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AN EXPLORATION OF STUDENT PERCEPTIONS OF MULTICULTURAL CONTENT IN
AMERICAN SIGN LANGUAGE DISTANCE LEARNING COURSES: A CASE STUDY
A doctoral thesis presented by
Christina Hopewell-Albert
to the Graduate School of Education
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education
in the field of
Education
College of Professional Studies Northeastern University Boston, Massachusetts June 23, 2020
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Copyright 3
Abstract
Distance learning courses are on the rise and an increase in American Sign Language (ASL) education enrollments call for implementation of, and maintaining, best practices to ensure student success. The ASL curriculum should encompass content and resources that meet the learning needs of students from various cultural backgrounds. The purpose of this qualitative, single case study was to understand the online students’ perspectives and the impact of multicultural content embedded in an online American Sign Language curriculum within a distance education program. The study aimed to identify: 1) how the multicultural content promoted language acquisition, and 2) how the online program could integrate further materials that foster cultural competency for online students learning American Sign Language. This inquiry was conducted through a multicultural lens, specifically the Multicultural Curriculum
Reform (MCR) Theory. Along with semi-structured interviews with online participants and end- of-session surveys, observations of archival videos and video artifacts were used as data sources.
Three primary themes and nine sub-themes emerged from the data analysis: Cultivating Cultural
Competence (cultural cognizance through awareness progression), Building Cultural
Competence Through Engagement (perceptions of engagement practices), and Discerning
Cultural Relevance (acknowledging content value). The findings were analyzed, interpreted, and positioned within the context of the multicultural framework and existing peer-reviewed literature. The study addressed implications for curriculum reform and practice, limitations within the study, and recommendations for future inquiry.
KEYWORDS: American Sign Language, Multicultural Education, Distance Learning,
Multicultural Curriculum Reform, Cultural Competence
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Table of Contents
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………3
Acknowledgement……………………………………………………………………………….10
Dedication………………………………………………………………………………………..12
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study and Theoretical Framework……………………..……..13
Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………………...13
Significance of the Research………..……………………………………………………15
Research Problem and Research Question………………………………………………16
Overarching Question……………………………………………………………16
Sub Question……………………………………………………………………..16
Definition of Key Terminology………………………………………………….17
Theoretical Framework: Multicultural Curriculum Reform Theory…………………….18
Guiding Tenets of Multicultural Five Dimensions………………………………19
Secondary Framework: Transculturalism………………………………………………..21
Completing Theory: Assessment of Constructivist Theory……………………..23
Justification for Multicultural Curriculum Reform Theory……………………...25
Alignment………………………………………………………………………..25
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….26
Summation……………………………………………………………………………….26
Chapter Two: Literature Review………………………………………………………………...28
The American Sign Language Program………………………………………………….29
American Sign Language Second Language Education…………………………………30
Status of ASL Second Language (L2) Education………………………………..31 5
ASL Language Attitude………………………………………………….………34
ASL and Distance Learning…………………………………………………...…37
Perspectives on Distance Education………………………………………………..……38
Beneficial Inclusion Practices in Distance Education………………………..….39
Online Education and the Student Experience………………………………..…44
Distance Education Community and Culture……………………………………45
Multicultural Education………………………………………………………………….49
Banks’ Multicultural Curriculum Reform……………………………………….49
Banks’ Multiculturalism’s Five Dimensions…………………………………….53
Social Justice Lens in the ASL Online Platform………………………………...56
Summation……………………………………………………………………………….61
Chapter Three: Research Design ………………………………………………………………..63
