KO KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION Contents

Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1

KO KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION

Official Quarterly Journal of the International Society for Knowledge Organization ISSN 0943 – 7444 International Journal devoted to Concept Theory, Classification, Indexing and Knowledge Representation

Contents

Articles Thomas M. Dousa. Classical Pragmatism and its Varieties: Jenny Samuelsson. On a Pluriform Metatheoretical Perspective Knowledge Organization for Feminism and for Knowledge Organization...... 65 Feminist Research: A Discourse Oriented Study of Systematic Outlines, Logical Structure, Semantics Olha Buchel and Linda L. Hill. and the Process of Indexing ...... 3 Treatment of Georeferencing in Knowledge Organization Systems: North American Jack Hang-tat Leong. Contributions to Integrated Georeferencing...... 72 The Convergence of Metadata and Bibliographic Control? Trends and Patterns in Addressing Book Reviews the Current Issues and Challenges of Providing Subject Access ...... 29 Martha Lampland and Susan Leigh Star, editors. Standards and Their Stories: How Quantifying, Friedman, Alon. Classifying, and Formalizing Practices Shape The Use of Concept Maps in Knowledge Everyday Life. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Pr., Organization: An Analysis of Conference Papers ...... 43 2009. 280 p. ISBN 978-0-80144-717-4...... 79

Special Section: Four Papers from NASKO2 Text Editing, Print and the Digital World. Digital Research in the Arts and Humanities. D. Grant Campbell. London: Ashgate, 2009. Hardcover: 224 pages. Tension Between Language and Discourse English. ISBN-13: 978-0754673071 ...... 82 in North American Knowledge Organization...... 51 ISKO News...... 88 David M. Pimentel. Examining the KO Roots of Taylor’s Editorial Correction ...... 89 Value-Added Model...... 58 Index to Volume 36 (2009) ...... 90

Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1

KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION KO

KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION Dr. José Augusto Chaves GUIMARÃES, Departamento de Ciên- cia da Infromação, Universidade Estadual Paulista–UNESP, Av. This journal is the organ of the INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY Hygino Muzzi Filho 737, 17525-900 Marília SP Brazil. Email: FOR KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION (General Secretariat: [email protected] H. Peter OHLY, Social Science Information Center, Lennestr. 30, D-53113 Bonn, Germany. Dr. Birger HJØRLAND, Royal School of Library and Informa- tion Science, Copenhagen Denmark. Email: [email protected]

Editors Dr. Barbara H. KWASNIK, Professor, School of Information Studies, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244 USA, (315) 443- Dr. Richard P. SMIRAGLIA (Editor-in-Chief), School of Infor- 4547 voice, (315) 443-4506 fax. Email: [email protected] mation Studies, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Bolton Hall 5th Floor, 3210 N. Maryland Ave., Milwaukee, WI 53211 USA. Dr. Jens-Erik MAI, Faculty of Information Studies, University E-mail: [email protected] of Toronto, 140 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G6, Canada. Email: [email protected] Dr. Joseph T. TENNIS (Book Review Editor Designate), The In- formation School of the University of Washington, Box 352840, Ms. Joan S. MITCHELL, Editor in Chief, Dewey Decimal Classi- Mary Gates Hall Ste 370, Seattle WA 98195-2840 USA. E-mail: fication, OCLC Online Computer Library Center, Inc., 6565 [email protected] Frantz Road, Dublin, OH 43017-3395 USA. Email: [email protected] Dr. Ia MCILWAINE (Literature Editor), Research Fellow. School of Library, Archive & Information Studies, University College Dr. Widad MUSTAFA el HADI, URF IDIST, Université Charles London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT U.K. Email: de Gaulle Lille 3, BP 149, 59653 Villeneuve D’Ascq, France [email protected] H. Peter OHLY, IZ Sozialwissenschaften, Lennestr. 30, 53113 Dr. Nancy WILLIAMSON (Classification Research News Edi- Bonn Germany. Email: [email protected] tor), Faculty of Information Studies, University of Toronto, 140 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G6 Canada. Dr. Hope A. OLSON, School of Information Studies, 522 Bolton Email: [email protected] Hall, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI 53201 USA. Email: [email protected] Hanne ALBRECHTSEN, Institute of Knowledge Sharing, Bu- reauet, Slotsgade 2, 2nd floor DK-2200 Copenhagen N Denmark. Dr. M. P. SATIJA, Guru Nanak Dev University, School of Library Email: [email protected] and Information Science, Amritsar-143 005, India

Matthew SWEERE (Editorial Assistant), School of Information Dr. Otto SECHSER, In der Ey 37, CH-8047 Zürich, Switzerland Studies, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Bolton Hall 5th Floor, 3210 N. Maryland Ave., Milwaukee, WI 53211 USA. Dr. Winfried SCHMITZ-ESSER, Salvatorgasse 23, 6060 Hall, Ti- rol, Austria.

Consulting Editors Dr. Dagobert SOERGEL, College of Information Studies, Horn- bake Bldg. (So. Wing), Room 4105, University of Maryland, Col- Dr. Clare BEGHTOL, Faculty of Information Studies, University lege Park, MD 20742. Email: [email protected] of Toronto, 140 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G6, Canada. Email: [email protected] Dr. Eduard R. SUKIASYAN, Vozdvizhenka 3, RU-101000, Mos- cow, Russia. Dr. Gerhard BUDIN, Dept. of Philosophy of Science, University of Vienna, Sensengasse 8, A-1090 Wien, Austria. Dr. Martin van der WALT, Department of Information Science, Email: [email protected] University of Stellenbosch, Private Bag X1, Stellenbosch 7602, South Africa. Email: [email protected] Prof. Jesús GASCÓN GARCÍA, Facultat de Biblioteconomia i Documentació, Universitat de Barcelona, C. Melcior de Palau, Prof. Dr. Harald ZIMMERMANN, Softex, Schmollerstrasse 31, 140, 08014 Barcelona, Spain. Email: [email protected] D-66111 Saarbrücken, Germany

Claudio GNOLI, University of Pavia, Mathematics Department Library, via Ferrata 1, I-27100 Pavia, Italy. Email: [email protected] Dr. Rebecca GREEN, Assistant Editor, Dewey Decimal Classifi- Founded under the title International Classification in 1974 by Dr. cation, Dewey Editorial Office, Library of Congress, Decimal Ingetraut Dahlberg, the founding president of ISKO. Dr. Dahl- Classification Division , 101 Independence Ave., S.E., Washington, berg served as the journal's editor from 1974 to 1997, and as its DC 20540-4330, USA. Email: [email protected] publisher (Indeks Verlag of Frankfurt) from 1981 to 1997. Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 3 J. Samuelsson. Knowledge Organization for Feminism and Feminist Research

Knowledge Organization for Feminism and Feminist Research: A Discourse Oriented Study of Systematic Outlines, Logical Structure, Semantics and the Process of Indexing

Jenny Samuelsson Umeå university, Department of Sociology, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden

Jenny Samuelsson, PhD in Library and Information Science. In September 2008 she defended her thesis On the road from nowhere. Knowledge Organization of feminist research. The thesis focuses on the difficulties of capturing gender-oriented and feminist content in the knowledge organization of feminist research in bibliographic databases. Currently she has a PostDoc position at Umeå Centre for Gender studies (UCGS). Her current research can be viewed as a natural continuation of the dissertation focus and explores the possibilities for the use of bibliometric analysis to identify and organize the intellectual content of gender studies publications. Jenny also works as a senior lecturer and coor- dinator in the LIS Programmes, Umeå university, Sweden.

Samuelsson, Jenny. Knowledge Organization for Feminism and Feminist Research: A Discourse Oriented Study of Systematic Outlines, Logical Structure, Semantics and the Process of Indexing. Knowledge Organization, 37(1), 3-28. 64 references.

ABSTRACT: The focus in this article is an analysis of the knowledge organization systems that index and classify feminist research texts in a Swedish bibliographic context. The theoretical and analytical framework is primarily discourse theoretic. At first, a feminist discourse is defined, of which feminist research is seen as a part. Feminist perspectives are analyzed through text analysis of PhD dissertations as feminist articulations. I also analyze the possibilities to classify and index feminist research with the national universal knowledge organization systems (KOS): Svenska Ämnesord (SÄ) and Klassifikationssystem för svenska bibliotek (KSB), and one subject specific system: Kvinnohistoriska samlingarnas ämnesord (KvÄ). The systems are analyzed as articulations. The KOS are studied in order to discuss how they are able to articulate feminist perspectives. In the national universal systems, a severe marginalization of feminist research is noticed. Feminist discourse consisting of feminist theoretical and metatheoretical perspectives are not considered at all in the KOS, which could not be considered as feminist articulations. The marginalization is interpreted as an objectivistic and universalistic epistemology and ontology; monodisciplinary knowledge and thematic topics are privileged. Feminism is misunderstood as a field relating to socio-political women’s issues, which has marginalized status in the systems. In the subject-specific system Kvinnohistoriska samlingarnas ämnesord incomplete and inadequate knowledge organization is shown. The structure of this index is too simplistic and feminist discourse as such is not defined. Successful organization of feminist knowledge needs to be based on a particular understanding of knowledge and knowledge organization as contextually shaped (and shaping).

1.0 Introduction edge organization of feminist texts, and the concomitant practical difficulties faced when searching and This article deals with knowledge organization of retrieving feminist texts in bibliographic catalogues feminist research, in bibliographic catalogues and in a (i.e. Berman 1971, 1984; Dickstein, Mills and Waite Swedish context. The impetus for the study derives 1988; Feinberg 2005; Foskett 1971, 1984; López- from widely-acknowledged deficiencies in the knowl- Huertas and de Torres Ramírez 2007; Olson 1991, 4 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 J. Samuelsson. Knowledge Organization for Feminism and Feminist Research

2002a; Palmer and Knott Malone 2008). In a Swedish 4. What do systems for the knowledge organization context Klassifikationssystem för svenska bibliotek of feminist texts need to recognize about feminist (KSB) (“Swedish Library Classification System”), and knowledge in order to improve the latter’s visibil- Svenska Ämnesord (SÄ) (“Swedish Subject Index”) as ity? well as Kvinnohistoriska samlingarnas ämnesord (KvÄ) (“Subject Index for the Collections of Feminist His- 2.0 Methods used tory”) has been criticized (Hansson 1999; Axelsson 2004; Folkesson and März 2006; Klasson 1996; Pet- I have used the bibliographic database GENA, con- tersson 2001, 2003). This research indicates that femi- sisting of bibliographic posts representing Swedish nist material is excluded from the norm, and is depre- dissertations with a “gender perspective,” to identify ciated, if it could be represented in the systems at all Swedish PhD dissertations in the disciplines of sociol- (i.e. Olson 2002a; Pettersson 2001, 2003). ogy and comparative literature. (GENA is a good New or improved systems for organizing feminist source for identifying Swedish gender research (www. knowledge must necessarily build on an understand- databasenGENA.nu)). I chose to restrict my analysis ing of the deficiencies of current systems for organiz- chronologically to dissertations published between ing feminist texts. Previous research on knowledge 1962 and 2005, as no dissertation with a gender per- organization for feminism and feminist research has spective was published before 1962, and my analysis not given much attention to the improvement of was completed during 2006. knowledge organization system and practice, though A total of 159 dissertations were identified, 65 of some research has come to important conclusions. them in comparative literature and 94 in sociology. Especially, Hope Olson has paid much attention to The first step in my analysis was to cursorily read the improvement of existing universal KOS (knowl- these dissertations using a discourse analytical frame- edge organization systems) (Olson 1991, 1996, 1998, work. One of the important starting points was to de- 2002a, 2002b; Olson and Ward 1997). It is, however, fine the main themes and perspectives in the texts in an insufficient effort to improve the universal sys- order to make reasonable and convincing definitions tems in order to visualize feminist knowledge. Only a of the discourses analyzed (Winther Jørgensen and few studies have discussed principles for building Phillips 2000). The cursory reading of the 159 disser- domain-specific KOS (López-Huertas and de Torres tations allowed me also to ascertain whether they Ramírez 2007; López-Huertas, de Torres Ramírez could properly be classed as “feminist”. A total of 53 and Barité 2002; Olson 2007). They are insufficient, of the 65 originally identified dissertations in com- as they do not discuss the importance to carefully de- parative literature, and 63 of the 94 originally identi- fine the domain or discourse of feminist and gender fied dissertations in sociology were deemed to repre- studies, and what specific knowledge they articulate. sent a “feminist” perspective (see appendix for Femin.: Seeking an understanding of these issues in regard to no or Femin.: yes). An analysis of these 116 disserta- feminist knowledge and research, constitutes the tions, and of secondary literature on feminist knowl- main aim and focus of this study. This article is based edge, formed the basis for developing a definition of on the analyses made in my PhD-dissertation; På väg feminist discourse, as outlined in part 4. A closer dis- från ingenstans. Kritik och emancipation av kunskap- course analysis of the variety of feminist perspectives sorganisation för feministisk forskning (Samuelsson represented in 17 of the literature dissertations and 16 2008). of the sociology dissertations was conducted. The re- The four research questions addressed in this arti- sults of this analysis are presented in part 8. cle are therefore as follows: The KOS chosen for analysis are as mentioned above Svenska Ämnesord (SÄ), Klassifikationssystem 1. How can deficiences in the knowledge organiza- för svenska bibliotek (KSB) and Kvinnohistoriska sam- tion of feminist research, and feminist texts gener- lingarnas ämnesord (KVÄ). SÄ is a Swedish subject ally, be described and understood? heading system used in Swedish library catalogues as 2. What are the feminist perspectives articulated in well as in the national bibliographic catalogue LIBRIS. feminist PhD dissertations, and in what way do It is similar to Library of Congress Subject Headings, they articulate a feminist discourse? but consists of fewer subject headings. KSB is a Swed- 3. How are these feminist perspectives indexed and ish national and universal classification system. It was classified? originally published in 1923 and is still in use in most Swedish libraries. Klassifikationssystem för svenska bib- Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 5 J. Samuelsson. Knowledge Organization for Feminism and Feminist Research

liotek consists of 25 main classes, hierarchically built tained within and through social processes. Common with sub classes (see http://libris.kb.se/subjecttree. truths are shaped through social interaction (Burr jsp). KVÄ is used as subject heading system in the 1995, 2ff; Winther Jørgensen and Phillips 2000, 12). bibliographic catalogue of Women’s History Collec- The shaping of reality and common truths is made tions in Gothenburg, Sweden. This is one of the big- with spoken and written language, but also in social gest collections of feminist knowledge (including interaction and practices. From a discourse theoretical women’s studies, masculinity studies and gender stud- perspective the common truth is shaped in discourses, ies) in Europe, and it is indexed in the bibliographic with the help from different kinds of articulations database KVINNSAM. The list has a simple, alpha- (Laclau and Mouffe 2001). Knowledge and practice betic structure consisting of subject headings relevant has a strong connection; different social worldviews to the areas of feminism and women. KVINNSAM is result in different social actions. Thereby it is possible accessible as a part of LIBRIS (http://libris.kb.se/form to argue for that the social construction of knowledge _extended.jsp?f=kvin). and ”truth” has concrete social consequences (Wenne- The knowledge organization of feminist research berg 2001, 68 ff; Winther Jørgensen and Phillips 2000, was studied in three ways. Part 5 and 6 discuss the 12; Burr 1995, 2 ff). structure of the selected KOS, the assumptions on which knowledge organization practice is based, and 3.2 Poststructuralism and discourse theory how these premises have impact upon the practice of indexing and classifying feminist knowledge. Part 8 The function of language is accentuated in different analyzes the actual subject designations and given degrees in different social constructionist fractions. classifications of the original 159 dissertations (as re- Discourse theory, developed by Ernesto Laclau and sults of KO practice). The subject headings and clas- Chantal Mouffe considers knowledge and language as sifications designated by applying KSB and SÄ were totally constituating—there is no world behind the studied in bibliographic posts in LIBRIS; and the words. Written and spoken language, articulations, subject headings designated by applying the subject- shape society and result in social consequences specific KvÄ were studied in KVINNSAM and the (Bowker and Star 1999; Talja et al 2005) That is why a above presented GENA. KVINNSAM is a biblio- discourse theoretical perspective focuses on the shap- graphic database consisting of references to impor- ing of meaning in articulations, of specific discourses tant texts for women’s studies, masculinity studies (Talja et al 2003, 273). Naturally, this perspective pays and gender studies, feminist knowledge included. serious attention to rhetoric, argumentation, and language. 3.0 Theoretical and metatheoretical framework Laclaus and Mouffe’s discourse theory is strongly influenced by poststructuralist philosophy of lan- My theoretical and methodological approach is post- guage. One of poststructuralisms fundamental ideas is structuralist and discourse-oriented; I espouse a so- that the signs—in language—get their meaning from cial constructionist, anti-essentialist perspective (Burr each other in a structural network. This is a theory 1995; Laclau and Mouffe 2001; Wenneberg 2001; adopted from structuralism, that is from Ferdinand de Winther Jørgensen and Phillips 2000). Saussure’s philosophy of language. Unlike structuralism and Saussure, Laclau and Mouffe mean that all 3.1 Social constructionism signs are interchangeable. Signs get their meaning through their difference from the meaning of other The ontological starting point is that the physical real- signs. The meaning is then changed depending on dis- ity exists, but is only understandable in its representa- course context (Laclau 1993a, 433f; Winther Jørgen- tions, through language (i.e. Laclau and Mouffe 2001, sen and Phillips 2000, 18; Laclau and Mouffe 2001). 108). The leading epistemological idea of this social Structuralistic philosophy of language makes a rig- constructionist perspective is that the world and orous distinction between the structure and use of knowledge about it, and thus knowledge organization, language (langue and parole). The concrete use of lan- are culturally, historically and socially contingent, and guage (parole) was considered not to be able to say very important as they also shape meaning (Bowker anything about the structure of language (langue). La- and Star 1999; Burr 1995, 2ff; Talja et al 2002). Social clau and Mouffe argue, on the contrary, that it is in the processes are in that way very important; the ways in concrete use of language (parole) that the structure of which we understand the world are shaped and main- language (langue) is shaped. Consequently, poststruc- 6 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 J. Samuelsson. Knowledge Organization for Feminism and Feminist Research

turalist and discourse theoretic analyses take as their ture as well as the outlines for KO practice of the KOS starting point the concrete use of language, e.g.— are setting specific rules. Though, ultimately, the in- articulations. dexer or classifier decides which subject should have a Discourse theory has a special understanding of name and which should remain nameless (Olson discourse and articulations. It builds on Foucualt’s 2002a, 4). definition of discourse, but is more pluralistic in the I agree with the argument put forth by approaches view that several discourses about knowledge can exist that argue that KO practices and systems need to be in parallel, in the same epoque (Winther Jørgensen and adapted to the diverse contexts in which they are to be Phillips 2000). In Hegemony and socialist strategy applied and to the specific needs existing in those con- (2001) Laclau and Mouffe define discourse as a defini- texts. Information needs are seen here to be shaped by tion of meaning in one domain. The discourse is a to- broad (or more specific) social, cultural and historical tality—every sign has its, though momentary, unam- contexts (e.g., Andersen 2004; Frohmann 1994; Hans- biguous meaning established in relation to other signs son 2006; Hjørland 1998; Sundin and Johannisson in the discourse. The discourse struggles to eliminate 2005; Talja et al 2005). Hitherto especially domain all ambiguity by making ambiguous signs unambigu- analysis, standpoint epistemology and feminist KO- ous signs. This is a continuing process; the definition research has paid attention to this. Domain analysis, of meaning is never completely ended, but is con- developed by, above all, Birger Hjørland, analyzes stantly continuing (Laclau and Mouffe 2001, 110). “knowledge-domains as thought or discourse com- In this text I show the possibiblities to define a munities, which are part of society’s division of la- feminist discourse and discuss the shaping of mean- bour” (Hjørland and Albrechtsen 1995, 407), and are ing in that feminist discourse; in KOS etc. Above all, one of few analytical frameworks in LIS that are I analyze the conceptions discourse, and: articulation. studyng knowledge domains epistemologically (Hjør- Articulation is all written and spoken language and all land and Albrechtsen 1995; Hjørland 1993, 2002). action. In this article I define and discuss KOS, bibliographic posts and feminist dissertations as articula- 3.4 Theories of specific knowledge domains tions. To ensure good mediation of information, the specific 3.3 Discourse theory, LIS and KO knowledge produced in specific knowledge domains, must be analyzed carefully. Only then, meaningful and I argue that discourse theory and poststructuralism relevant KOS could be worked out (Hjørland and are well suited for analyses in LIS. These theories have Albrechtsen 1995; Hjørland 2002). The most funda- a focus on language and linguistic processes, which I mental part of the domain analysis is the epistemo- argue also is the case in LIS. For example; documents logical analysis of a knowledge domain (Hjørland consist of language and searchterms are words (Talja 2002, 439). Such analyses could then work as guiding et al 2002, 273). KOS are also built on language. principles for selection, organization and retrieval of In the same way as other articulations shape mean- information (440). The development of methodolo- ing and have social consequences KOS has an impor- gies for constructing KOS for specific knowledge do- tant role in shaping, maintaining and supporting some mains are also central for domain analysis (425). These practice, with some special interests (e.g., Albrechtsen outlines for domain analysis have been important for and Jacob 1999, 523; Bowker and Star 1999; Olson how I have chosen to develop my analysis of the 2001, 639). Not only do the KOS themselves reflect feminist knowledge, the feminist discourse and the the power structures in society; to that also the prac- KO of it. tices of KO, indexing and classification, assist (e.g., Standpoint epistemology is focused on how differ- Radford and Radford 2005, 70-71; Olson 2002a; An- ent groups of people, especially oppressed groups dersen 2004). Olson describes the practice of indexing such as women or ethnic minorities, construct their and classification as “naming information” (Olson reality in different ways, from their own specific posi- 2002a, 4). In a framework of discourse theory, in con- tions in society (e.g., Harding 1986). Standpoint epis- cordance with Laclau and Mouffe (2001), every single temology is similar to the domain analytic framework subject heading and classification, as well as the practi- in focusing on specific groups and their need for in- cal use of them in indexing and classification, are seen formation and knowledge, but is more concentrated as shaping meaning, and are in that way important. Of on issues of power, such as who has power. Such rea- course, the possibilities given in the systematic struc- soning could throw light upon why and how feminist Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 7 J. Samuelsson. Knowledge Organization for Feminism and Feminist Research

perspectives are made invisible in the universal KOS, 4.0 Feminism, feminist research which is just a central argument for standpoint epis- and feminist discourse temology within LIS (Spivey 1995, 60; Trosow 2001, 360; Olson 2002a; 2002b; Olson and Schlegl 2001). 4.1 Feminism Hope Olson’s aforementioned argumentation discusses how women and women’s interests, as well as I define, referring to Hooks and others, that feminism feminist knowledge, are marginalized in the universal is a movement to end sexism, exploitation and oppres- KOS from a standpoint perspective. She deconstructs sion (Hooks 2000, viii). The struggle is not against a the universal KOS and their universalistic and objec- specific sex, but against all thinking and action that tivist norms, and tries to adapt them to diverse con- privileges one sex over another. This is for some femi- texts and needs, not least feminist. nists a controversial argumentation—some researchers Though domain analytic and standpoint epistemo- maintain that feminism is a movement that struggles logical approaches are important for my argumenta- to to end patriarchy, oppression and exploitation of tion, I do not find them sufficient. In this article I fo- women only (Freedman 2003; Frye 2000; Gemzöe cus on the possibility to use discourse theory for ana- 2002). lyzing feminist KO, and do not outline above mentioned analytic frameworks more. My conviction is 4.2 Feminist research also that they do not argue enough for how texts and knowledge as articulations are shaping and producing Feminist research is here seen as an integral part of the meaning, at what effects. I mean that standpoint epis- feminist movement and struggle. Feminist research temology and domain analysis throw too much light discusses the why and how of gender-based oppres- upon the social background to articulations—texts, sion, what this oppression consists of, and how op- while I and discourse oriented frameworks want to pression can be countered. My understanding of femi- focus the articulations in themselves and what effects nism is not limited to the oppression of women; for they make in society. This is a big difference. me, feminist research embraces work designed to ad- My perspective is therefore, in this part, discourse dress and redress power inequalities in gender rela- oriented, in accordance with Talja et al (2002; 2003; tions in general. Feminism is seen here as a critical ap- 2005) as well as Radford and Radford (2005). Michel proach aimed at critiquing and changing inequitable Foucault (1977, 90-91) describes in “Fantasia of the gender relations; it is these features that define a Library” the rigorous order with which the library “feminist pespective” in research. It is important here describes the world, but also the possibiblities to see to distinguish “feminist research” from “gender re- it differently: search.” The former adopts a concept of gender which is inseparable from one of power, whilst the latter may Fantasies are carefully deployed in the hushed li- in addition include research which merely focuses on brary, with its columns of books, with its titles some dimension of gender without adopting the spe- aligned on shelves to form a tight enclosure, but cific concept of gender relations as power relations within confines that also liberate impossible (Thurén 2002, 2003). Feminist research may in this worlds .… The imaginary is not formed in oppo- light be considered a sub-category of gender research; sition to reality as its denial or compensation; it the latter being an umbrella term for all research on grows among signs, from book to book, in the gender, including research on sexual inequality, interstice of repetitions and commentaries; it is women’s studies, masculinity studies, queer studies, born and takes place in the interval between and feminist research (Smirthwaite 2005). I have, books. It is a phenomenon of the library. above, discussed different research focusing on sex/ gender, and have described different ways to discuss The most important with seeing KO from a discourse gender in dissertations. Generalizing, Smirthwaite oriented perspective is the possibility to argue that does not take these differences in the research into KOS shapes and produces meaning, and that this consideration. Some research included in the umbrella meaning is changeable. This is an important point of description of gender research does not understand departure for my analysis, which wants to point at sex or gender as socally and culturally constructed, KOS meaningful functions as producers of meaning. though Smirthwaite considers just that as a common factor (Smirthwaite 2005, 79). One example is that research, as mentioned, considers sex or gender as a 8 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 J. Samuelsson. Knowledge Organization for Feminism and Feminist Research

variable, describing just two sexes. Not all feminist relate to power. Per Båvners Half Full or Half Empty? search discusses gender. E.g. biologistic feminist re- Part-Time Work and Well-Being among Swedish Women search argues that men and women are biologically (2001) (S61) discusses women’s wellbeing—not gen- different, and therefore should be treated and be able der, not equality and certainly not power. In Mine, to live equally, but in different ways. Yours or Ours?: Sharing in Swedish Couples (2002) (S64), written by Charlott Nyman, there is a discus- 4.3 A feminist discourse sion about equality, but not on power related to sex or gender. My point of departure is that feminist research articu- In the feminist dissertations we see apparent dis- lates feminist discourse. Critique of power inequities cussions of sex and gender related to power, as well as in gender relations and concomitant demands for critique and emancipation of these inequal power rela- change constitute, I argue, the focal points of femi- tions. Johanna Essevelds (1988, 8) dissertation Beyond nist discourse. It is on these bases that I have defined silence: Middle-Aged Women in the 1970’s (S17) will the selected dissertations as “feminist.” A total of 53 serve as an example from the Sociology dissertations. of the 65 originally identified dissertations in com- It is making the invisible visible, to make women’s parative literature, and 63 of the 94 originally identi- lives visible from their own perspectives: fied dissertations in sociology were deemed to represent a “feminist” perspective thus defined. I attempt to make women’s silences audible by The various gender discourses (including that of presenting their reflections and actions in their feminism) articulated in the main set of dissertations daily lives, against the background of a particular can together be said to constitute a “discursive order” society and historical period. of gender (Winther Jørgensen and Phillips 2000, 63- 64). All these dissertations are included in this discur- Esseveld is interested in the silences in women’s lives, sive order, or rather, they help articulate it. The gender silences that also traditional sociology has been a part discursive order constitutes a broad scope in terms of in producing. The dissertation studies a group of how gender relations are conceived; within this broad women, more silenced than others: middle-aged discourse, feminist research is distinguished by its women, during the 1970’s: “I believe that this genera- critical and emancipatory stance vis-à-vis inequitable tion of women offers an insight into a theoretical prob- gender relations. Some examples of other kinds of lem: continuity and change in identity against the gender perspectives articulated in the research can be background of a changing society,” Esseveld (8) writes. seen in my empirical material consisting of Swedish Esseveld’s (45) feminist perspective is discussed care- PhD-dissertations. In this article I primarily discuss fully and could be described as standpoint feminist. some Swedish dissertations from my empirical mate- Above all Dorothy Smith’s texts form an important rial which are originally written in English, not in basis: Swedish. In Literature, for example, are: Susanna Roxmans What must be explained is that which actually Guilt and glory: Studies in Margaret Drabble’s Novels occurs in women’s everyday world and how 1963-80 (1984) (number in appendix: L6); Eva Marga- these events are experienced by them. In giving reta Löfgrens Schoolmates of the Long-Ago: Motifs and central emphasis to women’s experience, I do Archetypes in Dorita Fairlie Bruce’s Boarding School not assume that all women share one and the Stories (1993) (L20); and, Laurel Ann Lofsvolds Fred- same experience. Instead, I assume experience to rika Bremer and the Writing of America (1999) (L31). be located in society and history, embedded in a None of these uses any feminist theory through their set of social relations which produce both its focus on female writers, characters and their situation. possibilities and limitations. They do not include a power discussion related to sex or gender and they do not have a relation to the femi- In this perspective on human beings, their social lives nist movement in any way. and how they should be studied, is the perspective In some of the Sociology dissertations sex and gen- that women produce and shape their lives, but also der are discussed in different, and non feminist, ways. are limited and influenced by them. Carita Bengs Looking Good: a Study of Gendered Body A feminist perspective is also elucidated. Esseveld Ideals Among Young People (2000) (S54) has a focus (45) wants to “contribute to the development of a on gender and gender construction, but does not re- ‘critical’ science,” which is critical to objectivity, hier- Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 9 J. Samuelsson. Knowledge Organization for Feminism and Feminist Research

archy and control in the social sciences. It is also im- In comparing the different views on gender and portant that science is emancipatory (46): power, expressed in the different dissertations, we can thus see a breadth in the discursive order on Emancipation suggests to me the eventual end sex/gender. We also see, distinctly, that the feminist of social and economic conditions that oppress perspective on sex and gender and power is separated women and the achievement of a society free from other research in that it is more explicitly fo- from sexist bias. The ideal for such a science is cused on criticizing and emancipating sex and gender that it should enhance the self-emancipation of discrimination. women, I believe that social scientists can contribute to this process by analysing and expo- 5.0 Universal knowledge organization systems sing the social and societal relations that con- strain and limit individual experience. My research showed that the general systems for organizing knowledge investigated are not well-suited to Science can change reality and when reality changes, the task of structuring feminist perspectives or scientific explanations also must change. themes. Previous research has, as stated above, also Tiina Mäntymäkis Hard & Soft: the Male Detective’S come to this conclusion (Olson 2002a; Intner and Fu- Body in Contemporary European Crime Fiction (2004) tas; Feinberg 2005; Pettersson 2001, 2003). Feminist (L61) is one of these, and will serve as an example here. knowledge is marginalized and rendered invisible by It is strongly influenced by queer theory and assumes a general knowledge organization systems. This margin- constructionist gender theory following Judith Butler alization may in turn be interpreted as a consequence (e.g., Butler 1990). This study analyzes the representa- of a putative objectivistic and universalistic epistemol- tions of the male body, which is an unusual theme in ogy and ontology embodied in these systems. feminist literary research. Mäntymäki (2004, 12) is also The universal systems discussed, SÄ and KSB— studying the representations of women as “the Other” Svenska Ämnesord (SÄ) (“Swedish Subject Index”) together with murder victims and murderers. Hard & and Klassifikationssystem för svenska bibliotek (KSB) Soft describes the male detective as a “complete stage- (“Swedish Library Classification System”), tend to setting of the male norm.” The detective can be as- privilege mono-disciplinary knowledge at the cost of sumed to be held in an iron-grip of the male norm,” interdisciplinary knowledge, and thematic topics at and here its shaping of meaning is focused: “What kind the cost of conceptual perspectives. This is here of meanings does the body of the male detective be- shown in the case of how feminist perspectives are come invested with as a gendered body within the conceived. For example, guidelines for knowledge or- normative framework of gender?” The dissertation is ganization practice tend to encourage indexers and influenced by postcolonial and queer theoretical cur- classifiers to search for central themes (Nauri, Svan- rents in its viewpoint on gender, but also in the criti- berg and Olsson 2004; Noaksson 1997), that are rela- cism of heteronormativity and eurocentrism. The de- tively easy to find and define objectively, a practice tective characters discussed are male, but also Western, which has the effect of marginalizing less substantive, white, heterosexual, Christian, and middle-class. This more persuasive or conceptual knowledge (see for ex- implies, according to Mäntymäki (12) that: ample Nauri, Svanberg and Olsson 2004; Noaksson 1997). also other aspects to do with embodiment and These systems articulate feminism as a field relat- engendering are accentuated. Their kinship with ing to socio-political women’s issues lumped together the generic norm of ‘human being,’ expressed in with material on women in general, under the same their maleness, heterosexuality, being Western main class category, and usually far down the classifi- etc. contributes to a concealment of gender and a cation hierarchy (e.g., Olson 2001, 2002a, 2002b; gendered body. Palmer and Knott Malone 2008). This type of knowledge is given marginal status and feminist knowledge Mäntymäki (12) argues that the ideology of norma- is often given a plain wrong classification. Feminist tivity on the one hand contributes to the construc- knowledge gets placed in non-relevant categories and tion of a genderless, invisible body, and on the other is consequently obscured. hand defines what a man and his body are supposed I only give some small examples. Feminism in KSB to be: “the detective can be assumed to be held in an shall be classified as a movement or ideology below iron-hard grip of a ‘male norm.’” the mainclass Samhälls-och Rättsväsen (O) (Social and 10 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 J. Samuelsson. Knowledge Organization for Feminism and Feminist Research

juridical system) and Sociala frågor och socialpolitik: feminist perspectives and substantive themes. It is not kvinnofrågor (Ohja) (Social questions and social poli- possible to know if the subject heading feminist the- tics: women’s questions). In SÄ feminism is understood ory is used to articulate that the document is about in the same way, and it is possible to index associative feminist theory, or if it articulates a feminist, theoreti- relationships to feminism, for example: Feminism: re- cal perspective. Feminist discourse is not defined; this ligiösa aspekter, Feminism: politiska aspekter and so on index is designed to classify texts within the broad (Feminism: religious aspects, Feminism: political as- subject field of women’s studies, masculinity studies pects). It is not possible to express feminism as an as- and gender research, as well as other material relevant pect in itself; then you are directed to the closest sub- to the field. There are, at this point, no possibiblities ject heading: genusaspekter (gender aspects), which is to distinguish between the subject headings Research, subordinated to main subject headings. Gender Studies, Women’s studies or SexRole Research. The contexts in which feminism is articulated are The premises and guidelines for knowledge organiza- also underestimated in KSB. Klasson has shown tion practice are under-developed and poorly defined. (Klasson 1995) that the selection of main classes as The only directions writen are about equivalence rela- well as their internal order says a lot about the onto- tionships, and are only published internally in the or- logical and epistemological views that lie behind its ganization. The deficiencies of this KOS in the con- construction. From a feminist point of view it is pos- text of the present study are strongly related to its sible to be critical of KSB, as the hierarchical order over-simple structure. sees the male individual as normative (Klasson 1995). KvÄ has been analyzed in some minor studies, but The subjects that form the main classes show this it has not been argued that the feminist perspectives fact; subjects traditionally associated with male inter- should be articulated in the indexing. In the Danish ests, for example Idrott, lek och spel (Sports and games) KVINFO’s classification system, as well as the Euro- och Militärväsen (Militarybeing) has their own main pean Women’s Thesaurus, it is possible to articulate as- classes, while feminism, is placed under Kvinnofrågor sociative relationships, but not perspectives as com- (Women’s Issues) (Ohj), far down the hierarchy (Klas- pared to thematics. There is also no possibility to dis- son 1995; Pettersson 2001, 2003). tinguish between feminist studies and gender studies, There are however ways of improving the visibility which shows that the domain is not properly defined. of feminist knowledge, even in these universal systems. One promising avenue is to develop possibilities 7.0 Feminist perspectives in comparative literature to express associative relations, in which feminist and sociology dissertations knowledge can be expressed in relation to thematic terms. That is also one of the directions that Olson After defining feminism, feminist research and a femi- suggests in a recent article (Olson 2007). The chal- nist discourse I further analyzed the specific feminist lenge is, I argue, to accommodate an understanding of perspectives represented in a sample of 33 feminist feminist discourse as a political and ideological move- PhD disserations, 17 of them in comparative literature ment as well as a theoretical field of knowledge which and 16 in sociology. The question addressed here is: in aims to critique unequal gender relations and change what ways are these dissertations feminist? This analy- them; feminism is thus much more than socio- sis is done by identifying the feminist metatheoretical, political issues relating to women. Yet, however much theoretical, and to a lesser extent, methodological these these existing universal systems are tweeked to stances articulated in the 33 disertations. The aim is to accommodate feminist knowledge, feminist discourse penetrate the discourse, or discourses, of feminist re- will remain an exceptional case, requiring special ac- search. The comparison between the various feminist commodation, as the systems themselves are built on perspectives represented in the selected dissertations the very objectivist and universalistic premises that a reveals that “feminist discourse,” as defined above, can lot of feminist discourse questions. be understood as several discourses within a feminist discursive order, when compared to each other. Ana- 6.0 Subject-specific knowledge organization lyzing the dissertations according to theoretical and metatheoretical approach and by year of publication it The structure of the KvÄ index is too simple and does is clear that the broad category of feminist discourse not allow for associative relationships between terms masks various perspectives which all deal with inequal- at all, which is as I see it, the biggest lack. For example, ity in gender relations. These perspectives are united the system does not allow for the distinction between in their critical stance towards power imbalances in Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 11 J. Samuelsson. Knowledge Organization for Feminism and Feminist Research

gender relations and in their call for change, but differ to more than one of these feminist discourse types. in their views on how to express this critique and Further, these discourses co-exist in the development bring about change. In line with these differences, of feminist theory. A particular phase in the develop- gender and power are also understood differently. ment of feminist theory bears hallmarks of earlier The feminist discursive order may be said to be phases, such that “women-centring” and “critical” dis- made up of critical, women-centered, and reflexive courses co-exist qua feminist theory, regardless of dis- discourses in its critique of, and calls for change in, in- cipline. equities in gender relations. Early feminist discourse The observations made above: the diversity of femi- takes the guise of a critical discourse which under- nist perspectives, the overlaps between them, and the stands sexual oppression and gender inequities as a unifying features of feminism, are grounded on an function or effect of patriarchal or capitalist social empirical investigation of feminist metatheory in a structures. This critical discourse addresses gender and number of dissertations. Chronologies of feminist sexual oppression first and foremost as either an indi- theory development provide rough guides of what vidual or structural issue. One example articulating constitutes feminism, but they cannot provide suffi- this discourse (not included in my empirical material) ciently specific descriptions of the content of feminist is Kate Milletts Sexual Politics. Among the Swedish research at document level. These conclusions imply dissertations, in sociology, we have as examples of this some important things for knowledge organixation of discourse Rosmari Eliassons Könsdifferenser i sexuellt feminist knowledge, and especially feminist research. beteende och attityder till sexualitet (Sexual Differences in Sexual Behaviour and Attitudes Towards Sexuality) 8.0 Subject indexing and classification (1971) (S2) and Ann-Mari Sellerbergs Kvinnorna på of the PhD dissertations den svenska arbetsmarknaden under 1900-talet: en sociologisk analys av kvinnornas underordnade position i How the PhD dissertations had been classified accord- arbetslivet (Women in the Swedish Labour Market during to KSB and SÄ was studied using the LIBRIS cata- ing the 20th Century: a Sociological Analysis of the logue. How the material had been indexed according Women’s Subordinated Positions in their Working Life) to KVÄ was also studied using the bibliographic cata- (1973) (S3). They are both analyzing and criticizing logues KVINNSAM and GENA. The results from oppression of women in society, Sellerbergs concern- this analysis are presented in the appendix, where the ing working life, and Eliassons concerning sexuality. dissertations and the KO of them are listed chrono- During the late 1980s a feminist discourse emerged logically. The analyses of the subject headings and within both sociology and literary criticism which classifications are compared with my conclusions centred women qua women. Within literary criticism about the different dissertations and their feminist this strand of feminist discourse was influenced by perspectives. Through these analyses of the classifica- French post-stucturalism and Anglo-American bio- tions and subject headings given, a picture emerged of graphical approaches; whilst in sociology, the influ- how feminist discourse is organized in these systems. ences came from stand-point epistemology and critical This picture confirms that the dissertations are not discourse analysis. An example among the disserta- searchable as feminist knowledge within the classifications is for example the aforementioned Beyond Si- tion and subject heading systems examined. lence in Sociology. The feminist dissertations mentioned above— A reflexive feminist discourse emerged simultane- Hard & Soft by Tiina Mäntymäki and Essevelds Be- ously, continuing into the 1990s and 2000s. Structural- oyond silence—are not indexed and classified with re- ist and post-structuralist gender theories dominate gard to the feminist content in rememberance. Hard during this period, based on social constructionist as- & Soft: The Male Detective’s Body in Contemporary sumptions. The aforementioned Hard & Soft is an European Crime Fiction (2004) (L61) has got the good example of one dissertation articulating this dis- SVÄ subject headings Masculinity in literature and course. These structuralist strands merge with earlier Body, human, in literature. These subject headings say feminist theory, whilst their social constructionist as- nothing about the feminist content, but something pects simulatenously spread to knowledge domains about the thematics concerning the human body, further afield. meaning the male body. Hard & Soft has also been The analysis shows that the feminist perspectives classified (KSB) in a similar way compared to the represented by these “ideal-type” discourses overlap in subject headings: with G.096z, which means Litera- practice. A single dissertation text may well “belong” ture: special motifs: Masculinity (Litteraturvetenskap: 12 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 J. Samuelsson. Knowledge Organization for Feminism and Feminist Research

