UC Merced Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology

Title Freshwater Crustaceans as an Aboriginal Food Resource in the Northern Great Basin

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Journal Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology, 20(1)

ISSN 0191-3557

Authors Henrikson, Lael S Yohe, Robert M, II Newman, Margaret E et al.

Publication Date 1998-07-01

Peer reviewed

eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California Joumal of Califomia and Great Basin Anthropology Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 72-87 (1998).

Freshwater Crustaceans as an Aboriginal Food Resource in the Northern Great Basin

LAEL SUZANN HENRIKSON, Bureau of Land Management, Shoshone District, 400 W. F Street, Shoshone, ID 83352. ROBERT M. YOHE II, Archaeological Survey of Idaho, Idaho State Historical Society, 210 Main Street, Boise, ID 83702. MARGARET E. NEWMAN, Dept. of Archaeology, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2N 1N4. MARK DRUSS, Idaho Power Company, 1409 West Main Street, P.O. Box 70. Boise, ID 83707.

Phyllopods of the genera Triops, Lepidums, and Branchinecta are common inhabitants of many ephemeral lakes in the American West. Tadpole shrimp (Triops spp. and Lepidums spp.) are known to have been a food source in Mexico, and fairy shrimp fBranchinecta spp.) were eaten by the aborigi­ nal occupants of the Great Basin. Where found, these crustaceans generally occur in numbers large enough to supply abundant calories and nutrients to humans. Several ephemeral lakes studied in the Mojave Desert arul northern Great Basin currently sustain large seasonal populations of these crusta­ ceans and also are surrounded by numerous small prehistoric camp sites that typically contain small artifactual assemblages consisting largely of milling implements. Although it seems likely that prehis­ toric peoples would have exploited such a seemingly valuable resource, direct archaeological evidence forphyllopod use thus far has been lacking. Attempts to extract protein residues from certain artifacts found at such lake sites in southern Idaho, as well as the exploration of other avenues of indirect evi­ dence, have recently been undertaken in an attempt to establish the merit of the "shrimp camp" hy­ pothesis. yjVER the last several decades, a number of and specific ethnographic data are sparse, pro­ archaeologists working in the Great Basin has tein residue analysis of lakeshore artifacts was considered the significance of ephemeral ponds used as a means of assessing the possible aborig­ in the subsistence practices of prehistoric inal use of freshwater phyllopods. Half of the aboriginal groups. The focus of the authors' artifacts submitted for analysis tested positive for current research on the Snake River Plain in tadpole shrimp (Lepidurus), suggesting the pro­ southern Idaho is to explore what has previously cessing of these phyllopods at several separate been suspected but unsupported due to lack of archaeological sites. While the results are strict­ tangible evidence—that phyllopods, several spe­ ly preliminary at this point, it is hoped that they cies of freshwater crustaceans native to many will serve as an impetus for further research ef­ ephemeral ponds on the plain, were used as a forts to evaluate the significance of phyllopods food source by the prehistoric inhabitants. Since in the aboriginal diet. these invertebrates are also found elsewhere in western North America, the implications of this ENVIRONMENT OF THE study are far-reaching. SNAKE RIVER PLAIN Because of the unique challenges inherent in The unique topographic features characteristic formulating and testing a hypothesis where little of the Snake River Plain were formed by basalt or no archaeological evidence may be obvious flows exuding from numerous fissure eruptions FRESHWATER CRUSTACEANS AS AN ABORIGINAL FOOD RESOURCE 73 dating between several million years to only Conchostraca (clam shrimp). Members of the 2,000 years in age. These flows have created a first two orders have been previously document­ landscape of rolling pressure ridges, swales, and ed on the central Snake River Plain, but the true basins of various sizes, along with isolated extent of their taxonomic diversity, range, and knolls and buttes. The areas of lowest relief of­ numbers in this region is currendy unknown. ten serve as natural catchment areas for winter However, a recent examination of several dozen snowmelt and spring rains, with water often fairy and tadpole shrimp specimens collected reaching depdis of three to four feet in diese from seven different pond localities within the depressions during wet years. The locations of study area of this project revealed a species of these water catchments or ephemeral ponds are fairy shrimp similar to Branchinecta coloraden- obvious to the observer due to the absence of sis. This species is found west of the Rockies, vegetation of any kind. As water depth de­ primarily in the Great Basin, but has not previ­ creases with evaporation, the ponds grow sedges ously been known to exist in Idaho (D. Belk, and other hydrophilic grasses, which disappear personal communication 1997). Likewise, the in the heat of summer. By August, the ponds tadpole shrimp from these same ponds is Lepidu­ are dried, cracked, and entirely devoid of plant rus bilobatus (Packard), a species known to exist life. in Colorado, Arizona, Utah, Montana, and now Understandably, during the spring and early Idaho (D. Belk, personal communication 1997). summer months, these ponds are a remarkable In general, tadpole and fairy shrimp have been attractant for waterfowl, including the green- found to occur in abundance throughout most of winged teal (Anas crecca), northern pintail (A. North America (Permak 1989; Dodson and Frey acuta), cinnamon teal (A. cyanoptera), northern 1991; Thorpe and Covich 1991). shoveler (A. clypeata), and Canada goose (Bran- Fairy shrimp (Branchinecta spp.), identified ta canadensis). Large game, including prong- from ponds on the Snake River Plain and com­ horn (Antilocapra americana), deer (Odocoileus mon to playa lakes throughout the Great Basin, hemionus), and elk (Cervus canadensis), as well range in size from 7 to 100 mm. in length (Dod­ as smaller animals such as hares (Lepus califor- son and Frey 1991). They have translucent nicus), rabbits (Sylvilagus spp.), and marmots bodies usually made up of 19 or more segments (Marmotaflaviventris), are also attracted in sig­ with compound eyes on the end of a stalk. Tad­ nificant numbers. pole shrimp (Triops and Lepidurus) are more The high frequency of prehistoric sites sur­ highly segmented than members of Anostraca rounding these ponds is a strong indication that and have between 35 and 71 pairs of legs. The die aboriginal inhabitants found diem attractive majority of the anterior portion of the body is as well. While archaeologists have assumed that covered by a shield-like carapace (Fig. 1). ephemeral ponds were appealing for die most Adults range in size from 10 to 58 mm. (Pennak obvious reasons—water and vertebrate game- 1989:346-347). Specimens recendy recovered freshwater invertebrates as a resource have been, from local ponds in southern Idaho have been for the most part, overlooked. noted to reach 40 mm. in length. Members of the order Conchostraca consist of small shrimp RELEVANT TAXA encased in a bivalve-like chitinous shell, but because of their diminutive size (2 to 16 mm. Phyllopods are members of die subphylum [Dodson and Frey 1991:764]), it is unlikely diat Crustacea belonging to die class Branchipoda, they were a focus of prehistoric exploitation, and which consists of the orders Anostraca (fairy and will not be further discussed. brine shrimp), Notostraca (tadpole shrimp), and 74 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Fig. I. Generalized sketches of major phyllopod genera found on the Snake River Plain: (a) Branchinec­ ta (fairy shrimp); (b) Triops (tadpole shrimp). (Redrawn from Pennak [1989]). Scale in cm.

