book according to the steps 16 of that method. Cain finds that contemporary textbook writers of com­ position for the English speaking student tend to follow the Aristotelian tradition. He states that Aristotle's method might be boiled down to this: "Know what distinguishable acts are involved in the process of writing and then do them one at a time. ,,17 Cain then brings the Aristo­ telian principle into the contemporary scene:

This principle goes back to the beginning of instruction about writing. It is still unavoidable if you want to write comfortably and well. If you try to write methodically, you will find your­ self forced to analyze the various operations and do them one at a time, even though you don't know their names and have never heard

14 Kaplan, .2.£. eit., p. 3.

15Thomas H. Cain, Common Sense about Writing (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1967), p. 78.

l6Ibid., p. 21­

17Ibid• 18

of Aristotle or any other Greek or techniques or rhetoric •• Writers like Shakespeare and Milton were products of a whole system of rhetorical education designed to equip them with a set of writing techniques conceived according to this old principle of separating the operations.18

In a historical examination of English written exposition, the word

"essay" is generally used instead of the word "composition." Some his­ torical remarks about the essay in English are found in a number of college textbooks and anthologies concerning essay writing. The word "essay" comes from the French essai, meaning "trial," "attempt," "experiment.1! Montaigne originally used the word essai in 1580 to describe his adventures in "souI­ searching" and probing. One text speaks of how the English essay was, per­ haps, influenced to some extent by the genre of the essay as it originated in French. Genre here refers to a literary and stylistic form rather than a structural one. In the same text mention is made of how Francis Bacon was in part influenced by Montaigne but went on to further develop the form of the English essay, and Dryden follows the Platonic tradition.19

One might conclude that the Platonic-Aristotelian tradition found expression in a somewhat literary form in English and was subsequently influential in the development of expository prose or composition as we know it today. The linear tradition in English composition How, then, does the

"logical" and "linear" heritage of the English essay manifest itself in present-day composition? Kaplan applies the linear tradition spoken of

18Ibid., pp. 21-22.

19suzanne Silberstein and Marian Seldin, Sense and Style: The Craft of the Essay (New York: Random House, 1962), pp. xi-xii. 19 c earlier to the English expository paragraph:

The thought patterns which speakers and readers of English appear to expect as an integral part of their communication is a sequence that is dominantly linear in its development. An English expository paragraph usually begins with a topic statement, and then, by a series of subdivisions of that topic statement, each supported by example and illustrations, pro­ ceeds to develop that central idea and relate that idea to all the other ideas in the whole essay, and to employ that idea in its proper relationship with the other ideas, to prove some­ thing, or perhaps to argue something. 20

In a rather general, but applied sense, textbook writers of compo­

sition, as well as specialists in the field of English as a foreign lan­

guage, refer to what Kaplan and others call "linear" development as "order,"

"organization," "logical development," and the like. After sampling a

variety of textbooks and journal articles on teaching English composition,

one must conclude that the principle of employing a Platonic-Aristotelian­

like logic and developing it in a linear fashion is still the order of

the day.

Vivian Horn, in an article which rings of Kaplan's theory, speaks

of a need to teach the foreign student "Western thought processes" - a

system of logic - when teaching writing in English. She goes so far as

to suggest the use of a list of logical relationships as a teaching aid

in the comprehension of written exposition because she feels that students

may be accustomed to d~· fferent convent~ons. 0 f reason1ng. and r h e t or1C. . 21

Another author in the field of composition teaching, Donna H. Carr,

20 Kaplan, ..2E,. cit., pp. 4-5. 2lyivian Horn, "Teaching Logical Relati~nships in Written Discourse," o TESOL Quarterly, Ill, 4 (December, 1969), 291-296. 20 c puts the writing of a whole composition into a separate skill category

from any other form of writing. According to her, in composition exer­

cises the emphasis must be on the logical arrangement of ideas into

paragraphs and then into full length compositions. She emphasizes the

need to write "analytically" in English. 22

Finocchiaro, in discussing methods for teaching writing to the

non-native speaker of English, emphasizes exposing students to what in

English we consider an appropriate "order" for the organization of their

ideas. She speaks of making these students aware of how we native speakers

order our ideas in written form. 23

Another author in the field of English as a second language, Nancy

Arapoff, says that first and foremost students of English as a foreign

language must recognize writing as a thought process. They must learn

how to select, organize, and organize facts according to a certain purpose.

They will be required to look for fallacies in arguments and to learn how

to compose what we consider to be logically sound arguments. 24

Teachers and students of English composition are frequently reminded

by textbook writers that expository composition and literary inspiration have little in common:

22Donna H. Carr, "A Second Look at Teaching Reading and Composition," TESOL Quarterly, I, 1 (March, 1967), 30-34.

23Finocchiaro, loco cit.

24Nancy Arapoff, "Writing: A'Thinking Process," TESOL Quarterly, I, 2 (June, 1967), 33-39. c 21 o No muse ever helped anybody in freshman composition. . Writing acceptable freshman themes is as uncomplicated as assembling a simple piece of mechanical equipment. It is a logical process, not a hazy, muse-inspired one•••• Writing a theme is a process of assembling units with which you are familiar. It does not call for a sudden flash of 2 inspiration; it calls instead for intelligent craftsmanship. 5

Although literary essays are sometimes used as models for analysis,

English expository composition as defined for teaching purposes is rarely

associated with the literary essay. Quite the contrary is true in Spanish

composition teaching where students are taught to imitate literary essays.

Historical and pedagogical traditions of Spanish composition

The form of Spanish composition cannot be approached in the same way as

with English composition. The reasons for this difference are primarily

due to the historical and cultural traditions involved in Spanish compo­

sition. What follows is an analysis of these traditions and how they are

reflected in the form of the Spanish essay and in related pedagogical

traditions.

In any consideration of written exposition in Spanish, it is impor­

tant to know that the Spanish words ensayo (essay) and composici6n

(composition) mean the same thing. Composition, as the student of Spanish approaches it, refers to that literary genre known as the essay. Part of

the reason for this association lies in a strong pedagogical adherence to

traditions associated with literary history.

Although its earliest history perhaps had similar roots, the devel­

opment of the essay in Spanish follows a different course from that in

English. While the genre of the English essay has as its crucial starting c 25RudOlph C. Flothow and Oscar E. Littleton, Structure and Strategy in Composition (New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1963), pp. ix-x. 22 c point Montaigne and later Bacon, the Spanish essay has its genesis in the

Renaissance writings of Antonio de Gueyara who wrote before Montaigne.

Gueyara's works seem to set the stage for two important aspects of the

Spanish essay - the use of a very personal and subjective style and a

reliance on earlier traditional literary forms. 26

Donald W. Bleznick, in his introduction to El Ensayo Espafiol del

Siglo Veinte, traces the development of the Spanish essay and comments

o n its "spirit. "

Some see the genesis of the essay in the dialogues of Plato, the treatises of Aristotle, and the works of other writers of Antiquity such as Theophrastus, Pliny, Seneca, Plutarch, and Cicero. Others see the essay as a product of the Renaissance and mark the essays of Montaigne as the first manifestation of this genre. Students of the Spanish essay may trace its begin­ nings to the writings of Antonio de Gueyara in the sixteenth century or establish its origin with the works of Feij60 in the eighteenth century. It is my belief that the modern Spanish essay has its genesis in the Renaissance. The Renaissance humanist usually busied himself in discovering, reading, and digesting the works of classical writers and only after serious meditation did he set forth the fruits of his own reflections. Youth's Yigor, its self-examination, its desire for freedom in personal expression, and its attempts to understand the multifarious aspects of life, through its own experience and that of recognized authority, are traits of the Renaissance spirit as well as of the writers we call essayists. We see the essayistic spirit in the Ep!stolas familiares (1542) and other works of Antonio de Gueyara (1480-1545) who, even before Montaigne, wrote in a very personal style on a great variety of topics. He relied heavily on classical and medieval scholarship as well as his own experience in writing down his interpretation of Spanish life and customs. 27

26Donald W. Bleznick (ed.), El Ensayo Espafiol del Siglo Veinte (New York: The Ronald Press Co., 1964), pp. 4-5.