särskilda motiv: manlighet). Essevelds Beyond Si- for indexing the dissertations varied over time, and lence: Middle-Aged Women in the 1970’s (1988) (S17) concepts were not always correctly applied. For exam- has got the classification (KSB) Ohja-qa (Könsroller: ple, some of the dissertations from the 1980’s were in- Kvinnofrågor: Förenta Staterna) meaning Sex roles: dexed with only biographical names, while disserta- Women’s questions: United States. The most specific tions from the 1990’s are very thoroughly indexed. classification concerning the feminist viewpoint in Ebba Witt-Brattströms Moa Martinson: skrift och drift i the dissertation is “women’s issues,” which actually trettiotalet (1988) (L9), is just indexed with the per- says nothing about the feminist perspective, it just sonal name of the author; Martinson, Moa. Nothing says that the dissertation is about “women’s issues.” about the content in the dissertation is revealed. An- What this means is not defined. But these disserta- other dissertation, Annelie Bränström Öhmans Kär- tions are not the only ones indexed or classified lekens ödeland: Rut Hillarp och kvinnornas fyrtiotals- without the feminist content in rememberance. None modernism (The Wasteland of Love: Rut Hillarp and of the dissertations in my empirical corpus are in fact Women’s Modernism of the 40’s) (1998) (L28) has got a indexed or classified according to its feminist per- lot of subject headings, the name of the author in- spective with the universal KOS. cluded: Hillarp, Rut, 1940’s, literary studies, authors, The two feminist dissertations discussed have also Sweden, poetry, modernism, marginalization. got subject headings from the domain specific index Concepts are, as mentioned before, also differently (KvÄ), in the databases GENA and KVINNSAM. applied for the indexing of different dissertations. The Hard & Soft is indexed with Masculinity, Image of Men, indexers are strongly influenced by the keywords the Body and Gender. This says, as well as the KO in SÄ authors use to describe their dissertations in the ab- and KSB, something about the focus on the male stracts. That, of course, causes inconsistencies. If an body, but nothing about the fact that the dissertation author chooses to include the abstract keyword gender is feminist in its perspective. Beyond Silence is indexed or feminism, the indexer chooses to include it in with Living Conditions, and Middle age. The feminist GENA and KVINNSAM too. As in Känslans röst: det content in the dissertations is made invisible in these melodramatiska i Selma Lagerlöfs romankonst (The bibliographic posts, and as is the case with the classifi- Voice of Affect: Melodrama in Selma Lagerlöf ’s Novels) cations and indexings with SÄ and KSB, none of the (2002) (L44). Furthermore, the meaning of single dissertations in my empirical corpus are in fact in- subject headings shift in KvÄ. During the 1980’s dexed or classified according to feminist perspective, feminism and theory were used together to signify the not even in KvÄ. dissertations which were about feminist theory. From The dissertations I mentioned in part 4.3 which are the 1990’s and the 2000’s get the subject heading not feminist but whose content is about gender or feminist theory is used to signify dissertations about about women and that could not be included in a feminist theory instead. feminist discourse, have the same classifications and subject headings as the feminist dissertations men- 9.0 Conclusion and further work tioned above. It is interesting, but not surprising, that it is impossible to distinguish between feminist or This article shows that indexing and classifying of non-feminist dissertations at all using the KOS, do- feminist material presents considerable challenges; mainspecific as well as universal (See for example L20, and that the classification system and subject heading L24, L31, S4, S8, S33). systems studied are inadequate for this purpose. Mak- The blind-spot, that the feminist content is not in- ing improvements within existing systems can only dexed and classified, is related to the systems’ short- provide a partial solution. Successful organization of comings: weaknesses in dealing with feminist con- feminist knowledge needs instead to be based on a cepts; and an inability to express relations between particular understanding of knowledge and knowl- concepts which would benefit the visibility of feminist edge organization as contextually shaped (and shap- perspectives. This study finds all three systems inade- ing). Knowledge and knowledge organization need to quate for the task of indexing and classifying feminist be seen as contextually contingent; attempting to de- knowledge. As seen in the examples above, the femi- velop a universally valid and objective way of organiz- nist content is not at all visible. And further, inconsis- ing this form of knowledge is futile. tency in indexing and classification is a severe problem A knowledge organization system for feminist re- in all three systems. KvÄ was the least adequate index search needs to recognize that feminist material ar- system of the three, as the level of content detail used ticulates particular ideas about gendered power rela- Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 13 J. Samuelsson. Knowledge Organization for Feminism and Feminist Research

tions as well as more substantive themes or topics. and so on. Knowledge organization systems also need Functioning knowledge organization systems and to recognize and re-articulate this characteristic of practice need to be based on an understanding of the knowledge. Development of expertise and knowledge central problems addressed in the research being clas- of various kinds is central to the process of develop- sified and an understanding of the knowledge interests ing knowledge-sensitive knowledge organization sys- that underlie the research. Such systems need to be in- tems that work; that require: subject-specific exper- clusive and to recognize different ontological and epis- tise, a sensitivity to theory of knowledge issues, and temological perspectives; they need to be accommo- an understanding of the social and cultural factors dating of different worldviews and knowledge stances. that affect access to and supply of knowledge. Literature is composed of conversations, arguments, Interest in the development of feminism and femi- theories, methodologies and methods; feminist litera- nist knowledge is widespread. If the knowledge or- ture is first and foremost about expressing feminist ganization systems used in general libraries continue discourse qua theme, perspective, and feminist tradi- to neglect the nature of feminist discourse, the visi- tion (such as critical, women-centring, and reflexive bility of the latter will also be ever more compro- feminisms). Ideally, the relevant knowledge organiza- mised even as feminist texts continue to increase in tion system would also be sensitive to methodology number. Further, ignoring the need to develop better and method. The actual associative relations between knowledge organization systems for specific collec- concepts would, however, need to be determined on a tions of feminist materials, will also compromise visi- context by context basis. bility of feminist materials on their own terms. The premises and guidelines for knowledge organi- In this article I have shown a close link between zation practice also need to change. This practice knowledge organization and power. Articulations, needs to be premised on an understanding of the na- such as indexes, classifications, and feminist texts, can ture of the knowledge domain or discourse in ques- always be traced back to the social interests of groups tion. A reasonable starting point for knowledge or- or individuals, and these interests have in turn various ganization practice is inter alia a question-oriented in- social consequences. I do not address here whose indexing (Soergel 1985). This involves identifying those terests are served by omitting the premises of femi- aspects of the document that link the document to the nist discourse from knowledge organization systems knowledge domain or discourse in which the informa- but, one might ponder, who benefits from the invisi- tion system in question is operational. The problems bility of feminist material? And why the insistence on of indexing and classifying feminist material can par- working with universal knowledge organizatory sys- tially be overcome by improving development of systems which continue to render feminist materials in- tems and premises for knowledge organization prac- visible, edition after edition? Why the lack of invest- tices. Part of the indexing and classification problem is ment in specific knowledge organization systems for most likely linked to librarians’ lack of expertise in the feminist and gender-related materials? area of feminist discourse. More and more texts are now produced in digital The task of making knowledge and science in gen- environments, providing new opportunities for im- eral, and feminist knowledge and research in particu- proved knowledge organization and improved visibil- lar, visible on its own terms in library catalogues, re- ity for feminist materials. A digital text can be catego- quires an understanding of the nature of knowledge rized and described using metadata that are part of and science, and a sensitivity to the implications of metadata schemata, and thus sorted into digital col- such understanding for knowledge organization. Such lections and digital libraries. Further, digital contexts a dialogue on the nature of knowledge and its impli- increasingly allow users and producers of feminist cations for knowledge organization systems needs to knowledge to participate in knowledge organization. be conducted within the discipline of library and in- I suggest that this could constitute a successful femi- formation science as well as among practitioners nist strategy for knowledge organization, especially if working in the places where knowledge organization libraries do not improve the visibility given to femi- is done. It needs also to be brought to the attention nist discourse. This strategy can also play an impor- of the political institutions where decisions pertaining tant role in a library context. Professional users, such to knowledge organization development are made. as feminist researchers and activists, can thereby also The content of knowledge and science has mean- help index and classify feminist material. ing; when it is articulated, written or otherwise expressed, it is in turn understood and re-articulated, 14 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 J. Samuelsson. Knowledge Organization for Feminism and Feminist Research

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Laclau, Ernesto and Mouffe, Chantal. 2001. Hegem- marginalized knowledge domains. Library trends ony and socialist strategy: towards a radical democ- 47 no.2: 233-54. ratic politics. London: Verso Olson, Hope A. 2001. The power to name: Represen- López-Huertas, María J. and Barité. Mario. 2002. tation in library catalogs. Signs: journal of women Knowledge representation and organization of in culture and society 26: 639-68. gender studies in the internet: towards integration. Olson, Hope A. and Schlegl, Rose. 2001. Standardi- In López-Huertas, María J. ed., Challenges in zation, objectivity, and user focus: A meta-analysis knowledge representation and organization for the of subject access critiques. Cataloging and classifi- 21st century:integration of knowledge across bounda- cation quarterly 32 no. 2: 61-80. ries: proceedings of the Seventh International ISKO Olson, Hope A. 2002a. The power to name: locating Conference, 10–13 July 2002, Granada, Spain. the limits of subject representation in libraries. Würzburg: Ergon Verlag: pp. 393–402. Dordrecht: Kluwer. López-Huertas, María J. and de Torres Ramírez, Isa- Olson, Hope A. 2002b. If it’s there, can you find it? bel. 2007. Gender terminology and indexing sys- Bibliographic control. In Olson, Hope. ed., Infor- tems: the case of woman’s body, image and visuali- mation sources in women’s studies and feminism: zation. Libri 2007 57: 34–44. guides to information sources. München: Saur, pp. Millett, Kate. 2000 [1970]. Sexual politics. Urbana: 100-14. University of Illinois Press. Olson, Hope A. 2007. How we construct subjects: a Mäntymäki, Tiina. 2004. Hard & soft: the male detec- feminist analysis. Library trends 56 no. 2: 509-41. tive’s body in contemporary European crime fiction. Palmer, Carole. L. and Knott Malone, Cheryl. 2008. Diss. Linköping. Elaborate isolation: metastructures of knowledge Nauri, Miriam, Svanberg, Magdalena and Olsson, about women. The information society 17 no. 3: Lars. 2004. Svenska ämnesord: en introduktion. 179-94. Stockholm: Kungl. Biblioteket. Pettersson, Karin. 2001. Den manliga heterosexuella Noaksson, Anders, ed. 1997. Klassifikationssystem för normen: en analys av SAB-systemet utifrån ett femi- svenska bibliotek. Lund: Bibliotekstjänst. nistiskt och queerteoretiskt perspektiv. Borås: Högsk. Nyman, Charlott. 2002. Mine, yours or ours?: sharing i Borås, Bibliotekshögskolan/Biblioteks- och in- in Swedish couples. Diss. (sammanfattning) Umeå formationsvetenskap. Univ. Pettersson, Karin. 2003. Den manliga normen. Ge- Olson, Hope A. 1991. Subject access to women’s nomgång av Klassifikationssystem för svenska bib- studies materials: Cataloging heresy: challenging liotek och Svenska ämnesord utifrån ett genusper- the standard bibliographic product. In Weinberg, spektiv. Göteborgs universitetsbibliotek: rapport. Bella Hass, ed. Proceedings of the Congress for Li- Radford Gary P. and Radford Marie L. 2005. Struc- brarians, February 18, 1991, St. John’s University, turalism, post-structuralism, and the library: de Jamaica, New York, with additional contributed pa- Saussure and Foucault. Journal of documentation pers. Medford, NJ: Learned Information. 61: 60-78. Olson, Hope A. 1996. Dewey thinks therefore he is: Roxman, Susanna. 1984. Guilt and glory: studies in the epistemic stance of Dewey and DDC. In Margaret Drabble’s novels 1963-80. Diss. Göte- Green, R, ed., Knowledge organization and change: borg: Univ. proceedings of the Fourth International ISKO Con- Samuelsson, Jenny. 2008. På väg från ingenstans: kritik ference 15-18 July 1996, Washington, DC. Frank- och emancipation av kunskapsorganisation för femi- furt/Main: Indeks Vlg., pp. 302-12. nistisk forskning. Diss. Umeå: Umeå universitet. Olson, Hope A. and Ward, Dennis B. 1997. Feminist Smirthwaite, Goldina. 2005. Genusvetenskap: vad är locales in Dewey’s landscape: mapping a marginal- det för typ av ämne egentligen? In Forsberg, Gun- ized knowledge domain. Knowledge organization nel and Grenhold, Cristina eds., -och liKvÄl rör det for information retrieval: Proceedings of the Sixth In- sig : genusrelationer i förändring. Karlstad: Karlstad ternational Study Conference on Classification Re- University Press, pp. 77-94. search, 16-18 June, London, UK, FID, The Hague, Soergel, Dagobert. 1985. Organizing information: pp.139-45. Principles of data base and retrieval systems. Or- Olson, Hope A. 1998. Mapping beyond Dewey’s lando, FL: Academic Press. boundaries: constructing classificatory space for 16 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 J. Samuelsson. Knowledge Organization for Feminism and Feminist Research

Spivey, Mark A. 1995. Feminist scholarship: implica- Literature tions for information management research. The journal of academic librarianship 21: 159-68. L1: Westman Berg, Karin, Studier i C.J. L. Almqvists kvinnouppfattning:, Uppsala , 1962 Sundin, Olaf and Johannisson, Jenny. 2005. Pragma- Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA tism, neo-pragmatism and sociocultural theory: BIBLIOTEK: Ohj-c, Gcz Almqvist; Carl Jonas Love , SVENSKA communicative participation as a perspective in ÄMNESORD: GENA: 1800-talet, 1900-talet, Almqvist; Carl Jonas LIS. Journal of documentation 61: 23-43. Love, kvinnouppfattning, Sverige, Kvinnsam: Talja, Sanna. 2001. Music, culture, and the library: an L2: Boëthius, Ulf, Strindberg och kvinnofrågan till och med Giftas analysis of discourses. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow. I:, Stockholm , 1969 Talja, Sanna, Tuominen, Kimmo and Savolainen, Rei- Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA jo. 2005. “Isms” in information science: construc- BIBLIOTEK: , SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: GENA: 1800-talet, tivism, collectivism and constructionism. Journal kvinnofrågan, kvinnouppfattning, sedlighetsdebatten, Strindberg; August, Sverige, Kvinnsam: Strindberg; August, kvinnouppfattning, of documentation 61: 79-101. kvinnofrågan, 1800-talet, Sverige, sedlighetsdebatten Talja, Sanna, Touminen, Kimmo and Savolainen, Rei- jo. 2002. Discourse, cognition, and reality: toward L3: Nilsson, Ruth, Kvinnosyn i Sverige: från drottning Kristina till a social constructionist metatheory for library and Anna Maria Lenngren, Lund , 1973 information science. International conference on Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Gc.4, Ohj-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: GENA: conceptions of library and information science, Seat- 1600-talet, 1700-talet, kvinnobilden, kvinnouppfattning, Sverige, tle, WA, USA, July 21-25, 2002. Greenwood Vil- Kvinnsam: historia, kvinnouppfattning, 1600-talet, 1700-talet, lage, Colo.: Libraries Unlimited. Sverige, kvinnobilden, litteraturvetenskap Thurén, Britt-Marie. (ed.) 2002. Genusvägar: en an- tologi om genusforskning. 1. uppl. Malmö: Liber. L4: Carsten Montén, Karin, Fredrika Bremer in Deutschland: Aufnahme und Kritik, Lund , 1981 Thurén, Britt-Marie. 2003. Genusforskning: frågor, vill- Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA kor och utmaningar. Stockholm: Vetenskapsrådet. BIBLIOTEK: Gb, Gz, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Trosow, Samuel E. 2001. Standpoint Epistemology as Litteratur>historia>Sverige>1800-talet GENA: 1800-talet, an alternative methodology for library and infor- Bremer; Fredrika, litteraturkritik, Tyskland, Kvinnsam:

mation science. Library quarterly 71: 360-82. L5: Björkenlid, Bertil, Kvinnokrav i manssamhälle: Wenneberg, Søren Barlebo. 2001. Socialkonstrukti- rösträttskvinnorna och deras metoder som opinionsbildare och vism: positioner, problem och perspektiv. Malmö: Li- påtryckargrupp i Sverige 1902-21, Uppsala , 1982 ber ekonomi. Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Winther Jørgensen, Marianne. and Phillips, Louise. BIBLIOTEK: Gc.5, Occ.07, Ohj-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Kvinnorörelsen>Sverige, Feminism>historia>Sverige, 2000. Diskursanalys som teori och metod. Lund: Rösträtt>historia>Sverige, Kvinnlig rösträtt>historia>Sverige Studentlitteratur. GENA: 1910-talet, 1920-talet, opinionsbildning, rösträtt, sekelskiftet, Kvinnsam: opinionsbildning, rösträtt, sekelskiftet, Appendix 1910-talet, 1920-talet

L6: Roxman, Susanna, Guilt and glory: studies in Margaret This appendix presents the references of the ana- Drabble’s novels 1963-80, Göteborg , 1984 lyzed dissertations. They are organized chronologi- Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA cally. The appendix also presents how the disserta- BIBLIOTEK: Gez Drabble: M., SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: tions are indexed and classified according to the GENA: Drabble; Margaret, Kvinnsam: Drabble; Margaret

KOS analyzed. The classifications with Klassifika- L7: Sylvan, Maj, Anne Charlotte Leffler: en kvinna finner sin väg, tionssystem för svenska bibliotek and the subject Stockholm , 1984 headings from Svenska ämnesord are downloaded Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA from the swedish national bibliographic catalogue BIBLIOTEK: Gcz Leffler: A. C., SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: LIBRIS (www.libris.kb.se). The subject headings GENA: 1800-talet, författare, Leffler; Anne Charlotte, Sverige, Kvinnsam: Leffler; Anne Charlotte from Kvinnohistoriska samlingarnas ämnesord are downloaded from the catalogues KVINNSAM (http:// L8: Domellöf, Gunilla, I oss är en mångfald levande: Karin Boye libris.kb.se/form_extended.jsp?f=kvin) and GENA som kritiker och prosamodernist, Umeå , 1986 (www.databasen GENA.nu). Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Gcz Boye; Karin, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: GENA: Boye; Karin , Kvinnsam: Boye; Karin

Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 17 J. Samuelsson. Knowledge Organization for Feminism and Feminist Research

L9: Witt-Brattström, Ebba, Moa Martinson: skrift och drift i L16: Evers, Ulla, Hettan av en gud: en studie i skapandetemat hos trettiotalet, Stockholm , 1988 Edith Södergran, Göteborg , 1992 Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Gcz Martinson; Moa, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: BIBLIOTEK: Gcdz Södergran; Edith, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: GENA: Martinson; Moa, Kvinnsam: Martinson: Moa GENA: Södergran; Edith, Kvinnsam: Södergran; Edith

L10: Ivarson Bergsten, Birgitta, Förflytta berg till bokstäver: L17: Schottenius, Maria, kvinnliga hemligheten: en studie i Kerstin utvecklingslinjer i Eliklassifikationssystem för svenska biblioteket Ekmans berättarkonst, Lund , 1992 Hermodssons författarskap, Uppsala , 1989 Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Gcz Ekman; Kerstin, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: BIBLIOTEK: Gcz, Hermodsson; Eliklassifikationssystem för GENA: Ekman; Kerstin, Kvinnsam: Ekman; Kerstin svenska biblioteketh, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: GENA: 1900- talet, författare, Hermodsson; Eliklassifikationssystem för svenska L18: Torpe, Ulla, Orden och jorden: en studie i Selma Lagerlöfs biblioteket, Sverige, Kvinnsam: författare, Sverige, 1900-talet roman Liljecronas hem, Stockholm , 1992 Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA L11: Larsson, Lisbeth, En annan historia: om kvinnors läsning och BIBLIOTEK: Gcz Lagerlöf; Selma, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: svensk veckopress, Lund , 1989 GENA: Lagerlöf; Selma, Kvinnsam: Lagerlöf; Selma Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Gc.0972, G:oa, Bt-c, Ohja:kc, SVENSKA L19: Claesson Pipping, Git, Könet som läsanvisning: George Eliot ÄMNESORD: GENA: könsidentitet, läsning, populärlitteratur, och Victoria Benedictsson i det svenska 1880-talet - en veckotidningar, Kvinnsam: könsidentitet, läsning, populärlitteratur, receptionsstudie, Stockholm , 1993 veckotidningar Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Gcz Benedictsson; Victoria, Gez Elliott; George, L12: Svanberg, Birgitta, Sanningen om kvinnorna: en läsning av Gc.49, G:dg, G:kc.49, Gz Eliot; George, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Agnes von Krusenstjernas romanserie Fröknarna von Pahlen, GENA: 1880-talet, Benedictsson; Victoria, Eliot; George, läsning, Uppsala , 1989 Sverige, Kvinnsam: 1880-talet, Benedictsson; Victoria, Eliot; Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA George, läsning, Sverige BIBLIOTEK: Gcz Krusenstjerna; Agnes von, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: GENA: Krusenstjerna; Agnes von, Kvinnsam: L20: Löfgren, Eva Margareta, Schoolmates of the long-ago: motifs Krusenstjerna; Agnes von and archetypes in Dorita Fairlie Bruce’s boarding school stories, Stockholm , 1993 L13: Borgström, Eva, Om jag får be om ölost: kring kvinnliga Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA författares kvinnobilder i svensk romantik, Göteborg , 1991 BIBLIOTEK: Gez Bruce; Dorita Fairlie, Gz Bruce; Dorita Fairlie, Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Flickböcker>Storbritannien, BIBLIOTEK: Gc.47, Gc.0972, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: kvinnliga Flickböcker>England GENA: 1900-talet, Bruce; Dorita Fairlie, författare, Kvinnliga författare>Sverige>romantiken, Kvinnor i flickböcker, flickskolor, Storbritannien, Kvinnsam: Bruce; Dorita litteraturen>Sverige>romantiken GENA: författare, kvinnorollen, Fairlie, flickböcker, Storbritannien, 1900-talet, flickskolor romantiken, Sverige, Kvinnsam: författare, kvinnorollen, romantiken, Litteraturvetenskap L21: Ney, Birgitta, Bortom berättelserna: Stella Kleve - Mathilda Malling, Stockholm , 1993 L14: Leffler, Yvonne, I skräckens lustgård: skräckromantik i Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA svenska 1800-talsromaner, Göteborg , 1991 BIBLIOTEK: Gcz Malling; Mathilda, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA GENA: 1880-talet, författare, Kleve; Stella, pseud. för Mathilda BIBLIOTEK: Gc.46, Gc.097, Gc.01, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Kruse, Sverige, Kvinnsam: Litteraturvetenskap, Sverige, 1880-talet, Skräckromantik>litteraturhistoria, Sverige>1800-talet, Kleve; Stella; pseud. För Mathilda Kruse, författare Skräckromantik>litteraturhistoria>Sverige>1800-talet, Skräckromaner>svenska>1800-talet, skräckromantik i litteraturen, L22: Franzén, Carin, Att överSvenska Ämnesordtta känslan: en skräck, Skräckromantik>litteraturhistoria>1800-talet GENA: studie i Julia Kristevas psykoanalytiska poetik, Stockholm , 1995 1800-talet, Flygare-Carlén; Emilie, Lagerlöf; Selma, Ljungstedt; Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Aurora, romaner, skräck, Sverige, Kvinnsam: Sverige, Flygare- BIBLIOTEK: Dbz Kristeva; Julia, G:df, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Carlén; Emilie, litteraturvetenskap, Lagerlöf; Selma, Ljungstedt; GENA: Kristeva; Julia, psykoanalys, teori, Kvinnsam: Kristeva; Aurora Julia, psykoanalys, teori, litteratur

L15: Heggestad, Eva, Fången och fri: 1880-talets svenska kvinnliga L23: Järvstad, Kristin, Att utvecklas till kvinna: studier i den författare om hemmet, yrkeslivet och konstnärskapet, Uppsala , kvinnliga utvecklingsromanen i 1900-talets Sverige, Lund , 1996 1991 Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Gc.5, Gc.0972, Gc.01, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: BIBLIOTEK: Gc.49, Gc.0972, Ohja-c:k.49, Ohja-c:k, SVENSKA Svensk litteratur>kvinnliga författare>historia>1900-talet, ÄMNESORD: Kvinnliga författare>Sverige>1880-talet, kvinnor i Utvecklingsromaner>historia>Sverige>1900-talet GENA: 1900- litteraturen GENA: 1880-talet, författare, hemliv, skrivande, talet, bildning, Browallius; Irja, Krusenstjerna; Agnes von, romaner, yrkesarbete, Kvinnsam: författare, skrivande, förvärvsarbete, 1880- Sjöstrand; Ingrid, Sverige, utveckling, Kvinnsam: Sverige, talet, hemmet ltteraturvetenskap, romaner, utveckling, 1900-talet, Krusenstjerna; Agnes von, Browallius; Irja, Sjöstrand; Ingrid, manlighet, bildning

18 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 J. Samuelsson. Knowledge Organization for Feminism and Feminist Research

L24: Littberger, Inger, Ulla Isakssons romankonst, Lund , 1996 L32: Hackman, Boel, Jag kan sjunga hur jag vill: tankevärld och Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA konstsyn i Edith Södergrans diktning, Uppsala , 2000 BIBLIOTEK: Gcz Isaksson; Ulla, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA GENA: författare, Isaksson; Ulla, Sverige, Kvinnsam: Isaksson; BIBLIOTEK: Gcdz Södergran; Edith, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Ulla, författare, Sverige, GENA: 1900-talet, Finland, författare, Södergran; Edith, Kvinnsam: 1900-talet, Finland, författare L25: Elmfeldt, Johan, Läsningens röster: om litteratur, genus och lärarskap, Lund , 1997 L33: Malmberg, Lena, Från Orfeus till Eurydike: en rörelse i Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA samtida lyrik, Lund , 2000 BIBLIOTEK: Eabg.03, Ohj, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA genusforskning, könsrollsfrågor, BIBLIOTEK: Gc.03, Gc.55, G.096z Orfeus, SVENSKA Litteraturundervisning>gymnasieskolan>Sverige>1988 och 1990 ÄMNESORD: Orfeus i litteraturen, Svensk poesi>historia>1970- GENA: gymnasieskolan, litteraturhistoria, pedagogik, Sverige, talet>1980-talet>1990-talet GENA: 1900-talet, Eurydike, undervisning, Kvinnsam: gymnasieskolan, litteraturvetenskap, Frostenson; Katarina, Johnsson; Arne, Jäderlund; Ann, Lillpers; genus, undervisning, Sverige Birgitta, myter, Orfeus, poesi, Svenbro; Jesper, Öijer; Bruno K., Kvinnsam: L26: Meijling Bäckman, Ingrid, Den resfärdiga: studier i Emilia Fogelklous självbiografi, Lund , 1997 L34: Ronne, Marta, Två världar - ett universitet: svenska Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA skönlitterära universitetsskildringar 1904-1943 : en genusstudie, BIBLIOTEK: Lz Fogelklou; Emilia, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Uppsala , 2000 GENA: Fogelklou: Emilia, KvÄkare, Norlind; Arnold, Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA självbiografier, teologer, Kvinnsam: Fogelklou; Emilia, Norlind; BIBLIOTEK: Gc.5, Gc.0972, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: studentliv Arnold, självbiografier, KvÄkare, teologer i litteraturen, universitet i litteraturen, Svensk litteratur>teman och motiv>1900-talet GENA: Bjerne; Ulla, kvinnlighet, kvinnobilden, L27: Brödje, Catrine, Ett annat tiotal: en studie i Anna Lenah lesbianism, Lindin; Ester, mellankrigstiden, Suber; Margareta, Elgströms tiotalsprosa, Stockholm , 1998 Sverige, Kvinnsam: romaner, universitet, genus, Sverige, 1900-talet, Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA kvinnobilden, mansbilden BIBLIOTEK: Gcz Elgström; Anna Lenah, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Kvinnliga författare>Sverige>1910-talet GENA: L35: Sarrimo, Christine, När det personliga blev politiskt: 1970- 1900-talet, Elgström; Anna Lenah, författare, Sverige, Kvinnsam: talets kvinnliga bekännelse och självbiografi, Lund , 2000 Sverige, författare, 1900-talet Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Gc.0972, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Kvinnliga L28: Bränström Öhman, Annelie, Kärlekens ödeland: Rut Hillarp författare>Sverige>1970-talet, litteratur och politik, Litterära och kvinnornas fyrtiotalsmodernism, Umeå , 1998 genrer>genusaspekter, Självbiografier>genusaspekter GENA: Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA 1970-talet, Axelsson; Sun, feminism, författare, kvinnobilden, BIBLIOTEK: Gcz Hillarp; Rut, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: kvinnorörelsen, Nelvin; Åsa, självbiografier, Strandberg; Kerstin, GENA: 1940-talet, författare, Hillarp; Rut, marginalisering, Sverige, Thorvall; Kerstin, Kvinnsam: Sverige, litteraturvetenskap, modernismen, poesi, Sverige, Kvinnsam: 1940-talet, kvinnorörelsen, självbiografier, förfttare, 1970-talet, feminism, litteraturvetenskap, författare, Sverige, poesi, modernismen, kvinnobilden marginalisering, litteraturvetenskap, modernismen L36: Andræ, Marika, Rött eller grönt?: flicka blir kvinna och pojke L29: Gustafsson Rosenqvist, Barbro, Att skapa en ny värld: blir man i B. Wahlströms ungdomsböcker 1914-1944, Uppsala , samhällssyn, kvinnosyn och djuppsykologi hos Karin Boye, 2001 Uppsala , 1999 Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: G.092, G.092z Könsroller, Ad-cza B Wahlströms BIBLIOTEK: Gcz Boye; Karin, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: GENA: förlag, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Boye; Karin, författare, Kvinnsam: Författare, Sverige, 1900-talet, Ungdomsböcker>Sverige>1900-talet>1914-1944, litteraturvetenskap Bokförlag>Sverige>1900-talet, Flickböcker>Sverige>1900-talet, Flickböcker>Sverige>1900-talet, Könsroller i litteraturen, L30: Lagerström, Mona, Dramatisk teknik och könsideologi: Anne Pojkböcker>Sverige>1900-talet, könsroller, könsroller i Charlotte Lefflers tidiga kärleks- och äktenskapsdramatik, litteraturen GENA: 1900-talet, bokförlag, flickböcker, flickor, Göteborg , 1999 kvinnobilden, könsroller, mansbilden, pojkar, pojkböcker, Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA socialisation, Sverige, ungdomsböcker, uppfostran, Kvinnsam: BIBLIOTEK: Gcz Leffler; Anne Charlotte, SVENSKA litteraturvetenskap, ungdomsböcker, flickböcker, pojkböcker, 1900- ÄMNESORD: GENA: 1800-talet, författare, Leffler; Anne talet, Sverige, bokförlag, könsroller, socialisation, uppfostran, Charlotte, Sverige, Kvinnsam: Författare>Sverige>1800-talet flickor, pojkar, kvinnobilden, mansbilden

L31: Lofsvold, Laurel Ann, Fredrika Bremer and the writing of L37: Jonsson, Bibi, I den värld vi drömmer om: utopin i Elin America, Lund , 1999 Wägners trettiotalsromaner, Lund , 2001 Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Gcz Bremer; Fredrika, Nqa.07, SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Gcz Wägner: Elin, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: ÄMNESORD: GENA: Bremer; Fredrika, författare, resor, Sverige, GENA: 1930-talet, emancipation, feminism, författare, moderskap, Kvinnsam: författare, Sverige, resor Sverige, utopier, Wägner; Elin, Kvinnsam: författare, Sverige,

Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 19 J. Samuelsson. Knowledge Organization for Feminism and Feminist Research

itteraturvetenskap, utopier, 1930-talet, feminism, emancipation, författare, kvinnobilden, Norge, noveller, Sandel; Cora pseud. för moderskap Sara Fabricius, Kvinnsam: Sandel; Cora pseud. För Sara Fabricius, författare, Norge, 1900-talet, kvinnobilden, noveller L38: Kolbe, Gunlög, Om konsten att konstruera en kvinna: retoriska strategier i 1800-talets rådgivare och i Marie Sophie L44: Karlsson, Maria, Känslans röst: det melodramatiska i Selma Schwartz’ romaner, Göteborg , 2001 Lagerlöfs romankonst, Uppsala , 2002 Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Gcz Schwartz; Marie Sophie, Qcg:k.46, SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Gcz Lagerlöf; Selma, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: ÄMNESORD: Populärlitteratur>historia>Sverige>1800-talet, melodramer, Kvinnliga nobelpristagare>Sverige>analys och Svenska romaner>historia>1800-talet, tolkning GENA: 1800-talet, 1900-talet, feminism, författare, Kvinnorollen>Sverige>1800-talet, kvinnor i litteraturen, Svensk Lagerlöf: Selma, melodramer, Sverige, Kvinnsam: författare, Sverige, litteratur>kvinnliga författare>historia>1800-talet, könsroller i 1800-talet, 1900-talet, Feminism litteraturen, genus GENA: 1800-talet, författare, kvinnouppfattning, populärlitteratur, retorik, romaner, rådgivning, L45: Olsson, Annika, Att ge den andra sidan röst: rapportboken i Schwartz; Marie Sophie, strategier, Sverige, Kvinnsam: romaner, Sverige 1960-1980, Uppsala , 2002 Sverige, 1800-talet, författare, populärlitteratur, kvinnouppfattning, Femin.: yes , KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA rådgivning, retorik, strategier BIBLIOTEK: Gc.55, G:oa, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Svenska rapportböcker>historia GENA: 1960-talet, 1970-talet, L39: Nordenstam, Anna, Begynnelser: litteraturforskningens dokumentärskildringar, Ekelöf; Maja, etnicitet, författare, pionjärkvinnor 1850-1930, Göteborg , 2001 klasstillhörighet, Lidman; Sara, Myrdal; Jan, Sverige, Kvinnsam: Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA författare, 1960-talet, 1970-tlaet, Sverige, dokumentärskildringar, BIBLIOTEK: Ls-c.g, G:kc.46, G:kc.5, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: genus, etnicitet, klasstillhörighet Litteraturforskning>genusaspekter>Sverige>1800-talet>1900- talet GENA: 1800-talet, 1900-talet, Adlersparre; Sophie, Borelius; L46: Stolt, Gunvor, Att bryta egen väg: Jeanna Oterdahl i föredrag Hilma, Dagny, forskare, Hertha, kvinnorörelsen, litteraturkritik, och författarskap, Uppsala , 2002 pionjärer, Roos; Rosalie, Sverige, tidskrifter, Tidskrift för hemmet, Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Kvinnsam: pionjärer, litteraturvetenskap, Sverige, 1800-talet, 1900- BIBLIOTEK: Gcz Oterdahl; Jeanna, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: talet, forskare, Tidskrift för hemmet, kvinnorörelsen, Dagny, Kvinnliga författare>Sverige>1900-talet GENA: 1900-talet, Hertha, litteraturkritik föreläsningar, författare, kvinnobilden, Oterdahl; Jeanna, Sverige, utbildning, Kvinnsam: författare, Sverige, 1900-talet, utbildning, L40: Stenberg, Lisbeth, En genialisk lek: kritik och överskridande i kvinnobilden, föreläsningar Slema Lagerlöfs tidiga författarskap, Göteborg , 2001 Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA L47: Ulfgard, Maria, För att bli kvinna - och av lust: en studie i BIBLIOTEK: Gcz Lagerlöf: Selma, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: tonårsflickors läsning, Lund , 2002 Svensk litteratur>historia>1890-talet>sekelskiftet 1900 GENA: Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA 1800-talet, 1900-talet, feminism, författare, kärlek, Lagerlöf; Selma, BIBLIOTEK: G:oa, Oabkba-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: litteraturkritik, Sverige, utopier, Kvinnsam: författare, Sverige, Tonårsflickor>böcker och läsning>Sverige, 1800-talet, 1900-talet, utopier, kärlek, litteraturkritik, feminism Läsvanor>genusaspekter>Sverige, Litteraturreception>genusaspekter>Sverige, litteratursociologi L41: Öhrberg, Ann, Vittra fruntimmer: författarroll och retorik hos GENA: flickböcker, könsidentitet, litteraturvetenskap, läsning, frihetstidens kvinnliga författare, Uppsala , 2001 populärlitteratur, romaner, ungdomar, ungdomsböcker, Kvinnsam: Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA läsning, ungdomar, romaner, ungdomsböcker, könsidentitet, BIBLIOTEK: Gc.44, Gc.0972, G:oa, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: flickböcker, populärlitteratur, litteraturvetenskap Kvinnliga författare>Sverige>1700-talet, retorik, tillfällespoesi, politiska skrifter GENA: 1700-talet, Bragner; Anna Margareta von, författare, Nordenflycht; Hedvig Charlotta, poesi, retorik, Sverige, L48: Fjelkestam, Kristina, Ungkarlsflickor, kamrathustrur och Kvinnsam: 1700-talet, författare, litteraturvetenskap, Sverige, manhaftiga lesbianer: modernitetens litterära gestalter i retorik, poesi mellankrigstidens Sverige, Stockholm , 2002 Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA L42: Arping, Åsa, anspråksfulla blygsamheten: auktoritet och genus BIBLIOTEK: Gc.52, Gc.53, Gc.0972, G.096z, G.096z Lesbianism, i 1830-talets svenska romandebatt, Göteborg , 2002 SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Kvinnor i litteraturen, Svensk Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA litteratur>historia>1918-1939 (mellankrigstiden), Svenska BIBLIOTEK: Gc.01, Gc.0972, Gc.48, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: kvinnliga författare>historia>1918-1939 (mellankrigstiden) Kvinnliga författare, historia>Sverige>1830-talet, GENA: Bjerne; Ulla, kvinnlighet, kvinnobilden, lesbianism, Lindin; Litteraturkritik>genusaspekter>historia>Sverige>1830-talet Ester, mellankrigstiden, Suber; Margareta, Sverige, Kvinnsam: GENA: 1830-talet, Bremer; Fredrika, Flygare-Carlén; Emilie, litteraturvetenskap, mellankrigstiden, Sverige, kvinnobilden, författare, Knorring; Sophie von, litteraturkritik, kvinnlighet, lesbianism litteraturvetenskap, romaner, Sverige, Kvinnsam: L49: Lindén, Claudia, Om kärlek: litteratur, sexualitet och politik L43: Billing, AnnaCarin, Hvad er sannhet?: studier i Cora Sandels hos Ellen Key, Stockholm , 2002 novellistik, Uppsala , 2002 Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Lz Key; Ellen, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: BIBLIOTEK: Gdb.01, Gdb.5, Gdbz Sandel; Cora, SVENSKA Kärlek>genusaspekter, Sexualitet>genusaspekter GENA: ÄMNESORD: Modernism (litteratur)>Norge GENA: 1900-talet, feminism, feministisk teori, genus, jämställdhet, Key; Ellen, 20 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 J. Samuelsson. Knowledge Organization for Feminism and Feminist Research

kristendom, kvinnorörelsen, kärlek, litteraturvetenskap, sexualitet, GENA: 1900-talet, feministisk teori, författare, Lilja; Gertrud, Svenska Ämnesordrartsteori, Kvinnsam: feminism, kärlek, litteraturvetenskap, modernismen, Sverige, Kvinnsam: jämställdhet, sexualitet, litteraturvetenskap, feministisk teori, kvinnorörelsen, Svenska Ämnesordrartsteori, kristendom, genus L57: Löfgren, Maria, Emancipationens gränser: Emilie Flygare- Carléns 1840-tals romaner och kvinnans ställning, Umeå , 2003 L50: Staberg, Jakob, Att skapa en ny man: C. J. L. Almqvist och Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA MannaSamfund 1816-1824, Stockholm , 2002 BIBLIOTEK: Gcz Flygare-Carlén; Emilie, SVENSKA Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Svensk litteratur>kvinnliga författare>1800-talet, BIBLIOTEK: Gcz Almqvist; Carl Jonas Love, Bkz Mannasamfund, kvinnor i litteraturen, Svenska romaner>teman och motiv>1800- SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: GENA: Almqvist; Carl Jonas Love, talet GENA: 1800-talet, emancipation, Flygare-Carlén; Emilie, litteraturvetenskap, manlighet, manskultur, nätverk, sekelskiftet, författare, kvinnobilden, Sverige, Kvinnsam: författare, Sverige, Sverige, Kvinnsam: manskultur, sekelskiftet, nätverk, manlighet, 1800-talet, emancipation, kvinnobilden Sverige, litteraturvetenskap L58: Strand, Karin, Känsliga bitar: text- och kontextstudier i L51: Svens, Christina, Regi med feministiska förtecken: Suzanne sentimental populärsång, Umeå , 2003 Osten på teatern, Umeå , 2002 Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Gc.03, Ijxpb-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Schlager BIBLIOTEK: Ikz Osten; Suzanne, Ikab, SVENSKA och evergreens>historia>Sverige>1900-talet, ÄMNESORD: Kvinnliga regissörer>Sverige>1900-talet>2000- Populärmusik>historia>Sverige>1900-talet, talet, Teaterregi>genusaspekter GENA: dramatik, feminism, Populärmusik>historia>Sverige>1900-talet, kvinnokultur, kvinnorörelsen, Osten; Suzanne, regissörer, Sverige, Sångtexter>historia>Sverige>1900-talet GENA: 1900-talet, teater, Kvinnsam: regissörer, teater, feminism, dramatik, Sverige, kvinnobilden, känslor, populärmusik, publik, romantik, Sverige, 1900-talet, 2000-talet, kvinnorörelsen, kvinnokultur sångare: män, Kvinnsam: populärmusik, känslor, sångare: män, romantik, publik, kvinnobilden, 1900-talet, Sverige L52: Bergenmar, Jenny, Förvildade hjärtan: livets estetik och berättandets etik i Selma Lagerlöfs Gösta Berlings saga, Göteborg , L59: Ursing, Anna Maria, Fantastiska fröknar: studier av 2003 lärarinnegestalter i svensk skönlitteratur , Lund , 2004 Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Gcz Lagerlöf; Selma, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: BIBLIOTEK: Gc,46, Gc.5, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Lärarinnor i GENA: 1890-talet, författare, Lagerlöf; Selma, Sverige, Kvinnsam: litteraturen, svensk litteratur>historia>1800-talet>1900-talet Lagerlöf; Selma, författare, Sverige, 1890-talet, GENA: 1800-talet, 1900-talet, kvinnobilden, litteraturvetenskap, lärare, Sverige, Kvinnsam: Litteraturvetenskap>Sverige>1800- L53: Dofs Sundin, Monica, Rödluvan i filmens tidsålder: sagospår talet>1900-talet, lärare, kvinnobilden och filmversioner 1901-2001, Lund , 2003 Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA L60: Söderberg, Eva, Askunge, madonna eller feminist: kontextuella BIBLIOTEK: Imba.5, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Folksagor i läsningar av Martha Sandwall-Bergströms Kulla-Gullasvit, Umeå , filmen, Rödluvan (fiktiv gestalt) GENA: 1900-talet, film, 2004 intertextualitet, kvinnobilden, litteraturvetenskap, myter, Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA pornografi, Rödluvan, sagor, sexualitet, Kvinnsam: Rödluvan, BIBLIOTEK: Gc.092, Gcz Sandwall-Bergström; Martha, litteraturvetenskap, film, kvinnobilden, sexualitet, sagor, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Kulla-Gulla (fiktiv gestalt), Barn- och intertextualitet, 1900-talet, myter, pornografi ungdomslitteratur>historia>Sverige>1900-talet, Flickböcker>historia>Sverige>1900-talet GENA: 1900-talet, L54: Ehrenberg, Maria, Sagans förvandlingar: Eva Wigström som feministisk teori, flickböcker, författare, genus, kvinnobilden, sagosamlare och sagoförfattare, Lund , 2003 Sandwall-Bergström; Martha, Sverige, Kvinnsam: Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Författare>Sverige>1900-talet, Flickböcker>kvinnobilden, BIBLIOTEK: Gcz Wigström; Eva, G.07, SVENSKA feministisk teori ÄMNESORD: Folksagor>historia, Konstsagor>historia>Sverige>1800-talet, narratologi, muntligt L61: Mäntymäki, Tiina, Hard & soft: the male detective’s body in berättande GENA: 1800-talet, författare, litteraturvetenskap, contemporary European crime fiction, Linköping, 2004 muntlig tradition, sagor, Sverige, Wigström; Eva, Kvinnsam: Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA författare, Sverige, sagor, litteraturvetenskap, 1800-talet, muntlig BIBLIOTEK: G.0977, G.096z Manlighet, G.59, SVENSKA tradition ÄMNESORD: Deckare>historia>1990-talet>sekelskiftet 2000, manlighet i litteraturen, människokroppen i litteraturen GENA: L55: Graeske, Caroline, Bortom ödelandet: en studie i Stina 1900-talet, 2000-talet, detektivromaner, Europa, Finland, genus, Aronsons författarskap, Uppsala , 2003 Italien, kropp, litteraturvetenskap, manlighet, mansbilden, Spanien, Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Storbritannien, Sverige, Kvinnsam: BIBLIOTEK: Gcz Aronsson; Stina, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Litteraturvetenskap>Europa>1900-talet>2000-talet, GENA: 1900-talet, Aronson; Stina, författare, litteraturvetenskap, detektivromaner, manlighet, mansbilden, kropp, genus Sverige, Kvinnsam: författare, 1900-talet, Sverige L62: Lindell, Ingrid, Att se och synas: filmutbud, kön och L56: Nilson, Maria, Att förhålla sig till moderniteten: en studie i modernitet, Göteborg , 2004 Gertrud Liljas författarskap, Lund , 2003 Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Imaa, Imb-c, Imb-da, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: BIBLIOTEK: Gcz Lilja; Gertrud, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: kvinnor i filmen, könsroller i filmen, Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 21 J. Samuelsson. Knowledge Organization for Feminism and Feminist Research