Fairy and tadpole shrimp, like all phyllo­ remain viable in desiccated lakes from one sea­ pods, live only in vernal ponds and lakes where son to the next. It has been demonstrated that carnivorous insects and macrometazoans are the eggs can withstand freezing, intense heat, lacking (Pennak 1989; Dodson and Frey 1991: and extreme aridity for extended periods of 724). With the exception of Artemia in the Great time, and can successfully hatch after 15 years Salt Lake, Mono Lake, and other extremely sa­ in laboratory storage (Pennak 1989:353). line bodies of water, fairy and tadpole shrimp The caloric value of phyllopods is potentially are completely absent from permanent fresh­ quite high. In studying the life history of Brachi- water bodies of water (Pennak 1989:354). Since necta mackini, Daborn (1977:165) calculated hydrogen ion concentration and salinity vary that the maximum biomass per m.^ for this fairy considerably during the often short existence of shrimp was 580 mg. of dry weight (approxi­ ephemeral ponds, phyllopods have developed mately 2,700 calories per m.^). Assuming diat physiological flexibility that allows them to ad­ similar values apply to Triops and Lepidurus, just to their rapidly changing environment (Pen­ phyllopods in general would prove a tremendous nak 1989:354). Another interesting adaptation source of calories and protein to birds and hu­ of the phyllopods is the ability of dieir eggs to mans. Additional studies to specifically evaluate FRESHWATER CRUSTACEANS AS AN ABORIGINAL FOOD RESOURCE 75

