INDIA_6_PERMACULTURE 1 NORTHERN INDIA This is a non-commercial abstract for educational purpose only. Pictures shown here, and texts used are taken from various sources including Google and Wikipedia.
6.1 WATER 2 Trenches 3 Check Dam 4 Catchment 5 Pond 6
Recharge Well 7 Tank Drinking Well 8 Hand Pump Purification 9
(Kundi) (Kui) (design Anil Laul) 6.2 INRASTRUCTURE Dry Stone 10 Wall Gate Road Shed 11
Bio Fence 12 Hedge Thorns 13 Espalier 14 Bamboo
6.3 SOIL Fast Trees 15 Cover Crop 16 Compost 17 Pit Toilet 18 Sealing 19 6.4 FOREST Wood 20 Fruit Trees 21 Flower Trees 22 Others 23 Palms 24
(Kachnar) (Shalmali) & Banana 25 6.5 CROP No-Till 26 Seedballs 27 Grains 28 Grasses 29 Bhang
(Masanobu Fukuoka) 6.6 GARDEN Nursery Pandal Vines 30 Flowers 31 Herbs 32
6.7 PROCESSING Energy Food Storage Preservation Medicine
6.8 ANIMALS Insects Bees Birds Goshala Dung 33 6.9 PLANTS OF NORTHERN INDIA
About 140 plants from Northern India. Left out are all poisenous plants, and (almost) all from the Americas. From Wikipedia and Religious & Useful Plants of Nepal & India (Dr. Rohit Kumar Majupuria).
THORNS: Kabra (max. 1m), Karanda (3), Guggul (4), Kair (5), Shikakai (climbing,10), Ber (15), Khair (15), Babul (20). ESPALIER: All trees, but esp. fruit trees like Aadu (max. 4), Seb (4), Galgal (5), Anjir (8), Nimbu (15), Santara (10), Paiyaun (30). FAST GROWING: Amrud, Arjun, Baint, Bans, Ber, Chitvan, Gamhar, Kadam, Mahua, Neem, Nimbu, Palash, Lal Chandan, Rajbriksha, Safeda, Sagaun, Sahajan, Shirish, Shisham. Planted also as future Pandal (plus legume trees Karaunda, Padauk). SHADE: Ashok (max. 9m), Devdar (10), Bhilava (15), Kapur (15), Shalmali (20), Karnikara (25), Pakhad (25), Banyan (30), Pipal (30), Badam (35). WOOD: Khejri (max. 5m), Rohida (5), Lal Chandan (8), Chandan (10), Shirish (10), Bakul (16), Mandara (20), Pakar (20), Arjun (25), Shisham (25), Nag-Champa (30), Padauk (30), Sagaun (30), Sal (30), Vijaya Shal (30), Nagalinga (35), Agaru (40), Kadam (45), Tun (50). WOOD PLUS: Jaal (leaves, max. 6m), Paras (bark,10), Putranjiva (leaves,seed,12), Kath Champa (nut,15), Palash (flower,15), Akash Neem ('cork',20), Jarul (leaves,20), Kathal (fruit,20), Mahuva (flower,seed,20), Neem (leaves,20), Peela Gulmohar (flower,20), Rajbriksha (flower,20), Rudraksh (beads,20), Tamal (leaves,20), Asan (water,25), Okhar (nut,30), Hollong (resin,40), Champa (flower,50). FRUIT TREES: Karanda (max. 3m), Kair (5), Papita (5), Galgal (5), Lasoda (5), Amrud (7), Amla (8), Phalsa (8), Kaith (9), Anar (10), Gular (10), Santara (10) Bael (13), Ber (15), Bilimbi (15), Chiku (15), Kokum (15), Nimbu (15), Shehtut (15), Imli (18), Chakka (20), Jatiphal (20), Lichi (20), Aam (40), Haritaki (30), Jamun (30), Paiyaun (30), Sabera (45). PALMS: Khajur, Nariyal, Salak, Taal. FLOWER TREES: Chameli (max. 4m), Sthalkamal (5), Kachnar (10), Parijat (10), Buransh (15). OTHERS: Kapas (cotton, max. 2m), Tejpatta (leaf,5), Kadi (food,6), Henna (color,8), Long (spice,10), Sahajan (food,10), Reetha (nut,15), Shalmali (cotton,20). COVER CROP: Alfalfa, Bhang, Kans, Kudzu, Matar, Mung, Patsan, San, Senji, Urad (in rainy season). OTHER LEGUMES: Arhar, Gulmohar, Kabra, Kacchnar, Karaunda, Padauk.
Trade Name (Use, Max. Hight) other names: Sanskrit, Local, English, Latin Aadu (fruit,4) Satalu, Peach, Prunus persica (var. Indian Blood Peach). 34 Aam (fruit,40) AaMa]=, Mango, Mangifera indica. 35 Agaru (wood,40) AGauå=, Agar, Agarwood, Aloeswood, Aquilaria agallocha. 36 Akash Neem (wood,'cork',20) Neem Chameli, Indian Cork Tree, Millingtonia hortensis. 37 Alfalfa (crop) MaåNMaala=, Lusan Ghas, Sinjhi, Lucerne, Medicago sativa. 38 Amla (fruit,8) AMala=, AaMalk==I=, Amlaki, Amalak, Indian Gooseberry, Phyllanthus emblica. 39 Amrud (fruit,7) bqJaPaUr=, Amba, Peru, Guava, Psidium guajava. 40 Anar (fruit,10) dai@Ma=, Darim, Dalim, Bedana, Pomegranate, Punica granatum. 41 Angur (fruit) d[a+aa=, Vine, Grapes, Vitis. 42 Anjir (fruit,8) AÅqr=, Common Fig, Ficus carica. 43 Arhar (Dal) k==a+aq=, Aa!k==I=, Tuvar, Tori, Tur, Pigeon Pea, Red Gram, Cajanus cajan. 44 Arjun (wood,25) AJauRNa=, Kauha, Koha, Kahn, Sadad, Arjun Tree, Terminalia arjuna (var. Asan, Badam, Baheda, Haritaki). 45 Asan (water,25) AaSaNa=, Matti, Rakta Arjun, Sadan, Sadar, Saj, Marda, Indian Laurel, Terminalia elliptica (see Tejpatta; var. Arjun, Badam, Baheda, Haritaki). 46 Ashok (9) AXaaek===, Saraca asoca (see Devdar). 47 Ashwagandha (herb,1) AìGaNDa=, Winter Cherry, Indian Ginsen, Withania somnifera. 48 Babul (wood,20) XaEleNd[=, Shailendra, Gum Arabic Tree, Vachellia nilotica. 49 Badam (shade,wood,fruit,nut,35) badaMa=, Indian Almond, Terminalia catappa (var. Arjun, Asan, Baheda, Haritaki). 50 Bael (fruit,13) ibLv=, Bili, Shri-Vriksha, Bengal Quince, Aegle marmelos. 51 Baint (rope) vÅul=, Narkul, Vetas, Rattan, Salix tetrasperma. 52 Bajra (crop) Kambu, Pearl Millet, Pennisetum glaucum (var. Ragi). 53 Bakul (wood,16) bku==l=, Maulshri, Maulsar, Bullet Wood, Spanish Cherry, Mimosa Tree, Mimusops elengi. 54 Bans (grass,12) v&Xa=, Bamboo, Bambusa (var. ve Kathal (wood,fruit,20) PaNaSa=, Kathar, Jackfruit, Artocarpus integrifolius (var. Chakka). 103 Kath Champa (wood,nut,15) PauàGa=, Surpan, Alexandrian Laurel, Calophyllum inophyllum. 104 Kela (fruit,5) k==dlq=, Kera, Banana, Plantain, Musa paradisiaca. 105 Khair (wood,15) %idr=, Kattha, Catechu Tree, Senegalia catechu. 106 Khajur (fruit,10) %JaURr=, Indian Date, Sugar Date Palm, Phoenix sylvestris. 107 Khejri (wood,5) XaMaq=, Jammi, Khijro, Jant, Prosopis cineraria. 108 Kokum (fruit,seed,15) v*+aaMala=, Biran, Bheranda, Red Mango, Butter Tree, Garcinia indica. 109 Kovidar (flower) k==aeivdar (var. of Kachnar). 110 Kudzu (crop) Pueraria phaseoloides /javanica. 111 Kusha (grass) ku==Xa=, Kush, Halfa Grass, Desmotachya bipinnata. 112 Langsat (fruit,20) Duku, Lanzones, Lansium parasiticum. 113 Lal Chandan (wood,8) r¢==cNdNa=, k*==Z Permaculture potential is huge in India (shortened) (Permaculturist Dwarakanath talks to Down To Earth about how this innovative design science can help India become food resilient in future) India is in a unique position. It has a huge population, but does not have a vast land like the US. The country still has many of its traditions intact. A lot of places are using pre-industrial techniques to build houses, do agriculture and fishing. In a global perspective, India has great potential for inventing, implementing and innovating sustainable systems. It can be a forerunner in the development of sustainable and resilient systems in agriculture, construction, economics and social sciences. Also, India is heavily dependent on external resources for sustainability. Our Dal comes from other countries while we poison our lands with pesticides for growing sugarcane, cotton and tobacco and export these to other countries. Unless this situation is solved, India will increasingly be a problem than a solution. However, if we turn this around, we have the chance for bringing about a positive change within the least amount of time. In India, if we increase the productivity per acre by even 1 per cent, it makes a huge impact for providing resilience. Using permaculture design, we often find that we can increase productivity of a land, per unit area, by about 40 per cent on an average, and up to 35 times (3,500 per cent) in some cases (intensive zone 1 gardens). Permaculture considers traditional methods and includes them in design. In terms of farming, the opportunities are endless when merging the ancient and the modern. Using modern technologies, we can reshape the landscape, so that it harvests a lot more resources like water and arrests erosion. We also have the huge opportunity of worldwide knowledge where we can adopt and also adapt to traditional systems practised in one geographical area. Now, permaculture is not limited to farming alone. Every aspect of human habitation—from production, distribution, consumption and waste management to construction, transportation, storage and economics—can be redesigned using permaculture principles. Will permaculture be able to feed the world? There is no doubt about it. The food crisis of the world is largely artificial. It is an issue of distribution and not of production. We reportedly lose about Rs 58,000 crores worth of food wastage in India per year before it even reaches the plate. That’s about 40 per cent of all food produced. With good design, we can make every bio-region abundant. An intensive permaculture garden produces up to 35 times the amount of food per square metre when compared to a conventional farm, with less than 20 per cent of the resources used. There is also the issue of quality of food, nutrition and availability. Using permaculture design, we can create all the nutrition requirements of the world on just 4 to 6 per cent of land in comparison to how much land is being used right now. Currently, about 1.4 acres of land is required to sustain one person per year using current systems in India. Using permaculture, this can be vastly reduced, and in many cases, an entire family of four can be sustained on just 1.5 acres (0.607 hectares). One of the core issues that permaculture tackles is the issue of resources. Using design, we focus on conservation and proliferation of a given resource, be it sunlight, water and soil. That is the fundamental basis for abundance using permaculture. Permaculture produces systems that are diverse, and thus, increases stability. In fact there is a permaculture maxim that every designer keeps in mind, which is said to have been coined by famous permaculturist Geoff Lawton. “Meaningful interactive diversity leads to stability, which leads to fertility, which leads to abundance.” Consider a farm which grows only cotton. Any amount of unseasonal rains, or even a cloud cover in the case of a crop like mustard, can ruin the entire production. The monoculture landscape cannot handle variables in conditions, and quickly collapses into a problem rather than being a solution. In designing a semi-arid landscape, a good designer selects local species, but also selects those species that thrive under dry conditions. In cases of heavy rainfall, the water is harvested, soaked and stored. Right now, regarding water, we are in a strange situation. Areas that receive floods are labelled as “drought prone” in many cases! But when we look at the actual amount of rainfall in a given area, in many cases, there is more than enough water to support all human activities. Since they are not designed with a resource-conservation mentality, many of our farms leave out most of the rainwater that falls. Exploitation of groundwater resources is at an all-time high. This came about because of lack of diversity and design. In the current scenario, the entire farm is made “flat” with bulldozers, and only one crop is planted, with not even a single inch of area left for storing extra water for future use. With permaculture, we use earthworks to harvesting rainwater, store it and soak it into the landscape. We also improve soils to improve soakage of rainwater, and thus, recharge local water bodies and aquifers. We create food forests, which not only reduce water usage, but also increase the overall rainfall potential. We consider the effects of sun and shade and windbreaks to reduce water usage. 2 Water “The extent to which it has been carried throughout all the irrigated region of the Madras Presidency is truly extraordinary. An imperfect record of the number of tanks in 14 districts shows them to amount to no less than, 43,000 in repair, and 10,000 out of repair, or 53,000 in all. It would be a moderate estimate of the length of embankment for each to fix it at half a mile; and the number of masonry works, in sluices of irrigation, waste weirs, & e., would probably be not over-rated at an average of 6. These data, only assumed to give some definite idea of the extent of the system, would give close upon 30,000 miles of embankments (sufficient ‘to put a girdle round the globe’ not less than 6 feet thick) and 3,00,000 separate masonry works. The whole of this gigantic machinery of irrigation is of purely native origin, as it is a fact that not one new tank has ever been made by us, and the concurrent testimony of those best informed on the subject shows that a great many fine works of the kind have been allowed to fall into utter disrepair and uselessness.” (Richard Baird Smith; British engineer officer in the East India Company, 1818-1861) System of Water Harvesting: Catchment Area (Paitan, Agor, upto 100 ha) feeding a Pond (Johad, Talab, Bandhi) with a cluster of covered Wells (=kU==Pa=, Kua, Kuin/Kuiyan, upto 150) Talabs are reservoirs. They may be natural, such as the ponds (pokhariyan) at Tikamgarh in the Bundelkhand region. They can be human-made, such the lakes in Udaipur. A reservoir area of less than five bighas is called a talai; a medium sized lake is called a bandhi or talab; bigger lakes are called sagar or samand. The pokhariyan serve irrigation and drinking purposes. When the water in these reserviors dries up just a few days after the monsoon, the pond beds are cultivated with rice. Johad Johads are small earthen check dams that capture and conserve rainwater, improving percolation and groundwater recharge. Starting 1984, the last sixteen years have seen the revival of some 3000 johads spread across more than 650 villages in Alwar district, Rajasthan. This has resulted in a general rise of the groundwater level by almost 6 metres and a 33 percent increase in the forest cover in the area. Five rivers that used to go dry immediately following the monsoon have now become perennial, such as the River Arvari, has come alive. Paar system: Paar is a common water harvesting practice in the western Rajasthan region. It is a common place where the rainwater flows from the agar (catchment) and in the process percolates into the sandy soil. In order to access the rajani pani (percolated water) kuis or beris are dug in the agor (storage area). Kuis or beris are normally 5 metres (m) to 12 m deep. The structure was constructed through traditional masonary technology. Normally six to ten of them are constructed in a paar. However depending on the size of the paar the numbers of kuis or beris are decided. Bhatti mentions that there are paars in Jaisalmer district where there are more than 20 kuis are in operation. This is the most predominant form of rainwater harvesting in the region. Rainwater harvested through PAAR technique is known as Patali paani. smaller catchment area with covered Tank (Kund, Kundi): Kunds / Kundis A kund or kundi looks like an upturned cup nestling in a saucer. These structures harvest rainwater for drinking, and dot the sandier tracts of the Thar Desert in western Rajasthan and some areas in Gujarat. Essentially a circular underground well, kunds have a saucer-shaped catchment area that gently slopes towards the centre where the well is situated. A wire mesh across water-inlets prevents debris from falling into the well-pit. The sides of the well-pit are covered with (disinfectant) lime and ash. Most pits have a dome-shaped cover, or at least a lid, to protect the water. If need be, water can be drawn out with a bucket. The depth and diameter of kunds depend on their use (drinking, or domestic water requirements). They can be owned by only those with money to invest and land to construct it. Thus for the poor, large public kunds have to be built. A kund is a large underground tank that may be 1000 liters or more in capacity and constructed for harvesting rainwater from a large catchment that could be located in the backyard of a house or in open communal space or even in the agricultural field. Traditionally, every household had an individual kund for harvesting rainwater and storing it for the long-term lean season. Those in communal spaces are meant for public use, while those located in fields are meant to be used by farming families during the agricultural season, so that water need not be carried over from home through long distances. Meticulous care is taken before the onset of monsoons every year to clean up the catchment of the kund. Cattle grazing and entry with shoes into the catchment area is generally avoided. This bestows the benefit of cleanliness, thereby upholding the water quality and preventing water-borne diseases, rainwater being the purest form of water naturally available on surface. from the roof: Kundi Kundi is a small underground drinking water tank often constructed in front of the house. These are mainly constructed with the aim of harvesting rainwater from a small catchment around, water being channelized either from the roof or a selected cleaned catchment area in the courtyard. The water from kundi is primarily meant for daily use and the capacities are often upto 500 liters. However, sometimes these can be upto 1000 liters or even bigger. In present times, kundis are also used as water reservoirs which are filled by transporting water in bulk from the kuin or supply water. This helps improve domestic water access and reduce the drudgery of women and girls in making multiple trips to the water source in the heat and dust of the desert. Many houses possess two kundis, one meant for storing kuin water and another one used for storing the IGC water. Storing of the IGC water additionally helps in allowing the solid impurities to settle down, making it cleaner. Like kunds, every household arranges for cleaning of the catchment of the kundi before onset of the monsoon. In recent years, a number of kundis have been constructed in the village with NGO support. Water Conservation: Rainwater Harvesting (05 Nov 2019) Rainwater harvesting is a simple strategy by which rainfall is gathered and stored for future usage. The process involves collection and storage of rainwater with help of artificially designed systems, that runs off natural or man-made catchment areas e.g. rooftop, compounds, rocky surface, hill slopes or artificially repaired impervious/semi-pervious land surface. The collected rainwater from surfaces on which rain falls may be filtered, stored and utilized in different ways or directly used for recharge purposes. Rainwater Harvesting is unrestricted from any kind of impurity, with relatively less storage cost and no maintenance cost involved except for periodical cleaning. With depleting groundwater levels and fluctuating climate conditions, this measure can go a long way to help mitigate the adverse effects rising water scarcity. Reserving rainwater can help recharge local aquifers, reduce urban flooding and most notably, ensure water availability in water-scarce zones. (Source: www.facebook.com/manjunath.reddy ) Rainwater harvesting systems are cost-effective, provide high-quality water, lessens dependence on wells and are considerably easy to maintain since they are not utilized for drinking, cooking or other sensitive uses. The all-around expenditures used in setting up harvesting methods are much cheaper compared to other purifying or pumping means. The cost of recharge to the subsurface reservoir is also lower than the surface reservoirs. Storing water underground is environment-friendly. The ecological benefits of rainwater harvesting are immense. It minimizes the impacts of flooding by funneling the off water into large tanks for recycling and helps reduce the load placed upon drainage systems. No land is wasted for storage purpose and no population displacement is implicated therefore, groundwater is not directly exposed to evaporation and pollution. Additionally, it helps minimize the possibility of rivers drying up. It reduces soil erosion and flood hazards by collecting rainwater and reducing the flow of stormwater to prevent urban flooding. Most buildings that utilize rainwater harvesting systems have a built-in catchment area on top of the roof, which has a capacity of collecting large volumes of water in case of rainstorms. Harvesting rainwater allows the collection of large amounts of water and mitigates the effects of drought. Most rooftops provide the necessary platform for collecting water. Rainwater is mostly free from harmful chemicals, which makes it suitable for irrigation purposes. Another vital benefit is that it increases the productivity of aquifer resulting in the rise of groundwater levels and reduces the need for potable water. It is extremely essential, particularly in areas with low water levels. There are two major techniques of rainwater harvesting. 