Film>genusaspekter>historiaSverige>1996 GENA: feministisk S4: Dahlgren, Anita, Två världar : om skillnader mellan unga teori, film, kvinnobilden, publik, representation, Trier; Lars von, kvinnors och unga mäns verklighetssyn:, Lund , 1977 Kvinnsam: Film>kvinnobilden>1990-talet, representation, publik, Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA feministisk teori BIBLIOTEK: Oab, Ohj-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: GENA: attityder, könsolikheter, ungdomar, Kvinnsam: attityder, L63: Gedin, David, Fältets herrar: framväxten av en modern könsolikheter, könsroller, sexologi, sexualitet, Sverige författarroll : artonhundraåttiotalet, Stockholm , 2004 Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA S5: Widerberg, Karin, Kvinnans rättsliga och sociala ställning i BIBLIOTEK: Gc.49, G:oa, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Sverige 1750-1976, Lund , 1978 Författaryrket>sociala aspekter>historia>Sverige>1880-talet Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA GENA: 1880-talet, borgerligheten, författare, författare: män, BIBLIOTEK: Kc, Ohj-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: identitet, litteraturvetenskap, marginalisering, sedlighet, Sverige, Kvinnor>rättslig ställning>Sverige GENA: 1700-talet, 1800-talet, Kvinnsam: Litteraturvetenskap>Sverige>1880-talet, 1900-talet, rättslig ställning, social ställning, Kvinnsam: historia, borgerligheten, sedlighet, författare, marginalisering, identitet, marxism, sociologi, rättslig ställning, social ställning, juridik, 1700- författare: män talet, 1800-talet, 1900-talet

L64: Björklund, Jenny, Hoppets lyrik. tre diktare och en ny bild av S6: Månsson, Sven-Axel, Könshandelns främjare och profitörer: om fyrtiotalismen, Uppsala , 2004 förhållandet mellan hallick och prostituerad, Lund , 1981 Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Gcz Hillbäck; Ella, Gcz Hillarp; Rut, Gcz Dahlquist- BIBLIOTEK: Oab-c, Ohj-c, Vnd, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Ljungberg; Ann Margaret , SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: modernism GENA: prostitution, Kvinnsam: prostitution (litteratur), fyrtiotalismen, svensk poesi>kvinnliga författare>historia>1940-talet GENA: 1940-talet, Dahlquist- S7: Streijffert, Helena, Studier i den svenska kvinnorörelsen, Ljungberg; Ann Margret, författare, genus, Hillarp; Rut, Hillbäck; Göteborg , 1983 Ella, litteraturvetenskap, modernismen, poesi, Sverige, Kvinnsam: Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Författare>Sverige>1940-talet, poesi, genus BIBLIOTEK: Ohj-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Kvinnorörelsen>historia>Sverige, Feminism>Sverige, Genus L65: Nordlund, Anna, Selma Lagerlöfs underbara resa genom den (socialt kön)>Sverige GENA: Fredrika Bremer-förbundet, svenska litteraturhistorien 1891-1996, Uppsala , 2005 föreningar, kvinnorörelsen, politiska förbund, Sveriges Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA socialdemokratiska kvinnoförbund, Kvinnsam: Fredrika Bremer- BIBLIOTEK: Gcz Lagerlöf; Selma, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: förbundet, föreningar, kvinnorörelsen, politiska partier, Sveriges GENA: 1800-talet, 1900-talet, författare, historiografi, Lagerlöf; socialdemokratiska kvinnoförbund Selma, litteraturkritik, litteraturvetenskap, Sverige, Kvinnsam: Författare>Sverige>1800-talet>1900-talet, litteraturvetenskap, S8: Lundström-Roche, Francesca, Women in prison: ideals and historiografi, litteraturkritik reals, Stockholm , 1985 Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Sociology BIBLIOTEK: Oeq-c, Oeq-et, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: GENA: fängelser, Irland, kriminalvård, kriminalvårdare, Sverige, Kvinnsam: S1: Berglind, Hans, Valet mellan hem och yrke: en sociologisk kriminalvård analys av en valsituation med tillämpning på gifta sjuksköterskor, Stockholm , 1968 S9: Lindgren, Gerd, Kamrater, kollegor och kvinnor: en studie av Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA könssegregeringsprocessen i två mansdominerade organisationer, BIBLIOTEK: Oaba, Ohafb-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: GENA: Umeå , 1985 familjen, gifta kvinnor, sjuksköterskor, Sverige, vårdyrken, Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA yrkesarbete, Kvinnsam: familjen, sjuksköterskor, yrkesarbete, BIBLIOTEK: Ohafb-c, Ohj-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Sverige, vårdyrken, 1900-talet, yrkesval, gifta kvinnor Kvinnor>arbete och arbetsmarknad>Sverige, Könssegregation>Sverige GENA: arbetsförhållanden, ingenjörer, S2: Eliasson, Rosmari, Könsdifferenser i sexuellt beteende och könsdiskriminering, könssegregering, Kvinnsam: arbeterskor, attityder till sexualitet:, Lund , 1971 arbetsförhållanden, ingenjörer, könsdiskriminering, Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA könssegregering BIBLIOTEK: Oab-c, Vnd, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: GENA: attityder, könsolikheter, könsroller, sexologi, sexualitet, Sverige, S10: Fürst, Gunilla, Reträtten från mansjobben: en studie av Kvinnsam: attityder, könsolikheter, könsroller, sexologi, sexualitet, industriarbetande kvinnor och arbetsdelningen mellan könen på en Sverige intern arbetsmarknad, Göteborg , 1985 Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA S3: Sellerberg, Ann-Mari, Kvinnorna på den svenska BIBLIOTEK: Oaba-c, Ohafb-c, Ohj-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: arbetsmarknaden under 1900-talet: en sociologisk analys av GENA: arbetsmarknad, industriarbete, jämställdhet, kvinnornas underordnade position i arbetslivet, Lund , 1973 könssegregering, Kvinnsam: arbetsmarknad, industriarbete, Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA jämställdhet, könssegregering BIBLIOTEK: Ohafb-c, Ohj-c, Oab-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: GENA: 1900-talet, arbetsliv, arbetsmarknad, klasstillhörighet, S11: Bjéren, Gunilla, Migration to Shashemene: ethnicity, gender könsolikheter, Sverige, yrkesarbete, Kvinnsam: 1900-talet, arbetsliv, and occupation in urban Ethiopia*, Stockholm , 1986 arbetsmarknad, klasstillhörighet, könsolikheter, Sverige, Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA yrkesarbete BIBLIOTEK: Ojc-pga, Oabba-pga, Mpga, SVENSKA 22 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 J. Samuelsson. Knowledge Organization for Feminism and Feminist Research

ÄMNESORD: GENA: arbetsmarknad, Etiopien, etnicitet, S19: Davies, Karen, Women and time: weaving the strands of levnadsförhållanden, migration, städer, Kvinnsam: städer, migration, everyday life, Lund , 1989 Etiopien, etnicitet, arbetsmarknad, levnadsförhållanden Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Ohafb-c, Ohja-c, Djc, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: S12: Gisselberg, Margareta, Att stå vid spisen och föda barn: om GENA: arbetslöshet, lönearbete, mödrar, tid, vardagslivet, hushållsarbete som kvinnoarbete, Umeå , 1986 Kvinnsam: arbetslöshet, arbete, mödrar, tid, vardagslivet Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Ohj-c, Qc, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: GENA: S20: WerSvenska Ämnesordll, Britt-Louise, Veckotidningsnovellen hushållsarbete, kvinnokultur, reproduktion, Kvinnsam: 1950-1975: en sociologisk analys*, Lund , 1989 hushållsarbete, kvinnokultur, reproduktion Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: G:oa, Gc.093, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: GENA: S13: Portocarero, Lucienne, Social mobility in industrial societies: könsroller, populärlitteratur, veckotidningar, veckotidningsnoveller, women in France and Sweden*, Stockholm , 1987 Kvinnsam: könsroller, populärlitteratur, veckotidningar, noveller Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Ohja-c, Ohja-j, Ohafb-c, Ohafb-j, SVENSKA S21: Lindholm, Margareta, Talet om det kvinnliga: studier i ÄMNESORD: GENA: Frankrike, social bakgrund, social ställning, feministiskt tänkande i Sverige under 1930-talet, Göteborg , 1990 Sverige, äktenskap, Kvinnsam: Frankrike, social bakgrund, social Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA ställning, Sverige, äktenskap BIBLIOTEK: Ohja-c:k.5, Lz Myrdal, Alva, Gcz Wägner, Elin, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Feminism>historia>Sverige>1930- S14: Cwejman, Klassifikationssystem för svenska bibliotekina, talet GENA: 1930-talet, feminism, Myrdal; Alva, utopier, Wägner: Befrielse eller exploatering?: om kvinnoliv i statens, kyrkans och Elin, Kvinnsam: Feminism>Sverige, Feminism, Myrdal; Alva, frihetsrörelsens Polen, Göteborg , 1987 Utopier, Wägner; Elin, 1930-talet Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Ohja-mb, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: GENA: S22: Ekström, Marianne, Kost, klass och kön*, Umeå , 1990 katolicism, Polen, politik, reproduktion, yrkesarbete, Kvinnsam: Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA katolicism, Polen, politik, reproduktion, förvärvsarbete BIBLIOTEK: Qc-c:oa, Oac-c, Ohj-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: GENA: hushåll, husmödrar, klassamhället, mat, samlevnad, S15: Peterson, Abby, Women in political movement, Göteborg , Kvinnsam: hushåll, husmödrar, klassamhället, mat, samlevnad 1987 Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA S23: Lundberg, Olle, Den ojämlika ohälsan: om klass- och BIBLIOTEK: Ohja, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: kvinnor i politiken könsskillnader i sjuklighet*, Stockholm , 1990 GENA: fredsrörelsen, kvinnorörelsen, miljörörelsen, politik, Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Sverige, Kvinnsam: fredsrörelsen, kvinnorörelsen, miljörörelsen, BIBLIOTEK: Oabka-c, V:oa, Vnac-c, Oabk-c, Ohj-c, SVENSKA politik, Sverige ÄMNESORD: Hälsa>klasskillnader, hälsa>könsskillnader GENA: hälsa, klasstillhörighet, könsolikheter, sjukdomar, Sverige, S16: Håkansson, Per Arne, Längtan och livsform: homosexuellas Kvinnsam: hälsa, genus, könsolikheter, kasstillhörighet, Sverige, situation i ett heterosexuellt samhälle, Lund , 1987 sjukdomar Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Ohjh, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: S24: Billing, Yvonne Due, Køn, karriere, familie:, Lund , 1991 Homosexualitet>Sverige, Homosexualitet>attityder till, Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Homosexualitet>genusaspekter, Lesbiska kvinnor>Sverige BIBLIOTEK: Ohafb, Qbab, Ohja, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: GENA: homosexualitet, könsidentitet, levnadsförhållanden, Kvinnor>arbete och arbetsmarknad>ledarskap GENA: relationer, Kvinnsam: homosexualitet, levnadsförhållanden, arbetsmarknad, familjen, karriär, könsdiskriminering, ledarskap, könsidentitet, relationer Kvinnsam: arbetsmarknad, familjen , karriär, könsdiskriminering, ledarskap S17: Esseveld, Johanna, Beyond silence: middle-aged women in the 1970’s, Lund , 1988 S25: Morgall, Janine Marie, Developing technology assessment: a Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA critical feminist approach, Lund , 1991 BIBLIOTEK: Ohja-qa, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: GENA: Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA levnadsförhållanden, medelåldern, USA, Kvinnsam: BIBLIOTEK: P:oa, Ohja, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: GENA: levnadsförhållanden, medelåldern, USA feminism, reproduktionsteknologi, teknik, Kvinnsam: teknik, feminism, utvärderingar, samhällsstruktur, genus, reproduktion, S18: Ahlberg, Beth Maina, Women’s collective participation in organisation, kontorister development: a socio-cultural and historical analysis of mobilization of women for collective action with special emphasis on health and S26: Ahanmisi, Osholayemi, Strength in weakness: Bini women in reproduction : a case study of women’s groups in Kiharu division, affinal relations, Lund , 1992 Mureng’a district, Kenya, Uppsala , 1988 Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: My-pcdd, Ohja-pcdd, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: BIBLIOTEK: Ohja-pfb, My-pfb, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: GENA: arvsrätt, ekonomisk ställning, gifta kvinnor, Nigeria, GENA: hälsa, Kenya, kvinnorörelsen, samhällsutveckling, polygami, samhällsförändring, släktskap, social ställning, Kvinnsam: Kvinnsam: historia, Kenya, kvinnorörelsen, samhällsutveckling, ekonomisk ställning, polygami, Nigeria, samhällsförändring, social hälsa ställning, arvsrätt, gifta kvinnor, släktskap

Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 23 J. Samuelsson. Knowledge Organization for Feminism and Feminist Research

S27: Axelsson, Christina, Hemmafrun som försvann: övergången medicinhistoria, offentliga sektorn, organisation, till lönearbete bland gifta kvinnor i Sverige 1968-1981, Stockholm , professionalisering, samhällsförändring, sjuksköterskor, Sverige, 1992 utbildning, vård, Kvinnsam: medicinhistoria, sjuksköterskor, Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA samhällsförändring, professionalisering, vård, organisation, BIBLIOTEK: Ohja-c, Ohafb-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: utbildning, Sverige, offentliga sektorn Kvinnor>arbete och arbetsmarknad>Sverige GENA: 1970-talet, gifta kvinnor, hemmafruar, lönearbete, välfärd, Kvinnsam: gifta S34: Schreiber, Trine, Forhåbninger og skuffelser i kvinnor, hemmafruar, arbete, välfärd, 1970-talet kvindeerhvervene: kvinders møde med ny teknologi og organisatorisk forandring*, Umeå , 1994 S28: Morhed, Anne-Marie, Mellan kvinnofråga och Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA kvinnovetenskap: om kvinnodiskursens utveckling och BIBLIOTEK: Ohafb, Puoh, Oaba, Ohja, SVENSKA disciplinering, Uppsala , 1993 ÄMNESORD: Ny teknik, kvinnor och teknik GENA: Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA arbetsförhållanden, arbetsupplevelse, bibliotekarier, datorisering, BIBLIOTEK: Ohja, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: feminism GENA: kontorister, organisation, yrkesarbete, Kvinnsam: datorisering, feminism, forskningsperspektiv, kvinnofrågan, kvinnorörelsen, arbetsförhållanden, kontorister, bibliotekarier, yrkesarbete, marxistisk teori, Kvinnsam: feminism, teori, forskningsperspektiv, organisation, arbetsupplevelse kvinnohistoria, marxistisk teori, kvinnorörelsen, kvinnofrågan S35: Blomqvist, Martha, Könshierarkier i gungning: kvinnor i S29: Olsson, Sven-Erik, Kvinnor i arbete och reproduktion: kunskapsföretag, Uppsala , 1994 havandeskapspenningens tillämpning*, Lund , 1993 Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Oaba, Ohafb-c, Ohja, Ob-c, Ohafb, SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Okcb-c, Ohafb-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: ÄMNESORD: Kvinnor>arbete och arbetsmarknad>Sverige GENA: arbete, förSvenska Ämnesordkring, havandeskap, lagar, GENA: arbetsfördelning, arbetsgivarpolitik, datayrken, företag, reproduktion, rättslig ställning, socialpolitik, Sverige, välfärd, hierarkier, könssegregering, ledarskap, organisation, reklam, Kvinnsam: graviditet, arbete, reproduktion, Sverige, ekonomi, Sverige, Kvinnsam: företag, datayrken, arbetsgivarpolitik, rättslig ställning, lagar, socialpolitik, välfärd, forskning organisation, reklam, hierarkier, könssegregering, ledarskap, arbetsfördelning S30: Schlytter, Astrid, Om rättvisa i barnomsorgen: den kommunala barnomsorgens fördelningsregler ur ett S36: Roman, Christine, Lika på olika villkor: könssegregering i vardagsperspektiv, Lund , 1993 kunskapsföretag, Uppsala , 1994 Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Femin.: yes , KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Ohfb-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: BIBLIOTEK: Ohafb-c, Ohja-c, Qb-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Barnomsorg>Sverige, kommunal Service GENA: barnomsorg, Kvinnor>arbete och arbetsmarknad>Sverige GENA: feminism, föräldrar, kommunala tjänster, lagar, mödrar, rättvisa, arbetsfördelning, dubbelarbete, företag, information, jämställdhet, Sverige, Kvinnsam: barnomsorg, lagar, mödrar, rätvisa, föräldrar, karriär, kunskap, könssegregering, Sverige, yrkesarbetande mödrar, Sverige, feminism, kommunala tjänster Kvinnsam: Sverige, jämställdhet, arbetsfördelning, könssegregering, karriär, information, företag, kunskap, yrkesarbetande mödrar, S31: Hägg, Kerstin, Kvinnor och män i Kiruna: om kön och vardag i dubbelarbete förändring i ett modernt gruvsamhälle 1900-1990, Umeå , 1993 Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA S37: Knoll, Thomas, Not a piece of cake: ambivalence about female- BIBLIOTEK: Ohj-c, Oabka-cz Kiruna, Ohj-cciz Kiruna, headed families*, Lund , 1995 SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Könsroller>Sverige>Lappland>1900- Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA 1990 GENA: 1900-talet, arbetsfördelning, Kiruna, könsidentitet, BIBLIOTEK: Oac-qa, Oab-qa, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: omsorg, samhällsutveckling, ungdomar, vardagslivet, Kvinnsam: Familjesociologi>Förenta Staterna, Kvinnor>Förenta Staterna, 1900-talet, arbetsfördelning, Kiruna, könsidentitet, omsorg, Ensamstående mödrar>Förenta Staterna GENA: ensamstående samhällsutveckling, ungdomar, vardagslivet, genus mödrar, familjestruktur, USA, Kvinnsam: familjestruktur, ensamstående mödrar, USA; sociologi S32: Holmberg, Carin, Det kallas kärlek: en socialpsykologisk studie om kvinnors underordning och mäns överordning bland S38: Mulinari, Diana, Motherwork and politics in revolutionary unga jämställda par, Göteborg , 1993 Nicaragua: Huellas de Dolor y Esperanza, Lund , 1995 Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Oac-c, Ohj-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: BIBLIOTEK: Ocf-qce:oa, Ohja-qce, Ocf-qce, SVENSKA Könsroller>Sverige, Parrelationer>Sverige, könsmaktsordning ÄMNESORD: Kvinnor och politik>Nicaragua, GENA: arbetsfördelning, hushållsarbete, jämställdhet, kärlek, Moderskap>Nicaragua, Kvinnor och politik>Nicaragua GENA: parförhållanden, patriarkalism, sexualitet, Sverige, vardagslivet, feminism, moderskap, motstånd, Nicaragua, politik, revolutioner, Kvinnsam: arbetsfördelning, hushållsarbete, jämställdhet, kärlek, Svenska Ämnesordrartsteori, Kvinnsam: feminism, moderskap, parförhållanden, patriarkalism, sexualitet, Sverige, vardagslivet, motstånd, Nicaragua, politik, revolutioner, Svenska kvinnorollen, genus Ämnesordrartsteori, forskningsmetodik

S33: Lannerheim, Lena, Syster blir till: en sociologisk studie av S39: Ljung, Margareta, Lyft jorden mot himlen: växande i sjuksköterskeyrkets framväxt och omformering, Göteborg , 1994 kvinnogrupper och kvinnliga nätverk, Göteborg , 1995 Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Ep-c.06v, Vpd-c, Ep.06v, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: BIBLIOTEK: Ohja-c, Oaa, Ohja, Ohja:k, SVENSKA Sjuksköterskeutbildning>Sverige, Sjuksköterskor>Sverige GENA: ÄMNESORD: Kvinnorörelsen>Sverige, sociala nätverk, 24 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 J. Samuelsson. Knowledge Organization for Feminism and Feminist Research

kvinnoforskning: Sverige, kvinnor: Sverige GENA: ekofeminism, Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA grupper, kollektiv, kreativitet, kvinnorörelsen, könsidentitet, BIBLIOTEK: Ohdib-c, M, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: nätverk, rum, subjekt, utveckling, Kvinnsam: nätverk, genus, rum, Invandrarkvinnor>Sverige, Syrianer>Sverige, Kulturell grupper, kreativitet, ekofeminism, kollektiv, könsidentitet, subjekt, Identitet>Sverige, Kulturmöten>Sverige, Invandrare>Sverige utveckling, kvinnorörelsen GENA: identitet, invandrare, kulturer, levnadsförhållanden, Sverige, syrianer, Kvinnsam: syrianskor, Sverige, invandrare, identitet,teori, S40: Gudbjörg Linda Rafnsdóttir,, Kvinnofack eller integrering som levnadsförhållanden, kulturer strategi mot underordning: diskussion kring kvinnliga fackföreningar på Island, Lund , 1995 S46: Jeffner, Stina, Liksom våldtäkt typ: om betydelsen av kön och Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA heterosexualitet för ungdomars förståelse av våldtäkt, Uppsala , BIBLIOTEK: Ohai-dc, Ohafb-dc. Ohja-dc, SVENSKA 1997 ÄMNESORD: Fackföreningar>Island, Kvinnor>arbete och Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA arbetsmarknad>Island GENA: arbetarkvinnor, arbetsförhållanden, BIBLIOTEK: Oabkba-c, Vndp, Ohj-c, Vndp-c, SVENSKA arbetsmarknad, fackföreningar, facklig verksamhet, Island, ÄMNESORD: heterosexualitet, könsroller, ungdomar GENA: könssegregering, lönearbete, Kvinnsam: fackföreningar, Island, feminism, heterosexualitet, normer, teori, ungdomar, våldtäkt, arbete, arbetarkvinnor, könssegregering, arbetsförhållanden, värderingar, Kvinnsam: feminism, heterosexualitet, normer, teori, arbetsmarknad, facklig verksamhet ungdomar, våldtäkt, värderingar, genus

S41: Waara, Peter, Ungdom i gränsland, Umeå , 1996 S47: Akpinar, Aylin, Male’s honour and female’s shame: gender and Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA ethnic identity constructions among Turkish divorcées in the BIBLIOTEK: Oabkba, Oabbc, Oabka-c, Oabb-c, SVENSKA migration context, Uppsala , 1998 ÄMNESORD: Ungdomar och könsroller>Sverige>Tornedalen, Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Ungdomar och könsroller>Sverige>Norrbotten, ungdomar på BIBLIOTEK: Ohdib-c, Oac-c, Ohj-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: landsbygden, Ungdomar på landsbygden>Sverige>Norrbotten Invandrarkvinnor>Sverige, Turkar>Sverige GENA: etnicitet, GENA: identitet, könsidentitet, socialisation, tonåringar, familjen, heder, identitet, invandrare, könsidentitet, lönearbete, ungdomar, utveckling, Kvinnsam: ungdomar, Sverige, frigörelse, migration, nätverk, patriarkalism, skilsmässa, Sverige, turkiskor, identitet, 1900-talet, psykologi, sociologi, tonåringar, socialisation, Kvinnsam: migration, genus, identitet, etnicitet, skilsmässa, utveckling, könsidentiet familjen, heder, patriarkalism, turkiskor, invandrare, Sverige, nätverk,arbete, könsidentitet S42: Torgerdur, Einarsddottir, Läkaryrket i förändring: en studie av den medicinska professionens heterogenisering och S48: Nilsson Lindström, Margareta, Tradition och överskridande: könsdifferentiering*, Göteborg , 1997 en studie av flickors perspektiv på utbildning, Lund , 1998 Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Vpd-c:oa, Ohj-c:oa, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: BIBLIOTEK: Em-c:oa, Oabkba, Ohja, Oabkba-c, Ohja-c, könsroller, Könsroller>Sociologi>Sverige GENA: familjen, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Utbildningsval>flickor, hierarkier, karriär, könsolikheter, läkare, professionalisering, Flickor>Sverige, Könsroller>självförverkligande, social Sverige, yrkesutbildning, Kvinnsam: familjen, forskning, karriär, segregation, traditioner, utbildningsval GENA: flickor, intervjuer, könsolikheter, läkare, Sverige, yrkesutbildning, professionalisering, Sverige, utbildning, ämnesval, Kvinnsam: flickor, utbildning, genus, hierarkier Sverige, ämnesval

S43: Franssén, Agneta, Omsorg i tanke och handling: en studie av S49: Hemström, Örjan, Male susceptibility and female kvinnors arbete i vården, Lund , 1997 emancipation: studies on the gender difference in mortality*, Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Stockholm , 1998 BIBLIOTEK: Vpd-c, Ohja-c, Ohafb-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA GENA: arbetsfördelning, arbetsförhållanden, familjen, makt, BIBLIOTEK: Oja-c, Ohj-c, Oja, Ohj, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: omsorg, organisation, Sverige, vård, vårdyrken, Kvinnsam: vård, könsskillnader, mortalitet GENA: dödlighet, frigörelse, hälsa, omsorg, vårdyrken, familjen, arbetsfördelning, Sverige, könsolikheter, könsroller, levnadsförhållanden, social ställning, organisation, arbetsförhållanden, makt Sverige, Kvinnsam: dödlighet, könsolikheter, socialmedicin, Sverige, hälsa, social ställning, levnadsförhållanden, könsroller, frigörelse S44: Barron, Karin, Diklassifikationssystem för svenska bibliotekility and gender: autonomy as an indication of adulthood, S50: Dryler, Helen, Educational choice in Sweden: studies on the Uppsala , 1997 importance of gender and social contexts, Stockholm , 1998 Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Oabk-c, Ohfh-c, Ohj-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: BIBLIOTEK: Em-c:oa, Em-c, Ep-c, Ohja-c, Ex-c, Ohj-c, Personer med funktionshinder>sociologiska aspekter, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Könsskillnader>Sverige, föräldrar och Könsroller>Sverige GENA: beroende, etik, frihet, handikappade, barn, Könsroller>Sverige, sociala klasser GENA: förebilder, identitet, levnadsförhållanden, normer, Sverige, ungdomar, föräldrar, högskolan, jämställdhet, klasstillhörighet, skolan, Sverige, Kvinnsam: etik, identitet, handikappade, Sverige, genus, universitet, utbildning, valfrihet, Kvinnsam: utbildning, genus, forskningsperspektiv, levnadsförhållanden, ungdomar, frihet, Sverige, föräldrar, förebilder, skolan, universitet, högskolan, beroende, normer jämställdhet, valfrihet, klasstillhörighet, sociologi

S45: Freyne-Lindhagen, Marianne, Identitet och kulturmöte: S51: Johansson, Anna, mujer sufrida = The suffering woman: syrianska kvinnors exempel : en diskussion om grounded theory*, narratives on femininity among women in a Nicaraguan barrio, Lund , 1997 Göteborg , 1999 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 25 J. Samuelsson. Knowledge Organization for Feminism and Feminist Research

Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA S57: Nermo, Magnus, Structured by gender: patterns of sex- BIBLIOTEK: Ohja-qce, My-qce, Mqce, Nqce, SVENSKA segregation in the Swedish labour market : historical and cross- ÄMNESORD: GENA: fattigdom, feministisk teori, hemmet, national comparisions, Stockholm , 2000 könsidentitet, könsroller, Latinamerika, livsloppsberättelser, Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA mödrar, Nicaragua, relationer, Kvinnsam: Nicaragua, Latinamerika, BIBLIOTEK: Ohj-c, Ohaf-c, Ohafb-c, Oaba-c, SVENSKA feministisk teori, könsidentitet, etnologi, hemmet, könsroller, ÄMNESORD: Arbetsmarknad>Sverige>könsdiskriminering mödrar, livsberättelser, relationer, kvinnorollen, fattigdom GENA: 1900-talet, arbetsmarknad, genusarbetsdelning, jämställdhet, Sverige, yrkesarbete, Kvinnsam: S52: Asztalos Morell, Ildikó, Emancipation’s dead-end roads?: studies in the formation and development of the Hungarian model S58: Christenson, Eva, Herraväldets processer: en studie av for agriculture and gender (1956-1989), Uppsala , 1999 kvinnors förslitningsskadesituation och könade processer i tre olika Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA slags arbetsorganisationer, Stockholm , 2000 BIBLIOTEK: Qd-fc:k.56, Ohj-c:k.56, Oabbc-fc, Ohaf-fc:k.56, Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: BIBLIOTEK: Vnbf, Ohafb, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Jordbrukskooperation>genusaspekter>historia>Ungern>1956- Belastningsskador>genusaspekter, Arbetsskador>genusaspekter, 1989, Kvinnor>arbete och Kvinnor>arbete och arbetsmarknad, yrkesskador GENA: arbetsmarknad>historia>Ungern>1956-1989, affärsanställda, arbetsförhållanden, arbetsskador, brevbärare, Könsarbetsdelning>historia>Ungern>1956-1989, genusarbetsdelning, heterosexualitet, industriarbetare, Jämställdhetspolitik>historia>Ungern>1956-1989 GENA: 1900- könsolikheter, sexualitet, Sverige, yrkesmedicin, Kvinnsam: talet, arbetsmarknad, ekonomi, historia, kooperation, könsroller, arbetsförhållanden, sexualitet, yrkesmedicin, genusarbetsdelning, könssegregering, lantbruk, produktion, relationer, heterosexualitet, könsolikheter, Sverige, arbetsskador, samhällsförändring, socialism, Ungern, Kvinnsam: Ungern, industriarbetare, brevbärare, affärsanställda lantbruk, 1900-talet, samhällsförändring, ekonomi, kooperation, historia, könsroller, relationer, könssegregering, arbetsmarknad, S59: Rathsman, Kerstin, Incest: att bo i en stulen kropp, Uppsala , socialism, produktion, sociologi 2000 Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA S53: Jakobsen, Liselotte, Livsform, kön och risk: en utveckling och BIBLIOTEK: Vndp, Oac, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: GENA: tillämpning av realistisk livsformsanalys, Karlstad , 1999 familjen, far-dotterförhållande, feminism, forskningsperspektiv, Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA incest, makt, relationer, sexualitet, sexuella övergrepp, BIBLIOTEK: Ohj, Oabk, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: GENA: självuppfattning, Sverige, Kvinnsam: Incest, sexuella övergrepp, arbete, karriär, kvinnokultur, könsolikheter, levnadsförhållanden, familjen, far-dotterförhållande, relationer, självuppfattning, livsformer, sociologi, vardagslivet, Kvinnsam: sexualitet, makt, forskninsperspektiv, feminism, Sverige

S54: Bengs, Carita, Looking good: a study of gendered body ideals S60: Åberg, Berit, Samarbete på könsblandade arbetsplatser: en among young people, Umeå , 2000 könsteoretisk analys av arbetsdelning mellan kvinnor och män i två Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA yrken: akutsjuksköterskor och ordningspoliser, Örebro , 2001 BIBLIOTEK: Oabkba, Ohj, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA kroppskultur, kroppsuppfattning, ungdomar GENA: attityder, BIBLIOTEK: Ohj-c, Ohaf-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: kroppsuppfattning, könsolikheter, massmedia, reklam, Könsroller>Sverige, Könsarbetsdelning>Sverige GENA: skönhetsideal, Sverige, tonåringar, Kvinnsam: skönhetsideal, genusarbetsdelning, könsidentitet, poliser, sjuksköterskor, Sverige, tonåringar, Sverige, massmedia, reklam, attityder, könsolikheter Kvinnsam: genusarbetsdelning, sjuksköterskor, poliser, könsidentitet, Sverige S55: Mossberg Sand, Ann-Britt, Ansvar, kärlek och försörjning: om anställda anhörigvårdare i Sverige*, Göteborg , 2000 S61: Båvner, Per, Half full or half empty?: part-time work and well- Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA being among Swedish women, Stockholm , 2001 BIBLIOTEK: Ohf-c, Vph-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Anhörigvård>Sverige, Anhörigstöd>Sverige GENA: BIBLIOTEK: Ohad-c, Ohafb-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: arbetsförhållanden, familjen, hemmet, hemtjänst, lönearbete, Deltidsarbete>genusaspekter>Sverige, omsorg, Sverige, vård, Kvinnsam: arbetsförhållanden, arbete, Deltidsarbete>hälsoaspekter>Sverige, Kvinnor>arbete och omsorg, vård, hemmet, familjen, hemtjänsten, Sverige arbetsmarknad>Sverige, deltidsarbete, Kvinnor>Sverige GENA: arbetstid, deltidsarbete, ekonomisk ställning, hälsa, Sverige, S56: Hultén, Kerstin, Datorn på köksbordet: en studie av kvinnor Kvinnsam: deltidsarbete, Sverige, arbetstid, hälsa, ekonomisk som distansarbetar i hemmet, Lund , 2000 ställning Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Ohafc-c, Ohafb-c, Puoh-c, SVENSKA S62: Hultin, Mia, Consider her adversity: four essays on gender ÄMNESORD: Distansarbete>Sverige, Kvinnor>arbete och inequality in the labor market, Stockholm , 2001 arbetsmarknad>Sverige GENA: arbetsförhållanden, distansarbete, Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA hemmet, informationsteknologi, levnadsförhållanden, oavlönat BIBLIOTEK: Ohj, Oha, Ohafb, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: arbete, Sverige, Kvinnsam: distansarbete, hemmet, Arbetsliv>genusapekter, arbetsmarknad, jämställdhet, informationsteknik, arbetsförhållanden, oavlönat arbete, könsdiskriminering, Arbetsliv>genusaspekter, arbetsmarknad, levnadsförhållanden, Sverige jämställdhet, könsdiskriminering GENA: arbetsmarknad, genusarbetsdelning, jämställdhet, karriär, könsdiskriminering, ledarskap, löneskillnader, Sverige, Kvinnsam: arbetsmarknad, 26 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 J. Samuelsson. Knowledge Organization for Feminism and Feminist Research

jämställdhet, Sverige, könsdiskriminering, ledarskap, löneskillnader, incest, moderskap, mödrar, sexuella övergrepp, Kvinnsam: döttrar, karriär, genusarbetsdelning familjen, incest, moderskap, mödrar, sexuella övergrepp

S63: Lundberg, Magnus, Vilja med förhinder: polisers samtal om S69: Sundström, Eva, Gender regimes, family policies and attitudes kvinnomisshandel, Lund , 2001 to female employment: a comparison of Germany, Italy and Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Sweden*, Umeå , 2003 BIBLIOTEK: Oepb-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Polisarbete>Sverige GENA: brottsoffer, familjen, hemmet, lagar, BIBLIOTEK: Ohja, Ohafb, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: misshandel, polisen, rättsväsen, Sverige, Kvinnsam: polisen, välfärdspolitik, Kvinnor>arbete och arbetsmarknad GENA: 1900- misshandel, värderingar, hemmet, familjen, Sverige, lagar, talet, arbete, arbetsmarknad, Italien, jämställdhet, medborgarskap, brottsoffer, rättsväsen politik, Sverige, Tyskland, välfärdsstaten, Kvinnsam: välfärdsstaten, politik, jämställdhet, arbete, medborgarskap, Tyskland, Italien, S64: Nyman, Charlott, Mine, yours or ours?: sharing in Swedish Sverige, 1900-talet, arbetsmarknad couples*, Umeå , 2002 Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA S70: Eriksson, Kristina, Manligt läkarskap, kvinnliga läkare och BIBLIOTEK: Oac-c, Ohj-c, Qci, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: normala kvinnor: kön- och läkarskapande symbolik, metaforik och Jämställdhet>Sverige, Familjeekonomi>Sverige GENA: praktik, Uppsala , 2003 arbetsfördelning, familjen, hemmet, hushållsarbete, hushållspengar, Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA huslig ekonomi, jämställdhet, parförhållanden, Sverige, Kvinnsam: BIBLIOTEK: Ohj-c, Vpd-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: huslig ekonomi, hushållspengar, parförhållanden, familjen, Jämställdhet>Sverige, Könsroller>Sverige, Kvinnliga hushållsarbete, Sverige, arbetsfördelning, hemmet, jämställdhet läkare>Sverige, Läkare>genusaspekter>Sverige, manliga läkare GENA: arbetsfördelning, arbetsliv, genus, hemmet, jämställdhet, S65: Evertsson, Lars, Välfärdspolitik och kvinnoyrken: läkare, metaforer, Kvinnsam: Arbetsfördelning>hemmet>genus, organisation, välfärdsstat och professionaliseringens villkor, Umeå , arbetsliv, metaforer 2002 Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA S71: Eldén, Åsa, Heder på liv och död: våldsamma berättelser om BIBLIOTEK: Oh-c, Ohafb-c, Vpd-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: rykten, oskuld och heder, Uppsala , 2003 Välfärdspolitik>historia>Sverige, Kvinnor>arbete och Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA arbetsmarknad>historia>Sverige>1900-talet, BIBLIOTEK: Oeb-c, Ohdib-c, Ohja-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Sjuksköterskor>historia>Sverige>1900-talet, Hedersmord>Sverige, Kvinnor>våld mot>Sverige, Arbetsterapeuter>historia>Sverige>1900-talet, Invandrarkvinnor>våld mot>Sverige, Kurder>Sverige GENA: Vårdyrken>historia>Sverige>1900-talet GENA: arbetsterapeuter, arabiskor, heder, kulturer, kurdiskor, kvinnouppfattning, mord, hemvårdare, kvinnodominerade yrken, organisation, oskuld, Sverige, våld, Kvinnsam: heder, mord, Sverige, kulturer, professionalisering, sjuksköterskor, Sverige, välfärdsstaten, våld, arabiskor, kurdiskor, oskuld, kvinnouppfattning Kvinnsam: välfärdsstaten, Sverige, kvinnodominerade yrken, organisation, professionalisering, sjuksköterskor, arbetsterapeuter, S72: Lönnbring, Gunilla, Självständighetens former: hemvårdare kvinnoföretagande på värmländsk landsbygd, Karlstad , 2003 Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA S66: Hellum, Merete, Förförd av Eros: kön och moral bland BIBLIOTEK: Ohafb-cag, Qba-cag, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: utländska kvinnor bosatta på en grekisk ö, Göteborg , 2002 Kvinnliga företagare>Värmland, Företagande>Värmland, kvinnor Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA GENA: företagare, landsbygd, levnadsförhållanden, livsstil, BIBLIOTEK: Oaa, Ohdib-nd, Ohja-nd, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: självständighet, Sverige, Värmland, Kvinnsam: företagare, Invandrarkvinnor>attityder>Grekland GENA: etik, genus, Värmland, landsbygd, livsstil, levnadsförhållanden, Sverige, Grekland, invandrare, kulturer, kvinnouppfattning, relationer, självständighet skvaller, turism, värderingar, Kvinnsam: etik, Grekland, genus, invandrare, värderingar, kvinnouppfattning, kulturer, turism, S73: Wennerström, Ulla-Britt, Den kvinnliga klassresan, Göteborg , skvaller, relationer 2003 Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA S67: Berg, Lena, Äkta kärlek: heterosexuell samvaro speglat mot BIBLIOTEK: Oabka-c, Ohja-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Social diskurser om kärlek, heterosexualitet och kropp, Uppsala , 2002 rörlighet>genusaspekter>Sverige, Kvinnor>Sverige>intervjuer, Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Sociala klasser>Sverige, klassmedvetande GENA: 1900-talet, BIBLIOTEK: Vnda, Oabkba-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: arbetarklassen, karriär, klasstillhörighet, livsberättelser, sociologi, Ungdomar>sexualvanor, Sexualitet>atityder till, utbildning, Kvinnsam: klasstillhörighet, arbetarklassen, 1900-talet, Tonårsflickor>attityder, Sexualitet>genusaspekter GENA: utbildning, livsberättelser, karriär, sociologi heterosexualitet, kropp, kärlek, könsroller, sexualitet, Sverige, tonåringar, ungdomar, Kvinnsam: tonåringar, ungdomar, kärlek, S74: Takahashi, Mieko, Gender dimensions in family life: a heterosexualitet, könsroller, kropp, sexualitet, Sverige comparative study of structural constraints and power in Sweden and Japan, Stockholm , 2003 S68: Mellberg, Nea, När det overkliga blir verklighet: mödrars Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA situation när deras barn utSvenska Ämnesordtts för sexuella BIBLIOTEK: Ohj-c, Ohj-oec, Oac-c, Oac-oec, SVENSKA övergrepp av fäder, Umeå , 2002 ÄMNESORD: Könsroller>Sverige, Könsroller>Japan, Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Familjen>genusaspekter>Sverige, Familjen>genusaspekter>Japan BIBLIOTEK: Vndp, Oac, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: sexuella GENA: arbete, arbetsfördelning, ensamstående mödrar, familjen, övergrepp mot barn, incest, mödrar GENA: döttrar, familjen, familjesociologi, genusarbetsdelning, Japan, jämställdhet, makt, Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 27 J. Samuelsson. Knowledge Organization for Feminism and Feminist Research