Lepidurus nutritional values are currently under­ tremely limited in detail. In contrast, what are way. presumed to be similar invertebrate gathering practices, such as the collection of brine fly lar­ ETHNOGRAPHIC ACCOUNTS vae (Hydropyrus hians [Mono Basin Paiute Ethnographic accounts of phyllopod use in kutsavi]) on the shores of Mono Lake in Califor­ the Great Basin are infrequent, at best. Cham­ nia in ethnographic times, are well documented berlin (1911:337) discussed the use of crickets as (e.g.. Steward 1933; Davis 1965). In fact, kut­ a food and described the taste of roasted crickets savi is considered to have been such an impor­ as being "compared by the Indians to the tant component of the Paiute diet that the Mono shrimp, which they accordingly term 'fish crick­ Basin Paiute are referred to by other Northern et'." Brine shrimp were apparently extensively Paiute peoples as kucadikadi, or "eaters of the used by the native peoples occupying the area brine fly pupae" (Fowler and Liljeblad 1986: surrounding the Great Salt Lake (Morgan 1947). 464). The following account describes the flavor of It is clear that such practices as harvesting Artemia (Morgan 1947:376): phyllopods were not commonly recorded in the The gulls fed upon (brine flies, shrimp) . . . edinographic record of the Great Basin. If the and at one time the Indians did also. Tastes that tadpole shrimp played an important role in the their possessors regard as more discriminating subsistence regimen of the early inhabitants of would reject all three as food, but the brine the Snake River Plain and/or the Great Basin in shrimp, at least, has had the gastronomic sanc­ tion of respectable authority. Dr. James Tal- general, then why were such practices not de­ mage in September 1892 after rinsing brine scribed to ethnographers by their native infor­ shrimp in fresh water and cooking it with a little mants? It may have been simply an issue of butter and pepper, pronoimced it "actually deli­ asking the right questions—ethnographers would cious," and in this was only echoing the verdict of David L. Davis, master of the Cambria. As not likely know to ask whether their informants the cmstacean is only one-fourth of an inch long, ate phyllopods, and the information might not be however, it would require great numbers to satis­ readily volunteered. Perhaps the frequency of fy the average appetite. predictable freshwater shrimp hatches diminished Brine shrimp were also eaten by Northern within the last century due to climatic variabili­ Paiute groups at Mono Lake, along widi the lar­ ty; unlike the kutsavi harvest, which was gener­ vae and pupae of die brine fly (Hydropyrus hi- ally an aimual event in eastern California, a ans) (Davis 1965). However, die extent to which rainy season sufficient enough to result in a sig­ diey were used has never been clarified; Merri- nificant hatch of phyllopods might occur only a am's (1955) interpretation of die Mono Basin few times within the most recent generations of Paiute term for the brine shrimp (ewamaka) and indigenous populations. Also, as noted by Pen­ die Bridgeport Paiute term (kuzabe) are botii die nak (1989:355), certain phyllopod species may same for the inunature, free-swimming brine fly be abundant for several years in a particular larvae. pond then become absent in successive years, Only one direct account of the use of tadpole even when ponds are full of water. It is possible shrimp as a food source is known to exist for that ponds became unpredictable in their poten­ North America, and comes from Mexico in die tial yields of crustaceans widiin the last century, early 1930s. Apparendy, Indians in die Lago de causing indigenous peoples to adjust their re­ Texoco area were observed using Triops as food source foci. Furthermore, the introduction of the horse and other elements of Plains culture during the winter months (Creaser 1931). Un­ into the Snake River Plain by ca. A.D. 1730 fortunately, diis one edinographic account is ex­ 76 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY may have redirected or completely replaced cer­ ducted. One of the few anthropologists in recent tain facets of the preexisting subsistence sched­ years to raise the question of freshwater shrimp ule (Steward 1938; Shimkin 1986; Pavesic and as food was Malouf (1966:38), who observed Studebaker 1993), perhaps decreasing, or even that "The Great Salt Lake does contain a small eliminating, the importance of all ephemeral lake 'brine shrimp,' but I am not sure the natives resources. were aware of these, and if so, could they have A problem facing archaeologists attempting been seined and used for food?" to reconstruct ancient subsistence is the fact that Based on his surveys in the Sacramento Val­ not every behavior of indigenous peoples was re­ ley during the late 1970s, Roop (1984) recog­ corded by ethnographers, and not all activities nized that the significance of ephemeral ponds recorded by cultural anthropologists are clearly (i.e., vernal pools) had been neglected in the de­ discernible in the archaeological record. The velopment of aboriginal subsistence models in strict reliance on ethnographic data for the majo­ the region. He surmised that freshwater inverte­ rity of our models of prehistoric subsistence brates would have been as attractive to prehistor­ may, indeed, prevent us from exploring other ic groups as any other resources available at the potential resources that may have been of great­ ponds, and that groundstone implements com­ er importance at different periods of time during monly found at vernal pool sites could have been the distant past. An Idaho example of an ar- used to grind or process fairy and/or tadpole chaeologically expressed dietary constituent that shrimp, as well as plant foods. is absent from ethnographies of the region is the Yohe (1987) documented the existence of exploitation of the freshwater mussel (Margariti- phyllopods in the Mojave Desert of southern fera margaritifera), the shells of