Qualitative Research Approach………………………………………………………….63
Case Study Methodology………………………………………………………..64
Rationale for Case Study Approach……………………………………………..68
Participants…………………………………………………………………………….…69
Research Site……………………………………………………………………………..70
Data………………………………………………………………………………71
Procedures………………………………………………………………………………..75
Data Collection…………………………………………………………………..75
Data Storage……………………………………………………………………...76
Data Analysis…………………………………………………………………….76
Trustworthiness…………………………………………………………………..80 6
Validity and Credibility………………………………………………….80
Transferability……………………………………………………………81
Dependability…………………………………………………………….81
Confirmability……………………………………………………………81
Positionality Statement…………………………………………………………..82
Limitations………………………………………………………………………….……86
Summation…………………………………………………………………….…………87
Chapter Four: Findings and Analysis……………………………………………………………88
Online Participant Profiles……………………………………………………………….89
Overview of Course Evaluations………………………………………………………...93
Overview of Video Observations……………………………………………………….100
Theme One: Cultivating Cultural Competence…………………………………………105
Defining Multiculturalism and Inclusion……………………………………….106
Losing the Rose-colored Glasses……………………………………………….108
“This is hard”...... 109
Cultural Awareness Expansion…………………………………………110
Developing Empathetic Attitudes………………………………………………113
Connecting the Dots……………………………………………………………115
Theme Two: Building Cultural Competence Through Engagement…………………...119
Building a Bridge Between Communities……………………………………...119
Applying Cultural Theory to Practice…………………………………………..123
Aspiring Allies Versus Aspiring Helpers………………………………………124
Theme Three: Discerning Cultural Relevance………………………………..………...129 7
Meaningful Cultural Content…………………………………………………...130
Contextual Juxtapositions………………………………………………………133
Summation……………………………………………………………………………...137
Chapter Five: Discussion and Implications for Practice………………………………………..139
Interpretation of the Findings…………………………………………………………...140
Findings in Relation to the Theoretical Framework……………………………141
Finding 1: Cultivating Cultural Competence…………………………...141
Finding 2: Building Cultural Competence Through Engagement……...144
Finding 3: Discerning Cultural Relevance……………………………...146
Conclusions on Bank’s MCR Theory…………………………………………..147
Findings in Relation of the Literature Review……………………………….…148
Finding 1: Cultivating Cultural Competence…………………………...148
Finding 2: Building Cultural Competence Through Engagement……...152
Finding 3: Discerning Cultural Relevance……………………………..154
Other Analyses…………………………………………………………………155
Summation……………………………………………………………………………...157
Implications for Practice………………………………………………………..158
Online Instructional Designers…………………………………………158
Program Directors and Program Coordinators…………………………161
Online Facilitators and Language Mentors……………………………..162
Limitations……………………………………………………………………...162
Implications for Future Research……………………………………………….165 8
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………...167
References...…………………………………………………………………………………….168
Appendices……………………………………………………………………………...………186
Appendix A: Interview Protocol and Questions………………………………………..186
Appendix B: Online Course Evaluation Form……...…………………………………..189
Appendix C: Recruitment Announcement……………………………………………...192
Appendix D: Consent Form…………………………………………………………….193
Appendix E: IRB Approval Form……………………………………...……………….197
Appendix F: IIA Form…………………………………………………………...……..198
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Acknowledgements
I want to acknowledge and thank the following contributors to the dissertation process and their support during my journey:
● Dr. Hattie Hammonds for taking on the role as my chief advisor (and editor) and working
with me through many unexpected challenges over the past two years. I also would like
to thank Dr. Clemons who served as a second reader. This was a learning experience that
will follow me for years to come.
● Dr. Flavia Fleischer, my third reader, for jumping on the bandwagon as she does with
almost all things in life. Her light and wisdom was a great source of inspiration to my
academic journey. I am honored to have her be a part of this experience.
● Dr. William Garrow for planting the seed to what has become my lifelong commitment
for social justice, and Jacqueline (Jax) Eugster for allowing me to join her in this work
during my undergraduate years (and apply this to my dissertation)!