Sverige, Kvinnsam: familjen, Sverige, familjesociologi, Japan, makt, S80: Eriksson, Maria, I skuggan av pappa: familjerätten och arbete, genusarbetsdelning, arbetsfördelning, ensamstående mödrar, hanteringen av fäders våld, Uppsala , 2004 jämställdhet Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Vnamb, Oac, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: våld i S75: Mählck, Paula, Mapping gender in academic workplaces: ways familjen, kvinnomisshandel, barnmisshandel, män som misshandlar, of reproducing gender inequality within the discourse of equality, fäder, Familjerätt>genusaspekter GENA: barn, faderskap, Umeå , 2003 familjerätt, fäder, misshandel, moderskap, skilsmässa, socialpolitik, Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Sverige, våld, vårdnadsfrågor, Kvinnsam: våld, misshandel, fäder, BIBLIOTEK: Epia-c, Ohaf-c, Ohj-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: skilsmässa, familjerätt, vårdnadsfrågor, barn, socialpolitik, Kvinnor inom högskolan>Sverige, Kvinnliga akademiker>arbete faderskap, moderskap och arbetsmarknad>Sverige, Kvinnliga forskare>arbete och arbetsmarknad>Sverige GENA: akademiker, arbetsmarknad, S81: Thörn, Catharina , Kvinnans plats(er): bilder av hemlöshet, jämställdhet, karriär, Sverige, universitet, Kvinnsam: akademiker, Göteborg , 2004 jämställdhet, arbetsmarknad, Sverige, karriär, universitet Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Oabka-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Hemlösa S76: Gardberg Morner, Claudia, Självständigt beroende: kvinnor>Sverige GENA: feministisk teori, hemlöshet, hemmet, ensamstående mammors försörjningsstrategier*, Göteborg , 2003 kvinnouppfattning, myndigheter, privatsfär, rum, självuppfattning, Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA socialtjänst, social verksamhet, Sverige, Kvinnsam: BIBLIOTEK: Oac-c, Qadj-c, Ohja-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Hemlöshet>Sverige, kvinnouppfattning, myndigheter, socialtjänst, Ensamstående mödrar>ekonomiska förhållanden>Sverige, social verksamhet, självuppfattning, privatsfär, hemmet, rum, Ensamstående mödrar>sociala förhållanden>Sverige GENA: 1990- feministisk teori talet, arbetsmarknad, ekonomisk ställning, ensamstående mödrar, försörjarbegreppet, myndigheter, nätverk, strategier, Sverige, S82: Svensson, Robert, Social control and socialisation: the role of välfärdsstaten, Kvinnsam: ensamstående mödrar, morality as a social mechanism in adolescent deviant behaviour, försörjarbegreppet, arbetsmarknad, strategier, ekonomisk ställning, Stockholm , 2004 Sverige, välfärdsstaten, 1990-talet, myndigheter, nätverk Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Oaa, Oabkba, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: S77: Darvishpour, Mehrdad, Invandrarkvinnor som bryter Ungdomar>etik och moral, Ungdomsbrottslighet>genusaspekter, mönstret: hur maktförskjutningen inom iranska familjer i Sverige social kontroll, asocialitet, socialisation GENA: etik, familjen, påverkar relationen, Stockholm , 2003 könsolikheter, narkotikamissbruk, skolan, skuld, socialisation, Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA ungdomar, uppväxtvillkor, Kvinnsam: BIBLIOTEK: Ohdib-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Narkotikamissbruk>ungdomar>könsolikheter, skuld, etik, Iranier>familjeförhållanden>Sverige, uppväxtvillkor, familjen, skolan, socialisation Invandrarkvinnor>familjeförhållanden>Sverige GENA: familjen, invandrare, iranskor, islam, jämställdhet, kulturer, makt, S83: Magdalenic, Sanja, Gendering the sociology profession: patriarkalism, skilsmässa, Sverige, äktenskap, Kvinnsam: Sweden, Britain and the US, Stockholm , 2004 patriarkalism, Iranskor, familjen, Sverige, jämställdhet, skilsmässa, Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA makt, äktenskap, invandrare, islam, kulturer BIBLIOTEK: Oa-c:k, Oa-e:k, Oa-qa:k, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Sociologi>genusaspekter>historia>Sverige, S78: Evertsson, Marie , Facets of gender: analyses of the family and Sociologi>genusaspekter>historia>Storbritannien, of the labour market, Stockholm , 2004 Sociologi>genusaspekter>historia>Förenta Staterna, Genus Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA (socialt kön) GENA: forskare, genus, historia, karriär, BIBLIOTEK: Ohj-c, Ohj-qa, Oac-c, Oac-qa, Ohafb-c, SVENSKA könsfördelning, organisationer, professionalisering, sociologer, ÄMNESORD: Könsroller>Sverige, Könsroller>Förenta Staterna, sociologi, Storbritannien, Sverige, USA, Kvinnsam: Ungdomar och könsroller>Sverige, Kvinnor>arbete och Sociologi>historia>Sverige>Storbritannien>USA, sociologer, arbetsmarknad>Sverige, Frånskilda kvinnor>arbete och professionalisering, karriär, forskare, organisationer, könsfördelning arbetsmarknad>Sverige GENA: arbetsfördelning, arbetsliv, arbetsmarknad, familjen, genusarbetsdelning, hemmet, S84: Hägerström, Jeanette, Vi och dom och alla dom andra på hushållsarbete, jämställdhet, skilsmässa, Sverige, Kvinnsam: Komvux: etnicitet, genus och klass i samspel, Lund , 2004 arbetsfördelning, genusarbetsdelning, familjen, arbetsliv, Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA arbetsmarknad, hushållsarbete, jämställdhet, hemmet, skilsmässa BIBLIOTEK: Em-c.08, Ohe-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Kommunal vuxenutbildning>sociala aspekter, Etnicitet>sociala S79: Nilsson, Frida, Creating spaces for action: ANC-women aspekter>Sverige GENA: etnicitet, genus, invandrare, politicians’ views on bridewealth and gender-related power , klasstillhörighet, social ställning, sociologi, Sverige, Uppsala , 2004 vuxenutbildning, Kvinnsam: etnicitet, genus, klasstillhörighet, Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA social ställning, Vuxenutbildning>Sverige, invandrare BIBLIOTEK: Ohja-peaa, My-peaa, Kpeaa.56, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Brudköp>Sydafrika, Äktenskapet>Sydafrika, S85: Grönlund, Anne, Flexibilitetens gränser: förändring och Kvinnliga politiker>Sydafrika GENA: African National Congress, friktion i arbetsliv och familj*, Umeå , 2004 brudköp, genus, makt, politiker, Sydafrikanska republiken, Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA äktenskap, Kvinnsam: Brudpris>Sydafrika, äktenskap, makt, BIBLIOTEK: Ohae-c, Oac-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: politiker, genus Arbetsmiljö>Sverige, Arbetsliv>Sverige, Familjeliv>Sverige, Flexibilitet>Sverige, Organisationsförändringar>Sverige, Flextid>Sverige GENA: arbetsfördelning, arbetsförhållanden, 28 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 J. Samuelsson. Knowledge Organization for Feminism and Feminist Research

arbetsliv, arbetstid, familjen, hushållsarbete, jämställdhet, S91: Winell-Garvén, Iréne, Vägen till parnassen: en sociologisk könssegregering, Sverige, Kvinnsam: Arbetsliv>Sverige, studie av kvinnligt konstnärskap i Sverige 1864-1939, Göteborg , arbetsförhållanden, arbetstid, könsolikheter, familjen, 2005 Hushållsarbete>arbetsfördelning Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Ib-c.47, Ib-c.5, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Kvinnliga S86: Chronholm, Anders, Föräldraledig Pappa: mäns erfarenheter konstnärer>historia>Sverige>1800-talet>1900-talet, Konstnärligt av delad föräldraledighet, Göteborg , 2004 skapande>sociologiska aspekter>historia>Sverige>1800- Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA talet>1900-talet, Konstnärligt BIBLIOTEK: Ohad-c, Ohjb-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: skapande>genusaspekter>historia>Sverige>1800-talet>1900- föräldraledighet, pappaledighet, fadersrollen GENA: fadersrollen, talet GENA: 1800-talet, 1900-talet, Bourdieu; Pierre, feministisk fäder, föräldraledighet, hushållsarbete, könsroller, Sverige, teori, forskning, konstkritik, konstnärer, konstvetenskap, sociologi, Kvinnsam: Föräldraledighet>fäder>Sverige, fadersrollen, Kvinnsam: Konstnärer>Sverige>1800-talet>1900-talet, hushållsarbete, könsroller konstvetenskap, sociologi, konstkritik, forskning, feministisk teori

S87: Carstensen, Gunilla, Sexuella trakasserier finns nog i en annan S92: Tigervall, Carina, Folkhemsk film: med "invandraren" i rollen värld: konstruktioner av ett (o)giltigt problem i akademin, Uppsala som den sympatiske Andre, Umeå , 2005 , 2004 Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Imb-c.55, Ohdi-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: BIBLIOTEK: Ohj-c, Ep-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Sexuella invandrare i filmen, etnicitet i filmen, trakasserier>Sverige, Universitet>Sverige, könsroller, genus, Film>historia>Sverige>1970-2000 GENA: etnicitet, film, jämställdhet GENA: forskare, genus, jämställdhet, könsroller, filmvetenskap, invandrare, invandrare: män, kvinnobilden, sexuella trakasserier, Sverige, universitet, Kvinnsam: forskare, mansbilden, Sverige, Kvinnsam: filmvetenskap, invandrare, genus, jämställdhet, könsroller, sexuella trakasserier, Universitet > invandrare: män, kvinnobilden, mansbilden, Film > Sverige Sverige S93: Peterson, Helen, Gender, power and post-bureaucracy: work S88: Bondestam, Fredrik, En önskan att skriva abjektet: analyser av ideals in IT consulting, Uppsala , 2005 akademisk jämställdhet, Uppsala , 2004 Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Ohafb-c, Ohj-c, Qbak-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: BIBLIOTEK: Ep-c, Ohj-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: GENA: Yrken>könsskillnader, Informationsteknik>arbete och feministisk teori, forskare, jämställdhet, jämställdhetsplaner, arbetsmarknad>Sverige, Konsultverksamhet>arbete och jämställdhetsprojekt, könsdiskriminering, könskvotering, arbetsmarknad>Sverige, rekrytering, sexuella trakasserier, Sverige, universitet, Uppsala, Konsultverksamhet>genusaspekter>Sverige GENA: arbetskraft, Kvinnsam: Jämställdhet>universitet>Sverige>Uppsala, arbetsmiljö, datayrken, hegemonisk manlighet, makt, jämställdhetsplaner, jämställdhetsprojekt, Rekrytering>forskare, mansdominerade yrken, normer, organisation, sociologi, Kvinnsam: könskvotering, sexuella trakasserier, könsdiskriminering, Arbetsmiljö>makt>organisation, Arbetskraft>normer, datayrken, feministisk teori hegemonisk manlighet, mansdominerade rken, sociologi

S89: Almqvist, Annika, Drömmen om det egna huset: från S94: Almqvist, Anna-Lena, The Care of Children: a cross-national bostadsförsörjning till livsprojekt, Uppsala , 2004 comparison of parents’ expectations and experiences, Umeå , 2005 Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA Femin.: no, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Ohcb-c:k.5, Ohja-c:k.5, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: BIBLIOTEK: Oac-a, Ohafb-a, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Barnom- Bostäder>Sverige, Bostadspolitik>historia>Sverige>1900-talet, sorg>Europa, Föräldraskap>Europa, Familjepolitik>Europa Bostadspolitik>historia>genusaspekter>Sverige>1900-talet, GENA: arbetsfördelning, barnomsorg, Europa, familjen, familjepo- bostadsbehov GENA: bostäder, hemmet, kollektivhus, litik, Frankrike, förvärvsarbete, föräldraledighet, könsroller, Sverige, kvinnorollen, livsstil, socialpolitik, Sverige, välfärdsstaten, ägande, Kvinnsam: Barnomsorg>Europa>Frankrike>Sverige, förvärvsar- Kvinnsam: bostäder, Socialpolitik>Sverige, välfärdsstaten, hemmet, bete, familjen, familjepolitik, föräldraledighet, arbetsfördelning, ägande, livsstil, kvinnorollen, kollektivhus könsroller

S90: Witt, Ann-Katrin , Konsthantverkare, genus och omvänd ekonomi: om hinder och möjligheter att agera på konsthantverkets arena, Lund , 2005 Femin.: yes, KLASSIFIKATIONSSYSTEM FÖR SVENSKA BIBLIOTEK: Ih-c, SVENSKA ÄMNESORD: Konsthantverkare>sociologiska aspekter>Sverige, Konsthantverkare>genusaspekter>Sverige, Konsthantverkare>ekonomiska aspekter>Sverige, Konsthantverk>Sverige>1980-talet>1990-talet>2000-talet GENA: 1980-talet, 1990-talet, 2000-talet, formgivning, genusarbetsdelning, konsthantverk, småföretagare, sociologi, Sverige, Kvinnsam: formgivning, genusarbetsdelning, småföretagare, sociologi

Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 29 J. H. Leong. The Convergence of Metadata and Bibliographic Control?

The Convergence of Metadata and Bibliographic Control? Trends and Patterns in Addressing the Current Issues and Challenges of Providing Subject Access

Jack Hang-tat Leong University of Toronto Libraries, The Richard Charles Lee Canada-Hong Kong Library, 130 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M5S 1A5, Canada,

Jack Leong is the Director of the Richard Charles Lee Canada-Hong Kong Library at the University of Toronto. Dr. Leong has degrees in computer science, education, comparative literature, and library and information science. Since 2006, he has been working as a librarian. His research interests include knowledge organization, subject access, Chinese Canadian studies, and science fiction. Dr. Leong serves on the Board of Directors of the Canadian Foundation for Asian Culture. He is also a standing committee member of the IFLA Section “Library Services to Multicultural Populations.”

Leong, Jack Hang-tat. The Convergence of Metadata and Bibliographic Control? Trends and Pat- terns in Addressing the Current Issues and Challenges of Providing Subject Access. Knowledge Or- ganization, 37(1), 29-42. 54 references.

ABSTRACT: Resource description and discovery have been facilitated generally in two approaches, namely bibliographic control and metadata, which now may converge in response to current issues and challenges of providing subject access. Four categories of major issues and challenges in the provision of subject access to digital and non-digital resources are: 1) the advancement of new knowledge; 2) the fall of controlled vocabulary and the rise of natural language; 3) digitizing and networking the traditional catalogue systems; and 4) electronic publishing and the Internet. The creation of new knowledge and the debate about the use of natural language and controlled vocabulary as subject headings becomes even more intense in the digital and online environment. The third and fourth categories are conceived after the emergence of networked environments and the rapid expansion of electronic resources. Recognizing the convergence of metadata schemas and bibliographic control calls for adapting to the new environment by developing tools that exploit the strengths of both.

1.0 The trend of convergence tematic, uniform, and consistent approaches to describing intellectual or artistic content and physical Resource description and discovery have been facili- characteristics” (Howarth 2005, 39). Metadata, a file tated generally in two approaches, namely biblio- management concept originated in the computer sci- graphic control and metadata. Rooted in library and ence community, has been conceived as an informa- information science, standards of bibliographic con- tion management and retrieval tool to handle ever- trol, such as the Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules increasing online information sources. The concept (AACR) and the International Standards for Biblio- of metadata is often referred to as “structured data graphic Descriptions (ISBD), have mandated effective about data” deriving from its roots in computer sys- organization and arrangement of information, mak- tems. At the end of the twentieth century, the term ing it readily identifiable and retrievable. The practice was redefined by the library, archive, and museum in- and theory of this domain have emphasized the “sys- formation communities, warranting a “confluence in 30 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 J. H. Leong. The Convergence of Metadata and Bibliographic Control?

terminology and definition” between bibliographic strategies interestingly resemble a number of funda- control and metadata (Howarth 2005, 37). Discuss- mental mechanisms in bibliographic control, suggesting the convergence of these two approaches requires ing a direction of cooperation between bibliographic distinguishing the two concepts. In this paper, meta- control and metadata schemas in addressing the cur- data retains its esoteric definition from the late 1990s, rent challenges. Figure 1, which illustrates the emer- referring to structured data generated automatically gence of common concepts and tools of bibliographic for the description and recovery of resources stored control and metadata schemas, demonstrates this con- in electronic systems. verging trend visually. As a result of this convergence, The proliferation of digital publications creates subject access has been improved significantly with challenges to both traditional bibliographic control the synergy of human analysis and computer algo- and metadata schemas. As developed primarily for rithms, controlled vocabulary and keywords, as well as books and textual documents, traditional biblio- users and trained cataloguers. graphic control’s capability to manage and provide access to networked electronic resources is questioned 2.0 Challenges to knowledge organization by the sheer number of electronic resources and other conditions, particularly the need for trained catalogu- 2.1. The advancement of new knowledge ers (Chan 2005; Gross and Taylor 2005; Markey 2007). Nevertheless, the search results produced by Knowledge is being constructed on a continuous basis information retrieval systems utilizing less structured as new discoveries are made and new concepts are metadata are often unsatisfactory. As a result, the conceived. A brief review of the weekly list of new Li- metadata community has proposed various measures brary of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH) reflects to improve performance of these systems. Among this phenomenon. Even though it seems to be a sub- these measures, the most prominent ones seem to be ject heading system responding fairly conservatively building end-user thesauri, providing vocabulary map- towards new knowledge based on the practice of liter- ping and adopting major subject headings and classifi- ary warrant, LCSH includes dozens, if not hundreds, cation systems in subject metadata fields. These of new subject headings every week (Cataloging Pol-

Figure 1. The trend of convergence between bibliographic control and metadata schemas Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 31 J. H. Leong. The Convergence of Metadata and Bibliographic Control?

icy & Support Office 2006). To complicate the issue, new knowledge. Because naïve classifications and pro- new knowledge is increasingly introduced in non- fessional classifications adopt similar structural princi- traditional formats. Besides books or textual docu- ples for organizing knowledge, synergy between these ments of various kinds, new knowledge can be con- two systems is possible and desirable. For example, as veyed in a sound recording, a video clip, or an Internet shown by the subject analysis and classification di- website, to name only a few. mensions in Figure 1, from the metadata direction, many schemas have included data fields of controlled 2.1.1 Organizing new knowledge vocabularies and classification systems to improve the effectiveness of information search and retrieval (Lee- Beghtol (2004, 19) argues that classification systems Smeltzer 2000). On the bibliographic control side, the can be termed “professional classifications” and “naïve move to a faceted syntax of LCSH and other subject classifications.” While professional classifications, headings and classifications demonstrates the em- such as the Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) and ployment of metadata techniques for facilitating the the Library of Congress Classification (LCC), attempt automation of the traditional cataloguing and classifi- to organize and provide access to pre-existing knowl- cation processes. The convergence in the subject edge, naïve classifications, usually developed by the analysis and classification dimensions suggests unam- domain-specific individuals who “have no particular biguously that both systems are modifying themselves interest in classificatory issues,” primarily facilitate the while bringing them closer to each other. discovery of new knowledge (Beghtol 2004, 19). Beghtol’s argument suggests that new knowledge, be- 2.1.2 An era of interdisciplinary knowledge fore it becomes established and recognized in publications, is usually dealt with by naïve classifications Besides the rapid creation of new knowledge, the in- within a particular context. This model of two-tier de- terdisciplinary characteristics of new knowledge cre- velopment of classification systems can explain inter- ate challenges to standard information retrieval and estingly the rise and popularity of numerous metadata classification systems. In the knowledge era with ad- standards for managing Internet resources. As “pro- vanced information communication technology, peo- fessional classifications” are not tailored for discover- ple have access to a very wide spectrum of knowl- ing and managing new information, which is often the edge. Moreover, studies that cover several traditional content of Internet resources, the communities in disciplines contribute more and more to new knowl- various subject areas develop their own “naïve classifi- edge. The issue of “interdisciplinarity” as a new in- cations” to deal with their knowledge management formation retrieval problem and its resolutions are needs. Internet directories, search engines and folkso- discussed by McIlwaine (2000), who presents the re- nomies are thus developed for this purpose. vision of two interdisciplinary fields, namely tourism Professional and naïve classifications serve different and environmental science, in the Universal Decimal contexts and purposes. Nevertheless, they depend on Classification (UDC). Her discussion demonstrates each other and have a “cyclical relationship” (Beghtol the flexibility of UDC, a highly faceted classification 2004, 22). Professional classifications provide one system, in addressing changes and interdisciplinarity. means of formulating research into new knowledge. In the online and networked environment, the ability As new knowledge is disseminated among scholars us- to allow the co-existence of basic classes appears to ing naïve classification systems, it gradually attains the be critical. Since faceted classification systems can en- status of literary warrant and enters the professional able synthesis, the networked information retrieval classification systems for conception of new knowl- systems often engage the faceted approach if they re- edge. Beghtol’s model can illustrate the divide in terms quire a classification system for providing an infor- of context and purposes of traditional bibliographic mation organization schema that can benefit from control (professional classifications) and less struc- computer manipulation. tured metadata applications (naïve classifications), The advancement of new knowledge and the in- such as folksonomies. Nonetheless, since the ad- creasing popularity of interdisciplinary studies have vancement of information and communications tech- led to the rapid appearance of new subject terms in nology has been narrowing the time-lapse between their common usage format. Since there is often a new knowledge and knowledge harvested from liter- significant time lapse before a new concept is in- ary warrant, there is a need to investigate and propose cluded in controlled vocabulary, it is necessary to ex- a new model for addressing the needs of managing amine the advantages and disadvantages of employing 32 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 J. H. Leong. The Convergence of Metadata and Bibliographic Control?

natural language and controlled vocabulary in infor- access points that can capture the most common and mation retrieval tools for the new environment. recent terminology. Controlled vocabulary headings, limited by rules and the principle of literary warrant, 2.2 The fall of controlled vocabulary appear to be less efficient in utilizing current termi- and the rise of natural language nology from the user’s perspective. Controlled vocabulary systems do provide cross-references to refer Librarians started to realize the significance of subject from common terms not included in their lists to the access to library materials in the end of the nineteenth authorized headings. However, not all natural and century. Since then, the advantages and disadvantages common terms are considered. Even if the common of using natural language or controlled vocabulary for terms are included in the reference system, more steps providing subject access have been debated continu- are involved to access the item using these terms. ously. The usefulness and strengths of controlled vo- In the electronic and networked environment, the cabulary for subject searching, particularly in terms of advantages of the natural language approach become synonym and homonym control and term relation- very helpful to address the sheer number of resources ship, have been reinforced by various studies (Rowley available. Moreover, complemented by computer al- 1994; Tillotson 1995; Gross and Taylor 2005). Most gorithms and statistical analysis, the performance of bibliographic control systems, therefore, continue to subject access systems using the natural language ap- adopt this approach for providing subject access. proach has been improved (Bates 1989). Neverthe- However, the proliferation of networked electronic less, the drawbacks of the natural language approach resources and the digitization of catalogue systems are noticeable in the new environment. First, the have enabled the natural language approach to play a terms may not be consistent. Different people may more significant role in providing subject access to the use different terms to describe the same content. electronic resources which are huge in number and Moreover, resources on a single topic, such as food, fluid in structure. Indeed, the popularity of folksono- can bear different terms as their subject entries, such mies and keyword searches enabled by database sys- as cooking, diet and grocery. Third, the natural lan- tems and Internet search engines asserts that natural guage approach does not provide any cross-references language has become a dominant approach in some among the subject terms. As a result, relationship and metadata applications that require less structure. This hierarchy of subjects cannot be determined. Finally, section briefly illustrates the tension between using the choice of terms is limited because the authors and natural language and controlled vocabulary in subject the users are familiar with a certain set of vocabulary access and identifies the trend of adopting both ap- only while a subject heading system usually provides proaches in new subject access systems. cross-reference and index tools to enrich the list of possible subject entries. These drawbacks pose two 2.2.1 The adaptations of natural language and challenges in subject access. Users may have to try a controlled vocabulary in the online environment number of synonyms to identify an item that they know by subject. Moreover, when they wish “to re- As the expertise dimension of Figure 1 illustrates, a trieve all information, or as much information as pos- natural language approach often utilizes terms that are sible, on a given subject, [they] must search all syno- used by the authors or users to describe the primary nyms for that subject” (Chan 1994, 155). content of the items for retrieval. Compared to the In their discussion on folksonomies, a natural lan- controlled vocabulary, the process of deriving natural guage approach of providing subject access, Guy and language terms seems to be easier as people can use Tonkin (2006) observe similar drawbacks in what they any words that they conceive. The assignment of sub- call “sloppy tags” or “low-quality, redundant or non- ject headings to an item using controlled vocabulary sense metadata.” To address these drawbacks, critics of requires trained cataloguers to examine a list of estab- folksonomies suggest some resolutions that exploit lished headings and read through the instructions to the strengths of subject analysis and access using con- find or construct the most appropriate headings. trolled headings. Indeed, controlled vocabulary seems Moreover, in terms of access points, the natural lan- to be more consistent, uniform and unique. Moreover, guage approach appears to be more comprehensive the controlled vocabulary system is adopted by most and exhaustive because users can use any, and as many, libraries and therefore the catalogue systems using terms as they can conceive of for the item. Resource these headings can become standardized in subject ac- cataloguers thus have more choices to provide direct cess. Moreover, syndetic structure and subject author- Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 33 J. H. Leong. The Convergence of Metadata and Bibliographic Control?

ity files have been established among the controlled ral language and controlled vocabulary in an informa- headings, and they provide a rich set of vocabulary for tion retrieval system. the authors or users to describe a resource. Traditional Howarth (2004b) also discusses the development catalogue systems using controlled vocabulary have of a natural language gateway to metadata-enabled been serving users to identify a known item or gather repositories. In order to combine the strengths of items on the same subject in a very efficient and seam- natural language and controlled vocabulary, “a com- less manner in the library environment for a long time. mon, natural language ‘gateway’ that could enable The strengths of controlled vocabulary, such as its end-users to access resources without having to know higher performance in the measures of precision and the underlying metadata tagging, or domain-specific recall, can be used to complement the drawbacks of vocabularies” is required (Howarth, 2004b, 61). This the natural language approach in the development of gateway would directly link users to resources, elimi- new subject access tools that can embrace these two nating the additional layers for end-user’s conven- approaches simultaneously (Chan 2000). As demon- ience. Issues of multiple languages, quality assurance strated by the automation of Dewey Decimal Classifi- and interoperability in the development of “subject cation (DDC) and Faceted Application of Subject gateways” are discussed in Day and Neuroth (2004), Terminology (FAST), controlled vocabulary systems Freyre and Naudi (2003), Howarth (2004a), Kelly, are being modified to adapt to the online environment Closier and Hiom (2005), Vizine-Goetz and Beall and to enable the engagement of the natural language (2004) and Tramullas and Garrido (2005). However, and controlled vocabulary approaches. Koch (2000), as Howarth’s (2004b) study concludes, some meta- for example, argues that quality-controlled subject data fields seem to be problematic in terms of match- gateways, which exploit both the controlled vocabu- ing natural language and the metadata vocabularies. lary and the deep-structured classification systems, Further investigation is necessary to develop more provide quality measures, to support systematic re- useful terminology and matching mechanism. source discovery. The quality measures include using controlled vocabulary, together with a thesaurus, for 2.2.3 From user terms to expertise terms indexing resources and deep-structured classification systems for providing advanced searching and brows- In response to the new searching capabilities enabled ing capabilities. by a computer system, Bates (1986, 1998) proposes the implementation of an end-user thesaurus that pro- 2.2.2 Embrace the combination of natural language vides indexes from user’s terms to controlled terms. and controlled vocabulary This thesaurus would enable the information retrieval system to fulfill the design principles that Bates Several tools and projects have been developed to fa- (1986) conceives in the online environment, namely: cilitate the simultaneous engagement of natural lan- 1) indexing and access according to the “uncertainty guage and controlled vocabulary. Buckland (1999), principle;” 2) high variety or redundancy principle; for instance, implemented the Unfamiliar Metadata and, 3) complexity principle. These principles are de- Vocabularies Project that maps initial natural language veloped from the recognition that, while the docu- terms to controlled vocabularies in various database ment is a representation of a definite state of knowl- systems. In the automatic and online mapping proc- edge, a query related to information need appears to ess, statistics and intelligent computer algorithms are be a representation of an anomalous, inadequate and employed to provide weighting for linking user’s ini- incoherent state of knowledge. Recently, a number of tial terms to controlled vocabularies ranked by their commercial information retrieval systems have im- relevance. Users can then enter the controlled vo- plemented a thesaurus-enhanced interface (Shiri, Re- cabularies to the information retrieval system for ac- vie and Chowdhury 2002). cessing the required items seamlessly and effectively. Green and Fraser (2004) conduct an empirical in- The success of this project depends very much on the vestigation of the semantic relationship between ap- quality of the mapping process, which seems to be an proximately 600 English verbs that have multiple information retrieval system itself. Moreover, an addi- meanings. Their study aims to raise the awareness of tional layer, which can be as complicated as retrieving verb polysemy among people involved in using or de- the actual item in the database system, is added in the veloping thesauri. Spiteri (2002, 24) enriches the hier- subject access process. Nevertheless, this project archical displays in information retrieval thesauri by demonstrates the feasibility of employing both natu- proposing a theoretical framework of incorporating 34 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 J. H. Leong. The Convergence of Metadata and Bibliographic Control?

word association testing in the development of the- and digitized entails a review of these principles. For sauri. This framework enables thesaurus developers to: example, the traditional cataloguing system’s definition of access points, usually by title, author and sub- a) compile a list of terms that end-users associate ject, becomes less critical because an automated cata- most frequently with a chosen descriptor; logue system enables every single field in the catalogue b) determine how end-users inter-relate response and record to become an access point. In other words, stimulus terms; and, subject access is not limited to the controlled headings c) incorporate user-defined term relationships within in the subject fields. It can be enriched by including thesaurus displays. keywords in title, author, notes and other identifiable fields in the catalogue records. This enrichment seems Zeng and Chen (2003) discuss the development of an to be the precursor of the cooperation model between integrated thesaurus management and cross-thesaurus natural language and controlled vocabulary. search system for facilitating interoperability among networked database systems. This integrated system 2.3.1 From card to computer–the golden opportunity includes controlled subject headings and thesauri of of online catalogues different schemas. It demonstrates how the usage of controlled vocabulary and thesauri synthesize individ- The replacement of card catalogues by online cata- ual databases, transcends the limitation of the type of logue systems in the 1970s-1980s raises some far- resource in a database, and maintains dynamic updates reaching and important problems. As Hildreth (1985, of indexes to data. 272) pointed out, although online searches are popular Interestingly, when traditional catalogue systems and satisfying to users, “closer analysis of user search are digitized and networked, they become online da- sessions … reveals that many such searches fail … or tabase systems that can also benefit from the afore- do not retrieve all relevant materials.” Early online mentioned thesaurus projects. The following section catalogues brought with them a few shortcomings, details the challenges and opportunities generated by such as the lack of maintenance and loss of syndetic the transition of catalogue systems from the sepa- structure. Most importantly, catalogue cards, over rated and manual environment to the networked and years of being used and maintained, captured many in- automated world. teresting sorts of data, including dashed-on entries, local data and even dirt (an indicator of an item’s 2.3 Digitizing and networking the traditional popularity). When they were replaced by electronic catalogue systems files, these data were lost (Baker 1994). Nevertheless, these shortcomings have gradually been overcome as In terms of subject access, traditional catalogue sys- technology continues to advance. tems focus on Cutter’s two objectives of subject ap- The benefits of an online catalogue surpass its proach (Cutter 1904, 12): “1) to enable a person to problems. For instance, an online catalogue not only find a book of which the subject is known and 2) to indexes every field of the catalogue record, but also lo- show what the library has on a given subject.” As a cates any words in a particular field regardless of the result of unique and uniform subject headings, identi- order of their appearance. In the manual system, only fication, retrieval, and browsing of library materials the beginning word of the pre-defined access points have been precise, complete and relevant in their ideal can be searched systematically. An automated cata- practice. In other words, catalogue systems that use logue system is able to index and provide access to subject heading and classification systems in subject every single field in a catalogue record. In addition, access yield a rather high performance in the meas- with the new capabilities of Boolean and proximity ures of precision and recall (Gorman 2004). operators, users can have almost infinite searching Library catalogue systems were designed originally strategies to formulate their queries and search for de- as manual systems for handling traditional library ma- sired items. Subject access has been improved by using terials that are tangible, well-defined, self-contained a combination of controlled vocabulary, natural lan- and relatively stable. Without modifications, cata- guage, and searching operators. In other words, an logues cannot utilize the new capabilities of auto- online catalogue system has the potential to decon- mated and networked systems. As many principles of struct the dichotomy between approaches of hierar- catalogue systems originate from a manual card cata- chical browsing, facilitated by controlled vocabulary logue approach, having catalogue systems networked and subject authority files, and analytical searching, Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 35 J. H. Leong. The Convergence of Metadata and Bibliographic Control?

which is enabled by the capabilities for locating and their information needs. Implementing an end-user combining character strings anywhere in the catalogue thesaurus that links users’ entry terms to the con- record (Dodd 1996). An online catalogue system with trolled terms in the systems can facilitate these these capabilities can then combine the features and changes. On the one hand, OPACs can build on the strengths of hierarchical browsing and analytical strengths of traditional catalogue systems that provide searching for providing more seamless subject access. a rich cross-reference network in the form of author- When the searching capabilities of an online library ity file systems and the hierarchies of subject heading catalogue system are fully realized, users may feel references, such as related terms, used-for terms, see overwhelmed by the numerous “combinatorial choices also references, broader terms and narrower terms. On of subject elements” (Bates 1989, 405). Users also the other hand, some conventional practices used in need assistance in adjusting the size of output sets ac- OPACs, such as a limited number of access points and cording to their information needs. Bates suggests the subject headings and enumerative classification sys- implementation of an end-user super-thesaurus that tems, would need to be modified to fully utilize the incorporates vocabulary for online search features and capabilities of the online environment and to meet the capabilities (1989). The importance of controlled vo- different expectations of users in terms of subject ac- cabulary and the authority control structure in the cess. Nevertheless, with appropriate modifications, catalogue system is reinforced in the electronic envi- OPACs have great potential to combine the strengths ronment (Gross and Taylor 2005). Beside their tradi- of both bibliographic control and metadata. Markey tional role of maintaining the internal structure of the (2007), for example, suggests that the paradise lost for catalogue records, controlled vocabularies and their OPACs can be regained if they embrace post-Boolean authority structure provide the linkages and hierar- probabilistic searching, subject cataloguing and quali- chies to develop this super-thesaurus. Moreover, there fication metadata. In Figure 1, the main applications are presumably users who prefer a compact and pre- and rules dimensions show that OPACs and MARC cise method of information retrieval enabled by a con- seem to be appropriate entities for the merging of bib- trolled vocabulary system in academic research. liographic control practices and metadata standards.

2.3.2 The paradise lost of online catalogues 2.3.3 The transformation of subject headings in the digital age Among many other good suggestions to enhance the capability of online catalogues, the concept of super- Not all the potentials of the electronic catalogue sys- thesaurus has not been implemented in most Online tem are fully realized because subject analysis theory Public Access Catalogues (OPACs), which often and practice is still rooted in the manual card catalogu- adopt the Machine Readable Cataloging (MARC) ing environment. Most OPACs employ subject head- standard for providing interoperability in the net- ings and classification notations that are developed worked environment. Apart from making the cata- from an enumerative approach. Library of Congress logue systems available online and including a few Subject Headings (LCSH), the indexing language most more access points, many OPACs remain relatively widely used in OPACs, is largely developed from an unchanged in terms of information retrieval theory enumerative syntax (Svenonius 2000). In general, a and practice. They often assume a highly structured subject heading or classification notation derived from database and expert searchers who are familiar with an enumerative approach has been pre-established as a their conceptual framework. In their study to compare whole concept, which may indeed consist of a number the use of OPACs and GoogleTM, Campbell and Fast of sub-concepts, providing the exact meaning accord- (2004) argue that while Internet search engines assist ing to the item’s context. It requires not only a full- novice users by giving them starting points so that string manipulation in searching but also pre- they can develop better knowledge of these systems, coordination in establishing headings at the indexing OPACs generally fail to direct users’ common entry and searching stages. In this approach, headings are terms to the access points that exist in their systems. combined at the stage of indexing or cataloguing. As a Although both OPACs and Internet search engine result, enumerative subject headings and classification systems are recognized as having similar goals, Camp- systems cannot fully utilize the flexibility of combin- bell and Fast (2004) conclude that some changes are ing subject keywords by Boolean or other conjoining necessary for making OPACs engaging systems to us- operators and notational synthesis. ers who are used to turning to the Web for fulfilling 36 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 J. H. Leong. The Convergence of Metadata and Bibliographic Control?

2.3.3 The rise of faceted subject analysis can facilitate the implementation of a faceted approach. Recent online information retrieval studies have rec- Bean and Green (2003), using the term “frame rep- ognized the limitations of a pre-coordinated subject resentations”—a facet in a faceted subject notation, approach and have suggested the use of a faceted ap- suggest that the user requirement of high recall and proach to constructing subject headings and classifica- high precision can be achieved by adopting frame rep- tion notations. In classification literature, the faceted resentations in developing subject retrieval systems. approach to subject analysis was first introduced by Query structure, information visualization and the Ranganathan in his Prolegomena to Classification in overall information retrieval process can be enhanced 1933. In each basic class, Ranganathan (1962) consid- by applying the faceted approach to knowledge or- ers a notation a combination of pre-defined facets (as- ganization (Binding and Tudhope 2004). Recognizing pects), namely Personality, Matter, Energy, Space and the logical, semantic and syntactic strengths of Ran- Time (PMEST), expressed in that citation order. Be- ganathan’s faceted analysis theory and the Classifica- cause of the lack of universal application of the tion Research Group’s enrichment of the faceted ap- PMEST facets and the complexity of building the fac- proach, Broughton (2002) enhances and proposes the eted notations accordingly, Ranganathan’s Colon Clas- use of Bliss Bibliographic Classification (BC2), a fac- sification had not been very popular outside India. eted classification system, to manage Internet re- Nevertheless, the faceted classification approach dem- sources. Crowston and Kwasnik (2004), realizing the onstrated in Colon Classification embodies the com- advantages of faceted classification, adopt this ap- puter amenability that is needed in managing and or- proach to address the issues of multidimensionality of ganizing information in the digital and networked en- classifying genres. In their discussion of using docu- vironment. ment genres as a means to retrieve useful information, Faceted subject analysis generates discrete units of Crowston and Kwasnik argue that a document’s genre classification categories. Using Ranganathan’s theory, is a subtle and complex concept. The content and for example, a subject category can be comprised of form of a document are often intertwined with its finer sub-categories in the pre-defined PMEST and the purpose and function. Consequently, the classification basic class categories. Significantly, computer systems of genres appears to be a multidimensional phenome- can operate and manipulate more efficiently and effec- non that can be addressed by using a faceted classifica- tively on these discrete units. Subject terms in each tion approach. facet can be joined or disjoined in the process of Spiteri (1998) highlights the ability to express searching. Term coordination can happen at any stage compound subjects in faceted classification systems, in the cataloguing or retrieval process, which include and this ability has become a critical characteristic in “1) during vocabulary construction; 2) at the stage of online information retrieval systems. The faceted sub- cataloging or indexing; or, 3) at the point of retrieval” ject approach has produced significant impact in the (Chan 2000). A faceted approach appears to be more traditional classification community. In their strategic flexible and simpler in syntax. Faceted headings can be plan to adapt to the new environment, the Subcom- combined in any way as needed. Complex headings mittee on Metadata and Subject Analysis of the Sub- can be broken down into different facets according to ject Analysis Committee of the Association of Library established categories. A faceted approach, with its Collections and Technical Services (1999) has made a post-coordinate practice, simpler syntax and discrete number of suggestions. One of them is to adopt a fac- basic unit, may enable major subject heading and clas- eted version of LCSH in the subject fields in order to sification systems to benefit from the capability of provide more satisfactory subject access to digital ob- computer systems so that they can better adapt to the jects (Chan 2005). The faceted LCSH, known as Fac- digital environment. La Barre (2007), for example, ar- eted Application of Subject Terminology (FAST), gues that faceted classification might bridge the gap aims to “minimize the need to construct complex sub- between library and Web communities. Her thorough ject headings” by simplifying the syntax, adopting a review of faceted applications indicates that the Web faceted approach, and retaining the richness of the community has been using the faceted practice with- LCSH vocabulary (Chan 2005, 415). The FAST de- out realizing that there are already faceted systems development demonstrates the efforts and initiatives of veloped in library and information science literature. subject heading and classification systems to adapt to Meanwhile, the library community may not be famil- the new information development. It can facilitate the iar with the computing technology and concepts that cooperation between the bibliographic control and Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 37 J. H. Leong. The Convergence of Metadata and Bibliographic Control?

metadata approaches by creating a subject heading vocabulary, which requires trained experts in subject system that can be adopted by both approaches. The analysis. Metadata schemas, supported by automated use of FAST headings in the subject metadata fields al- metadata generation mechanisms, require less time lows an information retrieval system to benefit both and fewer human resources to generate metadata re- from the strengths of metadata and bibliographic con- cords (Campbell 2002; Greenberg, Sutton and Camp- trol. Nevertheless, issues of consistency and continu- bell 2003). Created primarily for digital resources, ity have to be addressed for existing information re- these records can fully utilize the capability of com- trieval systems to adopt FAST headings. In the second puter applications. This utilization of computer power part of the following section, the issues surrounding enables metadata schemas to better accommodate a the implementation and applications of FAST by high quantity of objects. Appearing to be very stan- OCLC will be discussed in more detail. dardized and consistent, catalogue systems using the bibliographic control approach usually provide quality 2.4 Electronic publishing and the Internet records that yield a high performance in terms of precision and recall (Chan 2000). The tremendous volume of electronic publications available in the Internet creates unprecedented chal- 3.1 A spiral dance between bibliographic control lenges to information organization and retrieval. and metadata schemas –the automation Moreover, many of these digital materials appear to be of subject analysis amorphous, ill-defined, not self-contained, unstable and volatile. These characteristics of electronic re- Two major strategies for adapting bibliographic con- sources have initiated dramatic changes in traditional trol techniques to the application of metadata schemas subject access theory and practice. Consequently, are developed. The first strategy would be the automa- metadata schemas have been developed by various tion of the assignment of subject headings and classifi- domain-specific communities to handle the issues of cation notations, which, once automated, should be organizing and providing access to online information integrated. In terms of automatic classification devel- resources (Campbell 2002; Greenberg and Campbell opment, DDC seems to demonstrate a greater flexi- 2003; Tramullas and Garrido 2005). However, as illus- bility than LCC. For example, OCLC has developed a trated in the objects dimension of Figure 1, collabora- system that enables the browsing and searching of a tion between metadata schemas and bibliographic con- DDC notation for a subject automatically. In addition, trol is required to deal with the overlapping entities of automation of DDC has also been successfully incor- electronic resources and the so-called “traditional” re- porated in the NetFirst, CyberDewey and Coopera- sources, such as electronic books and journals. This tive Online Resource Catalog (CORC) projects leads to the investigation of modifying a traditional (Chan 2000; Vizine-Goetz 1997; Vizine-Goetz and subject analysis approach on the side of bibliographic Beall 2004). control to enable the cooperation between metadata The automation of constructing LCC notations schemas and bibliographic control. seems to have started drawing researchers’ attention. For example, the design of a hierarchical interface 3.0 A comparison of metadata schemas (HI) to LCC (HILCC) has been proposed by Davis and traditional catalogue systems (2002). This interface provides automatic subject access to resources in the libraries’ electronic collections Metadata schemas and traditional catalogue systems with a mapping table of three levels that links OPAC share similar objectives in terms of providing subject records against the HILCC. This system enables the access to information resources. Nevertheless, distinc- browsing of subject menus and may serve as a model tive features can also be highlighted in these two sys- for the automation of the assignment of LCC accord- tems. In terms of subject access, some metadata, such ing to established subject headings. Frank and Paynter as folksonomies and machine-generated indexes, pri- (2004) also developed a feasible model of automating marily use natural language or keywords for the sake the assignment of LCC notations based on established of efficiency and simplicity (Guy and Tonkin 2006). subject headings. Their model primarily uses a tree- This practice is complemented by statistical tools and nodes approach to organizing LCC notations and computer algorithms in order to improve the meas- LCSH terms. An LCC notation is represented as the ures of precision and recall of the system. Meanwhile, node and LCSH as the branches. The heading at the traditional catalogue systems often adopt a controlled deepest level of the tree would be the most specific 38 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 J. H. Leong. The Convergence of Metadata and Bibliographic Control?