1. Surface runoff harvesting In this method, rainwater flows away as surface runoff and can be stored for future use. Surface water can be stored by diverting the flow of small creeks and streams into reservoirs on the surface or underground. It can provide water for farming, for cattle and also for general domestic use. Surface runoff harvesting is most suitable in urban areas. Rooftop rainwater/storm runoff can be harvested in urban areas through: Recharge Pit, Recharge Trench, Tubewell, Recharge Well. 2. Groundwater recharge Groundwater recharge is a hydrologic process where water moves downward from surface water to groundwater. Recharge is the primary method through which water enters an aquifer. The aquifer also serves as a distribution system. The surplus rainwater can then be used to recharge groundwater aquifer through artificial recharge techniques. Rainwater in rural areas can be harvested through: Gully Plug, Contour Bund, Dugwell Recharge, Percolation Tank, Check Dam/Cement Plug/Nala Bund, Recharge Shaft Although rainwater harvesting measure is deemed to be a desirable concept since the last few years, it is rarely being implemented in rural India. Different regions of the country practiced a variety of rainwater harvesting and artificial recharge methods. Some ancient rainwater harvesting methods followed in India which includes Madakas, Ahar Pynes, Surangas, Taankas, etc. (Source: www.youtube.com/labinapp ) Examples of Traditional water harvesting system in India Trans-Himalayan Region: Zing -Tanks for collecting water from melted ice in Ladakh. Western Himalayas: Kul -Water channels in mountain areas of Jammu, Himachal Pradesh. Naula -Small ponds in Uttaranchal. Eastern Himalayas: Apatani system -Terraced plots connected by inlet and outlet channels in Arunachal Pradesh. Zabo -Impounding runoff in Nagaland. Bamboo drip irrigation – Water from streams in the hills is brought to the plains via bamboo pipes for drip irrigation in Meghalaya Brahmaputra Valley: Dongs – Ponds in Assam. Dungs or Jampois – small irrigation channels linking rice fields to streams in the Jalpaiguri district of West Bengal. Indo-Gangetic Plain: Dighis -Small square or circular reservoir fed by canals from rivers in Delhi. Baolis – secular structured stepwells from which everyone could draw water and use for washing and bathing. Thar Desert: Baoris /Bers -Community wells in Rajasthan. Tankas -Underground tank Bikaner in Rajasthan. Kund – a circular underground well; having a saucer-shaped catchment area that gently slopes towards the center where the well is situated. Central Highlands: Johads -Earthen check dams in Alwar district, Rajasthan. Rainwater Harvesting In Arunachal Arunachal Pradesh water resources department has executed demonstrative projects on rooftop rainwater harvesting and artificial recharge to groundwater under the cent percent central sector scheme “Groundwater management and regulation” during the 11th Five Year Plan, covering 235 projects in 11 districts. The districts included Tawang, West and East Kameng, Papum Pare, Kurung Kumey, Lower and Upper Subansiri, East and West Siang, Lower Dibang Valley, Anjaw, Miao (Changlang), Tirap and Longding. Out of the above, 100 projects were implemented in government schools, hospitals, primary health centers, office buildings, Circuit houses, and inspection bungalows. These projects were successfully executed and handed over to the user agencies for operation, maintenance and its utilization for various water needs. The first successful projects carried out by the Arunachal Pradesh water resources department was in Ruksin in East Siang district during 2002-03. (Source: www.cpreecenvis.nic.in ) The Apatani’s System – a wet rice cultivation cum fish farming system practiced in elevated regions of about 1600 m and gently sloping valleys. This system harvests both ground and surface water for irrigation. It is practiced by Apatani tribes of Ziro in the Lower Subansiri district of Arunachal Pradesh. In the Apatani’s system, valleys are terraced into plots divided by 0.6 meters high earthen dams which are then supported by bamboo frames. All plots have an inlet and outlet on opposite sides. The inlet of low lying plot functions as an outlet of the high lying plot. Deeper channels connect the inlet point to the outlet point. The terraced plot can be flooded or drained off with water by opening and blocking the inlets and outlets as and when required. The stream water is tapped by constructing a wall of 2-4 m high and 1 m thick near forested hill slopes. This is conveyed to agricultural fields through a channel network. Conclusion Harvesting and collection of rainwater is an adequate strategy that can be used to address the problem of water crisis globally. The use of a rainwater harvesting system provides excellent merits for every community. This simple water conservation method can be a boost to an incredible solution in areas where there is enough rainfall but not enough supply of groundwater. It will not only provide the most sustainable and efficient means of water management but also unlock the vista of several other economic activities leading to the Empowerment of people at the grass-root level. For this, the Government should come out with an appropriate incentive structure and logistic assistance to make it a real success. Rainwater harvesting is something that thousands of families across the world should participate in rather than pinning hopes on the administration to fight water crisis. This water conservation method is a simple and effective process with numerous benefits that can be easily practiced in individual homes, apartments, parks and across the world. As we all know that charity begins at home, likewise, a contribution to society’s welfare has to be initiated from one’s home. Best Practices in Rural Drinking Water Management: A Case from Thar Desert (Nandita Singh and Om Prakash Singh) Access to safe drinking water in rural India presents multiple challenges on quantity as well as quality fronts. Groundwater, on which about 90% of rural drinking water supply depends, is getting depleted fast, besides serious quality degradation. Surface water too displays similar concerns. The rural drinking water challenges have been presented in the photo story dated 16 June 2017. Against this general problem context, the situation in the arid Thar Desert is expected to present even greater challenges. The Thar is located in northwestern India, with about 60% of its area lying in western Rajasthan, spread over mainly the districts of Barmer, Bikaner, Jaisalmer and Jodhpur. The climate here is classified as ‘hot desert’, with highest temperatures ranging between 45- 51°Celsius during summers and average annual rainfall as low as 251 mm, confined mainly to the monsoon months of July to September. The soil is largely sandy and saline, stretching over the surface as vast high and low sand dunes. Further, there are extreme rainfall variations leading to frequent droughts. These arid conditions imply a situation of limited freshwater availability, further exacerbated by high salinity of the groundwater. However, despite these harsh realities, surprisingly enough, the Thar is the most densely populated desert of the world. Currently a population of about 27.5 million resides in the desert area of Rajasthan, approximating 40% of the state’s population. The rural and urban communities in the region have rich long histories and vibrant colorful cultures. Obviously this could not have become possible without adequate access to water. This photo story sets out to unravel the mystery of how drinking water has been sustainably managed in the rural communities of arid Thar Desert in Rajasthan. It describes the case of a village called Binjharwali, located in Bikaner district, Rajasthan where only 3 years in a decade receive normal rains (called accha zamana or ‘good rains’) while the remaining are low rainfall (called akaal or ‘drought’). The water table is about 60 meters deep and groundwater is saline. Despite this context, the village enjoys the luxury of accessing clean sweet drinking water throughout the year. As will be described below, the secret of their water prosperity lies in the art of rainwater harvesting through generations where every drop of the precious rain that falls on their land is collected and conserved in different ways. What is noteworthy is that Binjharwali is not an exception. It is one of the ideal examples amidst myriads others in the Thar that have been quenching their thirst and supporting the development of a rich water culture even when government and other agencies continue to reckon them as ‘water poor’. The title photo portrays the prosperity in Binjharwali where young girls chat on the mobile phone while happily collecting drinking water from a shallow well (kuin) situated within the village catchment (paitan). Sweet drinking water is available round-the-year, a dream for many even in Mausynram and Cherrapunji – the highest rainfall areas of the country. Binjharwali is a large village with a geographical spread over an area of 4,488 hectares and as per 2011 Census, inhabited by a population of 2,183 individuals with 1,151 males and 1,032 females. They are distributed in 310 households belonging to about a dozen different castes. The nearest town Lunkaransar is located about 30 km to the East while the district headquarters Bikaner is approximately 60 km away. In terms of local government, it is a part of Makdasar gram panchayat. About 2/3rd of the population identify themselves as ‘main workers’, which implies that they have employment for more than half a year. Of these, majority are cultivators (owner or co-owner) and over 45% are women. Agriculture and animal husbandry are the primary occupations in the village. 3Trenches A swale is a shady spot, or a sunken or marshy place. In particular, in US usage, it is a shallow channel with gently sloping sides. Such a swale may be either natural or man-made. The swale concept has been popularized as a rainwater harvesting and soil conservation strategy in Permaculture, usually as Contour Trench, to slow and capture runoff by spreading it horizontally across the landscape, facilitating runoff infiltration into the soil. This type of swale is created by digging a ditch on contour and piling the dirt on the downhill side of the ditch to create a berm. In arid climates, vegetation (existing or planted) along the swale can benefit from the concentration of runoff. Trees and shrubs along the swale can provide shade and mulch which decrease evaporation. Depending on the slope of the hill, the parallel trenches can be closer or further from one another. The trench should be big enough to keep all the water; no water should spoil over the downhill border. The upside of the trench should be protected against erosin, by means of e.g. grass, shrubs or fabric. Keyline design is a landscaping technique of maximizing the beneficial use of the water resources of a tract of land. It is a system of amplified contour trenches to drift rainwater runoff away from the center of the valley and, incidentally, prevent erosion of its soil. This develops a pattern of off-contour cultivation in which all the rip marks made in the soil slope down towards the center of the ridge. This pattern of cultivation allows more time for water to infiltrate. In many nations it is important to optimize infiltration of rainfall, and Keyline cultivation accomplishes this while delaying the concentration of runoff that could damage the land. 4Check Dams A check dam placed in a ditch, swale, or channel interrupts the flow of water and flattens the gradient of the channel, thereby reducing the velocity. In arid areas, check dams are often built to increase groundwater recharge in a process called managed aquifer recharge. Winter runoff thus can be stored in aquifers, from which the water can be withdrawn during the dry season for irrigation, livestock watering, and even drinking water supply. Check dams are usually less than 1 m high and the center of the dam should be at least 15 cm lower than its edges. This criteria induces a weir effect, resulting in increased water surface level upstream for some, if not all flow conditions. 5Catchment The source of clean sweet drinking water in Binjharwali are shallow wells, locally called kuiyan, that are several centuries old. These occur in a cluster called tanda which comprises about 150 wells. The tanda is located in a catchment (locally called paitan) close to the village settlement. The area of the paitan is large, with a radius of approximately 500 meters. In middle of the catchment, in the deepest part, rainwater flowing in from all directions collects in a pond, locally called johad. The shallow sub-surface aquifer in the tanda gets recharged during the monsoon and provides drinking water in the wells filtered through natural soil layers. The water from the shallow aquifer is locally called jharney ka pani (spring water). A number of inlets feed the johad from different directions. This johad is created mainly with the purpose of recharging the tanda as well as providing drinking water to the livestock as long as the water lasts. The johad water is not directly collected for human consumption since it is believed that drainage through the catchment pollutes it. Thus, the rainwater harvested in the johad is allowed to be absorbed in the soil and then filtered out through the kuiyan, a process that restores its purity, making it potable. The paitan, johad and kuiyan in Binjharwali have been community managed through generations. Management of the paitan means cleaning of the johad and the surrounding paitan before the onset of monsoons. A carefully managed paitan helps conserve each and every drop of rain received during the monsoons, in turn recharging all the kuiyan every year. Social rules have been defined by the community regarding maintenance of cleanliness in the paitan and general management of the community’s water wealth. These rules are strictly followed, and defaulters may have to pay heavy fines. The johad is a good source where animals can get drinking water as long as the water lasts. Not only do cows, camels, goat and sheep from the village drink water here, but even animals from neighboring villages are allowed. As seen in the photo above, the sheep and goats drinking water have been brought by a shepherd from the neighboring Dhoodhiwali village. This shepherd possesses a rich animal wealth of about 200 sheep and 80 goats. A good number of households in Binjharwali possess large livestock. 