27---1.....,Ib · d pp. 3-.5 23 c In Spanish composition the writer is encouraged to use his

imagination and emotions in a flexible and "artistic" manner. Lado

and his associates, writing in one Spanish textbook, state that

The essay in Spanish is a very flexible literary form. Writing in prose, its author expounds a personal insight on any of a variety of themes. • •.the author wants to encircle the theme. The field of the essay is wide; it can be philosophical, scientific, academic, or of a criti­ cal nature. 28

One aspect of this flexibility in Spanish composition is what

might be called digression. Speaking about composition Kaplan points

out that "Much greater freedom to digress or to introduce extraneous

material is available in French, or in Spanish, than in English.,,29

This element of digression, foreign to what would be considered standard

composition development in English, has its basis in the literary essay

in Spanish. Rodr1guez and Rosenthal in their introduction to The Modern

Spanish Essay make this point quite clear.

The literary essay is characterized by a basic freedom from methodological or procedural restraints, by an almost completely free hand in the manner of presenting or devel­ oping any given subject. Given the personal intensity of the essayist's approach to a subject, which is itself selected without preexistent restrictions, it is not too surprising to find that the literary essay is often characterized by a very strong ten­ dency toward digression, by a distinct predeliction for diverging from any central theme. 30

28 Robert Lado and others, Tesoro Hispanico (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968), p. 366. * Material taken from this source was translated by the writer of this thesis. 29Kaplan, £e.. cit., p. 12. 30Alfredo Rodr!guez and William Rosenthal, The Modern Spanish Essay (Waltham: Blaisdell Publishing Co., 1969), p. ix. c 24 c For the student of Spanish composition there seem to be few

restrictions of form, per~, Yet he is expected to refer constantly

to a model - a literary one. One textbook author states that experi­

ence has convinced him that close analysis of literary texts is a very

fruitful approach to teaching Spanish composition. 31

The two assumptions which are to be taken into account here may

seem to be somewhat in conflict - a super-imposed literary heritage of

form and a highly subjective approach to the subject matter. Yet it is,

perhaps, the nature of the Spanish language and its corresponding culture

which lends itself to, or permits, this apparent dichotomy. One text­

book for composition in Spanish puts this duality in the following terms: " .the objective is to have the students literally take possession of the language of Spanish writers and make use of it as if it were their

own • in written form,II32

It has been a pedagogical tradition handed down through the cen­

turies that the native speaker of Spanish who wishes to write an essay

follow literary models. In any of a variety of textbooks for either the

native or the non-native speaker of Spanish, the same point is brought up.

It is suggested that by studying the literature of Spanish speaking people,

the student will acquire an understanding of the cultural framework of

the literary piece. In addition he will grasp the way in which the writer

31Candido Ayl16n and Paul Smith,. Spanish Composition through Liter­ ature (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1968), p. vi.

32Sherman H. Eoff and Noemi Ram!rez, Composici6n - Conversaci6n (Waltham: Blaisdell Publishing Co., 1969), p. v. c c thinks, imagines, or reasons about significant ideas and beliefs.33

In one textbook for native speakers of Spanish in secondary schools, for composition exercises students are instructed in lesson after lesson

to reconstruct literary masterpieces: "As a theme for composition students

are to reconstruct in their own words the following story which Cervantes

narrates in the prologue to the second part of Don Quijote,,,34

But the literary models which students are to follow do not

necessarily detract from a very personal and informal mood which is cited

as characteristic of the Spanish composition, In Spanish the essay "may

be considered as an abbreviated, informal discourse in which the writer,

directly or in a roundabout manner, sets forth his moods, tastes, pre­

delictions, aversions, and all other reactions to his experience.,,35

Guevara, then, led the Spanish essay in a different direction

from its English counterpart. While the English essay is deeply rooted

in a linear and rather scientific or rationalist mode, the Spanish essay

has its genesis in Renaissance humanism. In characterizing the form of

the Spanish essay, it will be important to bear in mind that these two

ever-abiding historical elements _ a reliance on traditional models and

a highly subjective approach to the subject matter _ are still found

today in the modern Spanish essay.

33Edith Helman, "Learning Foreign Language through Literature," A Handbook for Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese, ed. Donald D. Walsh (Lexington: D.C. Heath and Co., 1969), p. 51. 34Amado Alonso and Pedro Henr!quez Urena, Gramatica Castellana (Buenos Aires: Editorial Losada, S.A., 1962), pp. 59-60. *Material taken from this source was translated by the writer of this thesis. c 35Bleznick, ~. cit., p. 4. 26 c Up to this point much has been said in this study about the theory

of composition form from cultural, historical, and pedagogical perspectives.

But now it will be necessary to examine precisely what elements go into

making up the actual form of the composition - those elements which pro­

vide the organizational framework for English and Spanish composition.

11. THE CHARACTERIZATION OF COMPOSITION FORM

This section provides the framework and its related underlying

assumptions for the research portion of this study by defining and out­

lining: (1) the characteristics of English composition form and (2) the

characteristics of Spanish composition form.

Characteristics of English Composition Form

In this study composition form means the underlying structural

organization of idea content of an expository composition. It refers to

the framework or skeleton used to develop a given topic. The term does

not include a consideration of syntax, grammar, or mechanics.

As was pointed out in the preceding section, the composition form

in English has to do with specific thought patterns. These patterns

reflect a specific order and sequence. What is ordered? And what is the

sequence? To answer the first question, the topic sentence and the

paragraph are those structural elements which are ordered. What follows

is a description of each.

As is consistently pointed out in textbooks on the teaching of

English composition, the topic sentence is the, kernel or core sentence c of each paragraph. It usually appears at the beginning of a paragraph and might be said to "cover" the contents of a paragraph. Carle B. Spotts 27

defines it in relation to the paragraph: "The typical paragraph is

made up of a topic sentence and its development. The topic sentence

is a statement of the main thought of the paragraph. • ." 36

A paragraph is an idea unit usually made up of two or more

sentences. Its purpose is to aid in communicating thought by setting

off the single topic which it develops.37 Kaplan, in describing the

usual English paragraph, says that it begins with a general statement

of its content and then develops that statement with a series of sen­

tences which illustrate or in some way support the central idea. The

paragraph may be discursive but never digressive. Nothing goes into

the paragraph which does not in some way contribute to the central idea.

The flow of ideas occurs in a straight line from the opening sentence 38 to the last sentence.

Having defined the two basic structural elements of the compo­

sition, what remains is an examination of how the paragraphs are

sequenced and a description of the kinds of paragraphs which go into

this arrangement. The "straight line" which Kaplan refers to when speaking of the

Itflow of ideas" is a reflection of a linear paragraph sequence. This

linear arrangement of ideas from beginning (introduction) to middle (body)

36Carle B. Spotts, Fundamentals of Present-Day English (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc., 1963) p. 318.

37Harry Shaw and Richard H. Dodge, The Shorter Handbook of Collese Composition (New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1965), p. 67. 38 c Kaplan, .QJ2.. cit., p. 6. 28 o to end (conclusion) is the basic sequence which all composition in English

follows. The actual content of a composition and the expository devices

and purposes employed to arrive at a conclusion are of a variety of types.

One author lists the following developmental techniques: the use of

"(1) particulars and details, (2) illustration and/or example, (3) com­ parison or contrast, (4) division, (5) causes and effects, (6) reasons or inferences, and (7) definition.,,39 Other writers speak of the variety

of purposes which written composition can have - to illustrate and

exemplifY, to compare and contrast, to classifY, to explain the process 40 of something, to define, to describe, and so on.