Figure 2. Hierarchy of LCC schedules illustrating the concept of “circuits” (Williamson 1986, 47) heading within the LCC given in the node. These ini- 3.2 A spiral dance between bibliographic control tiatives demonstrate the possibility of automating the and metadata schemas—faceted subject headings assignment of LCC numbers. Some of the issues and the complexity of this proc- The second strategy attempts to simplify the subject ess were discussed in Williamson (1986), who ex- headings and incorporate the faceted approach in or- plored the feasibility of automating the LCC system der to enable the exploitation of bibliographic control for the online environment. She raised four primary in metadata applications and to address the complexity problems that would need to be addressed in the and computer amenability issues. A faceted heading is computerization of the LCC system. The first issue of comprised of multiple concepts structured according converting printed schedules to machine-readable to the pre-defined facets, which seem to be simpler in form has been resolved. The following three problems syntax. Moreover, the discreteness of the facets can continue to hinder the use of LCC in the digital envi- make better use of the computer capabilities. The con- ronment. First, LCC’s high degree of enumeration en- trast between faceted and enumerative subject analysis tails complex schedule layouts and topic displays. For has been illustrated in the section discussing the chal- example, the automated LCC system will need to dis- lenges created by digitizing and networking catalogue play the whole hierarchy in Figure 2 in order to illus- systems. This section therefore focuses on a particular trate the complete meaning of the concept “circuits” project that transforms the LCSH from the enumera- in LCC’s schedules. To further complicate the issue, tive approach to the faceted approach. Initiated by there is also “hidden” enumeration from the “use of OCLC, the Faceted Application of Subject Terminol- auxiliary tables and the ‘A-Z’ instructions for alpha- ogy (OCLC FAST) project aims to exploit the betical arrangements using book numbers to create strengths of the controlled vocabulary of LCSH and subtopics” (Williamson 1986, 47). the simplicity and computer amenability of faceted The lack of coordination, integration and mne- subject headings for its adoption in metadata. OCLC monics among LCC’s classes, all of which were de- FAST is “derived from LCSH but applied with sim- veloped and have been perpetuated separately, created pler syntax” and adopts a faceted approach so as to re- another problem for the automation of LCC. This tain the “richness of the LCSH vocabulary” for meta- situation creates obstacles for LCC’s automation that data applications (Chan 2005, 415). Developed from requires consistency and coordination among its the existing headings that have already been used, the classes (Williamson 1986). The third problem in the following facets have been conceived: topical, geo- automation of LCC is created by the non-hierarchical graphic, form, period, personal names, corporate characteristic of LCC’s notation. LCC’s hierarchy is names, conference/meetings, uniform titles, and illustrated by its schedules that reflect classes, sub- name-title entries. Moreover, all OCLC FAST head- classes and constituent subjects, such as the one in ings, except for the period facet, have been established Figure 1, rather than its notations. All these obstacles in an OCLC FAST authority file. Although specificity can be overcome eventually with more human effort may have been lost in providing more flexibility and and financial funding. Indeed, the recent implementa- simplicity, the goal of developing a new subject tion of Cataloguer’s Desktop and Classification Web schema for metadata that builds on the rich vocabu- by the Library of Congress demonstrates that sub- lary of LCSH while being easy to use, understand and stantial efforts have been made in LCC’s automation. maintain seems promising (Chan 2005). Nonetheless, the issues raised by Williamson remain OCLC FAST is a relatively new project, its success hindrances to the seamless adoption of LCC in an and adoption in the metadata environment are to be online environment. evaluated and determined. Several studies have been Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 39 J. H. Leong. The Convergence of Metadata and Bibliographic Control?

published about the implementation and applications eted syntax. OCLC FAST’s topical facet remains enu- of OCLC FAST. Mitchell and Hsieh-Yee (2007) con- merative. The problem of inconsistent syntax rules as- duct a study to assess the feasibility of applying sociated with LCSH passes on to OCLC FAST head- OCLC FAST headings to records in the Ulrich’s Peri- ings. Anderson and Hofman (2006), therefore, pro- odicals Directory™ for providing subject access. They pose a fully faceted syntax for LCSH. Using the facets find that converting the sample of 100 random Ul- developed in BC2, Anderson and Hofman (2006, 8) rich’s subject terms to OCLC FAST headings is use- demonstrate workable rules to restructure LCSH from ful and fairly easy to accomplish. Acknowledging a enumerative syntax to faceted syntax. The fully faceted few problems that are resolved fairly easily, the au- LCSH, in the words of the authors, “offers solutions thors conclude that the adoption of OCLC FAST to three problems that confront the current LSCH headings would benefit the Ulrich’s system as it will system: 1) inconsistent syntax rules; 2) inability to cre- provide an addition means of subject access. Although ate headings that are coextensive with the topic of a the actual incorporation of OCLC FAST terms in Ul- work; and 3) lack of effective displays for long lists of rich’s records has yet to come, this feasibility study subdivisions under a single subject heading in OPACs has demonstrated the possible adoption of a faceted and similar electronic displays.” The proposed syntax LCSH by other subject classification systems. by Anderson and Hofmann shows that LCSH can be- The OCLC FAST project has received more atten- come fully faceted. The success of this proposal de- tion, particularly in the digital environment. Several li- pends on further testing and whether cataloguers and braries have used OCLC FAST terms to provide sub- users find the new system more useful than the current ject headings for their digital projects. Nevertheless, approach. Interestingly, the model suggested by several issues needed to be addressed in this project. Anderson and Hofmann illustrates another step that First, the authority of these headings is established by can be made by subject cataloguing systems to move the literary warrant of OCLC’s WorldCat records, closer to the convergence of traditional bibliographic which happen to be records of primarily non-digital control and metadata. materials. These headings may not be able to describe adequately some of the content of digital and net- 4.0 Conclusion worked resources that often convey new knowledge. Second, the headings remain pre-coordinated within This investigation of the current issues in biblio- the same facet. The topical headings, for example, usu- graphic control and metadata schemas concludes that ally contain a number of interesting sub-topics, such resolutions of these issues suggest a tendency to- as Revolution (United States, 1775-1783) and Quar- wards convergence of these two approaches. Tools tets (Pianos (2), percussion). This multiplicity in the developed and adopted in these two approaches ap- topical facet recreates issues of using the enumerative pear to effectively complement each other. To address approach, undermining the project’s efforts to achieve the challenges of the rapid advancement of new simplicity and computer amenability. Last but not knowledge in both digital and non-digital materials, least, the decline in quality and accuracy of OCLC information retrieval systems need to exploit the FAST, a simplified version of LCSH, remains to be as- timeliness and computer amenability of metadata and sessed. Will users and cataloguers accept the decline in the consistency, quality and conciseness of biblio- quality and accuracy? In a qualitative analysis of 5000 graphic control. Moreover, digitized and networked bibliographic records converted from LCSH to catalogue systems have enabled traditional biblio- OCLC FAST, the quality and accuracy issues are high- graphic tools to incorporate both natural language lighted. Sponsored by ALCTS Subject Analysis Com- and controlled vocabulary in providing subject access, mittee and reported by Qiang Jin (2008), the analysis while the metadata realm is recognizing the advan- concludes that although most OCLC FAST headings tages of using the controlled vocabulary approach. cover the “aboutness” in post-coordination, some The huge volume of digital and networked infor- headings become generic and lose their meanings. Re- mation resources creates unprecedented challenges to lationship established in enumerative headings is lost both bibliographic control and metadata applications. in post-coordinated headings. Some OCLC FAST In their attempt to provide quality subject access to headings in certain facets make little or no sense when these resources, metadata schemas and applications they are taken out of context. have recommended the use of traditional tools in bib- In addition to the issues discussed above, OCLC liographic control, such as major subject headings and FAST headings are often criticized for its partially fac- classifications systems. The bibliographic control 40 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 J. H. Leong. The Convergence of Metadata and Bibliographic Control?

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Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 43 A. Friedman. The Use of Concept Maps in Knowledge Organization

The Use of Concept Maps in Knowledge Organization: † * An Analysis of Conference Papers

Alon Friedman 255 West 10th Street, #3RN, New York, NY USA 10014,

Alon Friedman started his work on concept maps and classification when entering his LIU Ph.D. program in 2002. In 2004, he presented his first paper on concept maps based on Frege’s and Austin’s philosophical perspective to the Long Island Philosophy Society (LIPS). In 2006, he presented a paper at the 9th ISKO Conference in Vienna Austria on authors’ use of concept maps in their conference papers. The framework of his work was based on Peirce’s theory of “sign.” In 2008 his paper was published at the third Concept Map Conference (CMC). He is currently teaching in the New York City area.

Friedman, Alon. The Use of Concept Maps in Knowledge Organization: An Analysis of Confer- ence Paper. Knowledge Organization, 37(1), 43-50. 16 references.

ABSTRACT: Concept mapping is a technique for representing knowledge in graphic form. It is often used in academic conference papers by professionals in the field of knowledge organization. By examining the entire run of conference proceedings from ISKO and ASIS SIG/CR, looking specifically at the nationality and professional occupation of the authors who used concept maps in their papers, this study analyzes how concept maps have been implemented. A total of 652 papers and 327 concept maps were examined, from nine volumes of ISKO conference proceedings and thirteen volumes of ASIS SIG/CR conference proceedings. In addition, I applied Dahlberg’s classification in order to better understand the nature my findings. I found that Dahlberg’s “object” category covers the majority of titles and concept maps found in the proceedings. Future studies need to address how concept maps used by researchers can be organized to support retrieval.

† This article is adapted from the author’s 2007 Ph.D. thesis: Concept map as “sign;” concept mapping in knowledge organization through a semiotics lens, Long Island University.

* I owe a great deal of gratitude to Dr. Smiraglia, who introduced me to Dahlberg’s theories and the importance of classification in the context of concept maps.

1.0 Introduction ceedings and discovered that the technique has become a standardized procedure in the field. Concept mapping provides visual representation of Scholars define the field of knowledge organiza- knowledge structures and argument forms. It has tion as one that specializes in the arrangement and re- provided visual representation of knowledge struc- trieval of concepts and knowledge. According to tures in academic and business settings since the late Dahlberg (2006, 1995 and 1983), knowledge units are 1930s. Concept mapping has mostly been employed the core of the theoretical examination of knowledge to facilitate collaborative learning in the educational organization. Concept mapping is a technique for paradigm. Friedman (2006) found that concept map- visualizing the relationships among concepts. In this ping is used frequently in academic conference pro- study, concept maps were used as a focal point for ex- ceedings by scholars of knowledge organization. He amining how academic scholars in the field of knowl- examined the Sixth and Eighth ISKO conference pro- edge organization represent knowledge units (i.e., 44 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 A. Friedman. The Use of Concept Maps in Knowledge Organization

concepts). Given the growing popularity of concept nature of concept maps and developed a methodology mapping, I applied Dahlberg’s classification system to of concept mapping with regard to programming lan- examine the titles of the papers and the titles of the guages. concept maps that authors used to illustrate their The field of knowledge organization facilitates the findings. I proposed the following three questions: arrangement of knowledge to assist its retrieval. A more precise definition is provided by Smiraglia 1. How do scholars represent concepts using concept (2005); according to him, knowledge organization in- maps? volves the “ordering of what is known,” particularly 2. How can knowledge units (i.e. concepts) con- for information retrieval. Nowadays, with the increas- tained in the maps be classified? ing variety of non-printed material, including elec- 3. Do national or professional differences influence tronic documents, sound, images and maps that carry the way concepts are mapped? intellectual and physical properties, defining the field of knowledge organization has become more complex. I believe that by addressing these questions, we will In addition, according to Andersen and Skouving better understand the value of concept maps in repre- (2006), the field of knowledge organization cannot be senting academic knowledge. known only for its principles and rules; it needs to be recognized as a human and social activity. According 2.0 Background to Hjørland (2003), the term knowledge organization means the organization of information in biblio- The term “concept map” was developed by Novak and graphic recordings, including citation indexes, full-text Gowin (1984) who aimed to provide a better tool for records, and electronic documents over the Internet. lecturers, teachers, and their students. Their definition Dahlberg (2006) provides a different understanding, employs three key terms: concept, proposition, and stating that the field of knowledge organization needs learning. According to them, the label stands for a sin- to be concerned with the structuring and systematic gle word, although sometimes we can use symbols arrangement of concepts or knowledge units. This such as “+” or “%.” Propositions are statements structure is completed by assigning value to inherent about some object(s) or event(s) in the universe. They knowledge elements according to the contents of ref- can be either naturally occurring or constructed. They erents of all kinds. As a technique, studying concept contain two or more concepts that are connected with maps provides a lens for examining how knowledge other words to form a meaningful statement. Some- units are represented by academic scholars in the field times these are called semantic units or units of mean- knowledge organization. ing. The term “learning,” according to Novak and Gowin, stresses the important role of prior knowledge 3.0 Methodology in students’ acquisition of new concepts. However, Novak and Gowin do not refer to the use of concept I examined the entire contents of the volumes of con- maps by academic researchers, nor do they address ference proceedings of two conferences that took how to classify the titles of maps. Concept mapping place between 1990 and 2006: a total of 22 meetings, has mostly been employed to facilitate collaborative during which 642 papers were presented, containing learning in the field of education (Roth 1994; Roth 327 concept maps. In order for a concept map to and Roychoudhury 1994). However, other fields also count in the study, it must present text, image, and examine the use and nature of concept maps. In the links that illustrate the relationship between the history of science, concept maps have been used to nodes and arcs in the map. The arcs represent the represent the processes of conceptual change in scien- type of relationship between the nodes they repre- tific revolutions (Nersessian 1989; Thadgard, 1992). sent, which is consistent with the definition of the In the philosophy of science, Toulmin (1958) devel- term concept map given by Lambiotte et al. (1984). oped a theory of scientific argument based on typed The study progressed through four steps. First, I re- concept maps, which are regarded as one of the major corded the nationality and occupation of the authors of themes of the rhetoric of western thought (Golden, the papers. In the second stage, I calculated the most- Berquist and Coleman 1976). In the field of computer used mapping formats. In the third stage, I used Dahl- science, Sowa (2000) examined the nature of concept berg’s classification to classify the papers and concept maps in Artificial Intelligence. And in the field of maps. In the final stage, I conducted cross tabulation to knowledge organization, Priss (2004) has studied the check for national or occupational influences. Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 45 A. Friedman. The Use of Concept Maps in Knowledge Organization

4.0 Results major differences between the two sets of conference proceedings. In both conference series, the majority I examined the entire contents of the volumes of of the authors were professors: out of 602 authors, published proceedings of the two series of confer- 431 were professors. In addition, I examined the ences that took place between 1990 and 2006. This country of employment of each researcher. During included a total of 22 meetings, during which 652 pa- the period under examination, most of the presenters pers were presented. ASIS SIG/CR contained 158 at ASIS SIG/CR were American-based, whereas most papers and ISKO proceedings contained 494 papers. of the presenters at ISKO were based in Europe. Note that the last printed ASIS SIG/CR occurred in Unlike ASIS SIG/CR, I found that the majority of 2002. Although the meetings continue, the proceed- presenters at ISKO conferences were professors who ings were not available during the period in which worked in one of four major European countries: this study took place. Out of 652 papers, I found a Spain, France, Germany, and Demark. The USA and total of 327 concept maps: 202 maps from ISKO and Canada supplied the next largest number of partici- 125 maps in ASIS SIG/CR. However, a closer look at pants. It is interesting to note that in the early ISKO the number of papers and the number of concept conference proceedings (ISKO #1 - #4) the majority maps per conference in both series of proceedings re- of presenters came from the host country. This trend veals that the ASIS SIG/CR conferences showed a changed over time. In the last ISKO conference (#9: higher percentage and a closer relationship between Vienna, Austria), the majority of the presenters came the number of concept maps and the number of pa- from the United States. pers per conference than the ISKO conferences did. With regard to the characteristics of the authors Although the ISKO proceedings included more con- who included concept maps as part of their papers, I cept maps, the ratio of the number of concept maps found no major difference between the two confer- to the number of papers per conference indicates that ences. Table 1 shows the top-ranked country of em- the ASIS SIG/CR presenters employ more concept ployment and occupation of those who presented maps per paper than the ISKO presenters. The reason concept maps at ASIS SIG/CR meetings. for the difference is the relatively larger number of In contrast, the ISKO presenters were a more in- papers presented during each ISKO conference event: ternational group. However, at the majority of ISKO recall that the ISKO proceedings included 494 papers, conferences, the United States-based presenters who compared to only 158 papers at ASIS SIG/CR con- used concept maps did not outnumber researchers ferences. from other countries. Out of 101 ISKO concept-map First I examined the occupation of each author presenters, only 21 worked in the United States. Re- who contributed a paper to the conference proceed- searchers from Germany ranked second, with 10 con- ings. The results were classified into three categories: cept maps. Table 2 presents the top-ranked country professor/academic teachers, practitioner, and stu- of employment and occupation of the concept map dent. Regarding the relative proportions, I found no creators for each ISKO conference.

Number of present- Top Country Top Total number ers of Employment Occupation of maps using Concept maps ASIS SIG/CR #1 4 USA= 75% Professor = 63% 10 ASIS SIG/CR #2 3 USA= 100% Professor = 78.5% 6 ASIS SIG/CR #3 5 USA= 80% Professor = 75% 12 ASIS SIG/CR #4 5 Canada = 40% Professor = 88% 18 ASIS SIG/CR #5 6 USA = 50% Professor = 81% 18 ASIS SIG/CR #6 4 USA = 50% Professor = 80% 9 ASIS SIG/CR #7 3 Germany = 66% Professor = 79% 9 ASIS SIG/CR #8 1 Canada = 100% Professor = 54% 1 ASIS SIG/CR #9 3 USA = 66% Professor = 62% 10 ASIS SIG/CR #10 4 Denmark = 50% Professors = 62% 9 ASIS SIG/CR #11 6 USA = 83% Professors = 63% 8 ASIS SIG/CR #12 3 USA =66% Professor = 67% 9 ASIS SIG/CR #13 3 USA = 100% Professor = 82% 6 Table 1. ASIS SIG/CR presenters according to profession and country of occupation 46 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 A. Friedman. The Use of Concept Maps in Knowledge Organization

Number of presenters Top Country of Em- include Concept maps Top Occupation Total number of maps ployment as part of their paper ISKO#1 6 Germany = 75% Professor = 60% 11 ISKO#2 10 Sweden = 66.6% Professor = 60% 24 ISKO#3 4 France = 60% Professor = 78% 11 ISKO#4 12 Germany = 40% Professor = 64% 20 ISKO#5 17 France = 36% Professor = 80% 41 ISKO#6 13 USA = 33% Professor = 79% 25 ISKO#7 12 USA = 50% Professor = 85% 20 ISKO#8 12 Spain = 50% Professor = 75% 24 ISKO#9 16 USA = 21% Professor = 80% 26 Table 2. Shows ISKO concept-map creators according to profession and country of occupation

Overall, the majority of the contributors to both sets grate graphics and text most efficiently. It is interest- of conference proceedings are United States-based ing to note that most researchers added further professors who used concept maps to illustrate their graphic representations to their maps, without provid- findings. Future studies should address the issue of ing detailed explanations of their meaning. This appar- country of employment and area of research of the ent oversight should be examined in future studies. participants who contribute to knowledge organiza- Next, I employed Dahlberg's classification in order to tion conferences, as well as the factors that influence better understand the nature of the concept maps the use of concept maps. Next, I counted the most found in the two series of conference proceedings. frequently used form of maps found throughout the two sets of conference proceedings. 6.0 Analysis using Dahlberg’s classification

5.0 The most used forms of concept maps In order to understand the topical parameters of the papers and their concept maps I used Dahlberg’s Out of the 327 maps I reviewed, I found three main (2006) Classification System for Knowledge Organi- classifications: concept maps, mind maps, and concep- zation Literature to categorize the titles of both pa- tual graphs. Concept Maps consist of text, images, and pers and concept maps. Dahlberg outlines ten catego- links, all of which describe the relationship between ries: (1) general-form concepts, (2) theories and prin- specific nodes and arcs that yield the semiotic essence ciples, (3) object classification systems and thesauri, of any given presentation. Mind Maps are diagrams (4) activity processes, (5) property attributes, (6) per- that are used to represent words, ideas, tasks, or other sons, (7) institution (8) technology and production, items that are linked to, and arranged around, a central (9) application and determination, and (10) distribu- word or concept. Conceptual Graphs are systems of tion and synthesis. The first group classifies certain logic that are based on both the existential graphs of kinds of documents, including bibliographic works Charles Sanders Peirce and propositional logic. Table 3 and conference proceedings. The second category represents the findings. fers to theories and principles that deal with indexing and classification. The next group, “object,” addresses Concept Mind Conceptual classification systems and thesauri that deal with the

Maps Maps Maps classification of the object. “Activity process,” which is ISKO 128 23 51 the fourth category, involves methods of classifying ASIS 78 13 34 and indexing. The fifth category deals with the prop- SIG/CR erty attributes of indexing and classification. The sixth Total 327 206 36 85 category, “person,” deals with subject-related systems, Table 3. The form of concept maps most used mainly taxonomy. The seventh group (“institution”) deals with related systems. The next class involves Accounting for 62% of the total, the concept map was concepts from fields (mainly technological) that are the most-used format. As the preferred method of related to knowledge organization; the title of this displaying scientific information in the series of ISKO class is “technology and production.” The ninth classi- and ASIS SIG/CR conferences, concept maps inte- fication, “application and determination,” covers the Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 47 A. Friedman. The Use of Concept Maps in Knowledge Organization

methods of the field that are applied to document sixth place. In ASIS SIG/CR, I found that American forms and subject contents. It also covers intellectual presenters led both in terms of nationality and in the products in the field. “Distribution and synthesis,” the use of the following categories: “activity,” “technol- last group, addresses the environment of the field and ogy,” and “application.” The second leading group of its social organization, as well as issues of education, contributors was from the UK. This group secured law, economics, and service. Dahlberg concludes that second place in both of Dahlberg’s top categories. the first category and the last three categories are suc- Overall, the majority of contributors were American cessful for arranging the research framework of professors, who presented a total of 89 papers out of knowledge organization (2006, 14). 158 papers. With respect to the use of paper titles, major differ- It is interesting to note that in the proceedings of ences emerged between the two series of conferences. both series of conferences, the researchers from the Most of the titles of ISKO papers fell into two major USA had a stronger presence than those from any groups: “object,” which ranked at the top, and “tech- other countries. In the ISKO conference proceedings, nology,” which ranked second. Under Dahlberg’s clas- cross-tabulation demonstrates that many American sification, papers classified under the “object” group papers were classified under Dahlberg’s “object.” In discuss concepts and classification in knowledge or- ASIS SIG/CR, the American-based contributors lead ganization. Under this heading, 115 out of 652 titles the way, with “activity” the leading group. In both se- were classified, which represents 15% of the total ries of proceedings, professors were the leading pro- number of papers. In every ISKO conference proceed- fessional category. Future research needs to analyze ing examined for this study, “object” appeared at least the relationship between the country of employment five times or more. Based on Dahlberg’s classification, of authors and their respective subject of research. the second-highest ranking group (“technology”) dis- Applying Dahlberg’s classification to the concept cusses concepts from other fields that are directly re- maps used in ISKO conference papers, the “object” lated to the field of knowledge organization. “Tech- group appeared most often. Out of 202 maps, 51 nology” accounted for 90 out of 652 titles, represent- come under this category, representing 25%. At every ing 13% of the overall number of papers. This cate- ISKO conference, this classification appeared at least gory maintained a strong presence throughout the two twice. “Activity,” which discusses the methods and ac- series of conference proceedings. The one exception is tivities of classes and their explanation, featured sec- the third ISKO (1994) conference, where none of the ond at ISKO. This category holds 39 maps, represent- papers were classified under this group. Only 40 titles, ing 19% of the overall total. In third place, the group accounting for 6% of the total, came from the third “technology” consists of a total of 30 maps, or 14% of group, “application.” According to Dahlberg’s classifi- the total. The most dominant classification in the cation, the “application” group discusses methods that ASIS SIG/CR events was “technology and produc- are applied to classify documents and data classes. tion,” which appeared in 11 out of 13 conferences. It In comparison, the most dominant group-theme was present in 20 out of 125 maps, totaling 17%. In classification in the ASIS SIG/CR proceedings was second place, I found the group “activity,” with 20 “activity component,” which appeared in 12 out of 13 maps, representing 16% overall. In third place, the conferences. The “activity” group applied to 36 titles “object” group accounted for 17 maps, or 14%. Table out of 158, representing 22% of the overall number of 4 summarizes the concept maps found in the entire set papers. “Technology,” which was also one of the top of ISKO conference proceedings. groups in ISKO, ranked second at these conferences. The most dominant group-theme classification in It accounted for 31 paper titles, or 19% of the overall the ASIS SIG/CR events was “technology and pro- number. With only 24 paper titles, equaling 15% of duction,” which appeared in 11 out of 13 conferences. the overall number, the “application” group came Maps classified under this group display concepts third. from fields related to knowledge organization. The Thus the proceedings from the two series of ISKO second highest category was “activity,” which stands and ASIS SIG/CR conferences share the same second for methods and activities of classifying and indexing. and third place classification groups: “technology” and The third ranked group was “object,” which stands “application.” When examining the proceedings with for a particular activity relate to the object in the con- regard to the “activity” group, the following difference cept systems. Table 5 summarizes the concept maps emerged: in ASIS SIG/CR, “activity” was the highest- in the entire series of ASIS SIG/CR proceedings ac- ranking term, but in ISKO it was a relatively distant cording to Dahlberg’s classification. 48 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 A. Friedman. The Use of Concept Maps in Knowledge Organization

General Institu- Technol- Applica- Distribu- ISKO Theories Object Activity Property Persons form tion ogy tion tion #1 3 3 1 #2 1 2 8 7 4 1 1 #3 1 1 3 3 3 1 1 #4 1 4 3 5 2 4 2 #5 2 12 8 1 1 1 12 4 2 #6 3 1 5 5 1 5 5 3 #7 2 8 2 3 2 2 2 2 #8 3 5 5 6 1 3 4 #9 3 9 6 2 2 2 3 1 Total 5 13 51 39 19 17 12 30 12 4

Table 4. A summary of concept maps found in ISKO proceedings according to Dahlberg’s classification

ASIS General Institu- Technol- Applica- Distribu- SIG/ Theories Object Activity Property Persons form tion ogy tion tion CR #1 6 2 2 #2 1 1 1 1 2 #3 1 4 3 1 1 1 #4 4 2 3 1 4 1 2 1 #5 2 2 3 4 2 4 1 #6 1 1 2 2 3 1 1 #7 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 #8 1 #9 2 1 2 2 2 #10 1 1 2 2 2 2 #11 1 4 2 1 #12 2 2 1 2 2 #13 6 Total 1 13 17 20 15 18 8 21 9 3

Table 5. A summary of the entire ASIS SIG/CR events according to Dahlberg’s classification

In summary, although the series of ISKO and the cept map contribution. I also found that the majority ASIS SIG/CR conference events do not reveal the of the contributors were professors. At ISKO, 54% of same top-ranked themes, I found similar patterns re- all papers examined were authored by professors, and garding Dahlberg’s “object” group. This particular at ASIS SIG/CR, 65% of all contributors were profes- group was ranked third in ASIS SIG/CR and first in sors. With regard to concept maps, the majority ISKO. In addition, the “activity” group was among the (38%) of the contributors in both series of confer- top three most-used categories in both series of con- ences were also U.S.-based professors. ference proceedings. At ISKO, “activity” was ranked Between the two series of conference proceedings, I in second place, the same as it was ranked in ASIS found no difference with regard to the creators of SIG/CR. More studies need to examine how authors concept maps vs. authors of papers. United States- employ concept maps to define the major concepts in based professors were the most highly represented their discussions. group in both conference series and for both types of contribution. At ISKO conferences, 38% of creators 7.0 Cross Tabulation of concept maps were American. At ASIS SIG/CR, 72% of all concept map makers were based in the I conducted cross tabulation to analyze the sources of United States. The majority of those who included the papers and concept maps by country of origin and concept maps in their papers were professors. At ASIS institutional affiliation. At ISKO, Americans contrib- SIG/CR, 74% of the concept-map presenters were uted 23% of papers to the conference out of a total of professors, while at ISKO 81% of concept maps were 494 papers, while American presenters at ASIS created by professors. SIG/CR accounted for 159 papers, or 61% of the con- Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 49 A. Friedman. The Use of Concept Maps in Knowledge Organization

I also found a similar pattern between the papers this study, concept maps were used as a lens for ex- and the maps using Dahlberg’s classification. Most of amining how knowledge units are represented by the titles of the papers at ISKO fell into two major academic scholars in the field of knowledge organiza- groups: “object,” which ranked at the top, and “tech- tion. Using Dahlberg’s classification, I examined the nology,” which ranked second. I found that the con- titles of the papers and the titles of the concept maps cept maps and the papers had the same leading group- found in two major series of conference proceedings theme, “object,” which accounted for 11% of all paper in the field of knowledge organization: ISKO and titles and 25% of all concept maps found in ISKO. ASIS SIG/CR. “Activity” ranked second and “technology” third. A total of 642 papers and 427 maps were found in Things were different at the ASIS SIG/CR conference the proceedings of these two series of conferences be- meetings, where the most dominant group-theme tween 1990 and 2006. In both series, the majority of classification was “technology,” followed by “activity” the researchers who utilized concept maps as part of and “object.” their papers were professors: they created 227 out of With regard to concept maps, the most dominant the 329 total maps contained in the proceedings. In Dahlberg classification at ISKO was “object,” which addition, the majority of the participants who em- applied to 25% of all the maps. Once again, “activity” ployed concept maps as part of their presentation ranked second and “technology” third. In contrast, were based in the United States. This trend had a the most dominant classification among the ASIS stronger impact at the ASIS SIG/CR events, where SIG/CR concept maps was “technology,” which ap- the majority of the presenters worked in the U.S. By peared in 23% of all the maps. The second ranked contrast, the ISKO presenters were a more interna- category was “activity,” while “object” was third. tional group. It is noteworthy that while Dahlberg suggests that I found that concept maps were the preferred her first category and last three categories (“general method for representing knowledge. Concept maps form,” “technology,” “application,” and “distribu- were defined as maps that represent text, images, and tion”) are the most popular, I found, regarding the ti- links that explicate a relationship between the nodes tles of the papers, that “object” and “activity” ranked and arcs in the map. It is interesting to note that re- at the top of both series of conference proceedings. searchers most often did not provide detailed expla- These two categories do not even appear on her list nation about either their maps or the connections be- of most-popular groups. When looking at ISKO con- tween the nodes and arcs. Using Dahlberg’s classifi- cept maps, “object” once again ranked highest. In cation, I found that the “object” category predomi- terms of Dahlberg’s ranking, the only match I found nated in both series of conference proceedings when in the ASIS SIG/CR proceedings was the group evaluating the title of the papers and the titles of con- “technology and production.” Dahlberg’s classifica- cept maps. Similarly, “activity” ranked near the top in tion has never been examined with regard to its appli- both series. I conducted cross-tabulation to conclude cation to the nature of paper titles or concept maps in that the United States provided the greatest number knowledge organization conference proceedings. Fu- of contributors and concept map creators in both of ture studies need to apply Dahlberg’s categories to these series of conferences. I also found that the ma- the classification of conference papers and concept jority of the contributors were professors. With re- maps in order to evaluate the strength of Dahlberg’s gard to concept maps, the majority of the contribu- scheme. In addition, more studies are needed to un- tors in both conferences were also U.S.-based profes- derstand how concept maps are used by academic re- sors. The predominant form of concept maps used by searchers, especially to define the core concepts in authors was concept maps—rather than mind maps their discussions. or conceptual graphs. Future studies need to address how the work and concept maps used by researchers 8.0 Summary and Discussion in conference proceedings can be classified in the field of knowledge organization. Knowledge organization is often defined in terms of facilitating information retrieval. Dahlberg maintains References that the core examination of knowledge organization can be found in the knowledge units, or concepts. Andersen, Jack and Skouvig, Laura. 2006. Knowledge Concept mapping (which shows the relationship organization: a sociohistorical analysis and critique. among concepts) is a technique for visualization. In Library quarterly 76: 300-22. 50 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 A. Friedman. The Use of Concept Maps in Knowledge Organization

Dahlberg, Ingetraut. 2006. Knowledge organization: a Nersessian, Nancy J. and Thagard, Paul. eds. 1989. new science? Knowledge Organization 33: 11-19. Model-based reasoning in scientific discovery. New Dahlberg, Ingetraut. 1993. Knowledge organization: York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, pp. its scope and possibilities. Knowledge organization 5-22. 20: 211-22. Priss, Uta. 2004. Signs and formal concepts. In Ek- Dahlberg, Ingetraut. 1995. Conceptual structures and lund, Peter ed., Concept lattices: Second Interna- systematization. International forum of information tional Conference on Formal Concept Analysis , and documentation 20, no.3: 9-24. ICFCA 2004, Sydney, Australia, February 23-26, Friedman, Alon. 2006. Concept mapping a measurable 2004 proceedings. Berlin: Springer, pp. 28-38. sign. In Budin, Gerhard, Swertz, Christian, and Roth, Wolff-Michael and Roychoudhury, Anita. 1994. Mitgutsch, Konstantin eds., Knowledge organization Physics students’ epistemologies and views about and the global learning society, Proceedings of the knowing and learning. Journal of research in science 9th ISKO International Conference, Vienna, July 4- teaching 31: 5-30. 7 2006. Advances in knowledge organization 10. Smiraglia, Richard. 2005. Content metadata-an analy- Würzburg: Ergon-Verlag, pp. 131-30. sis of Etruscan artifacts in a museum of archeol- Goldsmith, Timothy E., Johnson, Peder J. and Acton, ogy. Cataloging & classification quarterly 40(3/4): William H. 1991. Assessing structural knowledge. 135-51. Journal of educational psychology 83: 88-96. Sowa, John F. 2000. Semantic networks. http://www. Hjørland, Birger. 2007. Lifeboat for knowledge or- jfsowa.com/pubs/semnet.htm (accessed December ganization. Retrieved 10/04/2007. From http:// 9, 2009). www.db.dk/bh/lifeboat_ko/home.htm Thadgard, P. 1992. Conceptual revolutions. Prince- Hjørland, Birger. 2003. Empiricism and positivism. In ton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press. Feather, John and Sturges, Paul eds., International Toulmin, Stephen Edelston: 1958, The uses of argu- encyclopedia of information and library science, 2nd. ment. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ed. London: Routledge, pp. 179-81. Lambiotte, J.G., Dansereau, D.F., Cross, D.R., and Reynolds, S.B. 1984. Multirelational semantic maps. Educational psychology review 1: 331-67.

Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 51 D. G. Campbell. Tensions Between Language and Discourse in North American Knowledge Organization

Tensions Between Language and Discourse in North American Knowledge Organization

D. Grant Campbell University of Western Ontario, Faculty of Information and Media Studies London, Ontario Canada N6A 5B7, [email protected]

D. Grant Campbell is an Associate Professor in the Faculty of Information and Media Studies at the University of Western Ontario. His research interests include bibliographic description, information and literary theory, metadata and the Semantic Web. He has published in the Journal of Academic Li- brarianship, Cataloging & Classification Quarterly, Journal of Internet Cataloging, Epilogue, and Papers of the Bibliographical Society of Canada.

Campbell, D. Grant. Tensions Between Language and Discourse in North American Knowledge Organization. Knowledge Organization, 37(1), 51-57. 33 references.

ABSTRACT: This paper uses Paul Ricoeur's distinction between language and discourse to help define a North American research agenda in knowledge organization. Ricoeur's concept of discourse as a set of utterances, defined within multiple disciplines and domains, and reducible, not to the word but to the sentence, provides three useful tools for defining our research. First, it enables us to recognize the important contribution of numerous studies that focus on acts of organization, rather than on standards or tools of organization. Second, it provides a paradigm for reconciling the competing demands of interoperability, based on widely-used tools and techniques of library science, and domain integrity, based on user warrant and an understanding of local context. Finally, it resonates with the current economic, political and social climate in which our information systems work, particularly the competing calls for protectionism and globalization.

1. Introduction 2009), and the visualisations of domain analysis (Smiraglia 2009). From the other direction, interna- As the North American chapter of the International tional theory and practice were studied through spe- Society for Knowledge organization (ISKO) held its cifically North American traditions such as the phi- second symposium at Syracuse in June 2009, the losophical pragmatism of Peirce and James (Dousa scholars and practitioners in attendance found them- 2009) and the evolution of the Dewey Decimal Clas- selves negotiating a familiar tension between univer- sification (Green 2009). The presentation which sal and local perspectives. On the one hand, the pre- formed the basis of this paper (Campbell 2009) uses senters attempted to define a collective research a theory of language posited by Paul Ricoeur in 1977 agenda that held special relevance for North Ameri- to link this current tension between the global and can knowledge communities: on the other hand, the local to our traditional tendency to view subject they strove to situate that agenda within the broader tools as “languages.” Ricoeur's attempt to expand context of international research and practice that views of language beyond the purely semiotic realm characterises knowledge organization as a field and provides a useful guide for describing and defining ISKO as a forum for that field. Furthermore, they North American knowledge organization research in showed a profound awareness that all practice, the coming decade. In particular, Ricoeur's distinc- whether global or local, draws, not only on contex- tion between semiotics and semantics—between lan- tual knowledge, but on universal principles such as guage as a self-enclosed, self-referential system and hierarchy, synonymy, warrant, syndetic structure and discourse as an open, multi-disciplinary array of faceted classification. Thus specifically North speech events—suggests productive ways of negoti- American practice was analyzed through such gen- ating local and global perspectives in both research eral prisms as Ranganathan's facet analysis (La Barre and practice. 52 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 D. G. Campbell. Tensions Between Language and Discourse in North American Knowledge Organization

Familiarity with specific professional and knowl- teroperability that enables community members to edge domains has long been recognized as an essential gain access to global information resources, while still part of information organization, particularly in the preserving the data structures, information models understanding of literary and user warrant (Lancaster and community affordances that make their systems a 1986) and the provision of services for special librar- manifestation of their distinct cultures and communi- ies (Foskett 1966, xiii). However, the very act of in- ties? And how can the North American knowledge vestigating context can be seen as the application of organization community establish research that sup- professional tools that are distinct from that context. ports information professionals as they work to rec- In 1999, Marcia Bates (1045) argued that representing oncile global and local perspectives? information requires a specific skill set which is distinct from actually “knowing” the information, and 2. Subject access systems as languages defended the distinction by comparing information professionals to professional actors: In her ambitious survey of the intellectual foundations of information organization, Elaine Svenonius We take it for granted that when we see a film or (2000, 3-6) identifies three distinct strands of television program like “ER” (“Emergency thought that underlie most of our knowledge organi- Room”), that it is actors who portray the physi- zation theory and practice: cians, because that is the way it has always been done .... In like manner, representing informa- – systems theory, articulated by Ludwig von Berta- tion—whether you are indexing or formulating lanffy and popularized in information science by a search strategy or helping someone articulate Charles Cutter, resulting in concepts of the infor- what they want to find—is different from mation system as a holistic structure, governed by knowing the information .... Creating databases a specific purpose, achieved through the operation and catalogs involves creating representations of of general laws and principles; forms of information. – the philosophy of science, pioneered by Cleverdon and resulting in information retrieval metrics such This familiar tension between specific subject knowl- as precision and recall; and edge and general representation strategies has ac- – language philosophy, pioneered by Wittgenstein's quired a fresh resonance in 2009, given its resem- language games and Kaiser's indexing, which ap- blance to the tensions between global and national in- plied linguistic concepts such as vocabulary and terests in North American economies, and the con- syntax to the task of information organization. flicting arguments for protectionism and for free trade in the wake of the recent world recession. Eco- While the bulk of this analysis will draw on the lin- nomic hardship has created fresh barriers on a conti- guistic roots of knowledge organization, it is useful nent previously dominated by free trade agreements to recall the other two traditions as well. From sys- such as the North American Free Trade Agreement tems philosophy, we can derive a model of productive (NAFTA). As massive government spending pro- interaction between global and local perspectives. A grams attempt to stimulate moribund economic sec- good information system presumably works to serve tors, a fresh spirit of protectionism, amplified by pa- a purpose derived from, and informed by, its embed- triotic appeals to buy nationally and environmentally- ding domain, and thus derives its very existence from conscious appeals to eat locally, has cooled our enthu- local, contextual needs and practices (Svenonius 2000, siasm for acting and interacting as a global commu- 3-4). At the same time, the system accomplishes this nity, governed by global standards. purpose through the application of general principles. As this new regionalism conflicts with global per- North American knowledge organization researchers spectives, knowledge organization will reflect such and practitioners should aim for a similarly produc- conflict in its practices, just as the North American tive mix of perspectives. From the philosophy of sci- Industrial Classification reflected free trade and har- ence, we can derive, not only a rigorous attention to monisation in the past (Campbell 2003). This analy- methods of inquiry, but also a commitment to study- sis, therefore, will use Ricoeur's language theory to ing not just information principles, but also informa- pose a distinctly North American question. How can tion acts. Precision and recall metrics, by their nature, our information systems establish optimal levels of are generally performed on concrete phenomena in interoperability between one system and another: in- the form of pre-existing documents, thus paving the Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 53 D. G. Campbell. Tensions Between Language and Discourse in North American Knowledge Organization

way for Ricoeur's focus on discourse, as well as on (1976, 5), the sign rests on a play of differences: “in language. such a system no entity belonging to the structure of The linguistic dimension of subject access tools the system has a meaning of its own; the meaning of a appears in such terms as “controlled vocabulary” and word, for example, results from its opposition to the “thesaurus,” and the use of these tools involves the other lexical units of the same system.” inherently linguistic concepts of vocabulary and syn- In the first of a series of lectures delivered at Texas tax: the establishment of authorized terms and their Christian University in 1973, Paul Ricoeur takes issue inter-relationships, and the use of a standardized syn- with Saussure's linguistic theory: not with its impor- tax for concatenating terms together to form classifi- tance or validity, but with the ensuing impact Saus- cation numbers or precoordinate subject headings. sure's treatment had on later linguistic theory, and its Other theorists such as Blair (1990) have explored effect on questions of words and truth. For Ricoeur, the similarities between information description on these questions go back at least as far as Plato, who the one hand and semiotics and linguistic analysis on debated, in such dialogues as Cratylus, the Sophist and the other. Others have linked subject access to post- the Theaetetus how false statements are made. Plato, modernism (Mai 1999) and post-structuralism Ricoeur argues, concludes that we cannot understand (Campbell 2008). The use of linguistics as a paradigm falsehood solely through the meaning of words; the for subject access systems has placed linguistic the- paradox of falsehood lies in the act of making state- ory, with its strengths and its limitations, close to the ments, and hence in the sentence, not the word (Ri- heart of subject analysis. For this reason, Paul Ri- coeur 1976, 1). For Ricoeur, Saussure's emphasis on coeur's analysis of this linguistic tradition provides a the importance of langue had blinded theorists to the means of enabling us to recognize some of the limita- importance of parole. Langue, Ricoeur argued, had tions of classical linguistics, and to prevent those the advantage of being self-contained and theoreti- limitations from hindering the growth of an active cally finite, and generally studied within a single dis- and vital North American research agenda. cipline: that of linguistics. Parole, on the other hand, is theoretically infinite and, as an event, can take place 3. The linguistic approach: Saussure and Ricoeur and be studied within a variety of disciplines. Ricoeur suggests an alternative, two-dimensional approach to In his highly-influential Course on General Linguistics language which rests on two irreducible entities: the (1916), Ferdinand de Saussure articulated numerous semiotic “sign,” which emerges through the langue, propositions that have since been widely adopted, not and the semantic “sentence,” which emerges from the as empirical evidence of how language works, but as speech-acts that constitute parole, and which he terms metaphors for how language-like systems such as “discourse.” For Ricoeur, the sentence is a basic and subject tools work. First, a language can be consid- intrinsic unit related to semantics, rather than semiot- ered in two separate ways. For Saussure, linguistics is ics. While a sentence is composed of words, its pro- primarily concerned with language as langue, which positional content cannot be reduced to its words: it he defines as the entire system of linguistic units and remains a union, however succinct, of a noun and a the code that relates them together: he distinguishes verb (Ricoeur 1976, 10). this “self-contained whole” (1985, 29) from the “ex- When we take Ricoeur's two-part transformation ecutive” domain of specific “speech acts,” which he of Saussure's linguistic theory and transfer it into the terms parole (32). This distinction, for Saussure, sepa- realm of subject tools and knowledge organization, a rates the individual from the social and the incidental suggestive similarity presents itself. Language deals from the essential: “Language is not a function of the with signs and sentences: with the semiotic units of a speaker; it is a product that is passively assimilated by closed, self-referential system, and with the semantic the individual. ... Speaking, on the contrary, is an indi- units of spoken and written discourse, embedded in vidual act. It is willful and intellectual” (33). their social, cultural, political and economic context. Second, Saussure argued that the “sign” was a Similarly, Beghtol draws on Robert Fairthorne's im- combination of concept and sound-image, or of “sig- portant distinction between two dimensions of nified” and “signifier.” Furthermore, he argued that “aboutness,” the subject content of a document that the sign is intrinsically arbitrary, and derives its mean- must be rendered using the signifying system of the ing, not from any innate relationship between the subject tool: “Extensional aboutness, in Fairthorne's word and the thing, but from the differences between terms, is the inherent subject of the document; inten- words in the langue system. As Ricoeur points out sional aboutness is the reason or purpose for which it 54 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 D. G. Campbell. Tensions Between Language and Discourse in North American Knowledge Organization