6Ponds A Johad /Pokhar /Sarovar /Taal /Talab is a community-owned traditional harvested rainwater storage wetland, that collects and stores water throughout the year, to be used for the purpose of recharging the grounwater in the nearby wells, for washing, bathing and drinking by humans and cattle. Some johads also have bricked or stones masonry and cemented Ghat. Johads are often seen surrounded by embankment, with water well and trees around them. Alternatively, simple mud and rubble barrier Check Dams may be built across the contour of a slope with a high embankment on the three sides while the fourth side is left open for the rainwater to enter. Over 4,500 working Johads in Alwar district and surrounding districts Rajasthan were revived by the NGO Tarun Bharat Sangh by Rajendra Singh. A Taanka /Kunda is a traditional rainwater harvesting technique, made of a cylindrical underground rainwater storage cistern, wherein rainwater from rooftops, a courtyard or natural or artificially prepared catchment flows into the paved pit, through filtered inlets made on the external wall of the structure, where it is stored and can be used by one family during the dry season. Once fully filled, the water is sufficient for a family of 5-6 members for a period of 5–6 months. Taankas are usually 6 m deep, 4 m long and 2.5 m wide. The catchment area (Agor) of these tanks was treated as a sacred area where human activities like defecation were prohibited. The water from the Taankas was used only for drinking purposes. If in any year there was less than normal rainfall and the Taankas did not get filled, water from proximal wells and tanks would be obtained to fill the household Taankas. Baori /Bawri (stepwells) are wells or ponds in which the water is reached by descending a set of steps to the water level. A basic difference between stepwells on the one hand, and tanks and wells on the other, is to make it easier for people to reach the groundwater and to maintain and manage the well. The builders dug deep trenches into the earth for dependable, year-round groundwater. They lined the walls of these trenches with blocks of stone, without mortar, and created stairs leading down to the water. The majority of surviving stepwells originally served a leisure purpose as well as providing water. This was because the base of the well provided relief from the daytime heat, and this was increased if the well was covered. Stepwells also served as a place for social gatherings and religious ceremonies. Usually, women were more associated with these wells because they were the ones who collected the water. Also, it was they who prayed and offered gifts to the goddess of the well for her blessings. This led to the building of some significant ornamental and architectural features, often associated with dwellings and in urban areas. It also ensured their survival as monuments. Stepwells usually consist of two parts: a vertical shaft from which water is drawn and the surrounding inclined subterranean passageways, chambers and steps which provide access to the well. The galleries and chambers surrounding these wells were often carved profusely with elaborate detail and became cool, quiet retreats during the hot summers. Stepped ponds are very similar to stepwells in terms of purpose but it is important to recognize the difference between these two types of structures. Generally, stepped ponds accompany nearby temples while stepwells are more isolated. 7Recharge Wells Large diameter wells and smaller diameter boreholes can be used to directly recharge or dilute shallow aquifers where low permeability strata (rock) overlies the aquifers and where other infiltration methods are not effective. Wells that have run dry due to falling water tables from over- exploitation are also increasingly being used for this purpose. Recharge wells are advantageous when land is scarce. Water can be injected into a well or borehole and recovered from another, some distance from the first, to increase travel time and benefit from the water treatment capacity of the aquifer. In loosely consolidated material, recharge pits and trenches are also used. Trenches or pits can be built to maximise the side-wall surface area and minimise the bottom surface area in order to facilitate horizontal movement of recharge water into the aquifer. The facilities should ideally be covered to keep out sunlight, animals, and people. Avoid where there is a risk of chemical contaminants entering the well, e.g. fertilizers and pesticides from agriculture, and when the final water abstracted will be used for drinking. Water to be recharged should be high quality since blockage due to suspended sediment, microbial growth or chemical precipitation is more likely over the smaller infiltration area of a well or borehole. One source of higher quality water, that is a realistic source of recharge water, is rainwater from roof catchments. The tubewell is sited 5-10 meters “upstream” from a well or borehole that dries up in the dry season, or in an area of saline groundwater. The recharge hole should not reach the groundwater layer aquifer to avoid contamination of the groundwater with surface water. Ideally the minimum distance should be 1.5m above the water table. The water table can be known by observation in the hand-dug well. Make a small pond around the hole (0.5-1 m deep, 1-5 m diameter). Ensure the hole is on one side of this pond so that it can be accessed from ground level. Remove the plug and fill up the hole with gravel (5 – 30mm) until 2 metres from ground level. Water is abstracted from a separate borehole or well than the one used for injection/recharge. 8Wells Kuis / Beris Found in western Rajasthan, these are 10-12 m deep pits dug near tanks to collect the seepage. Kuis can also be used to harvest rainwater in areas with meagre rainfall. The mouth of the pit is usually made very narrow. This prevents the collected water from evaporating. The pit gets wider as it burrows underunder the ground, so that water can seep in into a large surface area. The openings of these entirely kuchcha (earthen) structures are generally covered with planks of wood, or put under lock and key. The water is used sparingly, as a last resource in crisis situations. Magga Ram Suthar, of village Pithla in Jaisalmer district in Rajasthan, is an engineer skilled in making kuis/beris. Baoris or bers are community wells, found in Rajasthan, that are used mainly for drinking. Most of them are very old and were built by banjaras (mobile trading communities) for their drinking water needs. They can hold water for a long time because of almost negligible water evaporation. A recharged kuin is able to supply drinking water to the village households almost throughout the year. The depth of the kuiyan varies between about 6 and 13 meters. Its base is about 2 meters in diameter while the top is narrower. Water is available at a depth of 1-1.5 meters immediately after monsoon and gradually lowers down. Water used to be originally drawn from the kuin using a leather bag fixed to a rope, but in present times this is replaced by artificial leather or plastic bags. The kuin water is sweet and clean, but even then women take the precaution of filtering it with a fine cotton cloth while pouring into their pitchers. The drinking water from kuin fulfills the aspirations of women, men and children regarding good quality drinking water. In general, the common belief is that ‘water under the ground is pure’. So, given a choice, women prefer to fetch and use drinking water from the kuiyan. Though there exists a rural water supply scheme installed in 1987 with Indira Gandhi Canal (IGC) as the source, this water is taken for drinking purposes only when the kuiyan run completely dry. The supply water is reported as unclean and impure, causing instances of vomiting, diarrhea and jaundice. The kuiyan supply water almost round the year. When water is plenty, women can procure water from any kuin, there being no restrictions. But during the summer months of April-June, if the preceding monsoon has been scanty, then water may begin to dry up in the kuiyan. At this time, only about 50-60 litres water may come in any kuin which is barely enough for one household. Therefore, even locks may be put up, and one may be required to fetch water only from a well earmarked for the family. In case any kuin dries up, then water may be borrowed from another one on an exchange basis. In the worst case, where most wells may dry up, then they have to buy water from external tankers or unhappily revert to using the IGC supply water if available. While women and girls from many families carry home the kuin water in pitchers and pots on a daily basis, boys and men also actively help in improving their access to the preferred water. They carry home drinking water in bulk from the kuin, filling in tanks of 500-1000 liters capacity loaded on bullock- or camel-drawn carts, or even jeeps. This tanker water is poured into a small underground tank (kundi') at home. Depending on the size of the home kundi, and the number of household members, these may be filled once every 2-3 days or after longer periods. Most households possess a bullock or camel cart which is used for transporting water from kuin. 9Purification Traditional and Household Water Purification Methods of Rural Communities in Developing Countries (by S. Vigneswaran, M. Sundaravadivel): 1. Winnowing Sieve: This type of filtration is used when the water source is polluted by wind-borne impurities such as dry leaves, stalks, and coarse particles. The raw water is passed through a winnowing sieve, and the impurities are filtered. This type of filter is widely used in villages of the Bamaka area, Mali. This method cannot be used when the raw water is highly turbid or muddy, since the sieve cannot filter fine suspended particles in raw water. 2. Cloth: Thin white cotton cloth or a discarded garment is used as the filter medium. This filter can filter raw water containing such impurities as plant debris, insects, dust particles or coarse mud particles. Filtration of suspended particles present in water can be achieved only to a very small extent. Therefore, this type of filtration is not suitable for highly turbid water. It is most suitable for filtration of well water. This practice of cloth filtration is quite common in villages in India, Mali, the southern part of Niger and probably in many other parts of the developing world. In some of the Indian villages, if the raw water is muddy and highly odorous, then wood ash of Sal tree (Shora robuta) is mixed with water and then filtered through cloth. 3. Clay Vessels: Clay vessels with a suitable pore size are sometimes used to filter highly turbid water. Turbid water is collected in a big clay jar and allowed to settle down. Then the water in the jar will trickle through the porous clay wall of the jar. This trickled water is collected in a vessel (usually a clay pot) by placing it at the bottom of the porous clay jar. This method of water treatment is common in Egypt. 4. Plant Parts: Highly turbid water with fine suspended and colloidal particles are first coalesced and settled out using the nuts of a locally available plant, in some of the southern districts of Tamil Nadu, India, which is then filtered using cloth filters. Studies have found that the nuts excrete coagulant chemicals upon soaking which does the trick. Similarly, wiry roots of the rhizomes from the ‘ramachham’ (Vetiveria zizanoides) are placed in a clay jar, which has tiny holes in its bottom. Raw water is poured into this jar, and then the water is allowed to filter thorough this layer of roots. The water then trickles through the tiny holes at the bottom of the jar. The filtered water is collected at the bottom of the jar. Usually this filtered water is very clear and has a pleasant smell. This type of water filtration is common in southern districts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, India. 5. Jempeng Stone Filter: This type of water filtration method is developed in Saringan batu Jempeng, Bali, Indonesia. Here, a small artificial pond or a by-pass channel is cut by the side to an irrigation canal, which carries muddy water (Figure 1). Jempeng stone filter units are placed in the artificial ponds. The filter unit is carved out of a porous material called ‘cadas’. This unit has an average height of 60 cm, a diameter of 50 cm, and a wall with a thickness of 10–12 cm. This unit is placed on the top of a stone-supporting gravel bed. Muddy water filters through the porous wall of the filter unit and gets collected inside. This type of unit can be used as a village water treatment unit. It can treat even highly turbid water. The main feature of this unit is that the only cost involved is the investment cost. Practically there is no operational or maintenance cost such as for cleaning. Appropriate Water Treatment Methods: As a continuation and improvement to traditional treatment methods, some simple treatment methods that are appropriate for small rural communities have been developed by local water experts in many developing countries. Some of such methods include: 1. Horizontal Flow Coarse Media Filter: This technique uses coarse gravel or crushed stones as filter media and is highly suited for turbid waters with turbidities greater than 50 NTU. A combination of filtration and sedimentation of suspended solids take place during the horizontal passage of water through the filter bed (Figure 2). At the same time, biological mechanisms similar to those in slow sand filtration help to remove pathogens, although in a limited manner. Research at Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand, indicated that the unit can account for 60–70% removal of turbidity and about 80% removal of coliforms. 2. Upflow Gravel Filter 3. Upflow-downflow Filter Household Water Treatment Methods: 1. Filtration and Siphoning Technique 2. Household Slow Sand Filtration Unit (Indian Design, Thailand Design) Bamboo charcoal as a natural Water Filter - An indigenous rural application (By Shwetha Kamath): About 74 per cent of India's total population, currently about 1.25 billion, live in rural areas. More than one third of the water available to them is not potable. In a grim reminder that poor quality of drinking water leads to serious health problems, India has admitted that about 180,000 rural populated areas are afflicted by diseases which are caused due to impure, toxic organic and inorganic substances including tri-halo methane, chlorine, etc. Some states have reported multiple contaminations in drinking water and there is no doubt that the current water situation in India will get much, much worse unless suitable solutions are sought. Most existing purification methods not only remove the impurities but drain out the essential minerals as well. Moreover, they are expensive and require extensive maintenance. Thus a natural filter comprising of bamboo, gravel, pebble and other locally available natural adsorbents is a great alternative to carry out water purification. Bamboo charcoal’s chemical composition and physical structure both contribute heavily to its strength as a water filter. It is 85-98% carbon, the same substance used in most modern filtration methods. Its structure is very porous, so it can absorb and retain impurities easily. Bamboo charcoal is rich in a number of minerals including potassium, magnesium, sodium and calcium. As it filters water, its minerals are dissolved and it enriches the water. Unlike modern carbon filters, bamboo charcoal has the added benefit of a built-in team of microbes working to decompose toxic substances like tri halo methane and chlorine. These harmless microbes can flourish in bamboo and bamboo charcoal, despite its inherent antibacterial effects, which are unique to bamboo and are referred to as "Bamboo Kun." Bamboo Kun is an anti- bacterial and anti-fungal bio-agent that naturally bonds to bamboo cellulose without killing its beneficial microbes. Thus water is naturally cleared of toxic substances, bacteria and fungi. Bamboo charcoal releases a type of electromagnetic wave called Far Infrared Waves (FIR), at wavelengths ranging from 4 to 16 micrometres. It is absorbed by all organic material. The human body absorbs its entire range and can absorb up to 50 micrometres ion wavelength. The rays produce a warming effect on the body, similar to the rays of the sun, and can improve circulation substantially. We don’t get this effect from the water but from the presence of the charcoal itself. Unlike the beneficial FIR, Electromagnetic Waves (EM) are harmful to the body in large amounts. They are produced by electrical appliances such as computers, microwave ovens, cell phones, and televisions. Bamboo charcoal has been shown to dissipate EM waves too. 10Dry Stone Dry stone, is a building method by which structures are constructed from stones without any mortar to bind them together. Dry stone structures are stable because of their unique construction method, which is characterized by the presence of a load-bearing façade of carefully selected interlocking stones. One of the best and oldest examples is the Cyclopean Wall in Rajgir (Bihar), a 40 km long wall of stone, erected during the Maurya dynasty before 3rd century BCE. It is built with massive limestone boulders, roughly filled together with minimal clearance between adjacent stone and no use of mortar. The boulder typically seem unworked, but some may have worked roughly with a hammer and the gap between boulders filled in with smaller chunks of limestone. Worked stone is usually known as ashlar, and is often used for corners in stone buildings. One type of wall is called a "double" wall and is constructed by placing two rows of stones along the boundary to be walled. The foundation stones are ideally set into the ground so as to rest firmly on the subsoil. The rows are composed of large flattish stones, diminishing in size as the wall rises. Smaller stones may be used as chocks in areas where the natural stone shape is more rounded. The walls are built up to the desired height layer-by-layer and, at intervals, large tie-stones are placed which span both faces of the wall and sometimes project. These have the effect of bonding what would otherwise be two thin walls leaning against each other, greatly increasing the strength of the wall. Diminishing the width of the wall as it gets higher, as traditionally done in Britain, also strengthens the wall considerably. The voids between the facing stones are carefully packed with smaller stones (filling, hearting). The final layer on the top of the wall also consists of large stones, called capstones, coping stones or copes. As with the tie stones, the capstones span the entire width of the wall and prevent it breaking apart. Another variation is the Cornish hedge, which is a stone-clad earth bank topped by turf, scrub, or trees and characterised by a strict inward-curved batter (the slope of the "hedge"). As with many other varieties of wall, the height is the same as the width of the base, and the top is half the base width. As with many older crafts, skilled wallers, today, are few in number. With the advent of modern wire fencing, fields can be fenced with much less time and expense using wire than using stone walls; however, the initial expense of building dykes is offset by their sturdiness and consequent long, low-maintenance lifetimes. As a result of the increasing appreciation of the landscape and heritage value of dry stone walls, wallers remain in demand, as do the walls themselves. While the dry stone technique is most commonly used for the construction of double-wall stone walls and single-wall retaining terracing, dry stone sculptures, buildings, fortifications, bridges, and other structures also exist. When buildings are constructed using this method, the middle of the wall is generally filled with earth or sand in order to eliminate draughts. Large structures normally consist of a layered stone exterior and rubble infill. 