which are a California, but was frustrated by the dearth of common component of prehistoric encampments archaeological and ethnographic evidence sup­ along the middle Snake River (cf. Gould and porting the use of these invertebrates as ab­ Plew 1996:23). original food items. Due to the nature of their On the other hand, certain food remnants do composition, the chitinous exoskeletons of these not lend themselves to easy recognition or recov­ creatures would deteriorate rapidly in open ar­ ery using traditional archaeological field collec­ chaeological sites (Yohe 1987:7). Even in depo­ tion techniques, which would include most in­ sitional contexts where they may be more readily vertebrates with noncalcareous body coverings. preserved (e.g., dry caves), identifiable remains Insects, a common food source in western North of phyllopods could easily pass through 1/8-inch America, are rarely recovered from archaeologi­ mesh unnoticed. However, Yohe (1987:7) pos­ cal contexts (Sutton 1988, 1995). For instance, tulated that they could have been eaten whole or based on cultural assemblages recovered using processed with groundstone for drying and later standard archaeological data collection methods, storage; therefore, under the appropriate condi­ the Mono Basin Paiute use of kutsavi would be tions, diey might be preserved in human paleo- extremely difficult to discern archaeologically; feces. thus, this important aspect of their subsistence In southern Idaho, it has long been recog­ strategy (Davis 1965; Fowler 1986) could easily nized that ephemeral lakes hold abundant food be missed. resources (e.g., Gruhn 1961:5; Reed et al. 1986). Druss and Reale (1989) noted diat a high PREVIOUS RESEARCH frequency of prehistoric sites is found at ponds To date, little research into the possibility of on die Snake River Plain. For example, at site prehistoric phyllopod exploitation has been con­ 10JE90, Reale recorded a series of light lidiic FRESHWATER CRUSTACEANS AS AN ABORIGINAL FOOD RESOURCE 77 scatters, buried artifacts, and a rock alignment CURRENT RESEARCH near a game trail around the shore of such a lake (Druss 1989). Such lake sites have also been lo­ The massive fire rehabilitation efforts and cated near Wilson Butte Cave (Druss and Reale subsequent cultural resource inventories occur­ 1989) and in the Minidoka area (Druss and ring on public land administered by the BLM in Druss 1982). soudiern Idaho over the last 14 years have al­ Although it has long been suspected that lowed archaeologists to conduct intensive pedes­ phyllopods inhabited the abundant vernal ponds trian surveys covering hundreds of thousands of and lakes found in the central Snake River Plain, acres in the sagebrush steppe of the Snake River as of 1989, they had not been identified in the Plain. From the results of these inventories, it area. However, along with the number of lake­ is very apparent that the frequency of prehistoric side archaeological sites, as well as Roop's sites strongly correlates with the frequency of (1984) work on vernal ponds in the Roseville, ephemeral ponds, as previously proposed (Druss California area, the possibility that shrimp were and Reale 1989; Henrikson 1993). Aldiough located in the region led Druss (1989) to investi­ lithic scatters are often encountered on promi­ gate the distribution of these lakes in the Sho­ nent landforms, such as buttes and knolls, or shone District area of the Bureau of Land Man­ along the edges of recent lava flows, the highest agement (BLM). frequency of such prehistoric sites occurs at An inspection of satellite imagery revealed ephemeral ponds. Likewise, the most extensive hundreds of ephemeral lakes throughout the Sho­ sites containing the widest variety of artifactual shone District area, identified by the Idaho De­ material, including ceramic fragments, ground­ partment of Water Resources from a LANDS AT stone implements, and utilitarian implements Image taken during May 1983.' This was an El (e.g., scrapers and expedient tools), are also Niflo year when there was abundant snow in the located along the edges of ponds. region well into spring. The fact that there are One unique cultural feature noted at several hundreds of these lakes, possibly containing ponds documented during these extensive fire re­ small but edible crustaceans, led Druss and habilitation inventories and other archaeological Reale (1989) to postulate that such water surveys of the surrounding area are the presum­ sources, containing significant quantities of edi­ ably deliberate alignments of small basalt boul­ ble invertebrates, were important components of ders extending from the edges of ponds towards prehistoric subsistence-settlement systems. their centers. These rock features have been Schneider (1996) and Warren et al. (1996) documented in a variety of forms, ranging from have posited the prehistoric aboriginal exploita­ a single row of stones to more elaborate configu­ tion of Branchinecta at Silver Lake in the central rations consisting of multiple rows. These rock Mojave Desert based on the presence of con­ "alignments" frequendy occur at ephemeral structed rock features or piers extending out into ponds associated with prehistoric sites that con­ die lake from rock prominences at the edge of tain little or no historical elements. As de­ die playa. The stone piers would afford easier scribed above, similar features have been record­ access to deeper water and eliminate the problem ed recendy on die shores of the Silver Lake playa in the central Mojave Desert of California of fine sediment turbidity and disturbance of the (Schneider 1996; Warren et al. 1996). Schnei­ shrimp resulting from stepping into the water. der (1996) and Warren et al. (1996) hypodie- A similar cultural manifestation has been identi­ sized that the function of these features was fied in die playas of die Snake River Plain (see related to prehistoric phyllopod harvesting, the below). 78 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