has been acquired by a library or requested by a user” cial bookmarking sites (Besiki and Jorgensen 2008; (Beghtol 1986, 84). Kipp and Campbell 2006). And the Wayback Machine This relationship has always been a complex one, of the Internet Archive provides longitudinal evidence as subject cataloguers attempt to negotiate the antici- of knowledge organization on websites. pated needs of the user with a perceived “essential” content that could be put to a variety of uses. Some 5. Standard tools and special interests work on the assumption that “a document has an intrinsic subject, an 'aboutness', that is at least to some In particular, North American researchers could use extent independent of the temporary usage to which the distinction between system and statement, bean individual might put one or more of its meanings” tween semiotics and semantics, as a way of finding a (Beghtol 1986, 85). Others operationalize aboutness uniquely North American harmony between interna- as an estimate about probable search behaviour (Ma- tional standards and domain-specific interests. This ron 1977, 38), while still others argue that we should distinction is frequently fraught with conflict be- be moving from a document-centric (and presumably tween global standards and specialized needs. Jesse extensional) approach to a domain-centered, contex- Shera (1965, 70), writing in 1951, likened this distinc- tual, and implicitly intensional notion of aboutness tion to roads and highways in the United States, (Mai 2005, 599). These varying perspectives situate some of which are administered at a national level, themselves along a distinction between inside and and others at state or local levels. He argued urgently outside, and between being and doing. Some see the that libraries are obligated to protect and administer subject as an essential entity distinguished by its dif- the general level of bibliographic management, and: ferences from other entities in a defined ontology of subjects: “This document is about theories of eco- To prevent ... the continuing trend toward the nomics as opposed to education, and its authorized further atomization of this general level through term is Economic theory.” Others see the subject as the proliferation of isolated, independent, and a reference to an external context which determines uncoordinated specialized bibliographic ser- the priority of a subject's facets: “Our users will want vices, created without reference to bibliographic this document for its treatment of economic dimen- needs at the general level, and administered, as sions of educational policy.” they have been in the past, according to ad hoc local procedures. 4. Tensions between language and discourse in North American knowledge organization The field of Library and Information Science has traditionally excelled at the creation and study of stan- Ricoeur suggests that the prominence of semiotics in dard tools which enable us to create uniform descrip- the twentieth century has prevented theorists of lan- tions of subject content. Whether they be universal guage from investigating discourse to its full potential. schemes such as Dewey's Decimal Classification, The His efforts to rectify that bias have promising implica- Library of Congress Classification and the Library of tions for viewing North American research, which has Congress Subject Headings, or subject-specific already shown how specific acts of classification and schemes such as MeSH, the NASA Thesaurus and the description can be assembled and analyzed for pat- Art and Architecture Thesaurus, these widely-used terns. Existing catalogue records have provided fruit- tools have large vocabularies and intricate and sophis- ful ground for emerging theories of the work (Smi- ticated syndetic structures that lend themselves to raglia 2001), for the study of OCLC catalogue records analysis as semiotic systems. This talent for building (Miksa et al 2006), and for hyperlinking patterns large subject systems has manifested itself on the Web (Vaughan and Thelwall 2003). North American re- in the form of library application profiles for Dublin searchers are well-primed to assemble data on the dis- Core metadata, of the use of faceted classification in cursive acts of knowledge organization, through such information architecture, and the growth of field- tools as OCLC, multiple library catalogues accessed specific metadata schemes. through the Z39.50 protocol, and the growing ar- These impressive tools often appear to the practi- chives of harvested metadata records accessed through tioner as self-enclosed and consistent systems that, the Open Archives Initiative. User tagging systems like Ricoeur's interpretation of langue, are the prod- have provided rich new sources of user-centered uct of a specific discipline, in this case information knowledge organization in the areas of images and so- science. We can assess their success at following prin- Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 55 D. G. Campbell. Tensions Between Language and Discourse in North American Knowledge Organization

ciples of thesaurus construction, the consistency of up suffering at the hands of their own skill in stan- their policies regarding equivalence, the rigour of dards creation. The sharing of catalogue descriptions their hierarchical structures, and their adherence to has been an intrinsic part of information organization consistent facet orders. Furthermore, universal at least since the rise of MARC, and the development schemes such as DDC and LCSH have been analyzed of semantic Web tools also rests on the notion of data for gender bias and other injustices (Olson 1998). retooling and reuse. But cooperative cataloguing was Such studies typically use the structures, authorized never intended to suggest that library records are vocabularies, and syndetic devices to chart the limits solely the product of enclosed, self-referential de- of what can or cannot be expressed within these sub- scriptive processes, or that they can be created in a ject languages, and showing how certain unarticulated vacuum. Shared cataloguing ventures have always as- presuppositions govern their use in the subject analy- sumed that libraries would use the time saved by sis process. These studies have had an important and downloading basic records to shape those records beneficial impact on the revision and improvement of into discursive artifacts appropriate for their libraries. these schemes over the years: but while revising a vo- Outsourcing, on the other hand, assumes that there is cabulary or classification may widen its range of pos- no discourse specific to the information context. sible utterances, it only addresses part of the issue. In addition to analyzing our potential utterances, we 6. Allocutionary and interlocutionary acts have to look at the utterances themselves. Ricoeur's concept of semantics as a necessary part- Finally, Ricoeur's treatment of discourse offers us a ner to semiotics provides a conceptual frame for ori- chance to situate knowledge organization within a enting numerous promising areas of research that multidisciplinary framework that links our concerns look at what people actually do. First, focusing on with domains, warrant, and aboutness productively acts helps us to investigate the enormous increase in with concerns posed in other fields. Discourse, in Ri- personal information management that has extended coeur's sense of specific, semantic statements, leads from traditional practices onto the Web through Web us to consider documents, in the tradition of Suzanne 2.0 tools such as bookmarking systems. Equally im- Briet (1951), and later Bowker and Star (1999), Day portant, the subject indexing and classification pat- (2001), and Frohmann (2004). Viewing classification terns of professional intermediaries can be explored and organization as specific statements about other in counterpoint to these new user-centered initiatives, statements enables us to embed knowledge organiza- through the availability of metadata harvesting sites. tion in a kaleidoscope of local contexts. And while we North American researchers are also well-placed to can certainly view documents as artifacts which con- address the problem of multilingual subject access. At tain some innate meaning, distinct from the utterer's the policy level, multilingual information access often meaning, Ricoeur also posits a complex relationship appears to be a seamless process of translation at the between the meaning inherent in discourse and the system level, in which one term is mapped to an meanings that we extract from it. equivalent term in another language. In reality, the On the one hand, Ricoeur argues for the existence implementation of multilingual access is far more of the illocutionary act: what the author or creator of complex and ambivalent, and North American schol- the document meant, or intended. By considering the ars are ideally placed to study how the uneven im- illocutionary act of discourse, we can link knowledge plementation of linguistic plurality policies is mani- organization to fields that explicitly deal with author- fested in our knowledge organization systems. Re- ial gestures. Literary studies in general, and genre searchers have noted unexpected anomalies in the theory in particular, have a rich vocabulary for dealing transformations of bilingual catalogues (Arsenault with authorial intent, and these fields have begun to and Menard 2007), and overt commitments to multi- act upon information studies in general (Crowston cultural access are often belied by the rudimentary and Williams 2000; Toms, 2001). state of cataloguing and subject access to non-English On the other hand, Ricoeur also considers the al- documents. locutionary act: what the user takes from discourse, North American researchers also need to address a or what he or she is expected to take from it. Knowl- growing trend of regarding information creation edge organization has traditionally made extensive separately from its discursive context. The long-term use of this allocutionary perspective in its notions of contraction of funding for libraries has given rise to user warrant and intensional aboutness; further con- outsourcing, in which information communities end nections could be made with reader-response criti- 56 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 D. G. Campbell. Tensions Between Language and Discourse in North American Knowledge Organization

cism in literary studies, and with media theory, par- equally close look at what information communities ticularly with Stuart Hall's classic taxonomy of re- actually do with these tools. The conceptual clarity sponses to media messages (2001). and discipline of information science that guide the While these opportunities are enticing, we must creation of subject languages must co-exist alongside also recall that addressing local and global issues is the inconsistent, haphazard and multidisciplinary deeply relevant to the North American intellectual context in which these languages are used. Like the and economic environment at present. On the one most enduring human communities, we make tools hand, our information environments grow progres- and we use them. We combine together, but we don't sively more interlinked, and North American re- dissolve into each other. As a professional field, and searchers must continue to explore the available op- as a discipline of intellectual inquiry, North American tions and instruments that enable communities to as- knowledge organization embodies both wide sympa- sert their own needs and identities over collections thies and local loyalties. described by universal standards. We need to track the degree to which options built into tools like 8. References DDC are actually employed; the extent to which Ca- nadian libraries use the special areas of LCC set aside Arsenault, Clement and Menard, Elaine. 2007. Search- for Canadian history and literature. We need to theo- ing titles with initial articles in library analysis: a rize the optimal relations between human- and ma- case study and search behaviour analysis. Library chine-readability in specific community settings. resources & technical services 51.3: 190-203. At the same time, we must remember that our Bates, Marcia J. 1999. The invisible substrate of in- work does not exist in a vacuum, and we must take formation science. Journal of the American Society care to prevent our concern for local users and spe- for Information Science 50: 1043-50. cific domains from collapsing into unforeseen alle- Beghtol, Clare. 1986. Bibliographic classification the- giances, owing to unforeseen resemblances. Knowl- ory and text linguistics: aboutness analysis, inter- edge organization scholars must make considered de- textuality and the cognitive act of classifying cisions about how far to reflect global and local con- documents. Journal of documentation 42: 84-113. cerns in their research and their systems. Economic Besiki, Stvilia and Jorgensen, Corinne. 2008. End- and cultural protectionism constitutes a perfectly un- user collection building behavior in Flickr. Pro- derstandable response to concerns about recession, ceedings of the American Society for Information Sci- carbon footprints and fears about global pandemic. ence and Technology 44: 1-20. However, North American scholars in all fields must Blair, David C. 1990. Language and representation in make informed and considered decisions about how information retrieval. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science. such concerns will be embedded in their tools and ac- Bowker, Geoffrey C. and Star, Susan Leigh. 1999. tivities. Sorting things out: classification and its consequences. Cambridge: MIT Press. 7. Conclusion Briet, Suzanne. 1951. Qu'est-ce que la documentation? Paris: Editions Documentaires Industrielles et Concerns for context, for diversity, and for flexibility Techniques http://martinetl.free.fr/suzannebriet/ have been present in the professional and academic questcequeladocumentation/briet.pdf (accessed communities of knowledge organization for a very December 9, 2009). long time. Likewise, the concerns for clear design, for Campbell, D. Grant. 2009. Tensions between language international standards, and for enhancing universal and discourse in North American knowledge or- access to information through technological and ter- ganization. Pioneering North American contributions minological continuities have figured large in North to knowledge organization: North American Sympo- American information research. As the North sium on Knowledge Organization. Vol. 2, Syracuse, American knowledge organization community con- New York, 18-19 June http://dlist.sir.arizona.edu/ tinues to assess its heritage and plan its future, Paul 2636/ Ricoeur's theories of language, while far-removed Campbell, D. Grant. 2008. Derrida, logocentrism, and from the particularities of our field, may provide a the concept of warrant on the Semantic Web. .” In useful orienting distinction. Our concern for devel- Arsenault, Clément, and Tennis, Joseph, eds. 2008. oping large, inclusive, interoperable and standard sub- Culture and identity in knowledge organization: Pro- ject access tools must be counterbalanced by an ceedings of the 10th International ISKO Conference, Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 57 D. G. Campbell. Tensions Between Language and Discourse in North American Knowledge Organization

Montréal, 5-8 August 2008. Advances in knowledge Mai, Jens-Erik. 2005. Analysis in indexing: docu- organization 11. Würzburg: Ergon Verlag, pp. 222-8. ment and domain centered approaches. Informa- Campbell, D. Grant. 2003. Global abstractions: the tion processing and management 41: 599-611. classification of international economic data for Maron, M.E. 1977. On indexing, retrieval and the bibliographic and statistical purposes. Cataloging meaning of about. Journal of the American Society & classification quarterly 37n1/2: 221-234. for Information Science 28: 38-43. Crowston, Kevin and Williams, Marie. 2000. Repro- Miksa, Shawne, Moen, C., Polyakov, A. and Snyder, duced and emergent genres of communication on G. 2006. Metadata assistance of the Functional the World Wide Web. The information society: an Requirements for Bibliographic Records’ four user international journal 16.3: 201-15. tasks: a report on the MARC Content Designa- Day, Ronald E. 2001. The modern invention of infor- tion Utilization (MCDU) Project.” Proceedings of mation. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University the Ninth International ISKO Conference 10. Press. Olson, Hope. 1998. Mapping beyond Dewey's Dousa, Thomas M. 2009. Classical pragmatism and boundaries: constructing classificatory space for its varieties: On a pluriform metatheoretical per- marginalized knowledge domains. Library trends spective for KO. Pioneering North American con- 47.2: 233-54. tributions to knowledge organization: North Ameri- Ricoeur, Paul. 1976. Interpretation theory: discourse can Symposium on Knowledge Organization. Vol. and the surplus of meaning. Fort Worth: Texas 2, Syracuse, New York, 18-19 June http://dlist. Christian University Press. sir.arizona.edu/2636/. Saussure, Ferdinand de. 1985. The linguistic sign. In Foskett, D.J. 1966. Introduction. Documentation and Ennis, Robert E. ed., Semiotics: an introductory the organization of knowledge. by Jesse H. Shera. anthology. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, London: Crosby Lockwood & Son, pp. xi-xxi. pp. 28-46. Frohmann, Bernd. 2004. Documentation redux: pro- Shera, Jesse H. 1965. Bibliographic management. In legomenon to (another) philosophy of informa- Foskett, D.J. ed., Libraries and the organization of tion. Library trends 52.3: 387-407. knowledge. London: Crosby Lockwood & Son, Green, Rebecca. 2009. Melvil Dewey's ingenious no- pp. 63-74. tational system. Pioneering North American con- Smiraglia, Richard P. 2009. Modulation and specializa- tributions to knowledge organization: North Ameri- tion in North American knowledge organization: can Symposium on Knowledge Organization. Vol. Visualizing pioneers. Pioneering North American 2, Syracuse, New York, 18-19 June. http://dlist. contributions to knowledge organization: North sir.arizona.edu/2636/. American Symposium on Knowledge Organization. Hall, Stuart. 2001. Encoding/decoding. Media and Vol. 2, Syracuse, New York, 18-19 June http://dlist. cultural studies: key works. ed. Meenakshi Gigig sir.arizona.edu/2636/. Durham, Douglas M. Kellner. Oxford: Blackwell. Smiraglia, Richard P. 2001. The nature of 'a work': im- Kipp, Margaret E.I. and Campbell, D. Grant. 2006. plications for the organization of knowledge. Lanham: Patterns and inconsistencies in collaborative tag- Scarecrow Press. ging systesms: an examination of tagging prac- Svenonius, Elaine. 2000. The intellectual foundation of tices. Proceedings of the ASIST Annual Meeting. information organization. Cambridge: MIT Press. La Barre, Kathryn. 2009. North American facet heri- Toms, Elaine G. 2001. Recognizing digital genre. Bul- tage: Past lessons as pathways for contemporary letin of the American Society for Information Science exploration. Pioneering North American contribu- and Technology 27.2 http://asis.org/Bulletin/ tions to knowledge organization: North American Dec-01/toms.html (accessed December 9, 2009). Symposium on Knowledge Organization. Vol. 2, Vaughan, Liwen, and Thelwall, Mike. 2003. Scholarly Syracuse, New York, 18-19 June http://dlist.sir. use of the Web: what are the key inducers of links arizona.edu/2636/. to journal web sites? Journal of the American Society Lancaster, F.W. 1986. Vocabulary control for informa- for Information Science and Technology 54: 29-38. tion retrieval. 2nd ed. Arlington: Information Re- sources Press. Mai, Jens-Erik. 1999. A postmodern theory of knowledge organization. Proceedings of the ASIS Annual Meeting 36: 547-56. 58 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 D. M. Pimentel. Examining the KO Roots of Taylor’s Value-Added Model

Examining the KO Roots of Taylor’s Value-Added Model*

David M. Pimentel Syracuse University, School of Information Studies,

David M. Pimentel is a doctoral candidate at the Syracuse University School of Information Studies. His research interests include classification practices in collaborative environments, the evaluation of classification, and digital library metadata. His background in linguistics (B.A., Boston University) and library science (M.L.S., Syracuse University) have influenced his scholarly pursuits as well as his professional work in both academic and public library settings. David teaches graduate courses about the fundamentals of organizing and accessing information resources.

Pimentel, David M. Examining the KO Roots of Taylor’s Value-Added Model. Knowledge Organiza- tion, 37(1), 58-64. 13 references.

ABSTRACT: The Value-Added Model, as developed by Robert Taylor in his 1986 monograph Value-Added Processes in Infor- mation Systems, has been highly influential in the field of library and information science. Yet despite its impact on the broader LIS field, the potential of the Value-Added Model has gone largely unexplored by knowledge organization (KO) researchers. Unraveling the history behind the Model’s development highlights the significant contributions made by studying the work practices of professional indexers. In light of its foundation on KO praxis, this paper reexamines Taylor’s Model as a robust framework for evaluating knowledge organization systems.

* The author is grateful for the helpful suggestions and feedback offered by the reviewers.

1.0 Introduction Model, this paper attempts to reframe Taylor’s contribution. For over twenty years the Value-Added This paper considers how the Value-Added Model Model has been woven into the broad fabric of LIS; proposed by Taylor (1986) has important roots in the pulling on some of those same threads reveals how theory and practice of knowledge organization (KO). North American KO helped to shape the overall pat- The purpose for examining Taylor’s model in light of tern. its KO origins is twofold: first, to give due credit for In the sections that follow this paper provides a the influence of KO praxis on the development of general overview of the Value-Added Model and ad- Taylor’s model, and second, to suggest how the dresses its general applicability across various infor- model might effectively serve as a tool for evaluating mation systems and contexts. The focus then shifts KO systems. Furthermore, this examination of the to the model’s origins in an NSF-sponsored study of Value-Added Model is motivated by Taylor’s central abstracting and indexing services (Taylor 1983). Tay- focus on the user and the information use environ- lor’s analysis of the abstracting-and-indexing process, ment. The growing trend of social classification (i.e., which included in-depth interviews with A&I profes- user-generated indexing of Internet resources) only sionals, provided the foundation for the development serves to highlight the need for a user-centered per- of his Value-Added Model. In this respect, the A&I spective on KO evaluation. enterprise can be regarded as a quintessential value- While Taylor’s model has been influential in library adding process. And given the centrality of indexing and information science (LIS) generally, it has not to any KO endeavor, this paper suggests that Taylor’s garnered particular attention from KO researchers. Value-Added Model is particularly well-suited to By focusing on the genesis of the Value-Added evaluate KO processes. Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 59 D. M. Pimentel. Examining the KO Roots of Taylor’s Value-Added Model

2.0 Background and Context A synthesis of what it is we as information people do .… In focusing on the use of informa- In order to situate the Value-Added Model in its his- tion, we can look across systems at similarities, torical context, it is helpful to consider the back- rather than at differences caused by varying ground of its creator. Robert Saxton Taylor (1918- technologies, disciplinary traditions, and a need 2009) studied history as an undergraduate at Cornell to protect a turf. University. Soon after graduation he was drafted into the U.S. Army, where he served as a member of the These are not merely niceties doled out in the intro- Army’s Counter Intelligence Corps from 1942 to duction; Taylor takes pains to generalize his terms, 1947. Under the GI Bill, Taylor enrolled at Columbia and he does so by focusing ever on the user. His University, earning a master’s degree in library sci- framing of the concept of system is illustrative of the ence in 1950. After earning a Fulbright in 1956, he point. For Taylor (1986, 10), a system can be almost went on to work in various teaching and administra- anything: ranging from “entirely machine based” to tive capacities: librarian, professor, and director of the “entirely human based”—so long as it functions “to Center for the Information Sciences at Lehigh Uni- provide chunks of information to some set of poten- versity (from 1962 to 1967), and later professor and tial users.” director of the Program in Language and Communi- The Value-Added Model has been widely cited in cation at Hampshire College (from 1967 to 1972). the literature: a search of cited-references using ISI With his experience in military intelligence, cou- Web of Knowledge in June 2009 retrieved 174 cita- pled with his training in librarianship, Taylor was tions to the 1986 text; a similar search of Google uniquely suited to make contributions to the bur- Scholar identified 320 citations. In addition, Taylor geoning information science field in North America. (1986) has been compared with Dervin and Nilan In 1968, the very same year that the American (1986) as among the “most clearly articulated” voices Documentation Institute became the American Soci- of the “user turn” in LIS (Rosenbaum 2003). When ety for Information Science, Taylor served as that or- not being used as a shorthand for a user-based ap- ganization’s president. It was during this same time proach in information science research, Taylor (1986) that he published his study on question negotiation has been cited in the literature of information sys- in the reference process (Taylor 1968). That landmark tems design, and has also crossed into MIS and com- study was among the first in the field to emphasize a puter science journals. Such broad adoption in the re- distinctly user-centered perspective, and remains one search literature can be considered (at least in part) a of the most cited works in LIS (Eisenberg and Dirks function of the generalizable nature and applicability 2008). Taylor went on to serve as dean at Syracuse of the Value-Added Model. In much the same way University from 1972 to 1981, where he instigated that Taylor frames the notion of system on behalf of the renaming of the School of Library Science into the user, the entire notion of value itself is placed the School of Information Studies. The change to the squarely on the user. name of the school in 1974 reflected Taylor’s discern- The Value-Added Model hinges on the idea that ing vision for an expansive, yet distinct, information people interact with systems within a context: what field. His varied contributions were recognized in Taylor calls the information use environment. Infor- 1992 when Taylor was honored with the Award of mation systems either help users to perform better Merit from the American Society for Information (or not), but “better performance” is defined with Science (now ASIS&T). reference to the user’s context (Taylor 1986, 55). Tay- His research on the reference interview process es- lor, therefore, intentionally defines enhancements to tablished Taylor as a champion of the user, and his information systems with respect to addressing the later work did not veer from that path. Focusing on needs of the users of information systems. The con- people, and the ways they go about using informa- cept of the information use environment is signifi- tion, remained central to Taylor’s development of the cant, because it increases the model’s inherent flexi- Value-Added Model in the 1980s. His focus on users bility. Differing information use environments will yielded a distinctly ecumenical perspective on infor- value the same enhancements differently. Taylor’s mation practices. In the preface to Value-Added Proc- model is still cited for the conceptual contributions it esses in Information Systems, Taylor (1986, ix) de- makes to notions of value (e.g., Stvilia et al 2007), and scribed his book as: contextualized use (e.g., Choo 2009).

60 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 D. M. Pimentel. Examining the KO Roots of Taylor’s Value-Added Model

3.0 Overview of the value-added model matter directly. Researchers in KO can validate, re- soundingly, that activities such as grouping, classify- As part of the discussion of the Value-Added Model, ing, or even formatting all require decision-making Taylor first presents his readers with the Value-Added processes in and of themselves. The Value-Added Spectrum. Figure 1 reproduces the Value-Added Spectrum does not malign classifying as something Spectrum (originally Figure 1-1 in Taylor 1986, 6), that is a sub-decision, or anything similar. Rather, the with four groups of processes, stacked one on top of Spectrum merely articulates how the system activities the other. At the base of the diagram are Organizing (in the center) are related to a class of processes (on processes, upon which the other three groups build. the right). Working up the Value-Added Spectrum from Orga- Taylor’s model is most typically associated with the nizing processes, Taylor situates Analyzing processes, explication of six user criteria and the 23 correspond- Judgmental processes, and (at the top level) Decision ing values added. Table 1 reproduces the framework of processes. Each of these four groups is supplemented user criteria and values added (Figure 4-2 in Taylor with “examples of the activities supporting that par- 1986, 50). Six broad user criteria—ease of use, noise ticular process” (Taylor 1986, 5-6). The Spectrum in- reduction, quality, adaptability, time saving, and cost cludes an axis that parallels the four groups of proc- saving—represent dimensions of a user’s evaluation of esses; from the bottom up, they are Data, Informa- information systems, and serve as rubrics for the par- tion, Informing Knowledge, Productive Knowledge, ticular values added. As pointed out by Eisenberg and and Action. Dirks (2008, 3), the “relative priority of one or another criteria will depend on the person, situation, needs, setting, and other user-centered aspects.” In the center column, Taylor (1986, 51) refers to the 23 values added as the “interface”—“these are the values added by the system which aid customers in matching their needs.” Some of the added values are clearly tangible (e.g., index terms or faster delivery), while others are less so (e.g., accuracy or reliability). Such ambiguity is perhaps to be expected, given Tay- lor’s ambitious goal “to construct an early model of a complex human activity, a model that would be useful in the description of information-providing systems of any type, and eventually in their design” (Taylor 1986, 54). The final column, on the far right, is labeled “system.” These processes and features are sample activities that exemplify Values Added in the center, which in turn are associated with the user criteria in the first column.

4.0 Taylor’s study of abstracting & indexing operations

Taylor makes it clear that the 23 values were derived through a variety of means – including a review of the information science literature as well as consultation with information professionals. But the empirical work behind generating the 23 values was largely carried out during an NSF-sponsored study (Taylor Figure 1. The Value-Added Spectrum (Taylor 1986) 1983) of the abstracting and indexing (A&I) process. In his monograph, Taylor (1986) presents the study Some of the assumptions behind the Spectrum are dis- of the A&I process within the fuller context of his cussed later in this paper, but it is worth noting one Value-Added Model. The intimate link between the Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 61 D. M. Pimentel. Examining the KO Roots of Taylor’s Value-Added Model

USER CRITERIA INTERFACE SYSTEM OF CHOICE (Values Added) (Value-added Processes: Examples)

Ease of Use Browsing Alphabetizing Formatting Highlighting important terms Interfacing I (Mediation) Interfacing II (Orientation) Ordering Physical Accessibility

Noise Reduction Access I (Item identification) Indexing Access II (Subject description) Vocabulary control Access III (Subject summary) Filtering Linkage Precision Selectivity

Quality Accuracy Quality control Comprehensiveness Editing Currency Updating Reliability Analyzing and comparing data Validity

Adaptability Closeness to problem Provision of data manipulation capabilities Flexibility Ranking output for relevance Simplicity Stimulatory

Time-Saving Response Speed Reduction of processing time

Cost-Saving Cost-saving Lower connect-time price

Table 1. User Criteria and Values Added (Taylor 1986)

A&I process and the Value-Added Model is perhaps particular and well-defined operation in the informa- best understood as an overall commitment to the tion life cycle” where he could consider how various “praxis of information” (Taylor 1986, 2). stages added value to “aid a user in making choices.” By focusing on praxis, Taylor respectfully acknowl- Taylor’s study of A&I operations is the central fo- edges the many achievements of LIS professionals: cus of his sixth chapter (Taylor 1986, 96-125). He not only the nascent database systems of the 1980s, conducted interviews with A&I professionals, col- but also the centuries-old practices of print-based li- lecting approximately 60 hours of taped discussions; braries and archives. At several points in the introduc- an appendix provides the detailed list of questions tory chapter, Taylor reiterates how information sys- (Taylor 1986, 238-242). By talking through the A&I tems do, to a large degree, work. His statements are process with experts in A&I praxis, Taylor allowed not meant to obviate the need for further improve- interviewees to identify numerous points in the proc- ments to information systems; instead Taylor (1986, ess where value was added. Interviewees were also en- 3) points to the need to rigorously describe “what it is gaged in identifying the particular values being added. those systems do and how they do it.” Taylor offers an This robust exchange between researcher and A&I analogy to engineering: the steam engine provided practitioners allowed patterns to emerge: showing wide utility and functionality for centuries before sci- “where and how a specific value was added or ence could fully explain the thermodynamic principles strengthened” in the overall A&I process (Taylor behind its workings. Information phenomena are 1986, 97). vastly complex, and so it is praxis where Taylor fo- The process of A&I was sequenced along eight cused his attention. A&I offered Taylor (1986, 96) “a phases: 1) acquisitions, control, and claiming, 2) cita- 62 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 D. M. Pimentel. Examining the KO Roots of Taylor’s Value-Added Model

tion development, 3) citation augmentation, 4) index- In a manner of speaking, this problematizes pre- ing, 5) abstracting, 6) editing, 7) formatting, and 8) cisely where Taylor indicates the most value resides. dissemination. Taking the first phase as an example, For while the layers upon layers of value needed for Taylor’s (1986, 106-107 emphasis original) interviews Decision Processes are not inconsequential, the argu- highlighted Reliability, Comprehensiveness, and Selec- ment can be made (via first principles) that the root tivity as the major values added. organizing processes have been largely undervalued, given the reliance of the entire enterprise on their Reliability has to do principally with consistency soundness or efficacy. of input, or with known coverage of a subject. Furthermore, the Spectrum can be viewed as ob- Comprehensiveness represents a value in those scuring the very real and important analysis, judg- services whose mandate is total coverage of a ment, and decisions that are needed to maintain orga- subject, and whose clients come to value such nizing processes. Given Taylor’s esteem for informa- coverage. Selectivity is the converse of compre- tion praxis, and his careful, respectful treatment of the hensiveness, and has value when the clients want A&I process, it would appear that such a slight is un- a filtering process, and do not want coverage but intended. Rather, the Spectrum reflects the realities of solutions. a user-based perspective: where people place a higher value on information that has been more thoroughly The claiming process added the value of Currency and tailored to their decision context. strengthened the value of Reliability. Taylor’s study of Taylor’s Value-Added Spectrum would seem to pre- A&I operations continues in this fashion throughout sent an opportunity for KO research: articulating how the eight phases. The data is reported not only in a stable base of organizing processes can ultimately terms of “values added” during a particular phase in support a wide range of information use environ- the A&I process, but also as “values intensified.” This ments. At the same time, KO research must grapple latter designation is necessary to capture the cumula- with designing and maintaining organizing processes tive effect of value-adding processes in information that serve both as solid foundations for, and flexible systems: when a specific value had already been added inputs to, later processes. during an earlier phase, Taylor characterized its subsequent additions as “strengthened” or “intensified.” 6.0 Intellectual Technologies The opposite effect is also possible: when “no method in the Value-Added Model for claiming” was reported, the values added were Mi- nus comprehensiveness, Minus currency, and Minus It should also be noted that the Value-Added Model reliability. does offer an additional perspective relevant to the sphere of KO. Taylor (1986, 10) employs the rubric 5.0 No value without KO? “intellectual technologies” to encompass the related phenomena of indexing, classification, and systems Keeping in mind the important influence of A&I op- analysis. Taylor discusses intellectual technologies in erations in the development of the Value-Added two distinct but complementary ways. First, intellec- Model, let us turn attention back to the Value-Added tual technologies form a component in the process of Spectrum (in Figure 1). The Spectrum seems to build designing information systems (Taylor 1986, 24-29). on assumptions that are crucial for KO researchers. Later, intellectual technologies serve as a focal area in First there is the notion that “organizing processes” an overall vision for professional education in an are fundamental to more complex information tasks. emerging information discipline (Taylor 1986, 208- In other words, higher-order information processes 213). Intellectual technologies are specifically de- are not possible without the more essential organizing scribed as (Taylor 1986, 212, emphasis in original): processes at the base of the Spectrum. But this linear- ity obscures dependency. Since the higher-order proc- the methods used to organize information for esses (analysis, judgment, and decision) rely and build storage, retrieval and for communication in tex- upon each successively preceding phase, the higher- tual form, graphic structure, and visual image. order processes can be considered as more fragile or These technologies are content driven, tempered volatile. All stages beyond the first are at the mercy of and informed by the ways that users (a) struc- the preceding phases, and hence beholden to the ture their information environments and (b) foundational KO processes. make use of information. These will range from Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 63 D. M. Pimentel. Examining the KO Roots of Taylor’s Value-Added Model

the design of a data base management system to less time and with less effort” (Taylor 1986, 60). It is the design of a form used to record an or- in this generalizability, coupled with its grounding in der…from the structure of accounting systems A&I operations, that Taylor’s model shows potential to the design of library classifications. These all as an evaluation tool for KO processes. require a type of organization – a structuring of The Value-Added Model is steeped in Taylor’s the information content, whether the purpose is study of the quintessential KO practice of indexing for storage or for communication. and abstracting. His analysis of the work of information professionals was further grounded in an unwav- This broad perspective on the structuring of informa- ering user-based perspective. Perhaps most impor- tion offers several possible paths for KO researchers. tantly, Taylor’s Value-Added Model offers a vocabu- Taylor’s characterization of intellectual technologies lary for talking about and evaluating information could serve as a point of departure for augmenting processes in such a way that parallels can be drawn and extending current definitions of Knowledge Or- across seemingly disparate information processes. In ganization Systems (cf. Hodge 2000; Zeng 2008). this regard, Taylor’s vocabulary has the potential to With its particular emphasis on users creating infor- augment or otherwise enrich emerging frameworks mation structures, Taylor’s notion of intellectual for evaluating KO systems (e.g. Tennis 2006). technologies could serve as a lens to analyze the vari- The richness of the Value-Added Model is in its ous user-driven folksonomy structures emerging in ability to describe a vast range of information proc- the current Web environment (cf. Weinberger 2007). esses. This can be considered a particular strength in a time when increasing specialization (in the informa- 7.0 Evaluating KO processes tion field and beyond) threatens to create major gaps with the value-added model in scholarly communication. Instead of slouching towards academic Babel, information researchers could Taylor’s contribution in the Value-Added Model is a commit to speaking a common language of evaluation; robust framework for considering an enormous range that language could specifically be articulated to keep of information practices and processes. It is important user needs and preferences as the central focus of our to note how the particular Values Added are concep- discussion. KO researchers have an opportunity to tually generalizable, having the ability to describe lead such a charge. The Value-Added Model offers us a seemingly disparate phenomena. Consider Access III vocabulary grounded in the analysis and evaluation of (Subject Summary) as a case in point, with its purpose KO practice; it is explicitly designed to assess value in “to provide a summary and/or brief explanation of the a way that transcends the particularities of any one content of an item” (Taylor 1986, 60). LIS and KO technology platform or use environment. scholars can immediately recognize the direct parallels between the Access III value and the abstracting por- References tion of the A&I operation, and indeed, given the genesis of the Value-Added Model, this would seem a valid Choo, Chun Wei. 2009. Information use and early connection to make. Yet the Access III value does not warning effectiveness: perspectives and prospects. end at abstracting, but rather can be seen in a range of Journal of the American Society for Information Sci- contexts outside A&I (Taylor 1986, 60): ence and Technology 60: 1071-82. Dervin, Brenda and Nilan, Michael S. 1986. Informa- The function of such processes is to benefit us- tion needs and uses. Annual review of information ers by reducing a large amount of information science and technology 21: 3-33. into a compact item without losing too much in- Eisenberg, Mike and Dirks, Lee. 2008. Taylor’s value- formation in the process .… They may take the added model: still relevant after all these years. Pre- form of an abstract, executive summary, a news sented at the third annual iConference, University brief, or a table of contents… a chemical struc- of California, Los Angeles (February 28-March 1). ture diagram; a map; a graph or chart; a mathe- Available online: http://projects.ischool. matical formula. washington.edu/mbe/Eisenberg_Dirks_Taylor_ Value-Added_Modified_2008.pdf So the essence of the Access III value is really about Hodge, Gail. 2000. Systems of knowledge organization the generalizable phenomenon of compression: for digital libraries: beyond traditional authority files. chunking information so users can “be informed in Washington, DC: Digital Library Federation, 64 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 D. M. Pimentel. Examining the KO Roots of Taylor’s Value-Added Model

Council on Library and Information Resources. Taylor, Robert S. 1986. Value-added processes in infor- Available online: http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/ mation systems. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. pub91/pub91.pdf Taylor, Robert S. 1991. Information use environments. Rosenbaum, Howard. 2003. The death of the user. In: In Dervin, Brenda and Voigt, Melvin J. eds., Pro- Proceedings of the 66th Annual Meeting of the Ameri- gress in communication science 10. Norwood, NJ: can Society for Information Science. Medford, NJ: Ablex, pp. 217-54. Information Today. Available online: http://www. Tennis, Joseph T. 2006. Function, purpose, predica- slis.indiana.edu/hrosenba/www/Pres/asist_03/ tion, and context of information organization index.htm frameworks. In Knowledge Organization and the Stvilia, Besiki, et al. 2007. A framework for informa- Global Learning Society; Proceedings of the 9th tion quality assessment. Journal of the American So- ISKO International Conference, Vienna, July 4-7 ciety for Information Science and Technology 58: 2006, ed. Gerhard Budin, Christian Swertz, Kon- 1720-33. stantin Mitgutsch. Würzbuerg:Ergon-Verlag, pp. Taylor, Robert S. 1968. Question-negotiation and in- 303–10. formation seeking in libraries. College & research li- Weinberger, David. 2007. Everything is miscellaneous: braries 29: 178-94. the power of the new digital disorder. New York: Taylor, Robert S. 1983. Value-added processes in the in- Times Books. formation life cycle. Final report – National Science Zeng, Marcia Lei. 2008. Knowledge organization sys- Foundation Grant No. IST-81-06080. Syracuse, NY: tems. Knowledge organization 35: 160-82. Syracuse University School of Information Studies.

Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 65 T. M. Dousa. Classical Pragmatism and its Varieties

Classical Pragmatism and its Varieties: On a Pluriform Metatheoretical Perspective for Knowledge Organization*

Thomas M. Dousa University of Illinois, Graduate School of Library and Information Science, Urbana-Champaign, USA,

Thomas M. Dousa is a doctoral student at the Graduate School of Library and Information Science at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. He holds an MA in Near Eastern Studies (Egyptology) from the University of Chicago and an MLS from Indiana University. His primary interests lie in classification theory and the history of knowledge organization.

Dousa, Thomas M. Classical Pragmatism and its Varieties: On a Pluriform Metatheoretical Per- spective for Knowledge Organization. Knowledge Organization, 37(1), 65-71. 40 references.

ABSTRACT: Pragmatism is a metatheoretical perspective within knowledge organization (KO) that derives from an American philosophical tradition active since the late 19th century. Its core feature is commitment to the evaluation of the adequacy of concepts and beliefs through the empirical test of practice: this entails epistemological antifoundationalism, fallibilism, contingency, social embeddedness, and pluralism. This article reviews three variants of Pragmatism that have been historically influential in philosophy—Charles Sanders Pierce’s scientifically oriented pragmaticism, William James’s subjectivist practicalism, and John Dewey’s socially oriented instrumentalism—and indicates points of contact between them and KO theories propounded by Henry E. Bliss, Jesse H. Shera, and Birger Hjørland, respectively. KO applications of classical Pragmatism have tended to converge toward a socially pluralist model characteristic of Dewey. Re- cently, Richard Rorty’s post-modern brand of Neopragmatism has found adherents within KO: whether it provides a more ad- vantageous metatheoretical framework than classical Pragmatism remains to be seen.

* I thank Birger Hjørland, Claudio Gnoli, and two anonymous reviewers for reading and commenting upon an earlier draft of this essay. I also wish to express my gratitude to the participants at the 2009 North American Symposium on Knowledge Organization for their feedback. Needless to say, I alone am responsible for any errors of fact, infelicities of interpretation, and obscurities in exposition lurking in this text.