11Shed tools, machines, cars, sand, stones, wood, bamboo, compost 12 Bio Fence From: Why farmers in TN are reverting to trees and thorny cacti as traditional bio-fences Serving as a habitat for many birds and animals, the bio-fences serve multiple purposes such as providing fodder, fertilizer and wind breakers, besides conserving biodiversity and absorbing climate-inducing gases such as carbon dioxide. Aadhiyagai Paramez (30), a progressive farmer from Oddanchatiram in Dindigul district, said that the fencing trees were known as kaatru thaduppan, or wind breaker. “But now, with these trees gone, the wind sucks our lands dry,” he told VillageSquare.in. All the farmers who grow bio-fences said that they are ideal wind breakers. Vetrimaran of Karur said that the moisture of the land is lost when the wind blows and if there are no bio-fences to slow down the wind speed. “Also, the fallen leaves act as mulch, conserving soil moisture,” he said. According to Muthu Murugan, people stopped growing bio-fences because they were not patient to wait for the trees to grow, and for the maintenance of trimming every two years. “Growing living fences is more relevant now as they play a huge role in retaining moisture in our farm by acting as wind breakers,” he said. According to the farmers, a little effort in growing living fences, instead of opting for steel fences, usually fixed for orchards, would save them money, and create additional income. For Lakshminarayanan (64) of Rettanai in Tindivanam district, the additional benefit of growing Bengal currant as bio-fence is that the fruits are in high demand in local bakeries and sell at Rs 50 / kilo. Paddy farmers were known to cut small branches of the living fence to use as compost, said Paramez. Leaves of trees such as hummingbird tree and quick stick tree can be used as fertilizers for the crops. According to Muthu Murugan, droppings of birds that take shelter in the bio-fence fertilize the soil. “We can also use these trees to up the productivity of the farm. For instance, we have planted Chinese chaste trees as part of the fence and we plan to use them to make mosquito repellents,” Vetrimaran told VillageSquare.in. In Tamil Nadu, there has been a substantial increase in peacock population that harm crops. “The fence trees provide an enabling environment for animals such as foxes and wild cats and keep the peacock population in check,” said Paramez. “You cannot plant this directly in the ground. You have to transplant it after six months and keep trimming it every two years,” Lakshminarayanan told VillageSquare.in. “But once you set the fence, it remains permanent.” While most of the trees used as bio-fences can serve multiple purposes, Vetrimaran said that the trees should be chosen based on the location and need. “Trees like palmyrah and Manila tamarind can protect the topsoil,” he said. “One needs to be wary of trees like seema karuvel (Prosopis juliflora) that suck the groundwater and create drought,” said Vetrimaran. “Those rearing livestock can opt for hummingbird tree, quick stick tree and adathoda, as the leaves can be used as fodder.” According to Muthu Murugan, some farmers use fences for dual purpose. They use the trellis to grow food creepers such as ridge gourd as fence, as cattle do not feed on the creepers. Paramez agreed that people used to grow creepers along the fences but spend money now to set up supporting trellises. C. Subramaniam (70), of Valliarachal in Tiruppur district, who grows Malabar neem, has been using living fence for decades. “Why spend unnecessarily, when you can get trees like kiluvai from your own neighborhood? Plant them in the rainy season and you will have a tall fence within a year,” he said. 13Thorns Kabra (1m), Karanda (3), Guggul (4), Kair (5), Shikakai (climbing,10), Ber (15), Khair (15), Babul (20) 14Espalier Esp. fruit trees like Aadu (4), Seb (4), Galgal (5), Anjir (8), Nimbu (15), Santara (10), Paiyaun (30) The ancient practice of controlling woody plant growth for the production of fruit, by pruning (trimming) and tying branches to a frame. Plants are frequently shaped in formal patterns, flat against a structure such as a wall, or fence. Certain branches are lowered down to the horizontal in autumn while still flexible enough, tied to a trellis, or attached to canes that keep them straight (and the canes are attached to another wire). Unnecessary buds are removed by rubbing them away with a thumb. Pleaching or plashing is a technique of interweaving living and dead branches. This craft has been developed by farmers who used it to make their hedge rows more secure. Trees are planted in lines, the branches are woven together to strengthen and fill any weak spots until the hedge thickens. Branches in close contact may grow together, due to a natural phenomenon called inosculation, a natural graft. Pleach also means weaving of thin, whippy stems of trees to form a basketry effect. Grafting is a technique whereby tissues of plants are joined so as to continue their growth together. The success of this joining requires that the vascular tissues grow together and such joining is called inosculation. Tree branches and more often roots of the same species will sometimes naturally graft. In most cases, one plant is selected for its roots and this is called the rootstock. The other plant is selected for its stems, leaves, flowers, or fruits and is called the scion, containing the desired genes to be duplicated in future by the plant. A practice sometimes carried out by gardeners is to graft related potatoes and tomatoes so that both are produced on the same plant, one above ground and one underground. 15Fast Growing Trees Planted also as future Pandal (plus legume trees Karaunda, Padauk). Amrud, Arjun, Baint, Bans, Ber, Chitvan, Gamhar, Kadam, Mahua, Neem, Nimbu, Palash, Lal Chandan, Rajbriksha, Safeda, Sagaun, Sahajan, Shirish, Shisham Shade: Ashok (9m), Devdar (10), Bhilava (15), Kapur (15), Shalmali (20), Karnikara (25), Pakhad (25), Banyan (30), Pipal (30), Badam (35) 16Cover Crops Alfalfa, Bhang, Kans, Kudzu, Matar, Mung, Patsan, San, Senji, Urad (in rainy season) Legumes: Arhar, Gulmohar, Kabra, Kacchnar, Karaunda, Padauk Mulch is a protective cover placed over the soil. It is absorbing rainfall, reducing evaporation, providing nutrients, increasing organic matter in the soil, feeding and creating habitat for soil organisms, suppressing weed growth and seed germination, moderating diurnal temperature swings, protecting against frost, and reducing erosion. 17 Manure Manure is organic matter that is used as organic fertilizer: feces (like cow dung), compost and green manure. It contributes to the fertility of soil by improving the soil structure (aggregation) so that the soil holds more nutrients and water, and therefore becomes more fertile. It encourages soil microbial activity which promotes the soil's trace mineral supply, improving plant nutrition. It also contains nitrogen and other nutrients, that are utilised by bacteria and fungi in the soil. Higher organisms then feed on them. Animal manure: Sheep manure is high in nitrogen and potash, while pig manure is relatively low in both. Horses mainly eat grass and a few weeds so horse manure can contain grass and weed seeds, as horses do not digest seeds the way that cattle do. Cattle manure is a good source of nitrogen as well as organic carbon. Chicken litter, coming from a bird, is very concentrated in nitrogen and phosphate and is prized for both properties. Human manure ('humanure'), just like animal manure, can be applied as a soil conditioner. Green Manures are crops grown for the express purpose of plowing them in, thus increasing fertility through the incorporation of nutrients and organic matter into the soil. Leguminous plants such as clover are often used for this, as they fix nitrogen using Rhizobia bacteria in specialized nodes in the root structure. Compost is the decomposed remnants of organic materials. It is usually of plant origin, but often includes some animal dung or bedding. Cow dung is the undigested residue of plant matter which has passed through the gut of bovine animals – cattle (cows), bison ("buffalo"), yak and water buffalo. 18Pit Toilet A Dry /Compost Toilet which collects human feces in a hole (1-2 m) in the ground, with a squat slab as floor and a shelter /outhouse. Thus feces are safely stored and converted in the soil and do not have to be manipulated by anyone. Pit latrines can decrease the spread of disease by reducing the amount of human feces in the environment from open defecation, which decreases the transfer of pathogens between feces and food by flies. These pathogens are major causes of infectious diarrhea and intestinal worm infections. A roof is optional, especially if the floor is made such that rain runoff does not flow into the pit. The advantages of not making a roof include: more light, better ventilation, automatic rinsing with the rain, disinfection via solar ultraviolet radiation, reduced cost, and less weight. After each use, a cup of the excavated soil should be added, as well as any organic matter. A ventilation pipe from the pit to above the structure improves airflow. When the pit is nearly full, the outhouse and slab are moved to a newly dug pit. If the floor is round and unattached to the outhouse, it can be rolled to the new pit. The old pit is then covered with some of the earth from the new pit and left to compost. Useful vegetation is planted on the old pit. 19Sealing Applied on the tree pit after Monsoon: Mix wet mud (from a lake) with mix cow dung. The wet mud will retain the moisture and the cow dung will prevent soil capillaries from growing. 20Wood Khejri (5m), Rohida (5), Krishna-Plaksha (8), Lal Chandan (8), Chandan (10), Shirish (10), Bakul (16), Mandara (20), Pakar (20), Arjun (25), Shisham (25), Nag-Champa (30), Padauk (30), Sagaun (30), Sal (30), Vijaya Shal (30), Nagalinga (35), Agaru (40), Kadam (45), Tun (50) Wood+ Jaal (leaves,6m), Paras (bark,10), Putranjiva (leaves,seed,12), Kath Champa (nut,15), Palash (flower,15), Akash Neem ('cork',20), Jarul (leaves,20), Kathal (fruit,20), Mahuva (flower,seed,20), Neem (leaves,20), Peela Gulmohar (flower,20), Rajbriksha (flower,20), Rudraksh (beads,20), Tamal (leaves,20), Asan (water,25), Okhar (nut,30), Sami (fruit,30), Hollong (resin,40), Champa (flower,50) 21Fruit Trees Karanda (3m), Kair (5), Papita (5), Galgal (5), Lasoda (5), Amrud (7), Amla (8), Phalsa (8), Kaith (9), Anar (10), Gular (10), Santara (10) Bael (13), Ber (15), Bilimbi (15), Chiku (15), Kokum (15), Nimbu (15), Shehtut (15), Imli (18), Chakka (20), Jatiphal (20), Lichi (20), Aam (40), Haritaki (30), Jamun (30), Paiyaun (30), Sabera (45) 22Flower Trees Chameli (4), Sthalkamal (5), Kachnar (10), Parijat (10), Buransh (15m) 23Other Trees Kapas (cotton,2m), Tejpatta (leaf,5), Kadi (food,6), Henna (color,8), Long (spice,10), Sahajan (food,10), Reetha (nut,15), Shalmali (cotton,20) 24Palms Khajur, Nariyal, Salak, Taal 25Banana In the Philippines, bananas are the favourite to intercrop with coconut trees. There is a synergy with coconut and banana trees especially if organic farming is observed. There are good export markets for both organic coconut products (virgin coconut oil, coconut water, coconut flour, etc) and organic banana chips. The frying oil used for organic banana chips is organic coconut oil. 26No-Till Farming The effects of tillage include soil compaction; loss of organic matter; degradation of soil aggregates; death or disruption of soil microbes and other organisms including earthworms; and soil erosion. No-till is the practice of never tilling a field. It reduces labour, fuel, irrigation and machinery costs. It increases water infiltration and storage capacity, with less erosion. No-till farming improves aggregates and reduces erosion. Soil erosion is reduced to soil production rates. One of the purposes of tilling is to remove weeds. No-till farming therefore uses cover crops to help control weeds and increase organic residue in the soil (or nutrients by using legumes). Cover crops then need to be killed so that the newly planted crops can get enough light, water, nutrients, etc. This can be done by rollers, crimpers, choppers and other ways. The residue is then planted through, and left as a mulch. Cover crops typically must be crimped when they enter the flowering stage. Masanobu Fukuoka (1913-2008) was a Japanese farmer and philosopher celebrated for his natural farming and re-vegetation of desertified lands. He was a proponent of no-till, no-herbicide, no-composting grain cultivation farming. Fukuoka re-invented and advanced the use of clay Seed Balls, an ancient practice in which seeds for the next season's crops are rolled within clay into small balls. His book The One-Straw Revolution has been translated into over 20 languages and sold more than one million copies. Weed Control Weed control is the botanical component of pest control, which attempts to stop weeds from competing with desired flora and fauna including domesticated plants and livestock, and in natural settings preventing non native species competing with native species. Methods, besides lethal wilting with high heat, burning, and chemical control with herbicides (weed killers): 1. Manually pulling them out of the ground, making sure to include the roots that would otherwise allow some to re-sprout. 2. Hand cultivation with hoes: Hoeing off weed leaves and stems as soon as they appear can eventually weaken and kill perennials. 3. Powered cultivation with cultivators: Ploughing uproots weeds, causing them to die. Another manual technique is the 'stale seed bed', which involves cultivating the soil, then leaving it fallow for a week or so. When the initial weeds sprout, the grower lightly hoes them away before planting the desired crop. 4. smothering with mulch 5. Irrigation, such as in the case of paddy fields to kill any plant other than the water-tolerant rice crop. 6. rotating crops with ones that kill weeds by choking them out, such as hemp 7. bioherbicides 8. grazing animals 27Seedballs Seeding Methods Broadcasting: Seeds are directly sown in the field. This is the common method because it is the easiest way and no special machinery is required. The organic weed management with this method is a problem, because it is difficult to distinguish between weed and crop. Line Sowing: Improved sowing compared to broadcasting. Facilitates organic weed management due to better distinction of weed and crop. In this method, spacing of 22 cm to 30 cm between lines and 8 cm to 10 cm within lines should be maintained. The seeds should be sown about 3 cm deep in the soil. Drilling in rows: Seeds are sown directly in the untreated soil by using a direct-seed drill. This method is used in conservation agriculture. Transplanting the seedlings: Raising the seedlings in nursery beds and transplant to the main field. Leveling and watering of beds is required during transplanting. Seedlings with 4 weeks age should be transplanted in the field. For early Rabi and Kharif season, seedlings should be transplanted at 25 cm x 10 cm and for late Kharif season at 30 cm x 10 cm. Planting should be done 3 cm depth in the soil. Seedballs consist of seeds rolled within a ball of clay (with various additives). Seed Bombing is the practice of introducing vegetation to land by throwing or dropping seedballs. It is sometimes used as a technique to plant cover crops without having to wait for the main crop's off-season. Dry sites may have to be specially ridged or disked so as to optimize the rainfall that reaches the seed. Excessively wet sites may need to be ridged or drained. Ideally, before aerial seeding takes place trial plots should be established to test those species most likely to germinate and grow successfully on the chosen sites. Small Seedballs fall into crevices and are then more likely to get covered with soil, thereby enhancing their chances of survival. Mixture: Fukuoka suggests to thoroughly mix in a large flat tray 5 parts clay, 3 parts compost and 1 part seed mix. Clay and compost (microbial inoculants) need to be pulverized and screened to remove rocks, stubborn clods and vegetative material. Beyond this basic recipe you can add pest and insect deterring compounds. You can also take a small amount of soil from the rhizosphere of the parent plants. Finely shredded paper, cardboard, cotton-fibres and plant residues such as rice-hulls have also been incorporated into seedballs, or they are coated with liquefied paper mash to help give them greater tensile strength to avoid breaking open. Choose a tray with a flat bottom so the forming balls can roll around. Add the seeds. Add a few squirts of water to the mix, and rotate the tray in a circular motion. The goal is to start coating seeds with water, so the clay/compost sticks to them. Keep adding small amounts of water to coat the balls as they form, so that the remaining soil can stick to the outside. If the seedballs won’t be thrown out immediately, it is important to start drying them straight away. Otherwise, many of the quickly germinating seeds will wake up, sprout and die before they are cast. 28Grains Bajra, Chana, Dhan, Matar, Mung, Ragi, Sarso, Til, Urad, Ramadana 29Grasses Bans, Durva, Ganna, Kans, Kusha 30Vines Angur, Baint, Kankro, Kudzu, Louki, Petha, San 31Flowers Genda (2) 32Herbs Ashwagandha, Brahmi, Guma, Gwarpatha, Haldi, Tulsi 33Cow Dung Uses: Manure. Dried as fuel (as replacement for firewood) or as biogas. Insect repellant: dry cow dung is burned inside; fresh cow dung is mixed with water and sprayed in front of the house. Cow dung is used to line the walls of houses as a cheap thermal insulator. An optional ingredient in the manufacture of adobe mud brick. 