But it is the basic underlying structure which any and all of

the preceding types of composition will necessarily have which is of

importance in this study. Most textbook writers conclude that every

composition must have three essential parts - an introduction, a body,

and a conclusion. One' author, Alexander E. Jones, provides an example

of what Kaplan refers to as "linear development" by supplying four linear

diagrams of what he considers to be the four basic composition patterns (see Appendix B).41

The basic intention of expository composition, as generally

stated in textbooks, is to inform. How do the structural elements con­

tribute to this purpose? A closer examination of the three essential

39shaw and Dodge, ££. cit., p. 71.

40Charles Kaplan, Guided Composition (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc., 1968), p. viii. 41 Alexander E. Jones and Claude W. Faulkner, Writing Good Prose (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1968), pp. 101-115. 29 c parts reveal that: (1) the introduction acts as the topic sentence for

the entire work; it has a composition-inclusive topic sentence of its

own, (2) the body contains the developing paragraphs of each of the

stated or implied elements of the introductory, main topic idea, and 42 (3) the conclusion reviews and emphasizes the entire system. Falk

S. Johnson, writing in one textbook, puts it this way:

The parts of the composition may be compared to parts of the system of subject matter. The introduction may present the set on the very highest level of generality, then the body may present the other sets in the system, progressing downward through inter-locking topics toward increasingly specific subtopics. The conclusion may review the entire system or may emphasize selected parts of it - especially the parts on the higher levels of generality.43

From the preceding information a sequenced list of the basic form

characteristics of English expository composition can now be established.

The following list will be used to measure student compositions in the

research portion of this study.

Form Category List for English

1. An introductory paragraph containing the main topic sentence

which states or implies the topic ideas to be developed in the body

paragraphs

2. The body paragraphs, each containing a topic idea of its own

which relates back to the main topic idea

3. A concluding paragraph which reviews, emphasizes, and/or sum­

marizes the entire system

42Falk S. Johnson, How to Organize What You Write (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1964), p. 44.

43Ibid• 30 o As is pointed out by the authors referred to in this section, these three

basic elements are interdependent and inseparable in a definition of

English expository composition.

As a sum total of the foregoing statements about the form, a model

diagram can now be supplied. The diagram is characteristic of the basic

underlying form structure of English expository composition. A model

composition, which corresponds to the following diagram, is provided

(see Appendix C).

INTRODUCTION Main Topic Sentence I. FIRST PARAGRAPH and Its Elements:.

11. BODY PARAGRAPHS

. Development

Ill. FINAL PARAGRAPH A. CONCLUSION B. C.

Figure 1 Model Form Diagram for English 31

Characteristics of Spanish Composition Form

For the writer of expository prose in English the difficulties

which arise in attempting to formulate and describe a precise structural

framework of the composition in Spanish are a product of transference

itself. It should be rather apparent at this point in the study that

composition as defined, studied, and written in Spanish can never lend

itself to the kind of underlying systematic, ordered and diagrammed

description which has been seen to be characteristic of the composition

in English. The reasons for these differences have already been touched

upon. English expository composition is a highly cognitive and objective

process, arising from philosophical and scientific traditions in the

underlying culture. The writer of Spanish composition, on the other hand,

relies on certain frozen literary forms, and approaches his subject matter

in a highly subjective manner. The essay attempts to reflect its past

perfections.

A closer examination of what is meant by composition in Spanish and a broad characterization of its literary form will provide the frame­

work needed for a contrastive analysis. One authority in the field of teaching Spanish composition,

Marguerite Suarez-Murias, defines it in terms of style. We define the term composition, in respect to the teaching of it, as a way of learning to write correctly and, as far as possible, to write artistically. Writing is an art. One might define composition then as an awareness and a use of style. • The method of teaching composition should be based on 44 the imitation of certain styles as revealed in literary models.

44Marguerite C. Suarez-Murias, IfLa Composicion: Conciencia de Estilo," Hispania, L1, 2 (May, 1968), 287-288; * Material taken from this source was c translated by the writer of ~his thesis. 32 o She goes on to specify to some degree what is meant by an imitation of

literary styles:

In reality a course in composition would consist of an analysis of determined styles ••• and written practice using these styles. . • • The student can review the ideology of each literary school _ the philosophical, social and historical aspects of each school which have affected styles • • • then, internally pick out the actual technique which the author has employed in using certain 45 terms, phrases, and twists of meaning in creating an artistic effect.

But the whole range of style in writing Spanish prose cannot be

broken down here to provide a model against which to measure student

compositions. Rather, the general notion that an artistic style is

expected of the student writing in Spanish can be taken into consideration

in the research procedure of this study.

To give further definition to what Suarez-Murias calls "writing

artistically," it is useful to consider the following breakdown set down

by Manuel Rojas in Apuntes sobre la expresion escrita: Generally, prose

of any type is characterized by artistic beauty through language. This

artistic beauty can be typified by the use of descriptive adjectives,

metaphors, similes, rhythm in narration, and the like. Furthermore, the

writer shO¥ld resort to all the forms which the technique of literary

expression has invented - description, reflection, considerations, internal

monologues, discussions with the other "self," dialogues, examinations of

the state of consciousness, conduct, antecedents, reactions, and all other

thlngs, WhlC , h serve h'lS end s. 46

45Ibid., p. 289.

46Manuel Rojas, Apuntes sobre la expresion escrita (Caracas: Publi­ *aciones de La Universidad Central de Venezuela, 1960), pp. 34-53. Material tkaen from this source was translated by the writer of this thesis. 33 o The critic of English expository prose would react negatively to

the preceding categories and broad generalizations if he encountered

them in English compositions. In this study they can serve as a general

guideline, a cross-cultural tool, for making value statements about

expository prose in Spanish and about transference. In analyzing and

correcting compositions written in Spanish, the teacher would have to

look for an effective use of these general literary qualities. The same

would not hold true for the teacher of English correcting compositions

written in English.

A general category of characteristics which help to define the

literary essay in Spanish can be established by referring to Rodrlguez and

Rosenthal in The Modern Spanish Essay.47 In slightly modified form the

preceding list represents basically what Rodrlguez and Rosenthal and

several other authors in the field of Spanish composition emphasize as

being the characteristics which define the literary essay. These char­

acteristics will be used in analyzingstudent compositions in the research

portion of this study.

The Form Category List for Spanish

1. A studied freedom from procedural restraints - the absence of a

linear development of ideas - allowing the greatest possible liberty for

digressive thematic development (use of digression)

2. A thoroughly subjective, ~ersonal perspective on the subject

under consideration (reference made to the writerfs'~eelings") o 47Rodr!guez and Rosenthal, ~. cit., p. xi. 34

3. A viewpoint enhanced by an introspective and lyrical quality

on a highly stylistic level (use of descriptive adjectives, metaphors,

similes, and the like)

As is pointed out by the authors mentioned above, these three

elements are interdependent and inseparable -- occur as a unit -- in

a definition of Spanish composition.

In formulating the following diagram to represent the character­

istics, the circles enclosing the numbers, which correspond to the pre­

ceding list (1-3), do not represent paragraphs as in English, but rather

"essay qualities" which may be employed at unspecified places in the

composition. The encompassing circle serves to represent the non-linear

form of the Spanish essay. A model composition, which roughly corresponds

to the preceding diagram, is provided (see Appendix D).

c Figure 2 Model Form Diagram for Spanish 35

In summary, then, the preceding backgrounds and characterizations of the composition forms provide adequate categories against which to measure student compositions in the chapter which follows. CHAPTER III

THE RESEARCH DESIGN AND THE SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS

I. THE RESEARCH DESIGN

The specific purposes of this study were clearly set down in

Chapter One. These were: (1) to examine English composition and its

form in the light of certain historical, cultural, and pedagogical

traditions, (2) to examine Spanish composition in the same way, (3) to

characterize English composition form by defining its structural elements

and by indicating how these elements are ordered and sequenced in expo­

sitory composition, (4) to characterize Spanish composition form by

defining its structural elements, and (5) to use these characteristics

in a research design in order to investigate the problem of transference

of composition form from one language to another.