● Dr. H-Dirksen Bauman, Dr. Kim Pudans-Smith, and Frank Griffin for giving me the start
of my career at Gallaudet University. The opportunity to contribute to and share my
vision for this program is a great honor. I am grateful for the lessons given to me to
continue growing in this field. I also want to thank wholeheartedly ASL Connect
instructors, language mentors, and online students for sharing their experiences with me.
● My personal friends and colleagues who saw me through the most challenging stage of
this process: Dr. Liza Offreda for her endless support and advice in how to navigate the
online doctoral program; Storm Smith for her heart and eternal optimism I aim to model
in this lifetime; Guthrie Nutter for always handing me a tissue and spending hours with
me on strategizing the next best step; Shannon Engelhart for working alongside me and 10
sharing her perspective on best practices; and President Roberta Cordano for her
compassion and always championing me to succeed.
● My mother, Victoria Albert, for her support, love, and unfaltering vote of confidence in
my endeavors, regardless of what they may be. Having her become integrated fully into
my son’s life while I decided to invest fully in the doctoral program was the best thing I
could have asked for. I count this blessing daily. I also thank her for sharing her
experiences as a bi-racial Japanese woman as this has helped me see that not all people
respond to learning equally.
● Most importantly, I want to thank my best friend and partner in this life, Tyrone
Giordano, for which none of this would have been possible without his encouragement
for me to return to school. Aside from the coffee deliveries and homemade meals, he was
a sounding board every time I felt like giving up, a distraction for our son so I could
focus on my work, and an editor when I’ve struggled to continue my work after midnight.
This was more than I could have asked for and I am forever indebted to him. I hope to
return the favor when he pursues his dreams. 11
Dedication
This research is dedicated to my father, Andrew S. Albert, an eternal crusader for justice and my biggest fan. His life was tragically cut short before I was able to complete my dissertation. It is because of what I’ve learned from him that I am using my privileges to share and spread opportunities to better our education system, society, and self. I know he is with me in spirit and pushing me to set new goals.
This dissertation is further dedicated to my son, Tennessee J. Albert-Giordano, who I’ve sacrificed many hours in the first few years of his life to complete this work. This effort to justify the need for advocacy through this body of work stems from my wishes for my child to continue the good work in preserving humanity and fighting for equality for all.
Lastly, this dissertation is dedicated to all the students who were neglected by systems and it is with hope that my contribution to this field will add just a fragment of what the system can be.
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Chapter One: Introduction to the Study
Statement of the Problem
Private for-profit online or global distance education is on the rise, and with this rapid growth come accessibility issues. Per the National Center for Education Statistics (2015), 7.4 million undergraduate students were enrolled in at least one distance education course during the
2011-2012 school year. Online educational content may not be accessible to students across the world due to linguistic and cultural differences. The lack of provisions and appropriate resources to foster positive learning experiences directly impact online students, hindering further academic achievements.
The current problem of practice is presented through a lens that shows distance learning students in disadvantaged positions that need resources to help them successfully navigate second language learning online courses in American Sign Language (ASL) through a professional studies program at Gallaudet University. Generally, online courses are designed for the “ideal”, privileged student; in other words, one that is:
1. Adept in the English language (verbal, reading and written);
2. Has access to quality computer equipment and internet service;
3. Is able to seek and afford related materials and use of outside facilities;
4. Possesses knowledge of and experience with technology;
5. Has a formal educational background; and,
6. Is light-skinned or White.
In reality, students that take current ASL online courses through professional studies are from diverse cultural, economic, linguistic and educational backgrounds. The standard online curriculum, a product of dominant ideology, incorporates outdated pedagogical approaches and 13 only speaks to a limited audience (Anyon, 1981). Between 2016 and 2019, the program updated the curriculum to incorporate multicultural content to meet the needs of culturally diverse online students. The purpose of this research is to understand the impact of access and resources of a culturally enriched curriculum in an American Sign Language distance learning program from online students’ experiences and perspectives.