34 Aadu A domesticated peach appeared very early in Japan, in 4700–4400 BCE. In India, the peach first appeared by c. 1700 BCE. The variety nectarina, commonly called nectarine, has a smooth skin. Flat peaches or pan-tao have a flattened shape in contrast to ordinary rounded peaches. The inside of a peach stone tastes remarkably similar to almond, and peach stones are often used to make a cheap version of Marzipan, known as Persipan. Peaches are planted in early winter. The number of flowers on a peach tree is typically thinned out because if the full amount of peaches mature on a branch, they are undersized and lacking in flavor. Fruits are thinned midway in the season by commercial growers. 35 Aam Mango leaves are used to decorate archways and doors in Indian houses and during weddings and celebrations. The earliest known reference to the cultivation of mangoes can be traced to India up to 2000BCE. The trees are long-lived, as some specimens still fruit after 300 years. Though India is the largest producer of mangoes, it accounts for less than 1% of the international mango trade; India consumes most of its own production. 36 Agaru Agarwood is a fragrant dark resinous wood used in incense, perfume, and small carvings. Formation of Agarwood occurs in the trunk and roots of trees that have been penetrated by an insect feeding on wood and oily resin, the Ambrosia Beetle. A mold infection may then occur, and in response, the tree produces a salutary self-defense material to conceal damages or infections. While the unaffected wood of the tree is relatively light in color, the resin dramatically increases the mass and density of the affected wood, changing its color from a pale beige to yellow, orange, red, dark brown or black. In natural forests, only about 7 out of 100 Aquilaria trees of same species are infected and produce aloes/agar wood. The total yield of oil for 70 kg of wood will not exceed 20 ml. The odour of agarwood is complex and pleasing, with few or no similar natural analogues. As a result, agarwood and its essential oil gained great cultural and religious significance in ancient India, being described as early as 1400 BCE in the Vedas. 37 Akash Neem The tree is considered ornamental and the pleasant fragrance of the flowers renders it ideal as a garden tree. The wood is also used as timber and the bark is used as an inferior substitute for cork. 38 Alfalfa The plant superficially resembles Clover (a cousin in the same family), especially while young. Alfalfa seems to have originated in south-central Asia. Ayurveda texts prescribe the use of Alfalfa seeds and sprouts for improving blood cell production and its leaves and stem as a good source of protein and minerals. 39 Amla All parts of the plant are used in various herbal medicines, including the fruit, seed, leaves, root, bark and flowers. It is the primary ingredient in an ancient herbal rasayana called Chyawanprash. Popularly used in inks, shampoos and hair oils, the high tannin content of the fruit serves as a mordant for fixing dyes in fabrics. It is propagated through seeds. 40 Amrud Guava is native to the Americas. It can be eaten raw or cooked. The processing of the fruits yields by-products that can be fed to livestock. It is very useful to our health. The leaves can also be used as fodder. It is used in medicine. 41 Anar The pomegranate originated in the region extending from Iran to northern India. In Ayurveda the pomegranate is frequently described as an ingredient in remedies. Pomegranates are tolerant of drought and moderate frost, down to about -12 °C. It is propagated from cuttings. 42 Angur Grapes are mentioned in Sushruta Samhita, Charaka Samhita (1000 BCE) and Kautiliya- Arthashastra. Native spp. resembling Vitis lanata and Vitis palmata grow wild in the northwestern Himalayan foothills. Indigenous varieties known as ‘Rangspay’, ‘Shonltu White’ and ‘Shonltu Red’ are grown in Himachal Pradesh even today. Cultivated grapes are believed to have been introduced from Persia in 1300 CE. Most important vaieties are Anab-e Shahi, Bhokri, Gulabi, Bangalore blue and Bangalore purple, plus Tas- A-Ganesh, Perlette, Shared Seedless and Dilkhush. In the sub-tropical region vines undergo dormancy and bud break starts in the first week of March while the rains arrive in the first week of June, and therefore, only 90-95 days are available from the initiation of growth to harvest. Consequently, ‘Perlette’ is the only early ripening variety grown in this region. Rain damage is a problem with Thompson Seedless in this region. Single pruning and a single harvest is the accepted practice here. The best season for planting the rooted cuttings of cultivated varieties in the main field is September-October whereas for rootstocks it is February-March. Owing to the high productive potential, the Bower System is a very popular system of training. In the sub-tropical region, vines are pruned only once in December and the crop is harvested once. Half of the canes are pruned to renewal spurs and the rest to fruiting canes (3-4 nodes for Perlette). 43 Anjir The plant tolerates seasonal drought. 44Arhar A drought-resistant Legume which can grow into a small tree, domesticated in India at least 3,500 years ago. It can be of a perennial variety, in which the crop can last three to five years (although the seed yield drops considerably after the first two years), or an annual variety more suitable for seed production. Pigeon peas are in some areas an important crop for green manure, providing up to 90 kg nitrogen per hectare. The woody stems of pigeon peas can also be used as firewood, fencing and thatch. Dehulling pigeon peas is an age-old practice in India. A wet method involves water soaking, sun drying and dehulling. A dry method involves oil/water application, drying in the sun, and dehulling. It is the primary accompaniment to rice or Roti. The dried peas may be sprouted briefly, then cooked, for a flavor different from the green or dried peas. Sprouting also enhances the digestibility of dried pigeon peas via the reduction of indigestible sugars that would otherwise remain in the cooked dried peas. In Ethiopia, not only the pods, but also the young shoots and leaves are cooked and eaten. It is an important ingredient of animal feed. Leaves, pods, seeds and the residues of seed processing are used to feed all kinds of livestock. 45 Arjun The Arjuna is usually found growing on river banks or near dry river beds. Propagation: the fruit is dried in the sun and then stored 6-12 months. The Arjuna plant has traditionally been used to treat heart disease. When Krishna was crawling and was disturbing His mother from doing household affairs, the mother tied Him with a grinding pestle, but the naughty child dragged the pestle up to a pair of very high arjuna trees in the yard of Yashoda, and when the pestle was stuck between the pair of trees, they fell down with a horrible sound. 46 Asan It has a remarkable attribute: some members of the species store water in the dry season. It is often tapped and used as a source of potable water in the summer by forest folk. It is also thought to have curative value for stomach pain. The mechanism and ecophysiological significance of this water storage is not known. The wood is used for furniture, boat-building and musical instrument. The leaves are used as food by Antheraea paphia silkworms which produce the tassar silk (Tussah). The bark is used medicinally against Diarrhoea. 47 Ashok The Ashoka is prized for its beautiful foliage and fragrant flowers. It is a handsome, small, erect evergreen tree, with deep green leaves growing in dense clusters. The Debdaru tree (false Ashoka) can easily be distinguished by its simple leaves and very different flowers. Ashoka flowers are red (initially orange in color) while Debdaru flowers are apple green in color. Ashoka fruits look like broad beans containing multiple seeds while false Ashoka fruits are small, spherical and contain only one seed. Ashoka trees are small in height, while false Ashoka is taller. It is believed Buddha was born under an Ashoka tree in Lumbini Garden. It is also associated with Kamadeva, who included an ashoka blossom among the five flowers in his quiver, where ashoka represent seductive hypnosis. The ashoka tree is mentioned in the Ramayana in reference to the Ashoka Vatika where Hanuman first meets Sita. 48 Ashwagandha The name is reflecting that the root has a strong horse-like odor. The plant, particularly its root powder, has been used for centuries in Ayurveda for rheumatism, consumption, debility from old age and emaciation of children. The roots and leaves have antibiotic and antibacterial activity. The ripe fruits are dried and sawn in early spring. 49 Babul The tender twig of this plant is used as a toothbrush. The wood is very durable if water- seasoned and its uses include tool handles and lumber for boats. 50 Badam The nut is tasting almost like Almond (Prunus dulcis). 51 Bael Bael is native across India. It copes with a wide range of soil conditions, is tolerant of waterlogging and has an unusually wide temperature tolerance from −7–48 °C. It requires a pronounced dry season to give fruit. The fruit takes about 11 months to ripen on the tree. It can be eaten either fresh from trees (then the juice is strained to make a drink) or after being sun-dried (sliced) and produced into candy or pulp powder. The hard leathery slices are then immersed in water. Earliest evidence of religious importance appears in Shri Shuktam of Rig Veda which reveres this plant as the residence of Lakshmi. Bael trees are considered an incarnation of Parvati. 52 Baint The climbing habit is associated with the characteristics of its flexible woody stem, derived typically from a secondary growth, makes rattan a liana rather than a true wood. Rattans have been known to grow up to hundreds of metres long. Rattans are extensively used for making baskets and furniture. When cut into sections, rattan can be used as wood to make furniture. Some Rattan fruits are edible, with a sour taste akin to citrus. It is heavily used as a housing material in rural areas. The skin of the plant or wood is primarily used for weaving. Fire-hardened rattan were commonly used as the shafts of Philippine spears, fitted with a variety of iron spearheads. Rattan can also be used to build a functional sword that delivers a non-lethal but similar impact compared to steel counterparts. 53 Bajra Bajra is the most widely grown type of Millet and India is the largest producer. India began growing millet before c. 3300 BCE. Pearl millet is well adapted to growing areas characterized by drought, low soil fertility, and high temperature. It performs well in soils with high salinity or low pH. Pearl millet is commonly used to make the flatbread Bhakri. It is also boiled to make a Tamil porridge called kamban. 54 Bakul Its timber is valuable, the fruit is edible, and it is used in traditional medicine. As the trees give thick shade and flowers emit fragrance, it is a prized collection of gardens. The bark, flowers, fruits, and seeds are used in Ayurvedia. The flowers are sun dried and used to make floral infusions and as an addition to green tea in Thailand. The edible fruit is softly hairy becoming smooth, ovoid, bright red-orange when ripe. The wood is a luxurious wood that is extremely hard, strong and tough, and rich deep red in color. The heartwood is sharply defined from the sapwood. 55 Bans Bamboos include some of the fastest-growing plants in the world. Bamboos seldom and unpredictably flower and the frequency of flowering varies greatly from species to species. Once flowering takes place, a plant declines and often dies entirely. The mass fruiting also has direct economic and ecological consequences, however. The huge increase in available fruit in the forests often causes a boom in rodent populations, leading to increases in disease and famine in nearby human populations. Bamboo used for construction purposes must be harvested when the culms reach their greatest strength and when sugar levels in the sap are at their lowest, as high sugar content increases the ease and rate of pest infestation. Thus the best time to harvest is at dawn or dusk on a waning moon. Harvesting is best a few months prior to the start of the wet season. In many areas of the world, the sap levels in harvested bamboo are reduced either through leaching or postharvest photosynthesis. For example: Cut bamboo is raised clear of the ground and leaned against the rest of the clump for one to two weeks until leaves turn yellow to allow full consumption of sugars by the plant. In the process of water leaching, the bamboo is dried slowly and evenly in the shade to avoid cracking in the outer skin of the bamboo, thereby reducing opportunities for pest infestation. 56 Bat Banyan is the largest tree in the world by canopy coverage. Thimmamma Marrimanu in Andhra Pradesh covers 19,107 square metres, its perimeter measures 846 metres. 57 Ber It has a rapidly developing taproot, a necessary adaptation to drought conditions, and starts producing fruits within three years. It is a hardy tree that copes with extreme temperatures and thrives under rather dry conditions. Propagation is most commonly from seed, where pretreatment is beneficial. Storage of the seed for 4 months to let it after-ripen improves germination. The hard stone restricts germination and cracking the shell or extraction of seeds hastens germination. Without pretreatment the seeds normally germinate within six weeks whereas extracted seeds only need one week to germinate. Ber seedlings do not tolerate transplanting, therefore the best alternatives are to sow the seeds directly in the field or to use polythene tubes placed in the nursery bed. The seedlings should also be given full light. In India the trees flower in July to October and fruits are formed soon after. In February– March the fruits are mature and in some places a second crop is produced in the fall. Seedling trees bear 5,000 to 10,000 small fruits per year in India. The fruit is eaten raw, pickled or used in beverages. It is quite nutritious and rich in vitamin C. It is second only to Guava and much higher than citrus or apples. In India, the ripe fruits are mostly consumed raw, but are sometimes stewed. Slightly underripe fruits are candied by a process of pricking, immersing in a salt solution. Ripe fruits are preserved by sun-drying and a powder is prepared for out-of-season purposes. Ber timber is hard, strong, fine-grained, fine-textured, tough, durable, and reddish in colour. It has been used to line wells, to make legs for bedsteads, boat ribs, agricultural implements, tool handles, and other lathe-turned items. The branches are used as framework in house construction and the wood makes good charcoal. The fruits are applied on cuts and ulcers; are employed in pulmonary ailments and fevers; and, mixed with salt and chili peppers, are given in indigestion and biliousness. The dried ripe fruit is a mild laxative. The seeds are sedative and are taken, sometimes with buttermilk, to halt nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pains in pregnancy. They check diarrhea, and are poulticed on wounds. Mixed with oil, they are rubbed on rheumatic areas. The leaves are applied as poultices and are helpful in liver troubles, asthma and fever and, together with catechu, are administered when an astringent is needed, as on wounds. The bitter, astringent bark decoction is taken to halt diarrhea and dysentery and relieve gingivitis. The bark paste is applied on sores. The root is purgative. A root decoction is given as a febrifuge, taenicide and emmenagogue, and the powdered root is dusted on wounds. Juice of the root bark is said to alleviate gout and rheumatism. Strong doses of the bark or root may be toxic. An infusion of the flowers serves as an eye lotion. 58 Bhang Although the main psychoactive constituent is THC, the plant is known to contain more than 500 compounds, among them at least 113 cannabinoids. There are two main cultivar groups: for their fibre (long stems and little branching) and for seed. The seeds are chiefly used to make hempseed oil which can be used for cooking, lamps, lacquers, or paints. 59 Brahmi It commonly grows in marshy areas. The leaves of this plant are succulent, oblong, and 4– 6 mm thick. Propagation is achieved through seeds, cuttings and root division. It is used in Ayurveda to improve memory. 60 Chakka Breadfruit is one of the highest-yielding food plants, with a single tree producing up to 200 or more grapefruit-sized fruits per season, requiring limited care. Most breadfruit varieties produce fruit throughout the year. The fruit is roasted, baked, fried or boiled. Boiled breadfruit is a famous main meal. One traditional preservation technique is to bury peeled and washed fruits in a leaf-lined pit where they ferment over several weeks and produce a sour, sticky paste. So stored, the product may endure a year or more. Its lightweight wood is resistant to termites and shipworms, so it is used as timber for construction and boats. All parts of the tree yield latex, which is useful for boat caulking. Breadfruit is propagated mainly by seeds, although it can be propagated by transplanting suckers that grow off the surface roots of the tree. The roots can be purposefully injured to induce the growth of suckers, which are then separated from the root and planted in a pot or directly transplanted into the ground. For propagation in quantity, root cuttings are preferred, using segments about 5 cm thick and 25 cm long. Rooting may take up to 5 months to develop, with the young trees ready for planting when they are 60 cm high. 61Chameli Its leaves are widely used as an Ayurvedic herbal medicine and its flowers are used to adorn the coiffure of women. 