The problem was stated as follows: When the native speaker of

Spanish writes a composition in English or when the native speaker of

English writes a composition in Spanish, is there a transference of the

culturally thought-based form of composition from'the native language to

composition written in the second language?

To test out the hypothesis, which states that this transference

does occur, a study was made on a population sample. This chapter-section is divided into four parts- (1) the limitations

of the study, (2) a description of the population sample, (3) the research

procedure, and (4) samples from the research procedure. c 36 37

The Limitations of the Study

The following limitations should be observed with respect to the investigational design of this study and the applicabilities of the findings.

1. The study does not deal with the entire range of cross-cultural rhetoric, but only with the form of expository composition. The form of composition as it applies to this study has been defined as the underlying structural organization of idea content in an expository composition.

Expository composition refers to that kind of composition which defines, explains, or interprets its subject matter in a factual way. Its basic purpose is to inform.

2. Only two languages, English and Spanish, are analyzed for form.

Other more specific delimitations are found throughout the body of this thesis.

The Population Sample

Since the need for this study relates to the teaching of composition as a foreign language skill, particularly at the university level, the population sample consists of compositions written by university level students. The following are detailed descriptions and delimitations of the population sample.

The English composition population sample

1. All the English compositions written by foreign students at an

English language university for English language course placement in the period between February 26, 1971, and February 25, 1972, were examined. 38

Thirty were found to have been written by native speakers of Spanish.

This number was chosen as the base number for the research procedure.

The 30 student compositions form the English composition portion of the population sample.

2. All 30 compositions were written by students who were at approximately the same level of general proficiency in English - all had an equated score between 60 and 75 on the Michigan Test of English

Language Proficiency - and therefore satisfied the university's minimum language requirement for admission to the university.

3. The composition topics chosen by these students had the following titles: Travel Abroad, A Vacation Job, A Person to Be Admired,

A Typical Sunday, The Ideal Way to Travel, The Ideal Way of Spending a

Holiday, Teenagers Today, Quebec - Part of Canada or a Separate State,

Young people no longer believe in marriage, Childhood is the happiest time of one's life, and The end of the world is at hand.

Although these topics were not specifically chosen for this study, it is felt that they are valid ones because, in the opinion of the composition teachers who chose them, all are typical topics for use in

English expository composition. Furthermore, it is felt that the wide variety of subject matter in no way affects the results of the study since content per ~ is not considered.

The Spanish composition population sample

1. Thirty native speakers of English in two different elementary

Spanish classes at two different English language universities between 39 o January 10, 1972, and March 15, 1972, were asked to write compositions

in Spanish. The 30 student compositions form the Spanish composition portion of the population sample.

2. All 30 compositions were written by students who were at

approximately the same level of general proficiency in Spanish - a

level which roughly corresponds to that of the Spanish speakers in English.

3. The composition topic was limited to one subject, Mi Casa Ideal,

which, in the opinion of one textbook author in the field of Spanish

composition as well as several Spanish teachers consulted, is a typical

topic for use in Spanish composition classes.

It was felt that a range of topics was not necessary since content

per ~ was not considered in either Spanish or English compositions.

The English and Spanish composition population samples

1. The 60 student compositions were taken from two different

English language universities in the Province of Quebec, Canada.

2. None of the 60 students had taken courses in writing or

composition per ~ in the language they were writing in, nor had they had previous exposure to what is defined in this study as the form of

expository composition of the second language. 3. All 60 compositions are of approximately the same word length,

250-300 words.

4. All 60 compositions were written in the classroom within a time

limit of 75 minutes.

5. Errors in grammar and mechanics were not taken into consideration c unless they affected the form under consideration. 40

The Research Procedure

In dealing with the population sample the category of material being investigated was the underlying structural form of the compositions.

The tool used to measure student compositions for form consisted of either of the following form category lists taken from the preceding chapter.

The Form Category List for English

1. An introductory paragraph containing the main topic sentence which states or implies the topic ideas to be developed in the body paragraphs

2. The body paragraphs, each containing a topic idea of its own which relates back to the main topic idea

3. A concluding paragraph which reviews, emphasizes, and/or summarizes the entire system

The Form Category List for Spanish

1. A studied freedom from procedural restraints - the absence of a linear development of ideas - allowing the greatest possible liberty for digressive thematic development (use of digression)

2. A thoroughly subjective, personal perspective on the subject under consideration (reference made to the writer's "feelings") 3. A viewpoint enhanced by an introspective and lyrical quality on a highly stylistic level (use of descriptive adjectives, metaphors, similes, and the like)

As was pointed out in Chapter Two, these two separate category groups are mutually exclusive. That is to say, as regards this research procedure, if a student composition in English shows transference of the Spanish form, that automatically means that the English linear form is excluded (because 41 o the first element of the Spanish form category states that there is an

"absence of a linear development of ideas") and that subjective and

"literary" qualities are present. The same is true for student compo­

sitions written in Spanish which show transference of the English form ­

if a composition shows use of the English linear form, then the possi­

bility of digression ("the absence of a linear development of ideas")

is automatically excluded.

To determine if there was evidence in student compositions of a

transference of the culturally thought-based form of composition from

the native language to the second language, the following procedure was

carried out.

For compositions written in English:

Each composition was checked against the form category list for

Spanish (see preceding page) to determine if the student had transferred

the form elements. Because these elements are interdependent and insep­

arable in this study's definition of Spanish composition, all three had

to be present for a student composition to be classed as following the

Spanish form. Following this procedure, each composition was tabulated

in one of the two following categories: 1. Compositions written in English which show transference of

the Spanish form

2. Compositions which do not show transference

For compositions written in Spanish:

Each composition was checked against the form category list for o English (see preceding page) to determine if the student had transferred 42 o the form elements. Because the three elements are inseparable, all had to be present for a student composition to be classed as following

the English form. Following this procedure, each composition was

tabulated in one of the following categories:

1. Compositions written in Spanish which show transference of

the English form

2. Compositions which do not show transference

Samples from the Research Procedure

This section is a sampling of the analysis and categorization of

student compositions. From each population a sample student composition

in its entirety, as well as various category excerpts from other

compositions, are provided.

Samples from English composition The following page shows a

sample student composition and how it was checked for transference

tabulation.

o 43

SAMPLE STUDENT COMPOSITION - ENGLISH COMPOSITION POPULATION SAMPLE

~.;It!:Jt~The end o~ the world is at hand ~~ e~ (IS the end of the world at hand? Well, I don't know but it is hard to say. I think that one cannot talk ..i. ]N'11tolJ . ~ttf #a> about this, or even make an statement on it Because ~. we are all alive to-day, does not necesearily mean we cannot be all dead tomorrow;) WhY?, this is also very hard to answer:~n is a very particular human being,~ ~ and I guess we must study him in order to understan/ #-/ his mechanistive, the human mind~ Man acts without thinking, most of his actions are impulses, and he is often striked by his own actions. And why?, because he did not think. ~Man follows the masses, we all ~ follow the flood, without ever stopping to ask where ) we are gOing~ This is why the world can be at peace to-day, and at war tomorrow, and no one would know why we are at war. jut I am quite certain, that if 90 %of the human race would think most of his acti07S' ~ the end of the world would never be at hand, because ~~ life is beautiful and we all know tha9 '#3

TABULATION·• . Number of Compositions Compositions Written in English Which Show / Transference of the Spanish Form

Compositions Wr~tten in English Which Do Not Show Transference of the Spanish Form o 44 o The following are textual examples taken from the population

sample of compositions written in English by native speakers of Spanish.