Missing from general online studies are critical-ideology and transnationalism (and transculturalism) theory perspectives, which were born from the existing state of political or social matters. The latter theory sparked interest among curriculum builders in the 1990s with its focus on economic, political, and socio-cultural activities (Guo & Maitra, 2017). It was posited that there was a lack of focus and engagement in curricula with immigrants and that political activity influences, or has power over, the educational system. What needed to be addressed is the reintroduction of identities pertaining to race, class, and ethnicity that are shaped by linguistic and cultural characteristics to challenge the traditional curriculum. El-Haj and Skilton (2017) stated that as long as unequal colonial power relations are not visible in an analysis, then we are unable to decipher the ways a colonizer is obscuring our understanding. Students who are directly impacted by supremacy suffer racial anxiety, which provokes a dissonance that stands in the way of academic achievement (Angod, 2015). This speaks volumes for the critical need to create spaces for our students in the classroom to succeed. This would require curriculum builders to veer away from content that embeds elitist ideals and pedagogy created for “those who already have high stocks of economic, social, and cultural capital.” (Lim & Apple, 2015).
The purpose of this research is to understand how linguistic and cultural access and resources impact second language acquisition in an American Sign Language distance learning program from online students’ perspectives. By conducting a comprehensive and thorough 14 qualitative analysis of this research, the data that is collected and interpreted will present opportunities for the program to sustain and improve an equitable and accessible online curriculum by understanding the need for providing accommodations. This model of high quality and standards will benefit all stakeholders; students, school administrators, the District of
Columbia local community, the ASL community, state-level administrators and potentially federal policymakers.
Significance of the Research
In addition to the cultural aspect of having an accessible online platform, student’s perceptions of the online program is just as critical. Prior to the curriculum modification by adding multicultural content to improve online learning, end-of-session evaluations were obtained from the online program at Gallaudet University. Students struggled to find appropriate information, comprehend the tasks, or connect with other students or their instructor by way of commonalities. Because of these struggles, students are left feeling frustrated, defeated, and insignificant, leading them to not participate, drop or withdraw from the course. Ultimately, students are not given opportunities to achieve academic success because of the lack of appropriate guidance and support. Diversity and higher education research concluded that students’ experiences are strongly supported by the impact of interaction with diverse peers
(Chang, 1999) and the indirect influence of the environment such as the institution’s structural features (Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991). Clearly there is a critical need to assess the area of student concerns regarding the platform: the isolating experience in an undiversified space due to lack of culturally-enriched curriculum.
Regardless of current policies and future goals in addressing the problem or focusing on students’ experiences in online courses for potential improvement, neglecting to recondition the 15 online program’s platform would affect the organization. Consequently, the educational institution could see a decline in student performance, low enrollment and retention rates, loss of revenue, and an uptick of lawsuits, all which threaten their continued operation. Gurin et al.
(2002) stated that in order for resources to be available to students is to provide the conditions for students to reach their potential. This could be achieved in a number of ways including: providing an online instructor whose characteristics students may identify with (race, gender, or geographic location); providing free online course trainings prior to class to increase student confidence with technology use; modifying online curriculum to incorporate interactive peer assignments with international students taking the online course; and, (perhaps) transforming all electronic resources online to accommodate a variety of learners from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds.
Research Problem and Research Question
Research questions for the current study center on the perceptions of online students taking an American Sign Language distance learning program and the impact of the course’s multicultural content on their understanding and experience. This study aimed to identify the following:
Overarching Question
Based on the perception of online students, what are the impacts, if any, of having a culturally enriched curriculum in an American Sign Language Professional Studies distance learning course at Gallaudet University?
Sub Questions
● Based on the perceptions of students, how do available cultural resources enhance
language acquisition? 16
● Based on the perceptions of students, how can the program incorporate additional
materials that cultivates cultural capital for online students that are learning American
Sign Language?
Definition of Key Terminology
Community Cultural Wealth: The nurtured resources, knowledge, skills, and abilities shared by communities and families that empowers persistence and social mobility.