62 Champa The flowers are used for worship at temples, whether at home or out, and more generally worn in hair by girls and women as a means of beauty ornament as well as a natural perfume. Flowers are floated in bowls of water to scent the room, as a fragrant decoration for bridal beds, and for garlands. The tree was traditionally used to make fragrant hair and massage oils. Champaca is logged for its valuable timber. It has a finely textured, dark brown and olive- colored wood, which is used in furniture making, construction, and cabinetry. The species is protected from logging in some states of India, especially in the Southwestern region, where certain groves are considered sacred by Hindus and Buddhists. 63 Chana Chickpeas are a type of pulse, with one seedpod containing two or three peas. It has white flowers with blue, violet, or pink veins. Desi Chana has small, darker seeds and a rough coat. It is grown mostly in India. Its other names include kala chana ("black chickpea"). Desi chana can be black, green or speckled. This variety is hulled and split to make Chana Dal. In 1793, ground roasted chickpeas were noted by a German writer as a substitute for coffee in Europe. They are still sometimes brewed instead of coffee. 64 Chandan The use of Chandan in India is noted in literature for over two thousand years. It has use as wood and oil in religious practices. It also features as a construction material in temples and elsewhere. The central part of the tree, the heartwood, is the only part of the tree that is used for its fragrance. It is yellow-brown in color, hard with an oily texture and due to its durability, is the perfect material for carving. Until 2002, individuals in India were not allowed to grow sandalwood. Due to its scarcity, sandalwood is not allowed to be cut or harvested by individuals. The State grants specific permission to officials who then can cut down the tree and sell its wood. 65 Chiku The trees can survive only in warm, typically tropical environments, dying easily if the temperature drops below freezing. From germination, the tree will usually take anywhere from five to eight years to bear fruit. It yields fruit twice a year, though flowering may continue year round. 66 Chinar It is quite capable of survival and success in dry soils once it is established. As a very large and wide tree with broad, thick leaves that tend to orient horizontally, it is especially prized for the shade and coolness it provides during the hot season. The timber, often called lacewood, is figured and valuable for indoor furniture. In historic Kashmir, the tree was planted near Hindu holy places under names derived from Bhavani. A famous landmark in Srinagar is an island on Dal Lake where four Chinar trees stand, named Char Chinar. As another example, a 627-year-old chinar tree has been found at Chatargaam, Chadoora. 67 Chitvan The tree grows rapidly and is easy to cultivate. The powerfully bitter bark of this tree is used in bowel complaints. It has also been found effectual in restoring the tone of the stomach and of the system generally in debility after fevers and other exhausting diseases. 68 Devdar The false Ashoka is a lofty evergreen tree, commonly planted due to its effectiveness in alleviating noise pollution. The leaves are used for ornamental decoration during festivals. 69 Dhan Oryza sativa contains two major subspecies: the sticky, short-grained japonica or sinica variety, and the nonsticky, long-grained indica. Japonica varieties are usually cultivated in dry fields, in temperate East Asia and and high elevations in India, while indica varieties are mainly lowland rices, grown mostly submerged, throughout tropical Asia. 70 Durva It is fast-growing and tough, making it popular and useful for sports fields, as when damaged it will recover quickly. Bermuda grass has been cultivated in saline soils, irrigated with saline water and used to graze cattle. It is used in Ayurveda and important in worship. 71 Galgal Citrus medica is a large fragrant citrus fruit with a thick rind. It is one of the original citrus fruits from which all other citrus types developed. The citron is thought to have been native to India, in valleys at the foothills of the eastern Himalayas. From ancient times, the citron was used mainly for medical purposes. In Ayurveda, the juice is still used for treating conditions like nausea, vomiting, and excessive thirst. But also haemorrhoids, skin diseases and weak eyesight. 72 Gamhar This tree is commonly planted as a garden and an avenue tree; growing in villages along agricultural land and on village community lands and wastelands. It is light demander, tolerant of excessive drought. Once seasoned, it is a very steady timber and moderately resistant to decay and ranges from very resistant to moderately resistant to termites. Gmelina arborea leaves are considered good for cattle. 73 Ganna Sugarcane belongs to the grass family Poaceae, an economically important seed plant family that includes maize, wheat, rice, and sorghum, and many forage crops. Sugarcane is the world's largest crop by production quantity. It accounts for 79% of sugar produced; most of the rest is made from sugar beets. The earliest known production of crystalline sugar began in northern India. Some varieties are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen. 74Genda Plants in the sunflower family (Asteraceae), native to south of Mexico. It is widely cultivated in India, particularly the species T. erecta, T. patula, and T. tenuifolia. It is said to deter some common insect pests, as well as nematodes, hence often used in companion planting for tomato, eggplant and potato. Due to antibacterial thiophenes exuded by the roots, it should not be planted near any legume crop. Some of the perennial species are animal- resistant. They are often part of butterfly gardening plantings. 75 Guggul It is sought for its fragrant resin called gugal, guggul or gugul, harvested from the plant's bark through tapping. The gum can be purchased in a loosely packed form called dhoop, an incense from India, which is burned over hot coals. This produces a fragrant, dense smoke. Because of its use in traditional medicine, C. wightii has been overharvested, and has become scarce in its two habitats in India—Gujarat and Rajasthan. 76 Gular In the Atharva Veda (xix,31), this fig tree is given prominence as a means for acquiring prosperity and vanquishing foes. The bark is rubbed on a stone with water to make a paste, which can be applied over afflicted by boils or mosquito bites. Allow the paste to dry on the skin and reapply after a few hours. 77 Gulmohar It is a non-nodulating legume. In addition to its ornamental value, it is also a useful shade tree in tropical conditions, because it usually grows to a modest height (mostly 5 meters, but it can reach a maximum height of 12 meters) but spreads widely, and its dense foliage provides full shade. 78 Gumpati A flowering annual herb which is a common weed that also has uses as an edible vegetable and herbal remedy. Springs up in cultivated fields as a weed, especially after a period of rain. It is collected for use as a leafy vegetable in rural areas. It is cultivated itself for its medicinal uses and is readily available in markets. One of the plant's most common historical uses has been as a treatment for snakebite. It is also steeped in water which is then used for bathing and for washing livestock. 79Gwarpatha Succulent plant of the genus Aloe. A stemless or very short-stemmed plant, spreading byoffsets. This succulence enables the species to survive in areas of low natural rainfall, making it ideal for rockeries and other low water-use gardens. Two substances from Aloe vera – a clear gel and its yellow latex – are used to manufacture commercial products. Aloe gel typically is used to make medications for skin conditions, such as burns, wounds, frostbite, rashes, or dry skin. Aloe latex is used individually or manufactured as a product with other ingredients to be ingested for relief of constipation. 80 Haldi of the Ginger family, the roots of which are used in cooking. 81Haritaki This tree yields smallish, ribbed and nut-like fruits which are picked when still green and then pickled, boiled with a little added sugar in their own syrup. It is the main ingredient in the formulation Triphala which is used for kidney and liver dysfunctions. 82 Henna is a flowering plant and source of the dye Henna used to dye skin, hair and fingernails, as well as fabrics including silk, wool and leather. 83 Hollong The resin is collected by people in the mountainous regions, in order to make torches and candles, while the wood is used in construction to make columns and boards. 84 Imli The tamarind tree (romanized Arabic tamar hind, "Indian date") produces pod-like fruit that contains a brown, edible pulp used in cuisines around the world. The pulp is also used in medicine and as metal polish. Tamarind seed oil is the oil made from the kernel of tamarind seeds. Seeds can be scarified or briefly boiled to enhance germination. They retain their germination capability for several months if kept dry. 85 Jaal Salvadora persica is a popular teeth cleaning stick throughout the Arabian Peninsula. The fresh leaves can be eaten as part of a salad and are used in medicine. The berries are small and barely noticeable; they are eaten both fresh and dried. The wood can be used for charcoal and firewood. The seeds can be used to extract a detergent oil. 86 Jamun It has been spread overseas from India by Indian emigrants. Its dense foliage provides shade and is grown just for its ornamental value. The wood is water resistant. It is used to make bullock cartwheels and other agricultural equipment, doors and windows. The leaves are used as food for livestock, as they have good nutritional value. The seed of the fruit is used in Ayurveda. 87 Jatiphal It is important as the main source of the spices nutmeg and mace. 88 Kabra The plant is best known for the edible flower buds (capers), often used as a seasoning, and the fruit (caper berries), both of which are usually consumed pickled. Other parts are used in the manufacture of medicines and cosmetics. The caper bush requires a semiarid or arid climate. The caper bush has developed a series of mechanisms that reduce the impact of high radiation levels, high daily temperature, and insufficient soil water during its growing period. The caper bush has a curious reaction to sudden increases in humidity; it forms wart-like pock marks across the leaf surface. This is apparently harmless, as the plant quickly adjusts to the new conditions and produces unaffected leaves. It also shows characteristics of a plant adapted to poor soils. This shrub has a high root/shoot ratio and the presence of mycorrhizae serves to maximize the uptake of minerals in poor soils. Different nitrogen-fixing bacterial strains have been isolated from the caper bush rhizosphere, playing a role in maintaining high reserves of that growth-limiting element. Capers can be grown easily from fresh seeds gathered from ripe fruit and planted into well- drained seed-raising mix. Seedlings appear in two to four weeks. Old, stored seeds enter a state of dormancy and require cold stratification to germinate. The viable embryos germinate within three to four days after partial removal of the lignified seed coats. Hardwood cuttings vary in length from 15 to 50 cm and diameter of the cuttings may range from 1.0 to 2.5 cm. Rootings up to 55% are possible when using one-year-old wood, depending on cutting harvest time and substrate used. Caper plantings over 25 to 30 years old are still productive. Caper buds are usually picked in the morning. Because the youngest, smallest buds fetch the highest prices, daily picking is typical. The plant normally has curved thorns that may scratch the people who harvest the buds, although a few spineless varieties have been developed. The salted and pickled caper bud (called simply a caper) is often used as a seasoning or garnish. 89 Kachnar A flowering plant in the legume family Fabaceae. Kachnar is a local name in India for the edible buds collected from the tree; it is widely used as an ingredient in many Indian recipes. Traditional kachnar curry is prepared using kachnar buds, yogurt, onions and native Indian spices. Kachnar buds are also eaten as a stir-fried vegetable and used to make Achaar. 90 Kadam The timber is used for plywood, light construction, pulp and paper, boxes and crates, dug- out canoes, and furniture components. Kadamba is one of the most frequently planted trees in the tropics. The tree is grown along avenues, roadsides and villages for shade. Kadamba are suitable for reforestation programs. It sheds large amounts of leaf and non-leaf litter which on decomposition improves the soil under its canopy. 91 Kadi The berry pulp is edible, with a sweet flavor. Seeds must be ripe and fresh to plant; dried or shriveled fruits are not viable. One can plant the whole fruit, but it is best to remove the pulp before planting in potting mix that is kept moist but not wet. 92 Kaith The fruit is used to make a fruit juice with astringent properties and jams. Ripe fruit can be used as Achaar-pickle (mashed with green chilly, sugar and salt only). A majority of Hindu temples will have a sacred tree within its compound and is known as the Sthala Vriksha. 93Kair It can be used in landscape gardening, afforestation and reforestation in semidesert and desert areas; it provides assistance against soil erosion. Its spicy fruits are used for preparing vegetables, curry and fine pickles and can attract helpful insectivores. The plant also is used in medicine, esp. as a vegetable for diabetic patients. 94 Kamal The lotus is often confused with the true water lilies of genus Nymphaea. An individual lotus can live for over a thousand years and has the rare ability to revive into activity after stasis. In 1994, a seed from a sacred lotus, dated at roughly 1,300 years old ± 270 years, was successfully germinated. All parts of Nelumbo nucifera are edible, with the rhizome and seeds being the main consumption parts. The Sacred Lotus grows in water up to 2.5 m. The minimum water depth should not be less than 30 cm. In the beginning of the summer period, a small part of rhizome with at least one eye is either planted in ponds or directly into a flooded field. Three months after planting, the first leaves and flowers can be harvested. Seeds and seed pods can be harvested when they turn black four to eight months after planting. After sun drying for two to three days, they are processed by mechanical tools to separate seed coats and embryos. From November until March, the field stays either free, or a terricilous vegetable, such as cabbage or spinach, is planted. 95 Kamrakh It has a number of different forms differing in fruit taste, texture, and shape, some are very acidic and others are sweet. 96 Kankro A creeping vine that roots in the ground and grows up supporting frames, wrapping around supports with thin, spiraling tendrils. The cucumber originated in India, where it has been cultivated for at least 3,000 years. Dosakai is a yellow cucumber, commonly cooked as curry, added in Sambar and Daal. Kekiri is a smooth skinned cucumber, cooked as spicy curry. 97 Kans It is a perennial grass, growing up to three meters in height, with spreading rhizomatous roots. It is used in Ayurveda. 98 Kapas There is evidence of its cultivation as long ago as the Harappan civilization of the Indus Valley for the production of cotton textiles. 99 Kapur Native to East-Asia, it has been introduced to many other countries. 100 Karanda The plant is grown from seed sown in August and September. Vegetative propagation also is practiced in the form of budding and inarching. Cuttings may also succeed. The first monsoon shower is planting time. Plants raised from seed start bearing two years after planting. Its fruit is used in Ayurveda to treat acidity, indigestion, fresh and infected wounds, skin diseases, urinary disorders and diabetic ulcer,] as well as biliousness, stomach pain, constipation, anemia, skin conditions, anorexia and insanity. The mature fruit is harvested for pickles. It contains pectin and accordingly is a useful ingredient in Chutney. Ripe fruits exude a white latex when severed from the branch. It was used in the Great Hedge of India (1803-1879 CE) because it is easy to grow, drought resistant, is a sturdy shrub that grows in a variety of soils, and also ideal for hedges as it grows rapidly, densely and needs little attention. The roots of the plant are heavily branched, making it valuable for stabilizing eroding slopes. 