Each example is preceded by its corne~nding form element from the form

category list for Spanish. All are examples of transference.

I. A studied freedom from procedural restraints - absence of a

linear development of ideas - allowing the greatest possible liberty

for digressive thematic development (use of digression)

Student Example A

Composition Title: "Young people no longer believe in marriage"

These youngester are wild, I do not like their long, dirty, grease hairs, neither their beards, maybe I'm being prejudistic; I will have a closer look, I do not think they have much respect for their parents, they do not listen to them and furthermore they blame them for whatever happens to them. I have heard parents complaining so many times because of the attitude of their children, and asking themselves "What did we do wrong" "Where did we fail", and I have observed these people and I Cansay that they were good people, they did tried their best, they gave their children their love and affection and now they are SUffering. I would not like this happening to me, maybe I am very selfish.

Student Example B

Composition Title: "Teenagers Today"

I am from Dominican Republic and the music of Dominican's people is Merengue. . • • They young of my country does not play a native instruments but they play very well drums of something like that and I think it is bad for all kinds of nations and it is bad because with the time the country will not have anything own and it will be another part of another country.

Student Example C

Composition Title: "Quebec - Part of Canada or a Separate State"

Mr. Bourrasas, Premier Minister of Quebec is trying to do the French the working language. Personally I feel this is not fare because Canada is a democratic country, so, everyone is free to chouse the language they want. We the Catalan people (North of Spain) would be very glad to be treated as Quebecer are • . .

Student Example D

Composition Title: "The end of the world is at hand"

Man is a very particular human being, and I guess we must study him in order to understand his mechanistive, the human mind. Man acts without thinking, most of his actions are impulses, and he is dften striked by his own actions. And why?, because he did not think. Man follows the masses, we all follow the flood, without ever stopping to ask where we are going.

11. A thoroughly subjective, personal perspective on the subject under consideration (reference made to the writer's "feelings")

Student Example A

Composition Title: "Travel Abroad"

(from student's final paragraph) ••• The first day of April of of 1955 arrived date of my departure and I never will forget how sad I was when the ship I travelled started to move away from the port leaving my Mother standing there, possible crying and waving me good bye.

Student Example B

Composition Title: "A Vacation Jobn

After the job of course I will be very tired when 1 get home in the evening, but I will find something inside me that makes me feel really good with me. This feeling will be satisfaction and peace; you will be able to rest much better during the night because you will be much more tired than usually.

Student Example C Composition Title: "Young people no longer believe in marriage"

I do really believe in marriage and I think young people also believe in marriage. Although some of today's young people argue that it is an old fashikoned institution and some stand for the implamentation of other alternatives such as the trial marriage, • • • I strongly believe that deep inside like me they still hold the same conservative ideas. 46

Student Ex~ple D

Composition Title: "Childhood is the happiest time of one's life"

Perhaps I was happy as a child. May be happier than I am today. But me as a kid and me today, are two different people and I am only wanting to be myself.

Ill. A viewpoint enhanced by an introspective and lyrical quality

on a highly stylistic level (use of descriptive adjectives, metaphors, similes, and the like)

Student Ex~ple A

Composition Title: "A Person to Be Admired"

••. his only point of view is his ideology, wich for him it is not subjective. This kind of ideology is the one that all inferior animals are always trying to destroy, because they are not and they will never be able to understand it; but their intents are in vain, because they'll never reach it, as a dog will never reach the stars. That's the kind of person I most admire. And that's the kind of person I am.

Student Example B Composition Title: "A Typical Sunday"

I'd prefer to spend the whole day in the mountain, I mean to wake up already breathing the fresh air of the mountains, breathing the clean air amelling of trees and flowers, after washing myself with the cool water of the small river I would start walking in order to get hungry.

Student Example C Composition Title: "The Ideal Way to Travel" But by far the nicest way, in my country, is to go by train. I can get up very very early, and on the way to the station watch the sun come up. At the curbside 20 or so people will jump to open the door, take my luggage, get me to my train. Small boys with big black eyes and smiling faces. Fat strong men with carts ready for my many parcels and specially ready for a large trip. Everywhere there' is noise. Our latin blood makes us exitable and on this occasion everyone will surely o speak fast and loud, will cry and run, come and go. 47

Student Example D

Composition Title: "The Ideal Way of Spending a Holiday"

The best way to spend a Holiday is to part happy, light at heart no matter to where it might be, no too far away this little village • • • or it may be to a tropical island, full of sun, and light and flowers, where we can run along the beach with bare feet.

Samples from Spanish composition The following page shows a sample student composition and how it was checked for transference tabulation. 48 o SAMPLE STUDENT COMPOSITION - SPANISH COMPOSITION POPULATION SAMPLE

? 4~~ Mi Casa Ideal i¥P.~ Sf ~ Cuando pienso de mi easa ideal, solio en una easa ~~ redonda, de tamailo mediano. Tendra piso primero co~ J. INn?61)1/CJ7IIV fciertos muebles de la cosina y comedor, un piso arr~va, un exterior especial, y un jardin. Dentro de la casa tendra los muebles redondos que aparecen como cado cuarrto. Las sillas ser!an redondas y la mesa serla redonda de la cosina. El comedor seda ~. Bd&>Y al lado de la cosina. La sala serla al lado del comedor. PII-~,qtQltllflf- En el piso de arriba son tres alcobas. No hay if­ / escaleras. Hay solamente una escalera de mano. Si tiene l:t 8"i)~ viejo no serla una buena idea. Esta escalera de mane ) PRR;:;'. 8. ,I ser!a en medio de los cuartos. El exterior de la casa habra hecho con piedras que J / habrlan fQrJliado en semicirculos. El color del exterior J. :::: et. serfa negro, blanco, y rosa. Habrla un jardln que cultivar1an muchas flores y tambi€n 10s legumbres por mis eomidas. Habda tambien ~,. fIOP¥ muchas arboles; mas coma un arbolado. Los arboles que J .r'ft,elr. j). querrla tener, ser1an los arboles de coco, las palmas, los arboles de naranja, y los bananos. . Si tuve mucho dinero, comprarla mi casa ideal que) ,3. (U/V,tJ/$I'dlll he descrito arriba. LTABULATION-. I Number o!: L:ompos~nC]!15 , Composltlons Written in Spanish Which Show I ! Transference of the English Form Compositions Written in Spanish Which Do Not Show Transference of the Spanish Form The following are textual examples taken from the population sample of compositions written in Spanish by native speakers of English.

Each example is preceded by its corresponding form element from the form category list for English. All are examples of transference. As was pointed out earlier, all compositions from the population sample in Spanish had the same topic, Mi:Casa Ideal.

I. An introductory paragraph containing the main topic sentence which states or implies the topic ideas to be developed in the body paragraphs.

Student Example A

Mi5 pensamientoa sobre mi casa ideal son: 1) tener una casa pequena. 2) la casa estara en el campo, y 3) tiene un jardin a dentro.

Student Example B

Yo siempre sueno de haber una casa marabillosa pero sencilla. Mi casa ideal tiene un sotano, dos pisos y un desvaan. Aqul les describo todo:

Student Example C

Mi casa ideal sera una casa de media tamafio; que quieres decir con dos pisos. Yo tendre un jardin de floras detras de la casa y cesped verde en frente de la casa. La casa sera pintado blanco y azul. Ahora, yo voy a describir dentro de mi casa ideal.

Student Example D

Mi casa ideal consiste en tres partes - es decir, piso primero, otro piso ariba, y un garaje con juegos tambien. En este papel quiero explicar cada parte.