Cultural Capital: The acquired resources, whether institutionalized (education or amassed cultural knowledge), embodied (behaviors and skills), or objectified (possessions), that define one’s social status and promote social mobility.
Distance Education: By way of technology, teacher-student and student-student communications are facilitated to conduct learning without being required to attend traditional classrooms.
Linguistic Capital: A form of cultural capital which is inherited or acquired from the national culture creating an identity that a person embodies over time.
Social Capital: The fundamental assets shared through networking such as trust, information, reciprocity, and shared values to promote common good. This can be gained through one’s cultural community, workplace, or family.
Multicultural Curriculum: A paradigm that incorporates culturally diverse backgrounds and knowledge through histories, perspectives, literature and texts, and values and beliefs, to increase academic advancement and social awareness.
Multiculturalism’s Five Dimensions: Developed by Dr. James A. Bank for educators to elevate awareness and preparedness by incorporating culturally relevant content in the curriculum. This practice is done in five distinct yet interrelated dimensions: content integration, 17 knowledge construction, prejudice reduction, equity pedagogy, and empowering school culture and social structure.
Transculturalism: When one person embodies multiple cultural aspects and identities from constant interactions with humans across borders or when all diverse communities coexist in a society, institution, or nation.
Transnationalism: Daily live activities are conducted across borders diffusing social, economic, and political processes. This is seen as weakening control of nation-states, which brings the notion of transculturalism as the result of transnationalism.
The following section of this chapter will include a description and discussion of the framework that will serve as the theoretical lens for this study.
Theoretical Framework
In the United States, multicultural education became the forefront of curriculum reform due to the rise of critics of mainstream curriculum theories starting at the time of the civil rights movements in the 1960s and 1970s (Banks, 2004). This was on account of overlooked experiences, cultures, and histories of various cultures - ethnic, racial, language, and religious groups. The rejection of cultural perspectives alienated students from various cultural backgrounds and communities in that they were not seen as a member of a group that collectively celebrated or embraced popular beliefs or ideologies. The movement’s proposal of cultural recognition and cultural citizenship to address inequalities in democratic states drew from group affiliations and cultural resources so marginalized groups are able to participate in autonomous societies (El-Haj & Skilton, 2017). Deeper structural inequalities are not addressed fully because multicultural education does not grasp an expanded view of historic and contemporary contexts and conditions. 18
Incorporating culturally enriched content in the online curriculum as a model for historical and critical analysis can be used to help students frame the concept of cultural diversity in the virtual classroom and in their immediate surroundings. The goals of “building bridges and to unite diverse groups from various life worlds” (Milner, p. 39) were part of Milner’s rationale that supported the implementation of a multicultural curriculum. Removing the misperceptions surrounding historical phenomena and misrepresentations of happenings and people that generates a disconnect between the student and curriculum will foster a positive learning environment that also promotes student success. Milner’s (2010) social reconstructionist curriculum redefined curriculum knowledge, curriculum development, and implementation, which challenges and transforms dominant education ideologies. Included in this redefined philosophical application to classroom learning is James A. Bank’s Approaches to Multicultural
Curriculum Reform (1988), which are briefly explicated in order below: Contributions
Approach, Additive Approach, Transformative Approach and Social Action Approach. Each approach will be modified in the current study to better align with the nature of the American
Sign Language online course.
Guiding Tenets/Principles of Multicultural Five Dimensions
Banks purported in his 2004 article that the Multicultural Curriculum Reform (MCR) model was, to a large extent, designed for cultural content integration (p. 4). Many scholars and practitioners, whose knowledge is limited in multicultural education, perceive this to be a revision of the curriculum to include cultural contents such as ethnic groups, women, and other cultural groups (Banks, p.4). Because of attention to curriculum reform, other dimensions and components of multicultural education are often neglected. Banks laid out the Multiculturalism’s 19
Five Dimensions, listed below, to involve practitioners in the process of expanding personal and social multicultural awareness.
