537 “QANATS IN THE ACHAEMENID PERIOD” 538 whether the great kings of Persia may have had an influence in their construction and use. Prof. Briant introduces the vol- ume and provides us with the first discussion concerning a significant passage from Polybius (X, 28). While this text relates to evidence of a subterranean water system found dur- ing the Seleucid period, it is thought to have been constructed by the Achaemenid kings. Briant examines in detail how this text may provide significant information on the formation of qanats, but he also wisely limits the potential support it can show. The volume follows with a series of chapters detailing the water collection systems found elsewhere in the ancient Near East of the 1st millennium BC. One additional feature provided by the publisher is a location URL on the Thot-M web page where the photographs of the volume are given in color (where applicable). The chapter that follows Briant’s discussion has D. Knoepfler discussing a Greek contract dealing with drainage of lake marsh land and its effect on land improvement. This includes a discussion by T. Chatelain on several lexical terms found in that contract, especially the usage of hyponomos (subterranean gallery). No translation of this contract is offered here, only a portion of the Greek transcription. M. Wuttmann then provides an in depth analysis of the French excavation at Ain-Manâwir, located in Kharga Oasis, Egypt. His presentation provides information on the excavations, the water geology of that oasis, a description of the site, the dat- able occupation levels, and the location and dating of several qanats (usage from the 5th century BC through beginning of the 3rd century AD). A significant part of this chapter revolves around his discussion of the method in which the inhabitants of Ain-Manawir collected and used the water made available by the subterranean qanats. Of interest are the remains of con- necting ditches and channels which facilitated the movement of water from the collection basin at the “end” of the qanats leading to agricultural zones. Wuttmann argues that the occu- “QANATS IN THE ACHAEMENID PERIOD” pation of the site was clearly tied to the utilization and expan- sion of the large number of qanats in the region (22 noted so far), dating from the beginning of the Persian period and end- The modest, but nicely produced, volume by Briant1) inter- ing with the abandonment of the site during the Roman era. ests itself with the issue of qanats and related underground During the French excavations at Ain-Manawir, the team systems for the collection and distribution of water supplies of archaeologists found a large number of ostraca written in in Iran, Egypt, and Greece. The author expands this discus- the Egyptian script known as Demotic. Most of these ostraca sion to include additional sources and discussions of qanats date to the First Persian Period in Egypt. The publication of found in Oman and Urartu. The aim of this volume is to this collection of ostraca has been entrusted to M. Chauveau investigate the evidence regarding qanats within areas of or who presents here a short discussion of the contents of some near the Achaemenid Empire and hopefully determine of the documents and how they relate to the technical aspects of water usage at Manawir, especially their relationship to the qanats. Although Chauveau only gives the translation of two 1) BRIANT, P., Irrigation et drainage dans l’Antiquité, qanats et canal- isations souterraines en Iran, en Égypte et en Grèce. Thotm-éditions, Paris, ostraca, he does bring in the terminology used in the archive 2001. (29 cm, 190). ISBN 2-914531-01-X. related to water issues in the oasis. 539 BIBLIOTHECA ORIENTALIS LX N° 5-6, september-december 2003 540 The next article is by M. Salvani who discusses in detail the oasis sites of Hibis and Ghuieta) showing that the Saite the internal myths regarding the existence of qanats in Urartu kings had made a concerted effort to control all aspects of during the 7th century BC and earlier. After mainly a philo- the oasis. It appears certain that, when the Saite kings con- logical analysis, he concludes that, while there was ample solidated rule of Egypt during the 7th century BC, they pur- evidence for the existence of a canal system, there was no sued a consistent pattern of organizing and stabilizing the evidence for the Urartian use of qanats prior to the Persian administration of Egypt. Thus they paid close attention to period. border control and other aspects of economic development. R. Boucharlat then provides an insightful discussion about One area of interest was the control over trade routes trav- the terminology by which iron age cultures in Oman and Iran eling south of Egypt along the Nile. To this end, the fort and refer to water collection and distribution. He raises a number customs stations at Elephantine were fortified and a group of of serious issues with the term qanat and whether it is appro- Jewish mercenaries were employed for protecting this vital priate as applied by the other authors who took part in the southern border. Greek mercenaries were employed in a num- colloquium. He doubts whether there was a homogeneity in ber of areas in Egypt, especially in the Delta region. It would how different cultures described water collection. He sug- seem the Saite kings adopted the same strategy for control gests that certain subterranean constructions would have had over the western border by developing resources in the desert differing usages, one of which is the usage used by Briant as oasis, especially in Kharga. Thus, Hibis temple, Ghuieta tem- the qanat (see especially his limitations listed on p. 158). He ple, Zayan temple and the area at Manawir (at least) were proposes that qanats diffused from Iran during the fortified and direct control of the desert resources was insti- Achaemenid period (roughly equal to his Iron 3 period). tuted. This may have included mercenary troops or border From his examination of subterranean water systems in Oman guards, but we are as yet uncertain of the specifics. especially during his Iron 2 period, we must conclude that When I speak of controlling the desert resources, for the the qanat system was a later development, but one that was most part this falls into several areas. The first would be the complimentary to what was found in Oman (p. 179). This local Egyptian population resident in the oasis. These mainly discussion is vital for understanding how local cultures and agricultural workers and their families would have eked out populations adjusted their needs for water from their local a reasonable living producing necessary crops which could geographic situations. be used locally and also as supplies for all caravans coming The summary chapter is by B. Bousquet, who has con- through the area. In addition, we know that the oasis exported ducted an in-depth analysis of the geomorphology and hydro- dates to the Nile Valley and a local variety of wine. During geology of the southern end of Kharga Oasis.2) Bousquet the Greco-Roman period alum was also exported, but we are concludes the colloquium by providing a geohistoric struc- uncertain of when that product was developed.4) Given the ture (outlined with chart on p. 188) and argues that the qanats size of Hibis temple, the administrative center for the oasis, found in Egypt support his conclusion that in a two stage sufficient resources must have been acquired to build and sus- process there was diffusion/spatial domination from an tain such a structure and the various officials located therein. empire perspective followed by a second stage where water Given the expansion of land and population that we know collection techniques can be adapted / applied within the occurred during the Roman period, it is certain the popula- provinces of the empire (in this case Kharga Oasis). tion of the oasis must have risen to match the carrying capac- In a review of an earlier volume on the use of water in the ity of that desert area. ancient Egypt and the Mediterranean,3) this author outlined In a separate study5) I had argued that, when Cambyses a discussion on the role that the rulers of the Achaemenid conquered Egypt in 526 BC, one aspect of his incorporation Empire played in managing water sources in the distant parts of Egypt into the empire was the development of the of the empire. The appearance of this volume advances this resources of Egypt. The Persians simply took over the already discussion by outlining the major water resource system (the existing infrastructure and added “Persian” aspects to it, such qanats) found during the Achaemenid period. Because of my as the appointment of a satrap and other officials to run own work in Kharga Oasis, I have had the opportunity to visit Egypt. Thus, they took over the Jewish garrison at Elephan- a number of sites including the French excavations at Douch tine and also took over the existing structures out in Kharga / Manawir. In addition, I have had the opportunity to observe Oasis. It is clear that the personnel at Manawir were an inte- a number of other sites within Kharga Oasis and their exis- gral part of the administration of the oasis, and over time, tence is relevant to my comments. additional local efforts were developed to maintain that post First, I want to note that the discussions raised by this vol- throughout the Achaemenid period. ume are of the utmost importance for coming to an under- For the site of Manawir we must decide how the qanats standing of the administrative structure of the Achaemenid were developed and utilized.