11. The body paragraphs, each containing a topic idea of its own which relates back to the main topic idea 50

Student Example A

En el primer piso yo tendre un comedor, una cocina, una sala, tal vez un cuarto de banc y claro un entrada. Student Example B

La cosa segunda mas importante serla el jardln. Necesito un jardln grande para cultivar las flores y los legumbres. Me gusta las flores y la tierra tiene ser rica. Student Example C

En el segundo piso yo tendre tres cuartos de dormir. Uno par las padres - mi y mi esposo, uno por los ninos, y uno par las visitadores. Ea necessario tambien en el segundo piso tener un gran cuart de bano par todo el mundo.

Student Example D El primer piso tendra cosas importantes. Un comedor esta en un cuarto y bafto en otro. Tendre tambien un cuarto para dormir los ninos. El piso primero no tiene que tener muchos corredores 0 espacios vacios.

III. A concluding paragraph which reviews, emphasizes, and/or

summarizes the entire system Student Example A

AS1, ese es mi casa ideal - en descripcion de cada piso, el jardin y e1 garaje. Todo forma 10 que quiero tener como una casa buena y ideal para mi familia. Student Example B En conclusion las cosas mas importantes de mi casa ideal son las de arriba y que haya un clima con sol y que todos en la casa sea feliz.

Student Example C

La conclusion es que mi casa ideal es una que donde yo puedo tener libertad y comodidad. Desde luego, esta casa tiene todo 10 que he descrito, es un sueno que yo espero se hace verdad en el futuro. o Student Example D En todo 10 que quiero decir de mi casa ideal es que tendre :todo 10 de que decla arriba y al final voy a tener todo para ser feliz. 51

Ill. THE SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS

The Tabulation of the Findings

The following is the final tabulation of the findings discovered from analyzing each of the 60 compositions in the manner previously

stated.

Compositions written in English by native speakers of Spanish

The total number of compositions considered in the research procedure

was 30.

Number of Compositions Compositions Written in English Which Show Transference of the 26 Spanish Form

Compositions Written in English Which Do Not Show Transference 4 of the Spanish Form

Compositions written in Spanish by native speakers of English

The total number of compositions considered in the research procedure

was 30.

N=30 Number of Compositions Compositions Written in Spanish Which Show Transference of the 25 English Form

Compositions Written in Spanish Which Do Not Show Transference 5 of the English Form o 52

A Statement of the Findings

The findings suggest that:

1. There is usually a '~ransference of composition form from the native language to the second language.

2. Both language groups, English and Spanish, show an approxi­ mately equal tendency to transfer.

3. Some compositions in each language do not show transference.

Some Observations from the Procedure and the Findings

The compositions written in English Some interesting and signi­ ficant observations were made from a thorough reading of both those compositions showing transference and those which in one way or another avoid it. The frequency of transference of the digressive element of

Spanish composition to English seemed to be slightly higher in compositions dealing with subject matter of a potentially argumentative nature. Topic titles such as "Quebec - Part of Canada or a Separate State" elicited responses such as It, , , in Quebec the people they speak two official languages, English and French" , ,,, followed by "There are many other languages as Italian, Greek, Spanish, etc•• •• " or "Canada is a demo­ cratic country. We the Catalan people (North of Spain) would be very glad to be treated as Quebecer are." Although the possible relationship between the frequency of a transferred element and subject matter as such was not considered in this study, it might be matter for further inves­ tigation. 53

Another interesting aspect of digression is that in some cases it resembles what in English expository composition is called lIanalogy" or

"illustration by example." Digression as viewed in terms of English expository composition has only a vague and implied link with the main idea under consideration - no place in English composition - however, a comparison and contrast of examples of digression with examples of analogy and illustration might have some significance for teaching purposes.

Although the topics for English composition in no way suggest a first-person viewpoint, many cases of transference indicate heavy reliance on the first-person singular and plural. Furthermore, all cases of transference show a personal, subjective approach to the subject matter.

Even with topics such as "Travel Abroad" students invariably referred to their own personal reflections and experiences rather than to the concept of travel as an objective entity. This can be explained by the fact that

Spanish speakers are taught to approach the subject matter of an essay on a highly subjective level. The task at hand, therefore, is usually seen as one related to inspiration and individual reaction rather than to procedural organiZation and restraint. A thorough reading of the compositions written in English which showed transference provided some observations which were not taken into consideration in this study. One such observation, which could possibly have constituted a separate category for investigation, was the general absence of paragraphing. Apparently in transferring the idea of "freedom from procedural restraints," students felt no need to enclose separate ideas in separate units -what are considered paragraphs in English. Furthermore, in the few cases where paragraphing did occur, rarely was

there any logical reason suggested for their b€:ing used.

Another interesting observation which might be investigated

in some further study is one concerning syntactic patterns in both

English and Spanish. The compositions which showed transference were

not as a rule syntactically better or worse than those which did not show

transference, suggesting that an ability to avoid transference is in no way linked to an ability to formulate and manipulate sentences in compo­

sition writing.

The compositions written in Spanish Because composition in

Spanish means "writing artistically" or in a literary mode, it could be

said that the English speakers were at a separate disadvantage as compared

to the Spanish speaking stUdents because of an expected use of special

literary devices and literary vocabulary on the part of the student writing

in Spanish. Yet it is interesting to note that a close look at those

Spanish compositions which do not show transference indicates an ability

to employ the elements of the Spanish form to some extent. Students

writing about Mi Casa Ideal from an imaginary rather than a realistic

approach seemed to be better able to use figurative language in Spanish.

Further study in this area could lead to a lexical analysis of

the literary ensayo in Spanish in an attempt to discover special vocabu­

lary used when writing in this genre.

Although the words Mi and Ideal, used in the typically Spanish

essay topic, Mi Casa Ideal, may suggest the use of the Spanish form 55

elements of subjectivity and lyrical description, the students whose

compositions show transference carefully avoid these areas. Instead

there is a concentrated emphasis placed on paragraphing and on the

arrangement of paragraphs in a linear sequence.

o CHAPTER IV

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FROM THIS STUDY

I. CONCLUSIONS

The specific conclusions which can be drawn from the preceding findings are:

1. When the native speaker of Spanish writes a composition in

English or when the native speaker of English writes a composition in

Spanish, there is usually a transference of the culturally thought-based form of composition from the native language to composition written in the second language.

2. Both language groups seem to have an equal tendency to transfer.

Twenty-six out of 30 compositions written in English by native speakers of Spanish showed transference of the Spanish form, and 25 out of 30 from the Spanish composition sample show transference.

3. Some speakers of English and Spanish do not transfer their composition form to the second language.

11. IMPLICATIONS FROM THIS STUDY

For Language Learning

In order to learn the skill of composition in another language students might find it useful to examine some aspects of the culture of the target language, particularly that Culture's system of logic and its philosophical traditions as they affect thought patterning. Furthermore,

56 57

an awareness of the origins of the composition form being learned - the developmental history of that culture's rhetoric -might help in under­ standing the shape this form takes today. Perhaps reading compositions is essential to learning composition form. Compositions for student reading provide models for the discovery, analysis, and imitation of form.

For Language Teaching

This study would s11ggest that the second language teacher should be aware of the cultural aspects of rhetoric if he is to be successful in teaching the form of a composition in the target language. A knowledge of the operant system behind any phenomenon is essential to an adequate explanation of its surface manifestations.

With a knowledge of the system to be taught as well as the system familiar to the student, the teacher can foresee the difficulties and can avoid dwelling on the obvious. At the same time he can prepare the students psychologically for the required change in behavior. This task is easier with a group whose cultural backgrounds are similar, so this study has implications for homogeneous class groupings in composition courses.

Knowing the relationship between a composition's form and its cultural background, the teacher can lead the students from an under­ standing of the form to an understanding of the culture. An understanding of culture is essential to learning a language. 58

In terms of the order of presentation, the teacher would explain

and teach the culturally thought-based form of the target language

composition before teaching about idea content because the form determines

the content.