1.0 Introduction design of knowledge organization systems (KOSs) (e.g., Hjørland 2003, 105–107; Smiraglia 2002; Tennis In recent years, researchers within library and infor- 2008, 103–104). One metatheoretical perspective that mation science (LIS) have increasingly come to re- has received considerable attention among KO reflect on the field’s metatheories—i.e., the sets of gen- searchers is Pragmatism (e.g., Gallagher 1991; Jacob eral philosophical assumptions underlying individual 2000; Hjørland 2005– ), a philosophical tradition that theories and practices—in the hope of identifying originated in the United States in the late 19th cen- perspectives especially fruitful for guiding research tury, enjoyed its heyday from the 1890s to the 1940s, and practice within the field (e.g., Hjørland 1998; and, after a period of relative neglect, has undergone a Bates 2005). The LIS subfield of knowledge organiza- notable revival in a number of humanistic and social- tion (KO), in particular, has witnessed a vigorous de- scientific fields from the early 1980s to the present bate concerning metatheoretical issues, centering on (Dickstein 1999). In light of its origins, philosophical the different epistemological positions informing the Pragmatism can be considered to constitute a North 66 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 T. M. Dousa. Classical Pragmatism and its Varieties

American contribution to the metatheory of KO, al- ety of perspectives—so much so that one early adher- beit one whose current vogue within the field owes ent of the movement claimed that “there are as many much to impulses from Scandinavian scholarship pragmatisms as pragmatists” (F. C. S. Schiller, cited in (e.g., Hjørland 1997; Thellefsen and Thellefsen 2004). Haack 2003, 775). Pragmatism, then, is an inherently The core defining feature of Pragmatism is the pluriform metatheory, different versions of which epistemological tenet that the meaning of a concept emphasize different aspects of, and constraints upon, or the truth of a statement is to be evaluated with ref- the core epistemological doctrine outlined above. erence to “the experiential or practical consequences Given the polyphonic nature of Pragmatism, a full of its application” (Haack 2003, 774). Pragmatists appreciation of its implications for KO requires that seek to establish knowledge claims with reference to one take note of its chief varieties and their points of human action in, and experience of, the ambient difference. world—that is to say, to determine which beliefs In this paper, I shall briefly present the three his- count as knowledge by considering how they work torically influential classical formulations of Pragma- when put to the empirical test of practice. To put a tism, expounded by the North American philoso- concept or belief to the test is to inquire about its phers Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914), William adequacy in the light of experience. Now the prag- James (1842–1910), and John Dewey (1859–1952). matic test does not occur in an epistemic vacuum, for Each of these philosophers elaborated his own dis- each belief forms part of a nexus of beliefs. Nor are tinctive version of Pragmatism over the course of a these beliefs neutral: as a matter of course, they lifetime and a full exposition of their doctrines would “guide [one’s] desires and shape [one’s] actions” thus require that one take into account the theoretical (Peirce 1955, 9–10)—i.e., they betoken interests, developments, revisions, and refinements that they goals, and values that inform one’s experiences and introduced into their thought over time. Needless to guide one’s judgment in assessing the adequacy of say, such a task lies beyond the scope of this article, other beliefs. Such interests, goals, and values are not which has a more modest agenda. In the case of each purely individual but shared within a larger social version, I shall sketch out some basic features that framework and so the pragmatic testing of beliefs has distinguish it from the others and indicate some a social dimension. Those beliefs that are found to be points of contact that it has with KO theory. In clos- adequate by one and by one’s fellows become part of ing, I shall note current trends in the interpretation what counts as knowledge within one’s social frame- of Pragmatism within KO, such as the growing accep- work—at least until new experiences supervene that tance of the postmodern form of Neopragmatism ex- might call them into question and so require that pounded by Richard Rorty (1931–2007). they be put to the test again. In short, Pragmatism is antifoundationalist (i.e., it claims no absolute epis- 2.0 Peircean pragmaticism: towards a convergence temic certainty vis-à-vis the validity of any single of reality and scientific consensus concept or belief), fallibilist (i.e., concepts and beliefs are always open to challenge, revision, and improve- Trained as a mathematician and physical scientist, ment), contingent (i.e., any new experience can trig- Charles Sanders Peirce (1955, 2) took the methods of ger revision of one’s concepts and beliefs), socially physical science as a model for developing his phi- embedded (i.e., all knowledge claims are evaluated losophical position. In his view, the beliefs we hold within the framework of a community of inquirers), about the world are habits of mind formed on the ba- and pluralist (i.e., different individuals and (sub)com- sis of our experience and regulating our actions vis-à- munities within a single social framework may hold vis the world (10). Typically, we tend to persist in our differing knowledge claims with respect to a given beliefs without further ado: however, experiences that phenomenon) (Jacob 2000). challenge them may throw us into a state of doubt, Within the literature of KO, Pragmatism is typi- which Peirce characterized as “an uneasy and dissatis- cally presented as a unitary philosophical approach fied state” of mind (10). Once placed into this dis- (e.g., Hjørland 1997, 75–76; 2008, 97–98; Jacob agreeable state, the mind seeks to return to the equi- 2000). Such a mode of presentation undoubtedly has librium of belief by resolving the doubt afflicting it the advantage of providing a compendious characteri- (26)—a process that Peirce called “inquiry” (10). A zation of Pragmatism qua metatheoretical position. necessary condition for obtaining a satisfactory result However, it leaves out of account the fact that, his- to inquiry is the use of a correct method. This torically, Pragmatism has been marked by a wide vari- method, in Peirce’s opinion, is “the method of sci- Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 67 T. M. Dousa. Classical Pragmatism and its Varieties

ence,” whose cardinal feature is that through it, “our significantly as to their views of the temporal situation beliefs may be determined by nothing human, but by of this convergence: the former envisaged it as occur- some external permanency—by something upon ring far in the indefinite future (and possibly not at which our thinking has no effect” (18). Through a all) (Rescher 2000, 13–14), whereas the latter deemed three-step process of abduction (i.e., hypothesis for- it as already existent and, indeed, claimed that it was mation), deduction, and induction, Peirce argued, an reflected in the classification that he was elaborating inquirer can formulate a belief as a hypothesis and es- (Bliss 1929, 299–301). Nevertheless, the basic parallel tablish its truth not through empirical verification, between Peirce’s and Bliss’s views regarding the nexus but rather through lack of empirical falsification between scientific consensus and external reality indi- (Lachs 1999, 79; Copleston 1994, 306). Although cates the degree to which Peirce’s pragmaticism was truths, or knowledge claims, generated in this way are informed by obective, realist presuppositions. probabilistic in nature and open to dispute by different investigators, Peirce believed that, if inquiry were 3.0 Jamesian practicalism: carried out over an indefinitely long period of time the importance of purpose within an ideal community of rational inquirers committed to the methods of science, the opinions of In contrast to Peirce’s austere, objectivist version of all these inquirers would converge towards a consen- Pragmatism, William James developed a subjectivist sus as to what constitutes truth, which, in turn, one applicable to problems of life well beyond scien- would be consonant with the external realities that tific inquiry. In his view, the pragmatic test was not, as form the objects of human experience and belief it was for Peirce, largely restricted to clarifying our (Lachs 1999, 77, 82–83). scientific understanding of the external world, but Peirce’s view that the results of inquiry, though rather a way of generating beliefs that would prove provisional and revisable in the short term, are apt to practically beneficial for the individual holding them lead to a convergence of scientific opinion with exter- (Haack 2003, 779). James held that both human nal reality over the long term, constitutes a form of knowledge of, and activity in, the world are informed “ideal-realism” that correlates reality with the consen- by the interests and purposes that different people sus of a community of rational inquirers (Haack 2006, bring to their encounter with their environment 27). In this regard, it finds an interesting analogue in (McDermott 1977, xxxviii–xli; Stuhr 1999). These in- the KO theory of Henry E. Bliss. Now Bliss espoused terests and purposes lead individuals to determine a form of realism—critical realism—founded on a how they make sense of the objects of their experience doctrinal basis quite different from that of Peirce and and what those objects are for them. This view leads his writings do not evince any sign of acquaintance to what may be termed “relativistic essentialism”, ac- with Peirce’s work (Bliss 1929, 127–131, 170–173; cf. cording to which, in James’s words, “there is no prop- Copleston 1994, 390–393 for a brief discussion of erty ABSOLUTELY essential to any one thing … The early 20th century critical realism). Nevertheless, the essence of a thing is that one of its properties which is so points of contact between his and Peirce’s views are important for my interests that in comparison with it I striking and merit scrutiny. Bliss took the methods may neglect the rest” (James 1950, II, 333, 335 em- and results of the natural sciences as touchstones for phasis original). On this account, one’s conception of knowledge towards which other fields of knowledge a thing is true insofar as it proves satisfactory to be- were to tend (189–198, 240–252), posited the exis- lieve in the light of one’s purposeful interaction with tence of a unitary “scientific and educational consen- that thing in concrete situations: as James (1977, 448 sus” derived from the results of scientific investigation emphasis original) pregnantly put it, “mind engenders (16, 300–301), and held that the classification of sci- truth upon reality”. This does not mean that one can ences that he had developed on the basis of his under- assert a belief solely on the basis of the practical utility standing of this consensus was consonant with “the that flows from its use as a justification for action: it order of nature” (219–222; cf., on this latter point, must also be assimilable to one’s other beliefs and, Richardson 1901). Bliss and Peirce thus both envi- moreover, must not prove recalcitrant to one’s experi- sioned that the body of scientific beliefs ratified by ence of reality (430, 434–435, 438, 448). Nevertheless, scientific consensus could offer a true account of the the efficacy of beliefs for practically coping with real- way the external world is—a view born of a shared ity is a major theme for James, while the diversity of confidence in the efficacy of scientific method. Of individual interests and purposes in different life situa- course, one should add that Peirce and Bliss differed tions ensures that Jamesian Pragmatism tends to take 68 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 T. M. Dousa. Classical Pragmatism and its Varieties

a robustly pluralist stance regarding truth and, for that of solving more general human problems, as James matter, reality (Stuhr 1999). had done. Much like James, Dewey subscribed to a James’s subjective version of Pragmatism has sensi- form of “objective relativism” regarding knowledge, bly influenced KO discourse about classification, as is holding that one’s conceptions of things in the world apparent in the writings of Jesse Shera. Explicitly in- are colored by one’s experiential background, inter- voking James as his source, Shera (1965, 90–91) held ests, and purposes, and actively shaped by one’s inter- that our conceptions of objects and their interrela- actions with those things (Hickman 1998, 104–106). tions are conditioned by the purposes to which we Likewise, he agreed with James that concepts and be- want to put them, fully endorsing the argument that liefs are tools, which, when applied to our experience “[n]o one conception invariably represents its reality in the world, are capable of generating new knowledge independent of a particular purpose”. Furthermore, he (Dewey 1981, 234–235; James 1977, 380) and that agreed with James that “[t]he pattern of organization, knowledge acquisition is an inherently creative act, the classification of experience, differs from individual since it is always actively engaged in altering the world to individual; admitting, of course, that there are cer- in some way to further human ends (Čapek 1990, 33). tain basic patterns, classifications, that are familiar to However, unlike James, Dewey stressed the commu- all” (119). Given the variation among individuals with nal dimensions of Pragmatic method, situating inquiry regard to interest and person, Shera argued that classi- within the framework of community life (Hickman fications must be flexible and that such flexibility “will 1999). Dewey’s conception of community was not ab- be achieved by providing “multiple approaches” to the stract and universal like Peirce’s ideal community of concepts being related (91). Jamesian Pragmatism thus rational scientific inquirers, but rather encompassed provided potent support for Shera’s call for the crea- the rich variety of communities that make up society tion of “multi-dimensional” classifications capable of hic et nunc (Campbell 1998; Horwitz 1972, 812–813). accommodating multiple perspectives, an ideal that Such communities, in Dewey’s view, provided the plu- continues to inform KO theory to this day. It also un- ralist underpinning for democratic life and served as dergirt Shera’s argument that special classifications in- the field for bringing about “positive and constructive tended for specific communities should seek to cap- changes in social arrangements” (Dewey, cited in Re- ture those properties of the concepts being classified scher 2000, 27, n. 41). In short, Dewey developed that were relevant to the habits of use of those com- Pragmatism into a fully social—and socially en- munities (91). It was in his concern for communities, gaged—philosophy. however, that Shera went beyond the Jamesian per- Dewey’s thought has had a deep impact on the spective and entered a Deweyan one. Pragmatist perspective for KO developed by Hjørland (1997; 2003, 105–107, 2008, 97–98) within his do- 4.0 Deweyan instrumentalism: main-analytic framework. To be sure, not all the ele- inquiry as social action ments in Hjørland’s version of Pragmatism are specifically Deweyan: for example, his characterization of John Dewey’s version of Pragmatism sought to strike the Pragmatist approach to classification as one re- a balance between Peirce’s scientific orientation and quiring “an analysis of goals, values, and conse- James’s more practically motivated one. Like Pierce, quences” (Hjørland 2003, 105) could just as easily in- Dewey developed a theory of inquiry as a form of voke James, while his affirmation of “scientific real- problem solving involving experimentation. On his ism” as a philosophical position in LIS (Hjørland account, a person faced with a problematic, or “inde- 2004) would find more unequivocal support in Peirce. terminate” state of affairs must apply thought to ana- Nevertheless, key planks in Hjørland’s thought bear lyzing the underlying problem, formulate a course of an unmistakably Deweyan stamp. For example, action based on this analysis, and take concrete steps Dewey’s account of inquiry provides the metatheo- to alter the state of affairs according to his purpose: in retical basis for Hjørland’s (1997, 168–169, 82) under- this way, the original problem is transformed into a standing of “the ecological and social nature of mean- “determinate situation,” wherein the person co-exists ing,” as well as for his version of “pragmatical realism” in a new, improved equilibrium with his or her envi- (cf. “objective relativism”, as defined above). Likewise, ronment, having acquired new knowledge in the proc- the domain-analytic idea that the universe of knowl- ess (Dewey 1981, 226). Unlike Peirce, however, edge consists of different domains correlated to dif- Dewey did not restrict his method of inquiry primar- ferent epistemic communities is consonant with ily to scientific matters; rather, he viewed it as a means Dewey’s pluralist vision of multiple communities. Fi- Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 69 T. M. Dousa. Classical Pragmatism and its Varieties

nally, Hjørland’s (2005– ; 2003, 105) claims that “[t]he respects: (1) he views “language” rather than “experi- pragmatic view of knowledge is of special importance ence” as constitutive of knowledge and (2) he rejects to … LIS … because it is connected to the social role the notion that any method—especially scientific of LIS institutions … serving democracy and enlight- method—can serve as a privileged means for justifying enment” and that “[p]ragmatic classification” may be individual and community beliefs (Rorty 1999, 35– regarded as “critical or political classification” well re- 36). For Rorty (1982, 165), “[t]here are no constraints flect Dewey’s own engaged commitment to pluralism on inquiry save conversational ones—no wholesale and social meliorism within a democratic form of life. constraints derived from the nature of the objects, or of the mind, or of language but only those retail con- 5.0 Concluding remarks: whither pragmatism straints provided by the remarks of our fellow- in KO? inquirers”. Inquiry thus becomes “a matter of con- tinually reweaving a web of beliefs rather than the ap- As we have seen, Peircean pragmaticism, Jamesian plication of criteria to cases” (Rorty 1987, 44). Such practicalism, and Deweyan instrumentalism constitute an epistemological stance leads from Deweyan “objec- three classical forms of Pragmatism, differing in their tive relativism” grounded in shared human experience respective views of the scope of application of the to an ungrounded “antirealistic” relativism that views Pragmatic method, the level of communal association knowledge claims as the result of languages game of- at which it is most efficacious, the degree to which fering no strong cross-community standards for human knowledge is objective vis-à-vis external reali- evaluating competing claims (cf. Hickman 2007, 14– ties, and the nature of the truth claims arising from 19; Dousa 2010, in press). The radical antiessentialism human experience of the world. Within KO, research- of Rorty’s Neopragmatism has increasingly found ad- ers adopting Pragmatist perspectives have tended to herents within LIS in general (Sundin and Johannisson incline towards the socially pluralist model articulated 2005) and KO in particular (Tennis 2007; 2008; Tennis by Dewey and championed by Hjørland: even those and Sutton 2008): whether it offers greater metatheo- who explicitly invoke Jamesian (Shera 1965) or retical “cash value” than the forms of classical Pragma- Peircean (Thellefsen 2004; Thellefsen and Thellefsen tism reviewed here is an open question deserving fur- 2004) theories and methods deem the (limited) ther discussion within the KO community. knowledge domain as the most appropriate level toward which to orient KOSs. Such a tendency perhaps References represents the confluence of certain KO traditions— cf. the production of special classifications, indexes, Bliss, Henry Evelyn. 1929. The organization of knowl- and subject bibliographies geared towards particular edge and the system of the sciences. New York: user communities—with a postmodern Zeitgeist that Henry Holt & Co. both endorses a view of knowledge as formed by ac- Campbell, James. 1998. Dewey’s conception of com- tive interaction between people and the world rather munity. In Larry A. Hickman ed., Reading Dewey: than as resulting from a human program of cognitively Interpretations for a postmodern generation. Bloom- “mirroring” the world in thought and valorizes multi- ington/Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, pp. ple perspectives on what counts as knowledge while 23–42 rejecting notions of an absolute Truth (Miksa 1998, Čapek, Karel. 2000. Pragmatismus, čili filosofie prak- 84–87; Jacob 2000). Such a setting, it would seem, is tického života [Pragmatism, or the philosophy of particularly congenial to a Deweyan approach. practical life]. Olomouc: Votobia. The postmodern spirit, however, has encouraged, Copleston, Frederick. 1994. A history of philosophy, within both philosophical Pragmatism and its KO de- vol. VIII: empiricism, idealism, and pragmatism in rivatives, approaches that go well beyond the classical Britain and America. New York: Image Books. Pragmatist idea of “objective relativism” as an episte- Dewey, John. 1981. The philosophy of John Dewey, ed. mological norm. This tendency has found its most by John J. McDermott, ed. Chicago/London: The visible form in the Neopragmatist viewpoint pro- University of Chicago Press. pounded by Richard Rorty. While Rorty accepts many Dickstein, Morris. 1999. Introduction: pragmatism elements of classical Pragmatism, such as its antifoun- then and now. In Morris Dickstein ed., The revival dationalism, fallibilism, pluralism, and repudiation of of pragmatism: new essays on social thought, law, and the notion of knowledge as a neutral representation of culture. 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Dousa, Thomas M. In press. Whither pragmatism? and Nancy J. Williamson eds., Dynamism and sta- pragmatism vs. neo-pragmatism as KO metatheo- bility in knowledge organization: proceedings of the ries. In Claudio Gnoli & Fulvio Mazzocchi eds., Sixth International ISKO Conference, 10-13 July Paradigms and conceptual systems in knowledge or- 2000, Toronto, Canada. Würzburg: Ergon Verlag, ganization: proceedings of the 11th International pp. 16-22. ISKO Conference. Würzburg: Ergon-Verlag. James, William. 1950. The principles of psychology, 2 Gallagher, H. M. 1991. Dr. Osborn’s 1941 “The Cri- vols. New York: Dover Publications. sis in cataloging”: a shift in thought toward Ameri- James, William. 1977. The writings of William James: a can pragmatism. Cataloging & classification quar- comprehensive edition, ed. by John J. McDermott. terly 12 no. 3/4: 3–33. Chicago/London: University of Chicago Press. Haack, Susan. 2003. Pragmatism. In Nicholas Bunnin McDermott, John J. 1977. Introduction: person, & E. P. Tsui-James eds., The Blackwell companion process and the risk of belief. In William James, to philosophy. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, The writings of William James: a comprehensive edi- pp. 774–789. tion, ed. by John J. McDermott. Chicago/London: Haack, Susan. 2006. Introduction: Pragmatism, old University of Chicago Press, pp. xix–l. and new. In Susan Haack and Robert Lane eds., Lachs, John. 1999. Peirce: inquiry as social life. In Pragmatism, old and new. Amherst, NY: Prome- Sandra B. Rosenthal, Carl R. Hausman, & Douglas theus Books, pp. 15–67. R. Anderson eds., Classical American pragmatism: Hickman, Larry A. 1999. Dewey: pragmatic technol- its contemporary vitality. Urbana/Chicago: Univer- ogy and community life. In Sandra B. Rosenthal, sity of Illinois Press, pp. 75–84. Carl R. Hausman, & Douglas R. Anderson eds., Miksa, Francis L. 1998. The DDC, the universe of Classical American pragmatism: its contemporary vi- knowledge, and the post-modern library. Albany, tality. Urbana/Chicago: University of Illinois Press, NY: Forest Press. pp. 99–119. Peirce, Charles S. 1955. Philosophical writings of Peirce, Hickman, Larry A. 2007. Pragmatism as post- ed. by Justus Buchler ed. New York: Dover Publi- postmodernism: lessons from John Dewey. New cations. York: Fordham University Press. Rescher, Nicholas. 2000. Realistic pragmatism: an in- Hjørland, Birger. 1997. Information seeking and sub- troduction to pragmatic philosophy. Albany, NY: ject representation: an activity-theoretical approach State University of New York Press. to information science. Westport, CN: Greenwood Richardson, Ernest Cushing. 1901. Classification: Press. theoretical and practical. New York: Charles Scrib- Hjørland, Birger. 1998. Theory and metatheory of in- ner’s Sons. formation science: a new interpretation. Journal of Rorty, Richard. 1982. Consequences of pragmatism. documentation 54: 606–21. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Hjørland, Birger. 2003. Fundamentals of knowledge Rorty, Richard. 1987. Science as solidarity. In John S. organization. Knowledge organization 30: 87–111. Nelson, Allan Megill, and Donald N. McCloskey Hjørland, Birger. 2004. Arguments for philosophical eds., The rhetoric of the human sciences: language and realism in library and information science. Library argument in scholarship and public affairs. Madison: trends 52 no. 3: 488–506. The University of Wisconsin Press, pp. 38–52. Hjørland, Birger. 2005– . Pragmatism. In Birger Hjør- Rorty, Richard. 1999. Philosophy and social hope. land and Jeppe Nicolaisen eds. The Epistemological London: Penguin Books. Lifeboat. Available at http://www.db.dk/jni/ Shera, Jesse H. 1965. Libraries and the organization of lifeboat/info.asp?subjectid=46 knowledge. Hamden, CN: Archon Books. Hjørland, Birger. 2008. What is knowledge organiza- Smiraglia, Richard P. 2002. The progress of theory in tion (KO)? Knowledge organization 35: 86–101. knowledge organization. Library Trends 50 no. 3: Horwitz, Robert. 1972. John Dewey. In Leo Strauss 330–39. and Joseph Cropsey eds., History of political phi- Stuhr, John J. 1999. William James’s pragmatism: Pur- losophy, 2nd ed. Chicago/London: The University pose, practice, and pluralism. In Sandra B. Rosen- of Chicago Press, pp. 804–822. thal, Carl R. Hausman, and Douglas R. Anderson Jacob, Elin K. 2000. The legacy of pragmatism: impli- eds., Classical American Pragmatism: its contempo- cations for knowledge organization in a pluralistic rary vitality. Urbana/Chicago: University of Illinois universe. In Claire Beghtol, Lynne C. Howarth, Press, pp. 31–44. Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 71 T. M. Dousa. Classical Pragmatism and its Varieties

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72 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 O. Buchel and Linda L. Hill. Treatment of Georeferencing in Knowledge Organization Systems

Treatment of Georeferencing in Knowledge Organization Systems: North American Contributions to Integrated Georeferencing

Olha Buchel* and Linda L. Hill** *University of Western Ontario, Faculty of Information and Media Studies, Ontario, Canada **Goleta, California, USA

Olha Buchel is a Ph.D. candidate in Library and Information Science at the Faculty of Information and Media Studies, University of Western Ontario, Canada. Her focus is on the conceptualization of map-based visualizations of library collections, incorporating the knowledge organizational structures and supporting users’ epistemic activities such as sensemaking, problem solving, decision making, understanding, and learning. She is developing a descriptive and prescriptive taxonomy of interactions for such visualizations. Previously, she was a member of the research team at the University of Cali- fornia at Santa Barbara, where she was involved in the design of metadata and classroom applications for digital libraries.

Linda L. Hill is retired from the University of California, Santa Barbara, where she was a member of the Alexandria Digital Library (ADL) Project research team. She focused on gazetteer design and development, the integration of knowledge organization systems (KOS) into digital library services, and the evaluation of the ADL prototypes. She received her Ph.D. in Library Science from the University of Pittsburgh in 1990 and has worked in the fields of georeferenced digital libraries, interoperable digital gazetteer services, user evaluation of information systems, user needs analysis, information services workflow analysis, hierarchical thesaurus construction for information description and retrieval, networked knowledge organization systems (NKOS), and metadata design.

Buchel, Olha and Hill, Linda L. Treatment of Georeferencing in Knowledge Organization Systems: North American Contributions to Integrated Georeferencing. Knowledge Organization, 37(1), 72- 78. 25 references.

ABSTRACT: Pioneering research projects in North America that have advanced the integration of formal mathematical georeferencing and informal placename georeferencing in knowledge organization systems are described and related to visualization applications.

1.0 Introduction formation related to those locations. For knowledge organization (KO), geographic location is a compo- Georeferencing using placenames (e.g., Chicago, nent of the description and identification of various Ohio River) and place types (e.g., city, river) is used attributes of information resources (e.g., spatial cov- extensively in verbal and written communication and erage, geographic aboutness, and place of publication) for knowledge organization because knowing the for all types of media (e.g., maps, books, articles, data where and what of geographic locations is fundamen- sets, photographs, images, and web sites), and all gen- tal to understanding the meaning and relevance of in- res (e.g., novels, poems, musical compositions, biog- Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 73 O. Buchel and Linda L. Hill. Treatment of Georeferencing in Knowledge Organization Systems

raphies, movies, and research reports). Major classifi- FeatureID 966966 cation schemes (e.g., Library of Congress, Dewey Name Syracuse Decimal), subject heading authorities (e.g., Library of Class Populated place Congress Subject Headings), thesauri (e.g., Getty The- saurus of Geographic Names, GeoRef Thesaurus), and Variant Names metadata structures (e.g., MARC) are imbued with Sy-kuse (citation) geographic terms, codes, and attributes of space. Kah-ya-hoo-neh (citation) These are types of informal georeferencing that make Tu-na-ten-tonk (citation) use of placenames, administrative hierarchies (e.g., Na-ta-dunk (citation) Syracuse is part of Onondaga County is part of New Bogradus Corners (citation) York state), and place types to designate geographic Milan (citation) places. In contrast to informal georeferencing is formal South Salina (citation) georeferencing, where the location of a place is iden- Cossitts Corners (citation) tified mathematically by use of longitude and latitude Coordinates (latitude, longitu- coordinates or by use of another global referencing de) system (e.g., UTM coordinates). Formal georeferenc- 43.0481221, -76.147244 ing is fundamental to navigation, cartography, satel- 42.9922883, -76.1510356 lite imaging, aerial photography, and the analysis of 43.0478444, -76.1146455 spatially distributed data. In the last few decades, products and services based on formal georeferencing Table 1. Illustration of an entry in a gazetteer showing (e.g., GPS units in our cars, Google Earth, MapQuest, the preferred name, class/type, variant names (linked to sources), and coordinates for Syra- online mapping standards) have expanded greatly due cuse from three USGS topographic maps (ab- to the emergence and rapid advancements in geospa- breviated record from the U.S. Geological tial technologies. Survey’s Geographic Names Information Sys- Only recently, within the last decade, have research tem (GNIS), http://geonames.usgs.gov. projects demonstrated that bridging between informal and formal georeferencing within KO systems Once the location of a place has been expressed in co- adds powerful benefits in understanding the contents ordinates—even using a simple longitude and latitude of collections and the relevance and relatedness of in- point as in Table 1—it can be situated on a map and its formation. Advances in the fields of spatial cognition, spatial relationships to other places and physical fea- geographic information science, and library-and- tures can be discovered, appreciated, and acted upon. information science provided the basis of these inno- When placenames are associated with information re- vations. This paper focuses on the North American sources, then these resources can also be viewed in a research and development projects that have ad- spatial environment and related to resources that are vanced the integration of formal georeferencing into spatially similar in content. Moreover, the use of geo- KO systems that rely primarily on informal georefer- spatial coordinates can represent, for example, the lo- encing. cation and progression of events such as weather phenomena and migrations (Cahill and Moore 2006) and 2.0 Background vague areas, such as southeastern Illinois, and the resources associated with these events and areas. The merits of the use of coordinates in KO are linked Geographic places are listed by name and docu- to their intrinsic properties of being culturally and mented in gazetteers, which have typically been language-neutral, cross disciplinary, capable of spatial structured as dictionaries, encyclopedias, or indexes visualization, and applicable to all types of informa- arranged in alphabetical order, often describing each tion resources (Hill 2006). Coordinates that repre- place in terms of its name and location. An entry in sent the location of a place can be linked to its place- the index of an atlas might look like this: “Nantong, names in various spellings, languages, scripts, and Jiangsu, China Page 23, Grid J2 32.05N 120.51E.” transliterations, including historical placenames and An entry in an encyclopedia-type gazetteer might cultural variants. Table 1 illustrates this with an ab- look like this abbreviated entry from the Columbia breviated record from the U.S. Geological Survey’s Gazetteer of the World Online (2005): gazetteer. 74 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 O. Buchel and Linda L. Hill. Treatment of Georeferencing in Knowledge Organization Systems

Name of place: Timbuktu to its thesaurus and to the metadata for documents in Type of place: city 1977 in order to support a geospatial query capability Location: Mali for its online searching service. The Getty Thesaurus Timbuktu (tim-buhk-too), city (1987 pop. of Geographic Names (TGN) (J. Paul Getty Trust - 31,925; 1998 pop. 31,973; estimated 2005 pop. Research Institute 2009) began adding coordinates in 32,460), (cap.) Sixth Region, central Mali, near 1987. TGN’s scope includes terminology needed to the Niger River; 16°46’N 03°01° W … an impor- catalog and retrieve information about the visual arts tant meeting place for the nomadic people of and architecture. the Sahara … was founded (11th century) …. With the emergence of GIS, Nancy Pruett (Pruett Also spelled Tombouctou. (Note that entries in 1986) predicted that digital maps would enhance user this gazetteer have since been changed to in- tasks, interactions, and retrieval if the contents of col- clude separate data elements for Coordinates lections were geospatially referenced. She foresaw and Population) graphical user interfaces for geoscience libraries and information services where a search for maps, journal Other structures for gazetteer data have been used. articles, field trip guidebooks, dissertations, data, and The authoritative gazetteers of government agencies even the names of experts would be carried out by (e.g., the U.S. Board on Geographic Names and the drawing on a computer screen the outline of the area Geographical Names Board of Canada) use locally of interest while interacting with an online biblio- designed metadata-like models where there are fields graphic-type database. Ten years later, Ray Larson that specify types of data (Table 1). The Getty The- (Larson 1996) introduced the concept of geographic saurus of Geographic Names uses a thesaurus struc- information retrieval and explained the advantages of ture. Each gazetteer has been built as a stand-alone spatial browsing as a method of presenting and que- reference serving particular purposes with no expec- rying a variety of georeferenced information using tation that the data could be networked to or shared digital maps. This thinking and research, as well as with other applications or integrated with other data- concurrent advances in GIS, prepared the foundation sets. for the next stage of development: building geographically-based digital libraries that demonstrated 3.0 Early use of coordinates in text-based empirically the advantages of integrating both infor- knowledge organization systems mal and formal georeferencing into KO and online services, while working out the models and protocols Map librarians were the first to realize the need for required. fields within the MARC format for coordinate values to document the geospatial boundaries of the maps, 4.0 Geographically-based digital library projects aerial photographs, and related materials in their collections. Because of their close association with map 4.1 Geo-Referenced Information Network (GRIN) users and the geographers who were beginning to develop GIS software, they were aware that the spatial The first project in North America to design a digital locations associated with the contents of their collec- library system that included geospatially enhanced tions were key parameters of description. The inclu- metadata and map-based information retrieval capa- sion of coordinates and other parameters of spatial bilities was called the Geo-Referenced Information location in MARC in the 1970s preceded major de- Network (GRIN) funded by the Research Libraries velopments in GIS, which began later in the 1980s. Group (RLG). Its goal was to create a library and re- The Anglo American Cataloging Rules (AACR2) first trieval system to provide geographically-based access included a section on coordinates in 1981. These ad- to item-level metadata characterized by geospatial lo- vancements were promoted by map catalogers and cation and then digital access to the actual electronic have been most consistently used for the description collection items. The GRIN design included a thesau- of maps and geospatial data. rus linking placenames to geographic coordinates and Some indexing and abstracting services realized the map-based displays of information resources so that importance of formal georeferencing early on also. users could select resources based on their relation- GeoRef (American Geological Institute 2009), the in- ships to geographic areas of interest (“RLG enters dexing and abstracting service that covers the Earth new sphere with geoinformation project” 1989). sciences, started adding coordinates for placenames Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 75 O. Buchel and Linda L. Hill. Treatment of Georeferencing in Knowledge Organization Systems

4.2 The Alexandria Digital Library Project resources (e.g., gazetteers, thesauri, taxonomies) with and digital gazetteers collections and services, as presented in a paper presented at the 13th ASIS&T SIG/CR Classification Re- The first operating prototype of a georeferenced digi- search Workshop in 2002 (Hill et al 2002). tal library that integrated informal and formal geo- Since digital gazetteers were recognized as key KO referencing was inspired by the GRIN project. The components of the ADL Project, a major effort was Alexandria Digital Library (ADL) project was devel- made to develop a formal data model for gazetteer oped at the University of California, Santa Barbara data and a thesaurus of terms to categorize named (UCSB) as one of the six National Science Founda- places. Using the ADL Gazetteer Content Standard tion digital library projects in the first round of digi- (GCS) (Hill 2004) and the Feature Type Thesaurus tal library funding, 1994-1998. ADL was designed as (FTT) (Hill 2002), a gazetteer of nearly 6 million en- a geographically-based digital library (DL) in which tries, with worldwide coverage and assigned catego- the geospatial associations of all types of information ries/types using the FTT, was created by combining resources (e.g., books, articles, maps, remote sensing the data from the two U.S. federal gazetteers and images, photographs) can be represented by longi- other smaller sets of data. This required mapping from tude and latitude coordinates and where a gazetteer is dissimilar data structures and local typing schemes. A integrated as a reference source and to support the gazetteer protocol and a thesaurus protocol were cre- translation between placenames, coordinates, and ated to operate in a networked environment and to place types (e.g., city, lake, airport) (Figure 1). In support gazetteer and thesaurus query and response ADL, a map-based user interface can be used to dis- services; these protocols do not require that the gazet- play the geographical distribution of resources in a teer and thesaurus data be in any particular format. collection, to narrow a search for information to a The GCS contains a small set of required elements specific region, and to display the geographic loca- and an extensive set of optional elements to document tions of individual resources in the retrieved set. A aspects such as calendar dates (for names, relation- user can express the geographic location of interest ships, footprints, population data, etc.), sources, lan- either by placename or by marking an area on the guage, confidence (certainty about the data), authority map; that is, either informally or formally. Such a (e.g., official status of the name), and additional de- search can be directed to the gazetteer to find out, for scriptive information. The FTT has six top terms, 210 example, what “schools” or “lakes” are in an area or preferred terms, and 1046 non-preferred terms. to the collections to find resources related to the area Both the GCS and the FTT have been adopted and as represented either by coordinates or placenames. adapted for other implementations worldwide. Work- shops on gazetteer research and development have been held as a result of the ADL project and the complexities and issues of gazetteer development and implementation have been reported in various publications to further support research in this area and the development of integrated georeferencing in KO (Beaman et al 2004; Buckland and Lancaster 2004; Crane 2004; e.g., Hill 1999; Hill 2006; Hill et al 1999; Janée et al 2004; Kornai and Sundheim 2003; Net- worked Knowledge Organization Systems/Services Group 2002; Smith and Crane 2001). Figure 1. Basic components of an entry in a digital gazet- The importance of gazetteers in KO has been dem- teer for a named geographic place: name, location onstrated and, as more implementations develop, the (footprint), and type/category (Hill 2006, 92) multiple roles for gazetteers in online information systems are being discovered as well. As a basic reference The ADL architecture and supporting protocols are tool, gazetteers can provide information about a place, based on a distributed system model where collec- such as where it is; what the authorized names for the tions can reside at distant sites with a shared agree- place are according to various authorities and what ment about methods of generating queries, receiving other names it has; how it is related to other places; queries, and returning results. The ADL concept of what type of place it is, according to a structured set DL architectures includes the tight integration of KO of place types; and how its names, boundaries, politi- 76 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 O. Buchel and Linda L. Hill. Treatment of Georeferencing in Knowledge Organization Systems

cal relationships have changed through time. All of gazetteer model and to map-based visualization of li- this information supports cataloging and indexing of brary collections and information resources, many information with geographic associations. Gazetteers conceptual and practical issues have to be dealt with in with, perhaps, only name and coordinate information, the process. enable operations such as orienting the map to a named place on Google Earth and MapQuest. For 5.0 The future management of placenames by government entities and businesses and for KO implementations, gazet- Google Maps and other online applications are making teers are the primary datasets – datasets collaboratively it surprisingly easy to display data from one or more built or with shared access, perhaps, since knowledge geospatially-referenced datasets on maps so that the of places and their characteristics is most often held distribution, patterns, and relationships of the data can locally or collected centrally for particular purposes. be seen—or to display a single data point so that its location is shown in the context of its surroundings— 4.3 Other innovative georeferenced KO initiatives or to find the best route between two places. The only requirement is that the places and information re- There are operational information systems today that sources have coordinate values associated with them, have implemented geospatial referencing for a pleth- either as recorded in the collection-level or resource- ora of information resources beyond maps and aerial level metadata or because the information systems imagery, including books, parts of books, learning ob- have placename lookup services that accesses gazet- jects, news articles, genealogical and archival records, teers to find the coordinates associated with place- historical records, and museum collection metadata. names. For example, the biodiversity community developed Enabling map-based visualization of collection con- the Darwin Core metadata standard, based on the tents adds powerful exploration and discovery inter- Dublin Core model, “to facilitate the exchange of in- faces for all types of libraries, archives, data centers, formation about the geographic occurrence of organ- museums, and other managers of knowledge content. isms and the physical existence of biotic specimens in Several projects are already underway experimenting collections” (Taxonomic Data Working Group 2007). with visualizations of resource collections and their The standard includes a set of georeferencing ele- contents using digital maps. 4W Vocabulary Mapping ments, including coordinate values. The worldwide project (Buckland and Shaw 2008) visualizes personal community that uses the Darwin Core includes natu- biographies as a series of small georeferenced events ral history museums, zoological and botanical gardens, and links the locations of those events to textual re- and germplasm and genetic resource collections. sources (bibliographies, bibliographical dictionaries, Significant work has been done for the visualization catalogs, and encyclopedias). Buchel (2008), as part of of library collections on digital maps. Several projects her dissertation, develops a prototypical interactive by the Electronic Cultural Atlas Initiative (ECAI) map-based visualization based on a set of MARC re- have experimented with the visualization of library cords, with links from the geographical locations of collections on digital maps. One ECAI project used a the places of publication to dynamic statistical graph- digital map to facilitate searching a collection of 700 ics and abstract graphical representations of other at- MARC records about, or published in, the Cebuano tributes from the MARC fields. An example is shown region of the Philippines (Buckland et al 2007). An- in Figure 2. Here you see the map with icons for sets other project, Going Places in the Catalog: Improved of books about geographic locations (the map in the Geographic Access (Buckland et al 2002), has experi- center of Figure 2). The linked graphics include a scat- mented with the translation of spatial queries drawn ter plot of book-size data (Figure 2.a) that allows us- on a map in various graphical forms to text form, and ers to view the distribution of the size of the books time/space visualizations of library collections using published about a particular geographical location; a the TimeMap software (Archaeological Computing language pie-chart (Figure 2.b) that visually depicts Laboratory - University of Sydney 2004), developed the languages of books and how many in each lan- in collaboration with ECAI. At the same time, efforts guage; a Kohonen Map of subjects (Figure 2.c) that have been made to improve library placename author- shows the distribution of subjects; a histogram of ity records and make them similar to gazetteer re- publication years (Figure 2.d) for each location; and cords. Since the existing authority records and cata- another map that shows where the items about the loging practices didn’t anticipate this migration to a geographic location were published (Figure 2.e). Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 77 O. Buchel and Linda L. Hill. Treatment of Georeferencing in Knowledge Organization Systems

Figure 2. Map-based visualization of library collections, where each location is represented by: a) book-size scatter plot; b) language pie chart; c) Kohonen Map of subjects; d) histogram of the years of publication; e) map of places of publication

Pioneering research and development projects in Beaman, Reed, Wieczorek, John, and Blum, Stan. North America, as summarized here, have been im- 2004. Determining space from place for natural portant steps in bridging between the georeferencing history collections. D-Lib Magazine 10(5) http:// practices of text-based KO practices and the geospa- www.dlib.org/dlib/may04/beaman/05beaman.htm. tial practices of GIS. On both sides, the realization is Buchel, Olha. 2008. How georeferences in library clas- growing that thinking spatially applies to all types of sifications and bibliographic attributes in MARC can information, to all types of information exploration be used to crystallize knowledge about library collec- and use, to all types of knowledge organization. tions (poster presentation). Tenth international ISKO Conference. Montreal, Canada, 5-8 August References 2008. Buckland, Michael, et al. 2007. Geographic search: American Geological Institute. 2009. GeoRef infor- catalogs, gazetteers, and maps. College and re- mation services. Retrieved March 11, 2009, from search libraries 68: 376-87 http://metadata.sims. http://www.agiweb.org/georef/index.html. berkeleyedu/geographicsearch.pdf. Archaeological Computing Laboratory - University Buckland, Michael, Gey, Frederic C., and Larson, Ray of Sydney. 2004. TimeMap: time-based interactive R. 2002. Going places in the catalog: improved geo- mapping. Retrieved March 20, 2009, from http:// graphic access. Retrieved June 7, 2009, from http:// www.timemap.net/. ecai.org/imls2002/. 78 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 O. Buchel and Linda L. Hill. Treatment of Georeferencing in Knowledge Organization Systems

Buckland, Michael, and Lancaster, Lewis. 2004. Com- TGN. Retrieved March 11, 2009, from http:// bining place, time, and topic. D-Lib Magazine www.getty.edu/research/conducting_research/ 10(5) http://www.dlib.org/dlib/may04/buckland/ vocabularies/tgn/about.html. 05buckland.html. Janée, Greg, Frew, James, and Hill, Linda L. 2004. Is- Buckland, Michael, and Shaw, Ryan. 2008. 4W vo- sues in georeferenced digital libraries. D-Lib Maga- cabulary mapping across diverse reference genres. zine 10(5). http://www.dlib.org/dlib/may04/janee/ In Arsenault, Clément, and Tennis, Joseph, eds. 05janee.html. 2008. Culture and identity in knowledge organiza- Kornai, Andras, and Sundheim, Beth. 2003. Workshop tion: Proceedings of the 10th International ISKO on the analysis of geographic references, May 31, Conference, Montréal, 5-8 August 2008. Advances 2003, Edmonton, Alberta, as part of the North in knowledge organization 11. Würzburg: Ergon American chapter of the Association for Computa- Verlag, pp. 151-56. tional Linguistics and Human Language Technology Cahill, Colleen, and Moore, Susan. 2006. Where are Conference (NAACL-HLT 2003). Retrieved June we with coordinates? Documents to the people 7, 2009, from http://people.mokk.bme.hu/ (DTTP) 34(4): 37. ~kornai/NAACL/. Crane, Gregory. 2004. Georeferencing in historical Larson, Ray. 1996. Geographic information retrieval collections. D-Lib Magazine 10(5). http://www. and spatial browsing. In Smith, Linda C. and dlib.org/dlib/may04/crane/05crane.html. Gluck, Myke eds. Geographic information systems Hill, Linda L. 1999. Digital gazetteer information ex- and libraries: patrons, maps, and spatial information. change (DGIE) workshop. Retrieved June 7, 2009, Urbana-Champaign: Graduate School of Library from http://www.alexandria.ucsb.edu/gazetteer/ and Information Science, University of Illinois at dgie/DGIE_website/DGIE_homepage.htm. Urbana-Champaign, pp. 81-123. Hill, Linda L. 2002. Feature type thesaurus. Retrieved Networked Knowledge Organization Sys- June 7, 2009, from http://www.alexandria.ucsb. tems/Services Group. 2002. Digital gazetteers - in- edu/gazetteer/FeatureTypes/FTT_metadata.htm. tegration into distributed digital library services. Re- Hill, Linda L. 2004, 2004-02-26. Guide to the ADL trieved June 7, 2009, from http://nkos.slis.kent. gazetteer content standard, version 3.2. Retrieved edu/DL02workshop.htm. February 26, 2004, from http://www.alexandria. Pruett, Nancy J. 1986. State of the art of geoscience ucsb.edu/gazetteer/ContentStandard/version3.2/ libraries and information services. In E. P. Shelley GCS3.2-guide.htm. (Ed.), Proceedings of the third international Confer- Hill, Linda L. 2006. Georeferencing : the geographic as- ence on Geoscience Information, Adelaide, South sociations of information: MIT Press. Australia, June 1-6, 1986. Adelaide: Australian Hill, Linda L., et al. 2002. Integration of knowledge Mineral Foundation, pp. 15-30. organization systems into digital library architec- RLG enters new sphere with geoinformation project. tures: position paper. In Mai, Jens-Erik, Beghtol, 1989. The Research Libraries Group news 19 CLARE, Furner, Jonathan and Kwasnik, Barbara, (spring): 3-9. eds. Advances in classification research. Proceedings Smith, David A., and Crane, Gregory. 2001. Disam- of the 13th ASIST SIG/CR Workshop on “reconcep- biguating geographic names in a historical digital tutalizing classification research.” Medford, N.J.: In- library. In Constantopoulos, Panos and Slovberg, formation Today, pp. 62-68. Ingeborg T. eds. Research and advanced technology Hill, Linda L., Frew, James, and Zheng, Qi. 1999. for digital libraries. Proceedings of the 5th European Geographic names: the implementation of a gazet- Conference, ECDL 2001, Darmstadt, Germany. teer in a georeferenced digital library. D-Lib Maga- Berlin: Springer, pp. 127-136. zine 5(1). http://www.dlib.org/dlib/january99/hill/ Taxonomic Data Working Group. 2007. Darwin Core 01hill.html. Group - DwC. TDWG Task Group. Retrieved J. Paul Getty Trust - Research Institute. 2009. Getty March 20, 2009, from http://www.tdwg.org/ Thesaurus of Geographic Names online: about the activities/darwincore/.

Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 79 Book Reviews

Book Reviews

Edited by Joseph A. Tennis

Book Review Editor

Martha Lampland and Susan Leigh Star, editors. The book is an orchestrated exploration, discussion, Standards and Their Stories: How Quantifying, Clas- provocative probing and illustration of these obser- sifying, and Formalizing Practices Shape Everyday Li- vations. Ah, standards—you would think the eyes fe. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Pr., 2009. 280 p. ISBN might glaze over, but this is not a traditional linear 978-0-80144-717-4. exposition, and so you are enveloped in the topic as in a well-told tale. It is a recursive and interlocking This book emerged from a semester-long faculty re- arrangement among the contributing authors and the search study seminar at the University of California auxiliary texts that are used to illuminate the main Humanities Research Institute and from a parallel, themes. Put another way, each episode is an exercise co-taught student seminar in the Science Studies in cumulating consciousness-raising. Program at the University of California, San Diego. In “Beyond the Standard Human” Steven Epstein It is a graceful collage of essays, newspaper and ma- explores “attempts by what might be called an an- gazine clippings, and other odds and ends all dealing tistandardization resistance movement to displace with the question: “How have people dealt, in ordi- the standard human.” We welcome standards that nary ways, with these millions of interlocking stan- make life easier; we learn to get around standards dards?” (p.4). that seem inevitable, but the notion of a “standard We are surrounded by standards, from coffin sizes human” is distasteful to many of us. Even so, there to food-portion supersizing, from red/green traffic are many instances in which this construct is in- lights to “flesh-colored” Band-aids, from ethnic pro- voked, and we barely notice. Epstein narrates the rise files to emission standards—sometimes they work so of statistics in the 1800s and the ability to measure well they become invisible, and sometimes they pro- and map the typical human characteristics—the no- vide stumbling blocks. Many standards fit their pur- tion of L’homme Moyen (pp. 38-9). He goes on to pose well, but many violate our rights and our dig- describe, among other instances, the use of the “new nity. They enable the smooth running of our tech- standardized object for biomedical research—the nologies, but they frustrate, cause misery, and wreak human subject (p.41),” and the implications of doing havoc as well. In their introductory essay “Reckon- so for those literally not measuring up to the stan- ing with Standards,” the editors consider the use, dard—airbags that hit too low, dosages of medicines creation, disuse and abuse of standards and identify that are not suited to all, and so on. He illustrates analytic commonalities. These are (pp. 4-5): how descriptive standards can become normative by implication, how what is considered “normal” gets Standards are nested inside one another; accepted. They are distributed unevenly across the so- In “Age in Standards and Standards for Age: Insti- ciocultural landscape; and, tutionalizing Chronological Age as Biographical Ne- Are relative to communities of practice; that is cessity,” Judith Treas provides a historical overview one person’s well-fitting standards may be an- of how chronological age “has supplanted other use- other’s impossible nightmare; ful ways of thinking about age” (p. 66). She points They are increasingly linked to and integrated out that there is often an imperfect match of our with one another across many organizations, subjective and objective perception of age (p. 68), nations, and technical systems; and, and that, “It does not really matter whether people They codify, embody, or prescribe ethics and know their chronological age unless they bump up values, often with great consequences for indi- against bureaucratic systems that demand chrono- viduals. logical age (p. 81).” Even so, this construct has tri- umphed, and Treas provides many examples of how 80 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 Book Reviews

today, chronological age determines the timing and reer cycle of the scientist” (p.153). Thus, time and progression of individual lives by invoking age norms place become important factors in analyzing and, and rules that link people to age-graded social insti- more importantly, evaluating the metadata standards. tutions. The authors argue that standards and ontologies Martin Lengwiler revisits the notion of a standard should be socially and organizationally bundled and for humans in “Double Standards: The History of not considered merely as an afterthought to the Standardizing Humans in Modern Life Insurance.” work that produced them. He says, “the debate about insuring substandard lives In “ASCII Imperialism,” Daniel Pargman and serves as an exemplary revealing case to examine the Jacob Palme use the development of the English- ambivalent practical effects of modern human stan- centric ASCII code to study the standardization of dards, between inclusive and exclusive, discriminat- language and its intersection with the technical stan- ing and privileging, and disabling and enabling prac- dards on the Internet (p. 181). We are quick to as- tices (p. 97).” He posits the link between the cultural sume that technological imperatives guide the devel- pessimism at the turn of the 20th Century with the opment of standards, but the authors argue that it is notions of inherited and debilitating conditions that both a social and a technical issue, and while emer- then define the substandard characteristics of a high- gent consequences can’t always be anticipated, this risk and, therefore, uninsurable individual. This essay does not absolve us of making an effort to remedy also recounts the fascinating tension between the the situation. Who decides how we communicate on “art” of the insurance physician who made the deci- the Internet? Demonstrating the problem is easy— sions about standards based on physical examination, for example, the municipality of Hörby being forced and the “science” of the actuarial theorist, who made to represent itself as “www.horby.se” (village of for- these decisions based on statistical evidence. nication) due to ASCII limitations—but analyzing Taking the perspective of class struggles, in “Clas- the issue is not. It isn’t until something cannot be sifying Laborers: Instinct, Property, and the Psychol- done that we realize there is a problem, and by then ogy of Productivity in Hungary (1920-1956), Martha we feel we are restricted by decisions that were made Lampland explores the topic of work science and the long ago and by the resulting inertia (p.186). tension among scientific engineering, standardizing, These seven guiding essays are interlaced with sev- and social classificatory practices (pp. 123-24). The eral shorter ones, as well as articles and illustrations, essay is an examination of the belief that people of and finally a sample syllabus in case you’d like to run different classes, gender and ethnic groups were seen a seminar of your own. Here’s a sampler: Ellis Island to have specific work habits in their makeup—for ex- standards for immigration, clothing sizes, healthy- ample, sloth or diligence and the capacity for work infant growth charts, increasing coffin dimensions, (p. 124). She discusses “the nexus of psychology and California’s Three Strike penal standard, arsenic con- social engineering” (p. 127), commenting that the tent in water standards, Polish pork-farm infrastruc- Hungarians were not alone in this approach. In the ture and cleanliness standards, train-track standards pursuit of increased productivity such characteristics and the width of two horse’s behinds, and from the of “human nature” were considered crucial variables vault of apocryphal EU standardization stories: the by many practitioners of work science (p. 133). case of the straight (not curved) bananas. In “Metadata Standards: Trajectories and Enact- One way to view the overall subtle coloring of this ment in the Life of an Ontology,” Florence Millerand book is to pay attention to the metaphors. For a to- and Geoffrey C. Bowker use the Long-Term Eco- pic that is seemingly dry, it’s interesting to note how logical Research Community (LTER) and the Eco- standards seem to evoke rather earthy and heartfelt logical Metadata Standard to conduct an ethno- metaphors. The prominent one is mentioned by the graphic study of how a community enacts standards editors in the introductory essay. This is the meta- and coordinates different social worlds. They trace phor of imbrications: “an evocative picture of unce- how distributed and disparate sites follow different mented things producing a larger whole (p. 20).” trajectories in not only contributing to the metadata They speak of standards as nested, and throughout project but also in adjusting their infrastructure to the book there are other structural allusions. For ex- accommodate the goal of sharing and preserving data ample, in speaking of metadata standards for shared after the paper or report is written . The challenge is scientific data, Millerand and Bowker point out that “to analyze change at the scale of a continent and be- “[in] the traditional model of scientific research, data yond the six-year funding cycle or the thirty-year ca- are wrapped into a paper that produces a generaliz- Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 81 Book Reviews

able truth—after which the scaffolding can be kicked ment” (Bowker and Star 1999, 37). My contribution away and the timeless truth can stand on its own aims to add some additional thoughts. (p.149).” They argue that, instead, the metadata can Several of the authors point out that standards, continue to be that scaffolding. In the chapter on the like classifications, are born within a particular point standard of chronological age, Teas refers to age as of view, for a particular purpose and with observable part of the steps of life (p.69) thereby forming a outcomes. Furthermore, classifications, like stan- structure of the life lived in a particular shape—up dards, help define, communicate and negotiate con- and then down. tested spaces. Modern notions of classification take Looking at it from a more social perspective, Lam- into account multiple perspectives, tangled struc- pland and Star speak of our relationship with stan- tures, and prototypicality (Kwaśnik 2000). Thus, it dards as a romance (p.4), invoking an image of in- seems natural to talk of standards and classifications fatuation followed (one would hope) by commit- as closely linked, and there are ways of talking about ment, and then (perhaps) disenchantment, or heaven classification that might usefully be extended to forefend, heartbreak. The sense of standards acting standards. I’ll touch on a few examples. as a communication medium is strong throughout. The first of these is warrant. Clare Beghtol, writ- We invoke the standard when we want to say, “This ing in 1986 said “the warrant of a classification sys- defines it; this is the last word; this is the way it is.” tem can be thought of as the authority a classifica- Millerand and Bowker say (p.154) that, at the very tionist invokes first to justify and subsequently to least, standards “structure the conversation.” verify decisions about what class/concepts should There are also what might be called “biological” appear in the schedules …. Warrant covers conscious metaphors, suggesting that standards participate in or unconscious assumptions and decisions about life in a peculiar way. We perceive the processes of what kinds and what units of analysis are appropriate measurement used in standards as taming “wild” to embody …. The semantic warrant of a system phenomena (p. 21) or transforming raw data (p. thus provides the principal authorization for suppos- 150). We see how the notion of hereditary deteriora- ing that some class or concept or notational device tion helped shaped the concept of a substandard hu- will be helpful and meaningful to classifiers and ulti- man being (pp. 100-01). Finally, there are the meta- mately to the users of documents (p. 110-11). War- phors of space: compression marginalization, being rant can derive from the scope of the collection it- within or outside of boundaries, centrality, that im- self, from historical and scientific consensus, from ply standards define more than just the physical and educational and mission-specific goals, and from cul- technical world, but in fact, have consequences for tural influences. In many of the discussions of stan- the everyday lives and activities of the humans inter- dards throughout the book the term “who matters?” acting with them. is invoked to discuss not only what a standard de- Several themes run through all the essays, articles, fines as “the standard” but also why that choice was and illustrations; the editors have done an admirable made. When warrant is made explicit it can illumi- job of presenting a conceptual description of these nate such issues. themes by using the analytical commonalities out- Another notion from classification is that of ex- lined in the first essay. In their discussion they fill in pressiveness. A classification is sufficiently expres- that outline with other aspects of standards: their in- sive when it has the requisite number and specificity visibility and the implication of the fact that stan- of classes to smoothly and gracefully accommodate dards often deal with “boring things”; the intersec- the phenomena within its scope. Thus a selection of tion of standards with “messy reality;” the question two or three very general musical genres for my of who matters in the standard process; the role of eclectic collection will certainly not be expressive infrastructure in conceptualizing standards; and the enough. Epstein discusses how women were not intellectual home of standards in Science Studies. considered good human subjects for medical studies To these I’d like to add a few more threads taken because they were “too complicated” (p. 44), with from the perspective of standards as classificatory hormonal cycles and other such confounding attrib- structures. This perspective is woven tightly into utes. The standard was simply not expressive enough many of the essays. For example, Pargman and Palme to accommodate such complexity. Indeed, many explicitly cite Geoffrey Bowker’s and Susan Leigh standards are created specifically to avoid complexity Star’s (1999) observation that “Classification sche- or to reduce it. As Dunn points out in her discussion mes and standards literally saturate our environ- of standards and infrastructure (p. 118), standards 82 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 Book Reviews

tend to “gloss over” the realities on the ground. The is what do the standards say about us? The contrib- small, poor farmer operates in conditions that do not uting authors of this volume have illuminated a great even fall under the basic categories of the standard. deal but have also planted the seeds of many interest- Those left on the margins are excluded from the ing investigations and discussions to come. standard not only because they don’t matter, but also because it may seem to be too difficult to make the References standard expressive enough. A good classification can function as a theory Beghtol, Clare. 1986. Semantic validity: concepts of (Kwaśnik 1992). That is, we can use it to describe, warrant in bibliographic classification systems. Li- explain and predict (e.g., the Periodic Table of Ele- brary resources & technical services 30: 109-25. ments). Even a flawed classification, though, has so- Bowker, Geoffrey C., and Star, Susan Leigh. 1999. me theory or world view or set of assumptions be- Sorting things out: classification and its conse- hind it – and so it is for standards as well. It was in- quences. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. teresting to note how many of the standards had be- Kwaśnik, Barbara H. 2000. The role of classification hind them some formal set of assumptions, from the in knowledge representation and discovery. Li- theory of deterioration (in insurance, p. 100), to hu- brary trends 48(1): 22-47. man nature (in social engineering in Hungary, p. Kwaśnik, Barbara H. 1994. The role of classification 123), to actuarial theory and reasoning with statis- structures in reflecting and building theory. In tics. Functioning theoretically, a classification can Fidel, Raya, Kwaśnik, Barbara H. and Smith, serve as a lens into the domain it represents. Simi- Philip eds. Advances in classification research 3: larly, Millerand and Bowker state that metadata stan- Proceedings of the 3rd ASIS SIG/CR Classification dards, for instance, are not neutral but can “condi- Research Workshop, October 25, 1992, Pittsburgh, tion access to data” (p. 154) and therefore function PA. Medford, NJ: Learned Information. as a form of knowledge in themselves. There are many other aspects of classification that Barbara H. Kwaśnik seem pertinent to standards such as: flexibility, hos- Professor, School of Information Studies pitality, parsimony and elegance. I think there is a Syracuse University connection between standards and classification be- Syracuse NY USA cause both can serve to represent, define, connect, < [email protected]> smooth distinctions, make distinctions, and reduce to essentials. It might be fruitful, having read this book, to now examine classifications using the analytic commonalities outlined by the editors in the first essay. Text Editing, Print and the Digital World. Digital Re- Most of the time I personally appreciate stan- search in the Arts and Humanities. London: Ash- dards, and am especially aware of them when they are gate, 2009. Hardcover: 224 pages. English. ISBN-13: missing. Being a cataloger (um, knowledge organ- 978-0754673071 izer) I do, after all, think fondly of the simultaneous ingenuity and nonsense of my AACR2. I wished, 1.0 Edition-work: digital critical editions sometimes, while reading this book, to learn about and the digital humanities some of the thorny problems that have been solved by standards—the beauty of the Pantone color chart The first volume of the Series “Digital Research in and the clever color-numbering system on my the Arts and Humanities,” Text Editing, Print, and L’Oreal hair rinse, the amusing but helpful alcohol- the Digital World is a summative and reflective an- level indications on Finnish beer … the list goes on. thology concerning the inception and growth of sev- The book takes a mostly critical approach, but it is eral text-based digital collections projects. The essays for a good purpose. I am now sensitized to the sub- express diverse viewpoints- contributions come from tleties and intended and unintended consequences of librarians, curators, textual scholars, historians and not only the standards themselves, but also the stan- administrators from both public and educational in- dard-development process. Thus, another question stitutions. The volume's focus is on the scholarly act that might well summarize this book, besides the one of editing and the creation of editions as scholarship. the authors posed of how people deal with standards, It thoughtfully introduces the rigor and values of the Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 83 Book Reviews

practice, while dealing with practical examples of developments in indexing, referencing, and analyzing how these factors are reconciled with those of digital texts, and whose descendents have developed in- “editing.” Editing, and the edition, are discussed in creasingly sophisticated scholarly editions and public broad context: for example, a discussion by con- programs. Second, the development and dissemina- tributors grappling with the gaps between text and tion, stateside, of the Text Encoding Initiative, be- code accompanies a comparison of the bounded ginning in 1991, a language for document markup: print edition with the proposed “Open source criti- supported by funded initiatives for TEI and in TEI cal edition” (one that, as the author suggests, is quite instruction for Humanities scholars. treacherously never finalized). Beyond the talk of At the time of this writing, the UK, Canada, Aus- scholarly process is an open questioning of what edi- tralia, Egypt, and many countries in the European tions, editing, and scholarship are for, and who or Union have rather robust national level infrastruc- what purposes they may serve. This critique is sur- ture for the digitization of archival and manuscript prisingly original, and runs throughout the volume. materials in Libraries, Archives and Museums, and It is significant not just to those involved in biblio- programs for integrating scholarship into the design graphic study, but to anyone involved in producing and creation of online exhibits and editions. By con- cultural objects. trast, the United States lacks in a central funding Digital humanities has become an umbrella term agency for such activities: the Library of Congress in the last decade, referring in many instances to the and National Archives are not “National” in the use of technology for humanists, but most notably, sense that they serve institutions across the country: for engaging digital technologies for humanities they cannot serve the same infrastructural function. scholarship. Many credit the inception of the disci- “Digital Humanities” has thus sprang forth in the pline to literary study: the work of Roberto Busa U.S. as an entrepreneurial venture in which institu- (1974, 1980) an Aquinas scholar, integrated digital tions and individual scholars seek funding and le- indexing technologies as early as 1949. Subsequent gitimacy for their own digitization and computing research in art history (in the 1980s), archeology (as work in the neoliberal academic environment. early as 1976), classics (in the 1970s), and history (in Without affiliations at the national level, scholars the 1970s), integrated database technology, content such as Johannah Drucker and Dan Cohen have analysis, and quantitative analysis into research prac- emerged as hybrid scholar-managers, offering both tice and teaching methods. (Comprehensive histories experiential accounts of overseeing digitization pro- this can be found in Hockey 2004, and Robinson grams, and academic vision for the present, if not fu- 1997.) ture of digital. Despite the lack of clear work direc- The volume is ecumenical but directive, combin- tion, U.S. institutions by the mid 2000s offer dedi- ing academic work in the humanistic disciplines with cated courses in digital humanities in both LIS pro- practice-centered writing. Its readings could be cen- grams and traditional humanities graduate depart- tral to such an introductory graduate course, and in ments. A market for suitable textbooks has emerged, their reading, could spur discussion as to some of the in which the likely standard is Siemens, Scriebman central scholarly and practical questions of large scale and Unsworth’s A Companion to Digital Humanities digital projects. “Text Editing” will no doubt be use- (2005), a sizeable anthology integrating many major ful in teaching courses in this arena. Editor Kathryn perspectives. Sutherland has an impressive textual studies c.v., in- The book is divided into two sections, “In The- cluding the 2005 work Jane Austen's Textual Lives: ory” and “In Practice,” but concerns itself chiefly From Aeschylus to Bollywood, and an output in digital with the conceptual aspects of digital text projects. textual studies that includes 1997’s Electronic text: While there is not a chapter on, for instance, choos- investigations in method and theory, and with coau- ing and implementing metadata standards, there is thor Deegan, Transferred Illusions: Digital Technology thoughtful discussion as to how they may be con- and the Forms of Print (2009). ceived in terms of project planning. The editors have The work in this book can be contextualized his- achieved an admirable balance in terms of practical torically in relation to two movements. First, in the concern and scholarly analysis. work in the UK at the end of the 1970s, including In the first section, topics of bibliographic theory the Oxford Text Archive and the Oxford Concor- and textual criticism are discussed in the context of dance Program, which exploited the capabilities of the contemporary online environment. The textual text processing in order to achieve unprecedented scholar (and volume editor) Kathryn Deegan's essay 84 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 Book Reviews

attempts to trace the trajectory of textual criticism i.e., librarians, archivists, and curators. The perspec- up to the present, reconciling, if not reimaging the tives in the volume generally reflect on thoughtful focus of textual criticism to the work of interface de- collaboration, but also a reconciliation of these fac- sign. Swedish LIS scholar Mats Dahlstrom's essay, tors. As said previously, this is a conceptual working- “The Compleat Edition,” addresses the economic through, not a program-setting book- solutions for and production factors of the electronic scholarly funding collaborative work environments are not text while framing the questions of editioning within touched on. a user-oriented context. Paul Eggert, an English pro- Funding in general is not addressed in the volume. fessor at New South Wales, takes inventory of the As the contributors hail largely from the UK and the process of making a scholarly edition, weighing the European continent, it is noted that funding, along process in the digital realm against that in a print with standards and procedure, has come from gov- publication sense. The essay from Gabriel Bodard ernmental sources. For the U.S. based researcher, and Juan Garces, (from Reading and the British Li- this raises questions of the feasibility of large-scale brary, respectively), uses the experience of engineer- digital projects without central funding sources. ing a critical edition to argue for “Open Source Without central guidelines as to standards, and with- Critical Editions”, a stance unsurprisingly zeitgeist, out much investment in cyberinfrastructure but one that is challenging, if not contradictory, to for humanities resources, how can a larger network the traditions of scholarly process outlined in the of digital humanties form to serve present users and volume. build collections for future ones? There are very real In the second section of the book, case studies of issues of digital preservation and migration posed by digital projects are presented with mind to the prag- even the most well-planned digital project, and any matic aspects of their execution. However, these es- long-term strategy has to involve a larger effort in says are thoughtful and timely, not merely the “how this area. we did it” stuff of professional publications. In many The implicit elements in this volume are those respects, the essays in this section of the volume pro- that may be the most revealing to those interested in vide a gateway to a more advanced critical under- knowledge organization- institutionalization and in- standing of digitization's possibilities. frastructure. Most, if not all of the contributions to One key example of how this volume elegantly the volume reflect the experience of government- brings themes of practice into a scholarly perspective funded projects carried out with strategic support of is the essay “Editions and Archives.” In the context large scale initiatives. The summative effect of this of their work, James Mussel and Suzanne Paylor, lit- volume is an argument towards this sort of structural erary scholars who held positions on the Nineteenth planning, and is one that researchers in the US are Century Serials Edition, provide a fascinating and largely without answers to, and ones to which Know- thorough account of the challenges faced by the pro- ledge Organization scholars are keen to take interest. ject. They ruminate on the changing and variable nature of serial printing during the latter half of the ni- 2.0 Markup: libraries, collections, and bibliography neteenth century. As print genres emerged and evol- ved, (e.g. the daily newspaper and the “tabloid”) the Espen Ore of the National Library of Norway begins discourse of these formats shaped readers notions of his essay “They hid their books underground,” with their importance and permanence. The authors sur- an account of the Library of Alexandria. vey scholars' differing notions of “ephemeral” litera- In retracing this ancient relationship between tex- ture, and contemplate how to capture this online. tual scholarship and the organization of knowledge, These essays mentioned each address a heart of Ore points to a key issue for the development of tex- the matter in digital humanities: a competing interest tual resources. As work goes forth in digital projects, between access and authority, and a somewhat unify- how is “markup” developed and expounded upon? ing effort to translate the erudition and process of This is a central consideration of those exploring the past few centuries of academic discourse, all the Web 2.0 tools in collection design: building an open while discarding some of the more cumbersome as- record of archival research. pects of scholarly communication. What's hinted at, The relationship between scholarship and custody if not directly addressed is the more mundane prob- is a tendentious one in special collections. Archivists lem of labor duplication between the scholars of the and librarians seek to “serve” their researchers, all the humanities and the custodians of cultural objects, while governing access to materials. Directors of lar- Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 85 Book Reviews

ge special collections libraries are in many cases anywhere from a quarter to a half of their holdings PhDs in the humanities, and provide oversight in without comprehensive collection records and were terms of collecting, scholarly value, and academic basically hidden outside of institutional walls. administration. They have not, historically, been in- The situation as described could be read, espe- volved in the description, arrangement, or organiza- cially by those outside these communities, as an in- tion of collections. They do not answer reference dictment of how behind the times rare book librari- questions. For academics, with cursory training of ans and archivists are. But an alternate reading can the mechanics of digitization, without insight or ex- yield a potent critique of standards adaption, and perience into the maintenance of collections, to en- perhaps one that can lend us a better understanding gage in and take ownership of collection curation, is of how collections can be facilitated and audiences to signal a massive shift in the labor structure of li- served in both physical and digital environments. For braries and archives. And to state the obvious, li- example, the emphasis on procedure in special collec- brarians are largely female, archivists are less so, but tions is far stronger than that in other library envi- women are still predominant in the profession. The ronments, and in many ways, in-person service is ranks of institutional directors are largely male, as are seen as an integral part of access to the collection; in those of the digital humanists. this situation, this guidance is seen as surpassing, if It’s worth noting that rare book librarianship has not altogether eclipsing the collection’s textual re- occupied a unique niche in the scholarly tradition of cord. The complex semiotics of the special collec- library science, and one not instantly translated to tions reading room can be endlessly unpacked, yield- the current streams of information science study. In ing a rich testament to the academic, social and pub- the mid to late twentieth century, rare book scholar- lic contexts of archival collections and rare books. ship drew upon a sort of literary scholarship con- It is a common refrain amongst those in the spe- cerned with the condition of the text, and a biblio- cial collections community that faculty and the pub- graphic method that sought to quantify the existence lic demand that collections be put online, without of artifacts. Unlike classification, rare book librarian- regard to the management and maintenance of digital ship concerns itself with time and environment, collections, and without a clue towards this intricate rather than use and totality. The business of rare history and the context. Without acknowledging the books and manuscripts is a key part of the practical complex dynamics of the administration and access handling of such materials, and is thus socially and to materials, digital humanities forsakes addressing a intellectually rooted in the discipline. Rare book col- large stumbling block to the sort of democratic digi- lecting is a gentlemanly hobby, and to tend to the tal future it proposes: creating it in a just, efficient, collections of extraordinary monetary, as well as his- and thoughtful way. torical and cultural value, requires at least some ad- What is necessary for the future of digital scholar- herence to norms of use and ownership. ship, and digital collections, is a new strain of institu- The rare books and archival communities have re- tional leadership. Scholars interested in curating digi- spectively complex relationships with description tal collections must engage with not only the “tools” and conceptions of classification. Longtime holdouts of the web, but the goals of maintaining the artifacts on standardization, MARC cataloging standards they create. Together with LAM professionals, fac- have been seen in the rare books community as in- ulty must strive to integrate not only the use of col- adequate, and to the archives community, completely lections, but work of designing and maintaining inappropriate. Within factions of archivists, descrip- them into their teaching. By making pathways to- tion standards are held with varying degrees of con- wards holistic operations of building, maintaining, tempt. Until the 1980s, many collections of literary and supporting collections, those at the crossroads manuscripts eschewed the standard finding aids and of digital collections have an opportunity to re- catalog records for intricate in-house protocol for envision the process of description and access. describing materials, often a page at a time. The Na- tional Union Catalog of Manuscript Collections, a 3.0 What is the role of knowledge organization? decades-long effort to centralize collections listings, could be considered a failure by most current stan- As a final point, I would like to examine how the dards. By the turn of the millennium, leaders in the field of knowledge organization may engage with field issued grave warnings on “Hidden Collections,” this juncture of activity. For the readers of this jour- an attempt to address that most repositories had nal, the question resulting from this work seems to 86 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 Book Reviews

be, “What is the significance of digital texts, and this is a serious oversight, one to which leaves the what role, if any, does knowledge organization play community involved in such projects-without tools in their development?” Digital library, or digital hu- to engage with their environments. manities projects do not serve as straightforward ex- In order to determine what may be the role for amples of classification work, and the traditional knowledge organization (and other) scholarship in practical effects of knowledge organization teaching- this area, it is first necessary to examine the aims and cataloging, indexing, and other descriptive activities, means of digital projects such as those involved in are rarely represented in digital projects in their tra- this book. The cases detailed in the volume are efforts ditional forms. In the case of such as EXAMPLE, the to do the work of libraries and universities in public work is done not by librarians at all, but by academ- online arenas. In another direction, these are first at- ics in a new venture. But surely the intersection of tempts to arrange infrastructure for literary scholar- knowledge resources with scholarly work is a natural ship, presumably for future iterations of it. In a sense, entre for knowledge organization. the questions raised by these essays are the questions We may draw on the work of the digital humani- which permeate much of the literature of information ties movement, and their contention that the experi- science realms, and questions by which knowledge ence of putting a collection online is one of individ- organization specialists are especially qualified to dis- ual scholarly engagement, and not exclusively the cuss. Knowledge organization, with its critical mas- domain of institutional work. Such an assertion takes tery of form, representation, subject, and access, a radically different stance towards order and infor- holds a range of nuanced perspectives especially rele- mation design than the one we tend to use in knowl- vant to the development of digital text environments. edge organization. But by elevating the process of Recent popular works such as David Weinberger’s gathering and presenting materials, and by illuminat- Everything is Miscellaneous and Clay Shirky’s Here ing the decision-making behind making collections comes everybody, have engaged the KO community available online, we may be able to expand our in recent years. But KO stands to gain more from knowledge of this aspect of KO practice. engaging with humanities scholarship at the emerg- This is not a huge tactical leap. Scholars such as ing digital crossroads. KO stands to fill a substantial Claire Beghtol and Barbara Kwasnik have worked on role in this environment. The volume reviewed is not domain-specific knowledge organization, providing a pop-scholarship work on the grand textual revolu- analyses of how those domain-cultivated perspec- tion, but rather a careful gathering of what can be ac- tives, scholarly or otherwise, contributes in concep- counted for in the realm of textual interfaces, based tualization of form and function in KO systems. on the experiences and proximity of the scholars to Their research is invaluable in these situations, as the such projects. By analyzing relationships between firsthand observations of digital humanists, as in this documents, labor, and users, we stand to witness so- volume, as to the construction of online text envi- me substantial paradigm shifts. Drawing on our cri- ronments can illustrate and validate many of their tiques, we may develop schemes for streamlining claims. processes, integrating specific sorts of knowledge, Digital humanities, as it stands, lacks the perspec- and fully engaging the scholarly process. We may tive lent by LIS’ development of “the user” as a de- have a hand in reimagining the description and main- sign aspect and as a rhetorical entry. While much ink tenance of unique materials, and in forging new part- is spilled as to scholarly working standards in this nerships for our work. volume, not much consideration is paid to ramifica- tions of design for users without regard to presump- References tions of disciplinary mindset. This is not to say that disciplinary concerns are not user concerns, but Busa, Roberto. 1974- . Index Thomisticus. Stuttgart: rather that a scholarly perspective could critique and Frommann-Holzboog. enhance our notions of user publics. A more thor- Busa, Roberto. 1980. The annals of humanities com- ough understanding of concepts such as authenticity puting: the Index Thomisticus. computers and the from a user standpoint would, in fact, illuminate humanities Stuttgart: Frommann-Holzboog. studies such as this. Conversely, facilities of search, Cohen, Dan and Rosenzweig, Roy. 2005. Digital his- retrieval, or user features are not explored in the tac- tory: a guide to gathering, preserving, and presenting tical essays in this volume, and their implications are the past on the Web. Philadelphia: University of not considered in the critical essays. To this reader, Pennsylvania Press. Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 87 Book Reviews

Drucker, Johanna. 2009. SpecLab: digital aesthetics Schreibman, Susan, Siemens, Ray and Unsworth, and projects in speculative computing. Chicago: John eds. 2004. A companion to digital humanities. University of Chicago Press. Oxford: Blackwell Siemens, Ray, ed. 2007. A companion to digital literary studies. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Amelia Abreu Robinson, Peter M. W. 1997. New directions in criti- The Information School cal editing. In Sutherland, Kathryn. ed, Electronic Box 352840, Mary Gates Hall, Ste 370 text: investigations in method and theory. Oxford: Seattle, WA 98195-2840 Clarendon Press, pp. 145-71.

88 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 ISKO News

ISKO News

Edited by Hanne Albrechtsen

Communications Editor

German ISKO- Conference 2009 Fruitfull was also a short conclusion panel (mod- “Knowledge – Science – Organization” or: erator: H.Peter Ohly, GESIS) with Professor Dr. Knowledge organization between modeling Hans Czap (Univ. of Trier), Dr. Ingetraut Dahlberg and self organization (German and International ISKO), Professor Dr. Christian Swertz (Univ. of Vienna), Heiko Lietz, The 12th German ISKO conference (Wissensorgani- M.A. (iFQ, Bonn). Some demands herein were: sation'09) took place from 19th – 21st October 2009 in Bonn in the university club under the heading – stronger attention of term contents, resp. the con- “Knowledge - Science – Organization”. It contained cept level 50 lectures, with 2 international participations, and – to look over the core of the knowledge organiza- with approx. 90 participants. Beside the session topics tion ‘specialized knowledge‘,‘knowledge communities‘, – to include semantic technologies knowledge acquisition‘, ‘semantic techniques’ and – to redefine 'Knowledge Organization' ‘value-enhancement’ in individual lectures also were – To reorganize knowledge organisation systems treated: epistemological questions of the knowledge – to enhance scientific indicators organization, empirical incorrect information, data – to consider sustainability theory, artificial systems, knowledge sustainability and research quality. The proceedings will appear at the beginning of 2010 in the Ergon publishing house. H. Peter Ohly, President German ISKO 1998-2009 Abstracts are already available under: http://isko. gesis.org/isko2009/index.php?id=72. The presen- tations will follow.

Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 89 Editorial Correction

Editorial Correction

In volume 36, no. 2-3, 2009, an illustration was printed without sufficient indentation. We regret the error. In Mazzocchi, Fulvio, and Tiberi, Melissa. Knowledge Organization in the Philosophical Domain: Dealing with Polysemy in Thesaurus Building (pp. 103-112), Figure 2 should appear as follows:

Figure 2. The term Categories as it appears in the thesaurus arrangement by Nodes

90 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1 Index to Volume 36 (2009)

Index to Volume 36 (2009) No. 1, pp. 1-82; No. 2/No. 3, pp. 83-186; No. 4, pp. 187-266.

ALPHABETICAL INDEX van den Heuvel, Charles. Web 2.0 and the Semantic Web in Research from a Historical Perspective: 1. Articles The Designs of Paul Otlet (1868-1944) for Telecommunication and Machine Readable Bernstein, Jay H.. Nonknowledge: Documentation to Organize Research and Society ...... 214 The Bibliographical Organization of Ignorance, Stupidity, Error, and Unreason: Part One ...... 17 Yang Xu and Alain Bernard. Knowledge Organization Through Statistical Computation: Bernstein, Jay H.. Nonknowledge: A New Approach...... 227 The Bibliographical Organization of Ignorance, Stupidity, Error, and Unreason: Part Two...... 2. Book Reviews Bettella, Cristiana, Cristina Capodaglio, Cristina Ramous, and Maria Cristina Vettore. Axiomathes, vol. 18, no. 2. Special issue on facet Declassifying the Library of Congress Classification: analysis. Guest editor, Claudio Gnoli. Springer The Case of the Department of Philosophy Library Netherlands, 2008. 144 p. ISSN 1122-1151 (Print); at the University of Padova (Padua, Italy)...... 130 1572-8390 (Online) ...... 62 Bettella, Cristiana and Massimiliano Carrara. Kavouras, Marinos and Margarita Kokla. Theories Classifications. On Philosophers and Librarians...... 88 of Geographic Concepts: Ontological Approaches Biagetti, Maria Teresa. Philosophy in to Semantic Integration. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Bibliographic Classification Systems ...... 92 Press, 2007. 352 p. ISBN 978-0-84933-089-6 (hbk.)...... 178 Davies, Richard. Should Philosophy Books Satija, M. P. Book Numbers: Indian and Cutter. Be Treated As Fiction?...... 121 New Delhi: Viva Books, 2008. xi, 132 p. ISBN 978-81-309-0957-8 (hbk.) ...... 61 de Azevedo Lourenço, Cíntia and Lídia Alvarenga. Metadata Standard of Theses and Dissertations Satija, M. P. The Theory and Practice of the according to the Entity-Relationship Model ...... 30 Dewey Decimal Classification System. Oxford, England: Chandos, 2007. 206 p. (Information de Gaetano, Maria Angelica. Looking at the Library, Professional Series). ISBN 978-1-84334-234-2 (pbk.) Seeing Philosophy (Trieste, Italy) ...... 160 ISBN 978-1-84334-235-9 (hbk.) ...... 181 Frigerio, Laura. From Disorder to Order: Satija, M. P. and Dorothy Elizabeth Haynes. User’s A Challenge for the Philosopher and the Librarian Guide to Sears List of Subject Headings. Lanham, (Milan, Italy) ...... 150 Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2008. xii, 143 p. Giampietro, Raffaele. Classifying Philosophy ISBN 978-0-8108-6114-5 (pbk.) ...... 180 at the Library of the Scuola Normale Superiore Stock, Wolfgang G. and Mechthild Stock, (Pisa, Italy), Part A ...... 141 Wissensrepräsentation: Informationen auswerten Granata, Giovanna. Classification from the und bereitstellen [Knowledge Representation: User’s Viewpoint: Concerning the Arrangement Analyzing and Providing Information]. Munich: of Collections in University Libraries ...... 113 Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverl., 2008. xviii, 441 p. Keilty, Patrick. Tabulating Queer: Space, Perversion, ISBN 978-3-486-58439-4...... 63 and Belonging...... 240 Yee, Martha M.. Moving Image Cataloging: How to Manzi, Stefania. Classifying Philosophy at the Create and How to Use a Moving Image Catalog. Library of the Scuola Normale Superiore Westport, Conn.: Libraries Unlimited, 2007. xiv, (Pisa, Italy): Part B, Evaluation and Experience...... 146 271 p. ISBN 978-1-59158-438-4...... 60 Mazzocchi, Fulvio and Melissa Tiberi. Knowledge Organization in the Philosophical 3. Reports, Communications, Features, etc. Domain: Dealing with Polysemy in Thesaurus Building...... 103 Bettella, Cristiana and Massimiliano Carrara. The philosophy of classifying philosophy ...... 87 Ménard, Elaine. Image Retrieval: A Comparative Study on the Influence of Indexing Vocabularies...... 200 Dahlberg, Ingetraut. Concepts and Terms–ISKO’s Major Challenge...... 169 Park, Jung-ran and Susan Maszaros. Metadata Object Description Schema (MODS) in Digital Furner, Jonathan. Interrogating “Identity:” Repositories: An Exploratory Study of Metadata A Philosophical Approach to an Enduring Issue Use and Quality ...... 46 in Knowledge Organization ...... 3 Tennis, Joseph. Three Creative Tensions in Document Williamson, Nancy J. Classification Issues in 2007...... 66 Interpretation Theory Set as Evidence of the Need for a Descriptive Informatics ...... 190 Knowl. Org. 37(2010)No.1

KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION KO

Publisher cles appearing in the same year should have the following format: ERGON-Verlag GmbH, Keesburgstr. 11, D-97074 Würzburg “Jones 2005a, Jones 2005b, etc.” Issue numbers are given only Phone: +49 (0)931 280084; FAX +49 (0)931 282872 when a journal volume is not through-paginated. E-mail: [email protected]; http://www.ergon-verlag.de Examples: Dahlberg, Ingetraut. 1978. A referent-oriented, analytical concept Editor-in-chief (Editorial office) theory for INTERCONCEPT. International classification 5: Dr. Richard P. SMIRAGLIA (Editor-in-Chief), Palmer School of 142-51. Library and Information Science, Long Island University, 720 Howarth, Lynne C. 2003. Designing a common namespace for Northern Blvd., Brookville NY 11548 USA. searching metadata-enabled knowledge repositories: an inter- Email: [email protected] national perspective. Cataloging & classification quarterly 37n1/2: 173-85. Instructions for Authors Pogorelec, Andrej and Šauperl, Alenka. 2006. The alternative model of classification of belles-lettres in libraries. Knowledge Manuscripts should be submitted electronically (in Word, organization 33: 204-14. WordPerfect, or RTF format) in English only to the editor-in- Schallier, Wouter. 2004. On the razor’s edge: between local and chief and should be accompanied by an indicative abstract of 100 overall needs in knowledge organization. In McIlwaine, Ia C. or 200 words. Submissions via email are preferred; submissions ed., Knowledge organization and the global information society: will also be accepted via post provided that submissions are ac- Proceedings of the Eighth International ISKO Conference 13-16 companied by a 3.5” diskette encoded in Word, WordPerfect, or July 2004 London, UK. Advances in knowledge organization 9. RTF format. Würzburg: Ergon Verlag, pp. 269-74. A separate title page should include the article title and the au- Smiraglia, Richard P. 2001. The nature of ‘a work’: implications for thor’s name, postal address, and E-mail address, if available. Only the organization of knowledge. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow. the title of the article should appear on the first page of the text. Smiraglia, Richard P. 2005. Instantiation: Toward a theory. In To protect anonymity, the author’s name should not appear on the Vaughan, Liwen, ed. Data, information, and knowledge in a manuscript, and all references in the body of the text and in foot- networked world; Annual conference of the Canadian Association notes that might identify the author to the reviewer should be re- for Information Science … London, Ontario, June 2-4 2005. moved and cited on a separate page. Articles that do not conform Available http://www.cais-acsi.ca/2005proceedings.htm. to these specifications will be returned to authors. 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The more scientific data is generated in the impetuous Thus, KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION is a forum for present times, the more ordering energy needs to be expended all those interested in the organization of knowledge on a uni- to control these data in a retrievable fashion. With the abun- versal or a domain-specific scale, using concept-analytical or dance of knowledge now available the questions of new solu- concept-synthetical approaches, as well as quantitative and tions to the ordering problem and thus of improved classifica- qualitative methodologies. KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZA- tion systems, methods and procedures have acquired unfore- TION also addresses the intellectual and automatic compila- seen significance. For many years now they have been the fo- tion and use of classification systems and thesauri in all fields cus of interest of information scientists the world over. of knowledge, with special attention being given to the prob- Until recently, the special literature relevant to classifica- lems of terminology. tion was published in piecemeal fashion, scattered over the KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION publishes original numerous technical journals serving the experts of the various articles, reports on conferences and similar communications, fields such as: as well as book reviews, letters to the editor, and an extensive annotated bibliography of recent classification and indexing literature. philosophy and science of science KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION should therefore be science policy and science organization available at every university and research library of every coun- mathematics, statistics and computer science try, at every information center, at colleges and schools of li- library and information science brary and information science, in the hands of everybody in- archivistics and museology terested in the fields mentioned above and thus also at every journalism and communication science office for updating information on any topic related to the industrial products and commodity science problems of order in our information-flooded times. terminology, lexicography and linguistics KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION was founded in 1973 by an international group of scholars with a consulting board of editors representing the world’s regions, the special Beginning in 1974, KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION classification fields, and the subject areas involved. From (formerly INTERNATIONAL CLASSIFICATION) has 1974-1980 it was published by K.G. Saur Verlag, München. been serving as a common platform for the discussion of both Back issues of 1978-1992 are available from ERGON-Verlag, theoretical background questions and practical application too. problems in many areas of concern. In each issue experts from As of 1989, KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION has be- many countries comment on questions of an adequate struc- come the official organ of the INTERNATIONAL SOCI- turing and construction of ordering systems and on the prob- ETY FOR KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION (ISKO) lems of their use in opening the information contents of new and is included for every ISKO-member, personal or institu- literature, of data collections and survey, of tabular works and tional in the membership fee (US $ 55/US $ 110). of other objects of scientific interest. Their contributions have Rates: From 2008 on for 4 issues/ann. (including indexes) been concerned with € 129,00 (forwarding costs included). Membership rates see above. ERGON-Verlag GmbH, Keesburgstr. 11, D-97074 Würz- (1) clarifying the theoretical foundations (general ordering burg; Phone: +49 (0)931 280084; FAX +49 (0)931 282872; theory/science, theoretical bases of classification, data E-mail: [email protected]; http://www.ergon-verlag.de analysis and reduction) (2) describing practical operations connected with indexing/classification, as well as applications of classification systems and thesauri, manual and machine indexing (3) tracing the history of classification knowledge and methodology The contents of this journal are indexed and abstracted in Refera- (4) discussing questions of education and training in classi- tivnyi Zhurnal Informatika and in the following online databases: fication Information Science Abstracts, INSPEC, Library and Information (5) concerning themselves with the problems of terminol- Science Abstracts (LISA), Library Literature, PASCAL, Sociologi- ogy in general and with respect to special fields. cal Abstracts, and Web Science & Social Sciences Citation Index.