same conclusion reached independently by one diat die peak abundance of fairy shrimp had of us (LSH) for the Snake River Plain examples. likely occurred during April and that what was Building stepping stones from the edges of ponds being observed was the last remaining adults in would allow access to deeper water containing the life cycle (J. Russell, personal communica­ perhaps higher concentrations of shrimp and per­ tion 1996). However, Lepidurus were found in mitting easy collection by seining, possibly with great abundance. These larger invertebrates coarsely woven baskets or fine cordage nets. were quite visible even in shallow areas near the edges of the ponds, and minimal seining pro­ Research Objectives duced large quantities. Bulk samples of both In light of the implied significance of fairy shrimp and tadpole shrimp were collected ephemeral ponds in prehistoric subsistence on and kept frozen in order to produce an antiserum the Snake River Plain and the focus of this re­ that would allow for protein residue analysis. search-prehistoric exploitation of phyllopods— Protein Residue Analysis several initial primary issues were addressed. First, it was necessary to determine whether Based on the assumption that phyllopods were phyllopods are present in ponds on the central processed using the groundstone implements Snake River Plain. If this proved to be the case, commonly discovered at pond sites, 10 ground­ then an effort could be put forth to find archaeo­ stone objects recovered from playa sites on the logical evidence of shrimp exploitation. Because central Snake River Plain were submitted to the of the fragile nature of phyllopods and the un­ University of Calgary for protein analysis. Five likelihood of encountering remains in open ar­ of these artifacts were recovered from sites im­ chaeological contexts, it was necessary to look mediately adjacent to playas containing tadpole for another avenue of inquiry to determine if ex­ shrimp. The other five were recovered from ploitation of phyllopods was a part of prehistoric sites not direcdy associated with playas, but subsistence strategies. One such approach be­ were within easy access. All sites chosen for lieved to have great potential in addressing this testing occur within the area represented in particular problem is protein residue analysis. If Figure 2, which contains 452 ephemeral ponds phyllopods were indeed processed by milling im­ in an area encompassing 127,014 hectares. plements at these lake encampments, then it is The artifacts selected from pond sites in­ possible that residues of these invertebrates may cluded metate fragments from 10LN142 and still adhere to the surfaces of these artifacts. 10LN114, pesde fragments from 10MA52 and During May of 1996, one of us (LSH), ac­ lOMAlOl, and a mano from 10LN169. Based companied by a Shoshone District BLM wildlife on the presence of various projectile point types biologist, visited several of the ephemeral ponds and ceramics, all sites are considered to be mul- within the Shoshone Resource Area in the cen­ ticomponent, representing a time depth ranging tral Snake River Plain in an attempt to seine the from the Archaic to the Late Prehistoric Period. murky waters for evidence of phyllopods. Lucki­ None of these sites has yet been subjected to ly, because of the ample precipitation during the subsurface evaluation. winter of 1995-1996, most of the ponds held a Groundstone from sites not direcdy associated substantial amount of water. Aldiough die rela­ widi playas included several metate fragments tively small number of birds at die ponds indi­ from die surface assemblage of 10BN389, a cated that it was late in the season for fairy large lithic and ceramic scatter situated in a shel­ shrimp, limited numbers of Branchinecta were tered embayment along die edge of the Craters noted in all 15 ponds seined. It was suspected of die Moon lava flow (Fig. 2). A mano frag- FRESHWATER CRUSTACEANS AS AN ABORIGINAL FOOD RESOURCE 79