101 Karaunda A species of tree in the pea family. The tree is well suited to intense heat and sunlight and its dense network of lateral roots and its thick, long taproot make it drought-tolerant. The dense shade it provides slows the evaporation of surface water and its root nodules promote nitrogen fixation. It can also survive total submergence in sweet water for few months continuously. It is often used for landscaping purposes as a windbreak or for shade due to the large canopy and showy fragrant flowers. The flowers are used by gardeners as compost for plants requiring rich nutrients. The bark can be used to make twine or rope and it also yields a black gum that has historically been used to treat wounds caused by poisonous fish. The wood is said to be beautifully grained but splits easily when sawn thus relegating it to firewood, posts, and tool handles. While the oil and residue of the plant are toxic and will induce nausea and vomiting if ingested, the fruits and sprouts, along with the seeds, are used in many traditional remedies. It has the rare property of producing seeds of 25–40% lipid content. Oil made from the seeds, known as Pongamia Oil, is an important asset of this tree and has been used as lamp oil, in soap making, and as a lubricant for thousands of years. Long used as shade tree, M. pinnata is heavily self-seeding and can spread lateral roots up to 9 m. This dense network of lateral roots makes this tree ideal for controlling soil erosion and binding sand dunes. 102 Karnikara Mature leaves are very large, reaching a length and width of up to thirty five centimeters. They can be used as actual dinner plates or as packaging and storage by wrapping materials inside. In India they are shaped into regular dinner plates and soup bowls on moulds, some even stitched together with twigs. In Burma they are also used to dry tobacco upon. The leaves can also serve as a primitive method of re-enforcing roofs and preventing leaks. The pubescent under surface of the leaves is said to stop bleeding and can be used as tinder for a means of sparking fires. The flowers of the Bayur tree can serve as a pleasant perfume and can even keep away insects. The flowers also provide a number of medicinal uses. An effective tonic can be prepared, as well as being used as a cure for inflammation, ulcers, blood problems, and even tumors. The reddish wood of the Bayur Tree can be used for planking. Because the wood is soft, it is not considered to be very strong. However it is incredibly durable and somewhat flexible, making it perfect for planking and wooden boxes. 103 Kathal Archeological findings in India have revealed that jackfruit was cultivated in India 3000 to 6000 years ago. The jack tree is well-suited to tropical lowlands, and it bears the largest fruit of all trees; reaching as much as 55 kg in weight, 90 cm in length, and 50 cm in diameter. A mature jack tree can produce about 100–200 fruits in a year. The golden yellow timber with good grain is used for building furniture and house construction in India. It is termite-proof and is superior to teak for building furniture. The wood of the tree is used for the production of musical instruments. The ornate wooden plank called Avani Palaka, made of the wood of the jackfruit tree, is used as the priest's seat during Hindu ceremonies in Kerala. 104Kath Champa This tree often grows in coastal regions. However, it has also been cultivated successfully in inland areas at moderate altitudes. It tolerates varied kinds of soil, coastal sand, clay, or even degraded soil. Aside from shipbuilding, Tamanu oil extracted from the fruit kernels were important in Polynesian culture. The oils, as well as poultices made from leaves and flowers, are also commonly used for traditional medicine. 105 Kela 106 Khair A deciduous, thorny tree. The tree's seeds are a good source of protein. A wood extract called Catechu is used in traditional medicine. In Ayurveda, it is used for Rasayana (rejuvenation treatments). The tree is often planted for use as firewood and charcoal and its wood is highly valued for furniture and tools. The tree can be propagated by planting its seeds, which are soaked in hot water first. After about six months in a nursery, the seedlings can be planted in the field. 107 Khajur The fruit from this palm species is used to make jelly. The sap is tapped and drunk fresh or fermented into toddy. The fresh sap is boiled to make palm jaggary. 108 Khejri In 1730 CE, the village of Khejarli near Jodhpur in Rajasthan was the scene of a violent environmental confrontation. Amrita Devi and her three young daughters gave their lives in an attempt to protect some Khejri trees which Maharaja Abhay Singh had ordered cut to make way for his new palace. This led to widespread defiance in which 363 people were killed trying to save the trees. In the 1970s memory of this sacrifice led to the start of the Chipko movement. 109 Kokum Garcinia indica is found in forest lands, riversides and wastelands. These plants prefer forests, but sometimes they also thrive in areas with relatively low rainfall. It is also cultivated on a small scale. It does not require irrigation. The outer cover of fruit is dried in the sun to get aamsul or kokam. As a souring agent, it is used as an alternative to Tamarind in curries and other dishes from south India. The fresh fruit is preserved with sugar to make bright-red squash that is diluted with water and bottled for sale as a beverage. The seed contains 23–26% Kokum butter, which remains solid at room temperature. It is used in the preparation of chocolate and sugar confectionery, in ointments and suppositories, in skin and hair products, acne products and skin tonics. The tree is ornamental, with a dense canopy of green leaves and red-tinged, tender, young leaves. 110 Kovidara One of the trees of heaven. 111 Kudzu A plant species within the pea family, it is a promising forage crop and Cover Crop. It is a deep rooting perennial herb, building a subtuberus. This device allows to resist waterlogged soils and short periods of drought. The aboveground structure can grow up to 30 cm at day and often the steams can reach 20 m of elongation. It is a twiner and climbs over other plants or anthropogenic objects. Developed plants can also perform a vegetative reproduction. When vines are in contact with the soil, a new plant can grow from the nodes. Pueraria phaseoloides is not drought tolerant. However it was reported that P. phaseoloides can survive short dry periods. It often shows a high palatability compared to tropical grasses; hence under high grazing pressure it can disappear. If the grazing pressure is too low it can become dominating due to its fast growth and its climbing ability. 112 Kusha Has long been used in various traditions as a sacred plant. The plant was mentioned in the Rig Veda for use in sacred ceremonies and also as a seat for priests and the gods. Kusha grass is specifically recommended in the Bhagavad Gita as part of the ideal seat for meditation. 113 Langsat It is traditionally reproduced by spreading seedlings, either cultivated or collected from below the tree. The name Duku is reserved for the larger-sized varieties of Langsat, near the size of golf balls, claimed sweeter and with less sap in the peel. Some parts of the plant are used in making traditional medicine. 114Lal Chandan It is fast-growing when young, reaching 5 m tall in three years even on degraded soils. 115Lasoda A species of flowering tree. The immature fruits are pickled and are also used as a vegetable fodder. The leaves also yield good fodder. The seed kernel has medicinal properties. It is often cultivated for its fruits. 116 Lichi It is a tropical tree native to southeast Asia. 117 Long Cloves are the aromatic flower buds of the tree Syzygium aromaticum. The first clearly dated archeological find of a clove is substantially later than the written evidence, with two examples found at a trading port in Sri Lanka, dated to around 900-1100 CE. 118 Louki The plant produces white flowers. Sometimes the female flowers drop off without growing into a gourd due to the failure of pollination if there is no bee activity in the garden area. Hand pollination can be used to solve the problem. 119 Mahua Mahua is a tropical deciduous fast-growing tree. The tree grows on a wide variety of soils but thrives best on sandy soil. The mahua flower is edible and is a food item for tribals. They use it to make syrup for medicinal purposes. In many parts of Bihar, such as villages in the district of Siwan, the flowers of mahua tree are sun-dried; these sun-dried flowers are ground to flour and used to make various kinds of breads. 120 Makhan The plant produces starchy white seeds that are edible. They are often roasted or fried, which causes them to pop like popcorn. These are then eaten, often with a sprinkling of oil and spices. It is used in cooking, especially to make a porridge or pudding called kheer. 121 Mandar The Mandara tree in Indra's garden is held to be E. stricta. The seeds of some species can cause fatal poisoning. 122 Matar Peas were present in India in 2250–1750 BCE. Planting can take place from winter to early summer depending on location. When a pea plant dies in the field, for example following the harvest, all of its remaining nitrogen is released back into the soil. 123Mausambi It is propagated by seed. As the name Sweet Lime suggests, the flavour is sweet and mild, but retains the essence of lime. The lime's taste changes rapidly in contact with air, and will turn bitter in few minutes, but if juiced and drunk rapidly the taste is sweet. Sweet lime is almost exclusively served as juice, and is the most common available citrus juice in India. Like most Citrus, sweet limes will not ripen off the tree, and must be picked when fully ripe. 124 Mung Carbonized mung beans have been discovered in many archeological sites in India dating back about 4,500 years. Cultivated mung beans later spread to Southeast Asia. 125Nag Champa As the English name indicates, the wood of this tree is very heavy, hard and strong. The flowers, leaves, seeds and roots are used as herbal medicines and in Nag Champa incense sticks. 126 Nariyal Literary evidence from the Ramayana indicates that the coconut was present in India before the 1st century BCE. Given proper care and growing conditions, coconut palms produce their first fruit in six to ten years, taking 15 to 20 years to reach peak production. Mature, ripe coconuts can be used as edible seeds, or processed for oil and plant milk from the flesh, charcoal from the hard shell, and coir from the fibrous husk. 127 Nashpati a species of Pear tree native to East Asia. 128 Neem A tree in the Mahogany family, native to India. It is often confused with the similar looking Bakain, whose leaves are twice- and thrice-pinnate. It is noted for its drought resistance. The tree is of great importance for its anti-desertificatin properties. The tender shoots and flowers of the neem tree are eaten as a vegetable in India. Traditionally, slender neem twigs (called Datun) are first chewed as a toothbrush and then split as a tongue cleaner. Plant protectant: In Karnataka, people grow the tree mainly for its green leaves and twigs, which they puddle into flooded rice fields before the rice seedlings are transplanted. Leaves: Neem leaves are dried in India and placed in cupboards to prevent insects eating the clothes, and also in tins where rice is stored. Neem leaves have also been used to treat skin diseases. It is used for preparing cosmetics such as soap, shampoo, balms, and creams as well as toothpaste. Powdered leaves are a major component of at least one widely used facial cream. Purified neem oil is also used in nail polish and other cosmetics. Seeds: Neem is a key ingredient in non-pesticidal management. Neem seeds are ground into powder that is soaked overnight in water and sprayed onto the crop. To be effective, it must be applied repeatedly, at least every ten days. It acts as an anti-feedant, repellent, and egg-laying deterrent and thus protect the crop from damage. The insects starve and die within a few days. Neem also suppresses the hatching of pest insects from their eggs. Oil: Neem oil is non-drying and it resists degradation better than most vegetable oils. In rural India, it is commonly used to grease cart wheels. Neem oil is used for healthy hair, to improve liver function, detoxify the blood, and balance blood sugar levels. 80% of India's supply of neem oil now is used by neem oil soap manufacturers. Although much of it goes to small-scale speciality soaps, often using cold-pressed oil, large-scale producers also use it, mainly because it is cheap. Additionally it is antibacterial and antifungal, soothing, and moisturising. It can be made with up to 40% neem oil. Neem cake is often sold as a fertilizer. Resin: An exudate can be tapped from the trunk by wounding the bark. This high protein material has potential as a food additive, and it is widely used in South Asia as "Neem glue". It is a potent ingredient for a mixture of wall plaster, according to the Samarāṅgaṇa Sūtradhāra, which is a Sanskrit treatise dealing with Śilpaśāstra. Neem extract is added to fertilizers (Urea) as a nitrification inhibitor. Honey: In parts of Asia neem honey commands premium prices, and people promote apiculture by planting Neem trees. Bark: Neem bark contains 14% Tannin, an amount similar to that in conventional tannin- yielding trees. Moreover, it yields a strong, coarse fibre commonly woven into ropes in the villages of India. Neem wood is considered among the best for the body of the dayan, or right hand drum, of the tabla – the paired Indian hand drums. Wood of neem tree is used to handcraft hair combs and it is believed that regular use can control hair loss, dandruff and other scalp problems. 129 Nimbu A genomic, phylogenic, and biogeographical analysis by Wu et al. (2018) has shown that the center of origin of the genus Citrus is likely the southeast foothills of the Himalayas. Many citrus fruits, such as oranges, tangerines, grapefruits, and clementines, are generally eaten fresh. More acidic citrus, such as lemons and limes, are generally not eaten on their own. 130 Okhar Native to the mountain ranges of Central Asia and India. Other plants often will not grow under walnut trees because the fallen leaves and husks contain juglone, a chemical which acts as a natural herbicide. Walnut heartwood is a heavy, hard, open-grained hardwood, used for high-end flooring and furniture. 131 Padauk A species of legume, native to the Andaman Islands. 132Paiyaun The seed requires two to three months cold satratification. The seed grows rather slowly and can sometimes take about 18 months to germinate depending on the conditions. The fruit can be eaten raw or cooked. The seeds can be used in the manufacture of necklaces. The gum, obtained from the trunk, is chewed. The wood is hard, strong, durable and aromatic, and branches are used as walking sticks. 133Pakar A large evergreen tree of the family Moraceae. It is the city tree of Chongqing. 134Pakhad It is a beautiful shade tree. The aerial roots commonly wrap around the main stem instead of forming props. It is a fig tree belonging to the group of trees known as strangler figs, which is because its seeds can germinate on other trees and grow to strangle and eventually kill the host tree. The leaves are known in Thai cuisine Phak Lueat. They are eaten boiled as a vegetable in curries. 135 Palash A small-sized dry-season, fast-growing tree. It is said that the tree is a form of Agni, widely used for fire rituals. Historically, Dhak forests covered much of the doab area between the Ganges and the Yamuna, but these were cleared for agriculture in the early 19th century as the English East India Company increased tax demands on the peasants. It is used for timber, resin, fodder, medicine, and dye. The wood is durable under water and thus used for well-curbs and water scoops. Spoons and ladles made of this tree are used in various Hindu rituals to pour Ghee into the fire. Good charcoal can be obtained from it. The leaves are usually very leathery and not eaten by cattle. The leaves were used by earlier generations of people to serve food instead of plastic plates. Patravali plate: In villages of many parts of India, for example in Maharashtra, this tree provides leaves that are used either with many pieced together or singly (only in case of a banana leaf) to make a leaf-plate for serving a meal. Up until a century ago, a would-be son-in-law was tested on his dexterity in making this plate and bowl (used to serve daal, gravy dishes) before being declared acceptable by the father-in-law-to-be. The gum from the tree, called Kamarkas, is used in certain food dishes. The flowers are used to prepare a traditional Holi colour called "Kesari". It is also used as a dye for fabric. In Sanskrit, the flower is extensively used as a symbol of the arrival of spring and the colour of love. 136Papita Native to Mexico and northern South America, it has become naturalized in India. The black seeds of the papaya are edible and have a sharp, spicy taste. They are sometimes ground and used as a substitute for black pepper. 137Paras In India, it is used to make musical instrument. 138 Parijat The flowers of Parijat bloom in the night while in the morning they fall down, from where they are collected by dovotees for worship. They are not plucked as it is considered to be a great religious crime. Leaves are useful in fever and rheumatism. 139 Patsan The fibre, like that of jute, is sometimes called Pat. It is often confounded with the fibre of San, though the two plants greatly differ. The length of the fibres of carefully cultivated Ambari is from 5 to 6 feet; they are of a paler brown than San, harsher in feel, and stick more together; but they are divisible into fine fibrils, possessed of considerable strength, well calculated for rope making, as also for coarse fabrics. The stems produce two types of fibre: a coarser fibre in the outer layer (bast fibre for ropes), and a finer fibre in the core (for coarse cloth and paper). Uses include engineered wood, insulation, animal bedding,. Kenaf seeds yield an edible vegetable oil, high in omega polyunsaturated fatty acids. 140Peela Gulmohar A popular ornamental tree grown around the world. The wood has a wide variety of uses, including cabinet-making, and the foliage is used as a fodder crop. The brownish colour called Sogan is typical of Batik from Java (Indonesia). 