A specific consideration concerns the choice of subject matter

for composition writing assignments. Teachers should be aware of the

kinds of topics which are usually written about in the students' culture

and concentrate on the differences between them and the topics which

are typical in the target language. In this way teachers can avoid

choosing topics which usually elicit the form familiar to the student.

The relationship between culture and composition form could give

the teacher new insights into the causes of students' "errors." This

understanding might lead to a more sympathetic approach to the students'

problems. With a better understanding of the student in terms of his

culture, a better understanding of the composition curriculum would be

possible. Better knowledge of the students should lead to more appropriate

selection and sequencing of content and a better choice of methods and

evaluation procedures.

Specifically as regards the teaching of Spanish composition to

native speakers of English, it would be advisable for the teacher to

inform the students of the historical development of the Spanish essay

as contrasted with that of English. In explaining this development it

would be of further importance to emphasize the Spanish essay in terms

of its appeal to humanism and literary tradition. The teacher would o 59 o contrast the subjective, humanistic, artistic, and literary-stylistic

aspects of Spanish composition with the objective, rationalist, linear,

and concise aspects of English composition. The teacher would supply

literary models for the students to examine and imitate in contrast to

more scientific models found in English essays.

The teacher of English composition to Spanish speaking students

would refer to practical experiences, to scientific experiments, and

would provide models from non-fiction prose. The topics chosen would

relate to the objective, observable world rather than to the individual's

inner experiences.

For Psycholinguistics

This study suggests that composition form may be one source of

information for the study of the psychological processes of linguistic

groups.

It might prove useful to investigate the levels of student aware­

ness regarding the use of a particular form employed in writing

composition - in organizing ideas on paper. Does the use of a given

culturally-based form stem from an unconscious or a conscious awareness

of the form conventions?

In investigating the psychological aspects of learning the

composition form of another language, an attempt should be made to

discover if students can learn it on an intellectual level alone or if·

an emotional process is involved. Is it necessary for the student to

actually adopt the thought process which corresponds to the form being 60

learned? Further, can extended exposure to and practice in another culture's rhetoric in written form alter the student's thinking habits and processes?

Further investigation could be made into the importance of student attitude towards the culture and its related thought patterns in regard to his efficiency in learning the literacy skills of that culture's language.

Finally, in the field of testing it might prove valuable to investigate the use of composition form as test content-matter. Could a student's aptitude for composition writing be measured by employing a test based on awareness of certain aspects of the culture of the language to be learned? Could a student's awareness of another culture be measured by his knowledge of its rhetorical forms?

For Anthropological Linguistics

From this study it could be suggested that the various forms and patterns which exist among different cultures in their composition writing might aid in understanding certain aspects of these cultures, particularly the cultural phenomenon of logic. The form which composition takes in a given culture might provide an instrument with which other expressions of verbal or non-verbal behavior might be measured.

In addition, the form categories of composition might be used as a tool for measuring a culture's perceptual framework and its value systems. In many cases the form which composition takes contains a hierarchy. Perhaps this hierarchy parallels a hierarchy of values of a given cultural component. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Allen , Harold B. (ed.). Teaching English as a Second Language. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965.

TENES: A Survey of the Teaching of English to Non-English Speakers in the United States. Champaign, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English, 1966.

Arapoff, Nancy. "Writing: A Thinking Process," TESOL Quarterly, I, 2 (June, 1967), 33-39.

Ayl16n, Candido and Paul Smith. Spanish Composition through Literature.

Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1968. i

Bleznick, Donald W. (ed.). El Ensayo Espafiol del Siglo Veinte. New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1964.

Briere, Eugene J. "Quantity before Quality in Second Language Composition," Language Learning, XVI, 3 and 4 (1966), 141. Cain, Thomas H. Common Sense about Writing. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1967.

Campbell, William G. Form and Style in Thesis Writing. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1969. Carr, Donna H. "A Second Look at Teaching Reading and Composition,1I TESOL Quarterly, I, 1 (March, 1967), 30-34. Carroll, John B. "The Contribution of Psychological Theory and Educational Research to the Teaching of Foreign Languages," in Albert Valdman (ed.), Trends in Language Teaching. New York: McGraw Hill, 1966. Chomsky, Noam. Language and Mind. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1968. A Review of Skinner's "Verbal Behavior," Language, XXXV (1959), 26-58. Crystal, David, and Derek Davy. Investigating English Style. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1969.

Di Pippo, Albert E. From Sentence to Paragraph. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1966.

Eoff, Sherman H., and Noemi Ramfrez. Composici6n - Conversaci6n. Waltham, Massachusetts: Blaisdell Publishing Co., 1969. o 61 62

Finocchiaro, Mary. "Myth and Reality: A Plea for a Broader View," English Teaching Forum, X,2 (March-April, 1972), 3.

"Secondary School Composition: Problems and Practices," TESOL Qqarterly, 1,3 (September, 1967), 40-46. Flothow, Rudolph c., and Oscar E. Littleton. Structure and Strategy in Composition. New York; Harper and Row, 1963.

Goodenough, Ward H. Cooperation in Change. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1963.

Hall, Edward T. The Silent Language. Greenwich, Connecticut: Fawcett Publications, 1959.

Helman, Edith. "Learning Foreign Language through Literature," in Donald D. Walsh (ed.), A Handbook for Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese. Lexington, Massachusetts: D.C. Heath and Co., 1969.

Hoole, Arthur H. The Fundamentals of Clear Writing. Toronto: Macmillan Co., 1964.

Horn, Vivian. "Teaching Logical Relationships in Written Discourse,1I TESOL Quarterly, Ill, 4 (December, 1969), 291-296.

Jakobovits, Leon A. Foreign Language Learning. Rowley, Massachusetts: Newbury House Publishers, 1970.

Jespersen, Otto. Growth and Structure of the EnSlish Languase. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1967.

Johnson, Falk S. How to Orsanize What You Write. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1964.

Jones, Alexander, E., and Claude W. Faulkner. Writins Good Prose. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1968.

Kaplan, Charles. Guided Composition. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968. Kaplan, Robert B. "Contrastive Rhetoric and the Teaching of Composition," TESOL Quarterly, I, 1 and 2 (1966), 10-16.

"Cultural Thought Patterns in Inter-Cultural Education," Language Learning, XVI, 1 and 2 (1966), 1-20.

Knapp, Donald. "A Focused;'Efficient Method to Relate Composition Correction to Teaching Aims," in Harold B. Allen (ed.), Teaching EnSlish as a Second o Language. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965. 63

o Lado, Robert. Linguistics across Cultures. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1957.

Nichols, Ann. EnSlish Syntax: Advanced Composition for Non-Native Speakers. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965.

Rodrlguez, Alfred, and William Rosenthal. The Modern Spanish Essay. Waltham, Massachusetts: Blaisdell Publishing Co., 1969.

RoJas, Manuel. Apuntes sobre la expresion escrita. Caracas: Publicaciones de La Universidad Central de Venezuela, 1960.

Sapir, Edward. Culture, Language, and Personality, ed. David G. Mandelbaum. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1958.

Sebeok, Thomas A. Style in Languase. Cambridge, Massachusetts: M.I.T. Press, 1960.

Sharp, Lionel R. English Composition and Language: A TeaCher's Guide. Boston: Ginn and Company, 1968.

Shaw, Harry, and Richard H. Dodge. The Shorter Handbook of College Composition. New York: Harper and RoW, 1965.

Silberstein, Suzanne, and Marian Seldin. Sense and Style: The Craft of the Essay. New York: Random House, 1962.

Spotts, Carle B. Fundamentals of Present-Day English. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1963.