10LN267 ,'

•''10LN142

10MA52 ^

Fig. 2. Area of the central Snake River Plain that is the focus of this study, with the location of sites discussed in the text. All of the dark areas represent ephemeral lakes, many of which are known to contain multiple species of phyllopods. 80 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY ment and a metate fragment recovered from 10- noassay (RIA), it has a long history of use in fo­ LN267, an extensive artifact surface scatter in rensic laboratories, does not require expensive the western portion of the study area containing equipment, is reasonably rapid, and lends itself a large, circular rock feature, were also submit­ to the processing of multiple samples (Culliford ted, as well as an isolated metate fragment (10- 1964). This method can detect immunoproteins LN141) found in the northwest part of the study at dilutions on the order of 1 to 30,000, making area near Sand Butte. Again, none of these sites it a valuable means of identifying trace protein has yet been subjected to subsurface evaluation. residues. The principle of this method is that all Although questions concerning the preserva­ animals produce antibodies that recognize and tion and viability of ancient protein materials bind with foreign proteins (antigens) as part of have recently been raised (Eisele et al. 1995; the body's defense system. The ability of these Fiedel 1996), there is strong evidence demon­ proteins to precipitate antigens from solution is strating the tenacity and longevity of various one of their best known properties (Johnstone types of protein molecules. Proteins have been and Thorpe 1982), and it is this ability that is recovered from shells of planktonic foraminifera tested in CIEP. dating between 2,000 and 4,000 years in age In this test, the antigen and antibody are driv­ (Robbins and Brew 1990), from dinosaur bones en together by an electrophoretic force instead of (Miller and Wyckoff 1968), from dinosaur eggs simple diffusion, as in the Ouchterlony test. (Voss-Foucart 1968), from a 40,000-year-old The test is performed in agarose gels with a pH frozen mammoth (Prager et al. 1980), and from of 8.6. Paired wells, approximately 1.5 mm. in 1,500-year-old human bone (Cattaneo et al. diameter, are punched in the agarose gel 5 mm. 1992). Although proteins may not be preserved apart. The antigen (unknown extract) is placed in their tertiary form, linear epitopes generally in the cathodic well of the pair and the known preserve well and can be identified by Western antiserum in the anodic one. The gel is placed blot and other immunological methods (Abbas et in an electrophoresis tank containing a barbital al. 1994). Immunological methods have been buffer (pH 8.6), and a triple thickness of filter used to identify plant and animal residues on paper is used as a wick to connect the ends of prehistoric flaked and groundstone lithic artifacts the slides widi the buffer. The application of an (Hyland et al. 1990; Newman 1990; Yohe et al. electrical current, set at a constant 100 v, moves 1991, 1992; Kooyman et al. 1992) and in Chu- die two reactants toward each other. If the un­ mash paint pigment (Scott et al. 1996). Given known sample contains protein corresponding to the viability of proteins under the conditions dis­ the species antiserum against which it is being cussed, there is a high probability that artifacts tested, an extended lattice forms as a result of used in hunting, butchering, plant collection, and crosslinking, and a precipitate forms where they processing will also retain adequate amounts of reach equivalence concentrations between the detectable proteins. two wells. Weak positive reactions, common in Materials and Methods. The method of archaeological samples, are more readily ob­ analysis used for this study is cross-over Immu­ served if die gel is dried and stained widi a noelectrophoresis (CIEP). Minor adaptations to protein stain, such as Coomassie Blue. Appro­ the original method were made following proce­ priate positive and negative controls are run widi dures used by the Royal Canadian Mounted Po­ each gel, positive for species being tested (e.g., lice (1983) Serology Laboratory, Ottawa, and deer blood for deer antiserum) and negative for the Centre for Forensic Sciences (Toronto). Al­ blood of species in which antiserum is raised though this test is not as sensitive as radioimmu­ (e.g., rabbit, if raised in diat animal). FRESHWATER CRUSTACEANS AS AN ABORIGINAL FOOD RESOURCE 81