141 Petha A vine grown for its very large fruit, eaten as a vegetable when mature. The wax gourd is recognized for its medicinal properties in Ayurveda. It is paired with pulses such as Mung which when squashed along with winter gourd results in the making of a dish locally called Bari. When dried in the cool winter sunlight it becomes somewhat hard and is used as a curry dish and eaten along with rice or chapati. The shoots, tendrils, and leaves may also be eaten as greens. In northern India it is used to prepare a candy called Petha. 142 Phalsa It was first found in Varanasi and taken by Buddhist scholars to other asian countries and the rest of the world. It is extensively cultivated for its sweet and sour acidic fruits, which are sold in the market during summer months. The Sherbet is prepared from the fruit pulp by mixing it with sugar. The root is used by Santhal tribals for rheumatism. 143Pipal Easily propagated through seeds or cuttings. It has a very long lifespan, ranging on average between 900 and 1,500 years. The Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi, a Pipal tree in the ancient city of Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka, is estimated to be more than 2,250 years old. 144 Putranjiva It contains mustard oils as a chemical defense against herbivores. 145 Ragi An annual herbaceous plant widely grown as a cereal crop in arid and semiarid areas. Once harvested, the seeds keep extremely well and are seldom attacked by insects and moulds. Finger millet can be kept for up to 10 years when it is unthreshed. Some sources report a storage duration up to 50 years under good storage conditions. The long storage capacity makes finger millet an important crop in risk-avoidance strategies as a famine crop for farming communities. Finger millet is very high in calcium, rich in iron and fibre, and has a better energy content than other cereals. These characteristics make it ideal for feeding to infants and the elderly. There are various food recipes of finger millet, including Dosa, Idli and Laddu. Ragi is malted and ground to form flour. The flour is consumed as porridge, mixed with milk, boiled water or yogurt. The flour is made into flatbreads, including thin, leavened Dosa and thicker, unleavened Roti. 146Rajbriksha Widely grown as an ornamental plant in tropical and subtropical areas. It is relatively drought-tolerant and slightly salt-tolerant. It will tolerate light brief frost, but can get damaged if the cold persists. Flowers are sometimes eaten. The leaves have also been used to supplement the diets of cattle, sheep, and goats fed with low-quality forages. It is an ingredient in some mass-produced herbal laxatives. When used as such, it is known as "cassia pods". 147Reetha Sapindus is a genus of about five to twelve species of shrubs and small trees in the Lychee family, Sapindaceae. Members of the genus are commonly known as soapberries or soapnuts because the fruit pulp is used to make soap. Kernel extracts of soapnut disrupt the activity of enzymes of larvae and pupae and inhibits the growth of the mosquito Aedes aegypti, an important vector of viral diseases. Soapnut is used as a dyeing agent for coloring cotton. 148Rohida The species thrives very well on stabilized sand dunes. It is drought, frost, fire and wind hardy. At the time of flowering (December–February) it produces beautiful showy flowers in yellow, orange and red colours, the state flower of Rajasthan. It is mainly used as a source of timber. Its wood is strong, tough and durable. It takes a fine finish. Heartwood contains quinoid. The wood is excellent for firewood and charcoal. Cattle and goats eat leaves of the tree. Camels, goats and sheep consume flowers and pods. It plays an important role in ecology. It acts as a soil-binding tree by spreading a network of lateral roots on the top surface of the soil. It acts as a windbreak and helps in stabilizing shifting sand dunes. It is considered as the home of birds and provides shelter for other desert wildlife. The bark obtained from the stem is used in curing urinary disorders and liver diseases. Seeds are used against abscess. Traditionally, its flower is used for Hepatitis. 149Rudraksh It is an evergreen tree that grows quickly. It starts bearing fruit in three to four years. As the tree matures, the roots buttress rising up narrowly near the trunk and radiating out along the surface of the ground. Wearing the seeds destroys all sin and inauspiciousness. The juise of the leaves is used in malaria as an application in fever. 150 Sabera It is avoided by the Hindus of Northern India, who will not sit in its shade, as it is supposed to be inhabited by demons. Its fruit is used in the popular Rasayana treatment Triphala. By this treatment, the sages regained youthfulness and attained disease-free life of many hundred years, and endowed with the strength of physique, intellect and senses, practiced penance with utmost devotion. 151 Sagaun Teak's natural oils make it useful in exposed locations, and make the timber termite and pest resistant. It is used extensively in India to make doors and window frames, furniture, and columns and beams in old type houses. Teak is propagated mainly from seeds, but also through cuttings. Germination of the seeds involves pretreatment to remove dormancy arising from the thick pericarp. Pretreatment involves alternate wetting and drying of the seed. The seeds are soaked in water for 12 hours and then spread to dry in the sun for 12 hours. This is repeated for 10–14 days and then the seeds are sown in shallow germination beds of coarse peat covered by sand. The seeds then germinate after 15 to 30 days. 152Sahajan This fast-growing tree native to Indian subcontinent is grown throughout the tropics for multi-purpose use viz. human food, livestock forage, medicine values, dye, water purification, and for its wide adaptability and ease of establishment. It is a hardy tree which is drought tolerant and can withstand diverse temperature range, grows in different types of soil and has fast and vigorous growth. The leaves have high protein content with various essential amino acids. In addition to various essential minerals present in the tree, healing properties and health benefits are also associated with this tree. These qualities packaged into a single tree may justify Moringa being termed as 'Miracle tree'. Besides being used for human consumption the leaves of this tree have been reported to be used as major component in animal feed/fodder. Moringa outperforms all other crops in biomass production and single planting lasts for 8-9 years. It can be grown as hedge, fence, and multi-cut forage, etc. All these factors may make Moringa leaves and green stems very attractive and inexpensive as a source of animal feed. Moringa can be propagated either by Seed or Stem cuttings. Plants produced with cuttings will not have a deep root system and will be more sensitive to wind, drought and termite attacks. Seeds should not be stored over long periods as they lose viability after about one year. Seeds are required to be soaked in water for 10-12 hours before sowing. Seeds must be sown at a maximum depth of 2 cm. Moringa seeds can be sown during June-July at the onset of Monsoon. However, in moderate climates, with availability of irrigation, Moringa can be sown any time during the year. First harvesting in Moringa for fodder is done 90 days after sowing. Subsequent harvests will be undertaken every 45 days. In North India, in winter season (between 15 December to 15 March), no harvesting is undertaken as leaf shedding takes place. Six cuttings/ harvest are possible in North India, whereas, in other parts with mild winter production through the year, 8 cuttings are possible. Once planted, the green biomass can be harvested from Moringa plant up to 8-10 years. The leaves and stems are easily harvested by cutting the plant at around 30 cm above ground level though manual cutting. These leaves and stems, which are generally tender at the time of harvest are cut into small sizes through chaff cutter before drying and the same is used as a component of animal feed. 153 Sal The Sal tree is said to be favoured by Vishnu. The sal tree is often confused with the Cannonball Tree, a tree from tropical South America introduced to Asia by the British in the 19th century. The cannonball tree has since then been planted at Buddhist and Hindu religious sites in Asia in the belief that it is the tree of sacred scriptures. Sal is one of the most important sources of hardwood timber in India. The wood is resinous and durable, and is sought-after for construction, although not well suited to planing and polishing. The wood is especially suitable for constructing frames for doors and windows. In Kathmandu Valley of Nepal, one can find typical Nepali pagoda temple architectures with very rich wooden carvings, and most of the temples are made of bricks and Sal tree wood. The dry leaves of sal are a major source for the production of leaf plates (Patravali) leaf bowls. Sal tree resin is known as Sal Dammar, used in Ayurveda, burned as incense, and used to caulk boats and ships. Seeds and fruit are a source of lamp oil and vegetable fat. 154 Salak Salak is native to Indonesia. The fruit is roughly the size of a large fig, and has a crunchy and moist consistency. The fruit has a starchy 'mouth feel', and a flavour reminiscent of dilute pineapple and lemon juice. 155 San Annual, c. 1-10 m tall. Grown for fodder to feed cattle, mainly in India. A source of natural fibre. It is used for cordage, fishing nets, ropes, and more. 156 Santara A native to India. 157 Sarso Some of the earliest known documentation of mustard's use dates back to Sumerian and Sanskrit texts from 3000 BCE. Originally from the foothills of the Himalaya, is grown commercially worldwide. White Mustard (Sinapis alba) is commonly used as a cover crop in Europe. 158 Seb The tree originated in Central Asia, where its wild ancestor, Malus sieversii, is still found today. Traditionally in India limited to states like Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Arunachal Pradesh, apple cultivation has now picked up pace in Punjab. Gurinder Singh Bajwa, a farmer from Ludhiana, is producing apples on a large scale in his farm in Chahal village in Hoshiarpur. Apple trees are large if grown from seed. Generally, apple cultivars are propagated by grafting onto rootstocks, which control the size of the resulting tree. 159 Senji It is used as a source of nectar for bees, as forage, and as a soil improver. It is also used in folk medicine. It is poisonous to some mammals, and is a potential seed crop contaminant. It is used as a vegetable. It has many medicinal uses. It has antioxidant properties. It also has alpha-amylase inhibitory activities, because of which it may be useful for type 2 diabetes. 160Shehtut As with other mulberries, Morus indica is a deciduous tree. It is native to the temperate and sub-tropical Himalayan region. It is often grown for its antioxidant properties. The primary medicinal use is as a method of regulating blood glucose levels in diabetic patients. 161Shalmali It produces a capsule which, when ripe, contains white fibres like cotton. Its trunk bears spikes to deter attacks by animals. Although its stout trunk suggests that it is useful for timber, its wood is too soft to be very useful. 162 Shikakai It is a climbing shrub with curvy thorns. Once the plants are developed animals, even elephants, are not able to cross. It has been used traditionally as a shampoo. In order to prepare it the fruit pods, leaves and bark of the plant are dried, ground into a powder, then made into a paste. While this traditional shampoo does not produce the normal amount of lather, it is considered a good cleanser. It is mild, having a naturally low pH, and doesn't strip hair of natural oils. The bark contains high levels of saponins, which are foaming agents. 163Shirish Albizias are important forage, timber, and medicinal plants, and many are cultivated as ornamentals for their attractive flowers. The tree grows very rapidly and can quickly colonize disturbed areas in wet environments. It tends to shed large branches, damaging power lines, houses, and other infrastructure. 164Shisham Native to the foothills of the Himalayas, it is the best known economic timber species of Rosewood, but it is also used as fuel wood and for shade and shelter. It is the wood from which the Mridanga is often made. The seeds remain viable for only a few months. Seeds should be soaked in water for 48 hours before sowing and 60% – 80% germination can be expected in 1–3 weeks. 165 Singhara The species are floating annual aquatic plants, growing in slow-moving water up to 5 m deep, native to warm temperate parts of Eurasia and Africa. They are cultivated in India and China for the edible seeds for at least 3,000 years. 166 Sonapatha It is found, raised and planted in large number in the forest areas of the Banswara district of Rajasthan. The tree is often grown as an ornamental plant for its strange appearance. The large leaf stalks wither and fall off the tree and collect near the base of the trunk, appearing to look like a pile of broken limb bones. The tree is a night-bloomer. They form enormous seed pods – the fruits – are up to 1.5 metres long that hang down from bare branches, resembling swords. The long fruits curve downward and resemble the wings of a large bird. It has edible leaves and stems. The large young pods are eaten especially in Thailand and Laos. They are first grilled over charcoal fire and then the bitter inner pulp is usually scraped and eaten along with lap. The root bark is one of the ingredients in Ayurveda.Materials used include the wood, tannins and dyestuffs. 167 Sthalkamal These plants have a very fast growth rate. The flowers are white in the morning, turning pink during noon and red in the evening of the same day. 168 Taal The palmyra palm has long been one of the most important trees of India and Cambodia, where it has over 800 uses. The leaves are used for thatching, mats, baskets, and fans. In ancient India and Indonesia, palmyra leaves were used as writing paper, with their parallel veins providing a useful rule. In India, mature leaves of suitable size, shape and texture were chosen and preserved by boiling in salt water with Haldi powder. Once dry enough, the leaf surfaces were polished with Pumice, cut to the proper size and a hole was cut in one corner. Each leaf has four pages and a stylus is used to write; the style is cursive and interconnected. Completed leaves are then tied up as sheaves. The recently germinated seeds form fleshy sprouts below the surface which can be boiled and eaten as a fibrous, nutritious food. The germinated seed's hard shell is also cut open to take out the crunchy sweet kernel. The young plants are cooked as a vegetable or roasted and pounded to make meal. The fruits are 15–25 cm wide, the fibrous pulp is aromatic and sweet to taste. They are eaten roasted or raw, as are the young, jelly-like seeds. A sugary sap can be obtained from the young inflorescence, both male and female, and this is concentrated to produce a crude sugar called jaggary /palm sugar. The tree sap is taken as a laxative. The black timber is hard, heavy, and durable and highly valued for construction, especially in structures exposed to water, such as wharves, fences and boats. The roots can be dried to form Odiyal, a hard chewable snack. The ripe fibrous outer layer of the fruits is edible after boiling or roasting. When the fruit is tender, the kernel inside the hard shell is an edible jelly that is refreshing and rich in minerals. When the crown of the tree from which the leaves sprout is cut one can make a cake. 169Tamal Its leaves have a clove-like aroma with a hint of peppery taste; they are used for culinary and medicinal purposes. Used extensively in the cuisines of India and in herbal tea in Bhutan. They are often labeled as (Indian) Bay leaves, causing confusion with the leaf from the Bay Laurel, a tree of Mediterranean origin in a different genus; the appearance and aroma of the two are quite different. Tejpat leaves are about twice as long and wider, usually olive green in color, with three veins down the length of the leaf. The bark is sometimes used for cooking, although it is regarded as inferior to true Cinnamom or Cassia. 170Tejpatta An aromatic small tree, used as Bay Leaf for seasoning in cooking. Laurus nobilis is widely cultivated as an ornamental plant, also for low hedges. However it is slow-growing. 171 Til Sesame seed is the oldest oilseed crop known to humanity, domesticated well over 5000 years ago in India. Sesame has been called a survivor crop. It is drought-tolerant, in part due to its extensive root system, growing where other crops fail. However, it requires adequate moisture for germination and early growth. Sesame has one of the highest oil contents of any seed. 172 Tulsi Tulsi is cultivated for religious and medicin purposes, and for its essential oil. It is widely used as a herbal tea, commonly used in Ayurveda. Tulsi leaves are worshipped as the avatar of Lakshmi, and are part in the worship of Vishnu and his Avatars, and other male Vaishnava deities. Tulsi is planted in the centre of the central courtyard of Hindu houses or next to Hanuman temples. It is propagated through seeds. 173 Tun A forest tree in the Mahogany family, widely planted in subtropical and tropical parts of the world as a shade tree and for its fast-growing aspect. It reproduces by seed. It is a prolific seed producer and establishes readily. The timber is red in colour, easy to work and very highly valued. It was used extensively for furniture, wood panelling and construction, including shipbuilding. 174 Urad Black gram originated in India, where it has been in cultivation from ancient times and is one of the most highly prized pulses. The product sold as Black Lentil is usually the whole urad bean, whereas the split bean (the interior being white) is called White Lentil. It should not be confused with the much smaller true Black Lentil (Lens culinaris). 175 Vijaya Shal It is native to India, where it occurs in parts of the Western Ghats.