Suarez-Murias, Marguerite C. "La Composicion: Conciencia de Estilo," Hispania, LI, 2 (May, 1968), 287-288.

Urefia, Pedro Henrlquez, and Amado Alonso. Gramatica Caste11ana. Buenos Aires: Editorial Losada, S.A., 1962. Vygotsky, Lev Semenovich. Thought and Languase, trans. Eugenia Hanfmann and Gertrude Vakar. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The M.I.T. Press, 1962.

Waterston, Elizabeth, and Munro Beattie. Composition for Canadian Universities. Toronto: Macmillan, 1964.

Whorf, Benjamin Lee. "A Linguistic Consideration of Thinking in Primitive Communities,!I in Dell Hymes (ed.), Language in Culture and Society. New York: Harper and Row, 1964. o 64

APPENDIX A

STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRE

English 200 Sir George Williams University March 23, 1971

Student's Name Section ------~------What other course(s) are you now taking at Sir George?

In the appropriate space below check with an "X" how much of each English

language skill you are expected to use in this/these other course(s).

SKILLS 75% (Much) 25% (Little) 0% (None) READING (such as textbooks)

WRITING (compositions, theme papers, reports, etc.)

SPEAKING (answering in class, class discussion)

LISTENING (understanding lectures and discussions)

o 65 APPENDIX B FOUR BASIC COMPOSITION PATTERNS o Sample of Pattern One Sample of Pattern Two

11 11 Introduction I ,1 I Introduction t G t

11'2 12 • 1l.!;;;;;III.;;;;;::::;ToP';;;;;::::;'c=:,,1111 o o y t 8 11. Controst ,3 0 '3 o ,I I, , y t ,4 11'.4 Conclusion t· 11'5 IConclusion

Sample of Pattern 'rhree Sample of PaHern Four

11'1 I Introduction 11'1 IIntroduction

11'2 ,2

B 8 0 ,3 0o 11. Contrast ,3 o In. Result y y t.

,4 Ill. Couse 11'4 1111. Cause ,I I, I I L!'====;;;;:;;:J I o t t ,5 I Conclusion 11'5 IConclusion , I 66

APPENDIX C

MODEL ENGLISH COMPOSITION Life in the United States and in the Panama Canal Zone* Everyday living in the United States differs in many ways from everyday living in the Canal Zone. The Panama Canal Zone is a leased territory of the United States. Its permanent population is, for the most part, composed of American civilians leading quite o~dinary lives. But many of the living conditions in the Canal Zone are so different from those in the United States that some people can never become adjusted to them, while others become so completely adjusted that they have no desire to return to the States. One difference is that of climate. In most parts of the United States the climate consists of four clearly defined seasons. The stay­ at-home American experiences a wide variety of climatic conditions each year - sunshine, rain, snow, sleet, hail, fog, heat, cold, dampness, dr-ought, and changes in temperature that may cover a range of a hundred degrees or more. The hours of full daylight vary with the seasons from about eight per day in the dead of winter to about fifteen in midsummer. In the Canal Zone, on the other hand, there are two seasons only. The dry season begins some time in the latter half of December and lasts until the middle of April or a little later; the rainy season lasts the remainder of the year ­ about eight months. The temperature usually stays between the low seventies and the middle nineties. Occasionally it drops into the sixties or rises into the high nineties, but these occasions are the exceptions. The hours of full daylight vary from ten to twelve per day. In short, the climate of the temperate zone presents much more variety than that of the tropics. There is also a pronounced difference in housing. In the United States people may decide for themselves where they will live. They choose whether to rent or buy their houses. They consider the size and location of the house, the type of architecture, and the nearness of transportation facilities. Their final decisions are influenced by financial status, social standing, and personal idiosyncrasy. Once a home is chosen, either the owner or the renter takes responsibility for the upkeep and repairs. In the Canal Zone, however, three considerations determine where a man lives: first, what department of government he works for; second, how much seniority he has, since the more desirable houses are assigned to employees having the longer service; and third, how large his family is, inasmuch as certain houses are reserved for families with two or more children. The Housing Administration takes care of all the upkeep and repairs on the house and all the lawn-mowing and hedge-trimming on the grounds. Working conditions in the two areas offer a final point of difference. In the United States the term "working conditions" can mean almost anything. At one end of the scale are the comparatively unregulated activities of the farmer and the man who conducts his own small business. At the other is the highly regulated organization of the big industries. Working conditions in the Canal Zone resemble most closely those in large corporations. Practically all the employees are unionized, even the nurses and teachers. Working hours are forty hours a week with time-and-a-half for overtime. These hours apply o 61 even to doctors, dentists, and hospital nurses. On the average, wages in the Canal Zone are twenty-five per cent higher than those paid for similar work in the United States, although considerable variation does occur. Canal Zone employees have sixty days' vacation with full pay each year. They pay very low rates for medical and hospital care. Fifteen per cent of their wages is deducted monthly for the retirement fund; and they retire after thirty years of service, or upon reaching the age of sixty, or as a result of certain disabilities. In the United States, then, the individual goes his own way, does his own chores, pays his own bills, makes his own decisions. The only restraints he know are those imposed by the laws of the land and by his own capabilities. In the Canal Zone, on the other hand, a man does a prescribed job according to a set method of procedure. His life is beset with rules and regulations and precedents. Many of his decisions are made for him; many of his bills are paid for him; most of his household chores are attended to; and part of his money is saved for the future. But, as in the United States, he is free to complain about the weather. And he does.

*From Alexander E. Jones and Claude W. Faulkner, Writing Good Prose, pp. 122-124. 68

APPENDIX D

MODEL SPANISH COMPOSITION

Babel ~ el castellano

Conviene ir a Castilla, siquiera sea para preguntarse, contemplando sus dilatados ocres y su amarillez infinita, si tales tierras no seran como son por la particular botanica que el destino les ten~a senalada; que en ellas, tan secas y de apariencia tan torva, se levantase y creciese gigantesco arbol - mejor dirlamos, bosque- de un gran idioma; tan grande, que a su sombra vivirlan numerosos pueblos. iY tantos! No ha mucho, se calculaba en ochenta y cinco millones la cifra de los que hablamos castellano por haberlo recibido en la materna leche. Ahora, la cifra debe rectificarse y ser elevada a mas de los noventa millones. El castellano esta triunfante en el mundo, y es una de las mayores fuerzas del esp1ritu sobre la tierra. Castilla es la tierra santa de este portento. Por esto, a menos, es muy buena cosa que todos vayamos alguna vez a Castilla, y aunque recorramos toda Espana, pasando de una a otra zona semantica, distinguiendo y apreciando este y este otro matiz. Es de por sl una fiesta espiritual. Por mi parte, en nada miento si digo que 10 mas placentero de todo mi viaje por Espana fue sentirme sumergido en esa atm6sfera plena del idioma. Yendo a Castilla!, tuve de seguro mi Meca y mi Belen. Pueblos sobre pueblos se agolparon en Espana, pensaba; fenicios, celtas, iberos; turdetanos y cantabros; griegos, cartagineses y romanos; godos y arabes, para que se formase esta lengua de Castilla. Armas y carros de todos los grandes pueblos de la antigUedad araron, por aSl decirlo, las comarcas espafiolas, y sangre, sudor y lagrimas de todos ellos las regaron. En el siglo VIII todavla se hablaba en la Pen1nsula griego, caldeo, hebreo, cantabro, celtlbero, latln, arabe y la naciente lengua provenzal. Castilla entretanto, recog!a en su atm6sfera el verbo y el eco de tantas y a veces tan enemigas gentes, y por sobre los azares y las mudanzas de la fuerza iba aparejando una armonla nueva y una honda y paclfica raz6n de solidaridad.

From Arturo Capdevila, Babel y el castellano, Buenos Aires: Editorial Losada, S.A., 1940: capltulo IV.