Ten 5-percent ammonium hydroxide washes Results. The results of die CIEP analysis are were taken from groundstone artifacts recovered shown in Table 1. A positive reaction to rabbit from playa sites noted above. Each wash con­ antiserum was obtained on one artifact, a metate sisted of a 5 to 10 ml. ammonium hydroxide so­ fragment, from 10LN267. Other members of the lution that was placed on the surface of each ar­ order Lagomorpha may be represented by this tifact to soak for 30 minutes. The wash solu­ result, but cross-reactions with other, unrelated tions were retrieved using a clean, disposable, species do not occur with this antiserum. The plastic needle-point pipet and placed in 1.5 ml. processing of rodents and lagomorphs on milling plastic microcentriftige tubes. The solutions were slabs has been demonstrated elsewhere in west­ then frozen and shipped via overnight mail to ern Nordi America (Yohe et al. 1991, 1992). the University of Calgary. Samples were con­ Site 10LN267, a large, multicomponent lithic, centrated by lyophilization, then reconstituted by ceramic, and groundstone scatter, is located the addition of 200 /tl of sterile phosphate-buf­ roughly one half mile from a large ephemeral fered saline (PBS). Initial testing of samples pond. The site includes a large, circular rock was carried out against pre-immune serum (i.e., feature oriented along the eastern side of north- serum from a nonimmunized animal). A posi­ south trending basalt fissures that hold ice during tive result against pre-immune serum could arise the spring and summer months. Although the from nonspecific protein interaction not based on positive reaction to rabbit antiserum on the meta­ the immunological specificity of the antibody te from this site indicates the processing of lago­ (i.e., nonspecific precipitation). No positive re­ morphs, this does not eliminate the possibility actions were found and complete testing of sam­ that phyllopods were also processed at this pond. ples was continued against antisera for bear, bo­ In order to gain greater insights into the subsis­ vine, cat, chicken, deer, dog, guinea pig, hu­ tence activities occurring at 10LN267, additional man, rabbit, rat, sheep, elk, and tadpole shrimp. groundstone fragments from the site will be sub­ Antisera obtained from commercial sources mitted for CIEP analysis in the near future. are developed specifically for use in forensic Positive reactions for Lepidurus antiserum medicine and, when necessary, these sera are were obtained on five artifacts, representing solid phase absorbed to eliminate species cross- 50% of the tested sample. As discussed previ­ reactivity. However, these antisera recognize ously, this antiserum is felt to be genus-specific epitopes shared by closely related species and to the antigen against which it was raised. No will often identify other species within the in­ other positive results for any taxa were obtained dividual family. Lepidurus antiserum was pro­ from this analysis. The artifacts yielding the duced at the University of Calgary from frozen positive results for Lepidurus residues were from specimens submitted by the senior author follow­ sites direcfly associated with playas, with the ex­ ing established protocol of the Animal Health ception of two metate fragments from 10BN389. Services. An extract of Lepidurus bilobatus pre­ The playa artifacts include metates from lOLN- pared in PBS was used as antigen to produce an­ 142 and 10MA114 and a pesfle from 10MA52 tiserum in New Zealand rabbits. The resulting (see Fig. 2). Bodi 10MA114 and 10MA106 in­ antiserum was tested against a wide variety of clude linear rock alignments (Fig. 3). Site 10- fish and terrestrial animals and was found to be MA52 consists of a small lithic scatter surround­ specific for Lepidurus. However, the possibility ing Little Lake in the southern portion of die exists that cross-reactions to other species not study area. Although 10BN389 is not immediate­ tested for (including other genera of phyllopods) ly adjacent to a playa, Zada and Purdy lakes are may exist. not more than a kilometer away. Water, game. 82 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Table 1 wide variety of artifacts recovered from these RESULTS OF CIEP ANALYSIS OF GROinSDSTONE ARTIFACTS FROM PLAYA SITES IN THE sites is more indicative of a residential base than CENTRAL SNAKE RIVER PLAIN, IDAHO a field camp (see Binford 1980; Thomas 1983), the seasonal nature of these ponds stricdy limits Cat. No. Artifact Result resource availability to a specific time of year, 10BN389-9 metate Lepidurus discounting the possibility that these sites repre­ 10BN389-10 metate Lepidurus sent the remains of more permanent residential 10LN141-la metate negative bases. In all likelihood, the projectile points, ceramics, grinding stones, and expedient tools 10LN142-9a metate Lepidurus are the remains of long-term field camps, per­ 10LN169-1 mano negative haps occupied for several weeks during spring 10LN267-1 metate rabbit and early summer (although ftirther archaeologi­ 10LN267-7 mano negative cal studies are necessary to verify this assertion). 10MA52-1 pestle Lepidurus The numerous lithic scatters situated on knolls lOMAlOl-1 pestle negative and rises in the surrounding area could be indi­ 10MA114-3 metate Lepidurus cators of small hunting parties moving from a field camp to locations or stations for hunting and/or phyllopods could be transported from the game. ponds to the site with little effort. Plew (1990) suggested three alternative sub­ sistence strategies for the Shoshoni on the Mid­ IMPLICATIONS OF THIS STUDY dle Snake River in southern Idaho that are rele­ Although preliminary, the results of the im­ vant to any discussion of riverine versus non- munological analysis should serve as an induce­ riverine resources. The first strategy involves ment for additional analyses of groundstone from semipermanent to permanent residential units ephemeral lake sites on the Snake River Plain along the river that would focus on aquatic re­ and in other parts of the Great Basin where sources (especially salmon). The second strat­ phyllopods are known or suspected to exist, or egy applies to transhumant hunters and gatherers may have existed in the past. If it can be deter­ whose use of the Snake River fisheries was peri­ mined that phyllopods were a critical resource to odic and overshadowed by a greater dependence the prehistoric inhabitants of the plain, infer­ on stored tubers (camas) during the winter ences regarding regional subsistence and settle­ months. A third strategy concerns only minimal ment patterns must consider this potentially vital storage of salmon and camas, emphasizing large resource. Our knowledge of the nature and life mammals (deer, elk) during the winter. Assum­ cycle of phyllopods and ponds must also be ing that tadpole shrimp and other phyllopods greatly expanded in order to understand the de­ were a high yield/low cost acquisition resource gree of dependence and/or influence this re­ requiring minimal processing, highly mobile source may have had on seasonal subsistence ac­ groups could readily incorporate shrimp collect­ tivities in prehistory. ing into their foraging schedule. The location of While ephemeral ponds were obviously a many ephemeral ponds between die Snake River strong attractant to prehistoric peoples (as evi­ and certain major camas collecting areas would denced by the sheer quantity of archaeological certainly facilitate easy acquisition of phyllopods sites located at playa edges), their allure was en route. likely limited to the spring and early summer There are interesting scheduling implications months when water was available. Although the for a subsistence-settlement pattern involving FRESHWATER CRUSTACEANS AS AN ABORIGINAL FOOD RESOURCE 83

Site i > 10MA114 Site 10MA106 M •—I— 1 •• ' ' ' ~~''>-., 1

J Rock Alignment y\

/ \ '• •••• ,-- '' / f/ .» _ ,- - /1 ^ - ' " ^ ^ ' 1- r,- -'''&'>•"*',.-' ' '' _ - -Y' ^- ' ' f -'-'' -. - ' ' 0 20m ,..--'' Scale 0 ^25m r/ Scale Rock Alignment »

\; y^^^^^—^

Fig. 3. Rock alignment features extending into playas at lOMAl 14 and I0MAI06. Both playas are known to contain Lepidurus sp. ephemeral lakes and shrimp harvesting on the the Snake River, making aboriginal fishing ex­ lava plateau if, indeed, phyllopods were a con­ tremely difficult (J. Chandler and P. Groves, sistent and reliable resource. For example, Chi­ personal communication 1997). nook salmon and steelhead runs begin to arrive The existence of shrimp camps also has impli­ in the area in May (J. Chandler and P. Groves, cations for paleoclimatic studies. Shrimp blooms personal communication 1997). Assuming that on the lava plateau are cyclical, depending on modern scheduling is consistent with the past, it abundant moisture and other biological variables is possible that die hunting and gathering people (Pennak 1989). Comprehensive dating of ephem­ living along the middle Snake River opted to eral lake campsites and the nonsite occurrences miss these fishing opportunities in order to ar­ of shrimp themselves may reveal local wet and rive on the plateau in time for the shrimp har­ dry cycles. Furthermore, at least two recent pe­ vest, if significant shrimp blooms could be pre­ riods when such lakes existed on the lava plateau dicted in any way and their ranking as a re­ (in 1983 and 1993) were also El Nino years. source was greater in terms of optimality (which Therefore, by dating a great many archaeologi­ remains to be demonstrated). Another possible cally and naturally deposited shrimp remains, it and more likely reason to abandon the river in may be possible to demonstrate that there were die early spring would have been high flows: wet/dry climatic cycles on the lava plateau dur­ the same abundant water which created the lakes ing prehistoric times and that the cycles were a could also have created extremely high water in component of global climatic patterns. 84 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

CONCLUSIONS sin. Research plans are currentiy underway to initiate subsurface excavations at the sites dis­ As usual, the implications of preliminary cussed above where positive results were ob­ studies such as this one raise many more ques­ tained from artifacts, with special flotation anal­ tions than they answer. Were phyllopods impor­ yses (zinc bromide and/or other light material tant as a contributing food source throughout flotation solutions) proposed for hearth features prehistory or just during specific time periods? in the hope that carbonized phyllopod remains Unfortunately, none of the groundstone artifacts will be recovered. Such analyses, combined tested in this study can be related to any par­ with additional immunological testing and paleo- ticular temporal period due to their ubiquity fecal studies, may further enhance our under­ throughout time, and most of the playa sites rep­ standing of this fascinating yet previously unrec­ resented in this sample either have multiple com­ ognized prehistoric subsistence practice. ponents or unspecified temporal assignments.^ NOTES Furthermore, the encampments encountered at these particular lakes may represent a palimpsest 1. LANDSAT image Path 40, Row 30, May 28, 1983, Scene ID Number 8403161749IXO, on file at of various subsistence activities (i.e., seed har­ the Idaho Department of Water Resources, Boise. vesting, small/large game procurement) that 2. A more recent, although preliminary, study changed perhaps seasonally and/or over the (Yohe et al. 1998) suggested phyllopod exploitation course of time. on the Snake River Plain as early as 8,000 years ago. Two handstones reused as hammers recovered from One temporally and environmentally related Scaredy Cat Cave (I0MA143) have tested positive for issue that may have major ramifications with re­ Lepidurus proteins. Each was recovered from strata spect to shrimp exploitation is the warmer, drier dating from 6,680 ± 80 RCYBP to 8,190 + 100 period between 7,500 and 4,000 years ago in RCYBP. This lava tube site is close to several ephemeral ponds. western North America (the Altithermal) that ap­ pears to have had an appreciable impact on lac­ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ustrine habitations in general (cf. Grayson The authors thank the following people for their 1993). Phyllopod availability during diis time assistance and support: Denton Belk, Doris Camp, may have been intermittent or even nonexistent. Jim Chandler, Mary Anne Davis, Dennis Fielding, Experimental studies related to the optimality of Phil Groves, Norm Henrikson, Steve Langenstein, Mark Luther, John Lytle, Jim McLaughlin, Tony phyllopod exploitation are clearly warranted as Morse, Suzi Neitzel, Steve Popovich, Shepherd well. Were shrimp yields as great per unit of Reale, Joe Russell, Michael Saras, Joan Schneider, expended energy as they intuitively seem? Or, and Mark Q. Sutton. We also thank the Shoshone is it possible that phyllopods contain certain mi- Resource Area Office of the Bureau of Land Manage­ ment for funding the immunological analyses of the cronutrients of human nutritional importance that artifacts discussed in this article and for their general transcend questions of optimality? Until these support during this project. issues are addressed through further analysis of existing collections and additional field studies, REFERENCES questions regarding the specific role of phyllo­ Abbas, A. K., D. H. Lichtman, and J. S. Pober pods in the aboriginal diet of Great Basin native 1994 Cellular and Molecular Immunology. Phil­ peoples through time will remain unanswered. adelphia: W. B. Saunders and Co. Hopefully, the results of this study will en­ Binford, Lewis R. courage others to explore the possibilities sur­ 1980 Willow Smoke and Dogs' Tails: Hunter- Gatherer Settlement Systems and Archaeo­ rounding the use of phyllopods as a prehistoric logical Site Formation. American Antiq­ food resource in other regions of the Great Ba­ uity 45(I):4-20. FRESHWATER CRUSTACEANS AS AN ABORIGINAL FOOD RESOURCE 85

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