Figure 1.1. Multiculturalism’s Five Dimensions
Figure 1.1. Multiculturalism’s Five Dimensions. Adapted from “Multicultural Education:
Development, Dimensions, and Challenges” by J. Banks, 1993, Phi Delta Kappa International, pp. 25-27. Copyright 1993 by Phi Delta Kappa International.
Content Integration
Utilizing borrowed materials such as examples, data, and information from various cultures and groups with the intention of illustrating key themes, tenets, and philosophies in their program of study (Banks, 1993) is part of content integration. This constituent encompasses
Bank’s Multicultural Curriculum Reform Model.
Knowledge Construction
Banks (1993) describes this process as a system of how researchers of social, behavioral, or natural sciences produce knowledge and the tactic cultural assumptions, perspectives, positions, and predispositions within a discipline influence the information shared in the 20 classroom. Questioning the frame of reference used in mainstream education challenges dominant pedagogies. One way is through classroom discourse that may include revisiting antiquated education philosophies and adopting new worldviews by learning new revisionist theories.
Prejudice Reduction
This dimension, primarily focused on children’s attitudes, discusses strategies to develop positive attitudes and values about race. This prejudice reduction intervention process is designed to help students procure more democratic racial attitudes (Banks, p. 6).
Equity Pedagogy
Academic achievement of students from diverse cultures can be accomplished when course facilitators, practitioners, or teachers employ effective techniques and methods deliberately for this diverse student group. This dimension was in response to a cultural deprivation paradigm, cultural difference theory, and an “at-risk” concept, tailored to help instructors make use of strategies for students of color and low-income students (Banks, p. 6).
Examples used for this criteria were student interpretations of diversity, English as a second language, learning styles, and teaching approaches.
Empowering School Culture and Social Structure
This concept aims to challenge and correct the “culture and organization of the school so students from diverse racial, ethnic, and social class groups” will reap the benefits of educational equity and empowerment (Banks, p. 7). This requires an understanding of institutional practices that affect student learning, as well as the campus climate and expectations for student success.
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Secondary Framework
To better understand why the transculturalism framework was selected as a secondary lens, it is necessary to provide the background of transnationalism and how it manifested. The concept of transnationalism sparked interest among curriculum builders in the 1990s with its focus on economic, political, and socio-cultural activities, and popularized and expanded by cultural anthropologists (Guo & Maitra, 2017). Transnationalism was regarded as an analytic approach to individuals and support networks by focusing on their history and activities (Portes,
1999). This was deemed an effective way to learn about the institutional foundations of transnationalism, where contemporary grassroots are examined as a response to critical government policies. Using Portes’ (1999) example of specific transnational activities, Guo &
Maitra (2017) listed three general types of organizations:
1. Economic: Utilizing contacts across and beyond national boundaries in search of
suppliers, capital, and markets;
2. Political: Fostering political activities such as empowering and influencing importing and
exporting countries;
3. Socio-cultural: Strengthening national identity and collective recreation of cultural events
and commodities.
These activities can be exploited in classroom discourse if concept-related contents are built into the curriculum base, welcoming a potential for learning and appreciation of various perspectives and identities both by learners and instructors. This helped increase focus and engagement in curricula by introducing diverse national identities and understanding how political activity influences, or has power over, the educational system instead of cultural identities being tethered to normative hegemonic conventions, values, and racial categories (Guo 22
& Maitra, p. 83). What ultimately needed to be addressed was a re-introduction of identities that pertained to race, class, and ethnicity and were shaped by linguistic and cultural characteristics which challenge the traditional curriculum.
Emerging from transnationalism during this period, the concept of transculturalism was viewed as a process where individuals and society evolve by amalgamating diverse cultural ways of living into new ones (Guo & Maitra, 2017). As opposed to transculturalism, multiculturalism investigates relations between persons from different cultures. In contrast, advocators believe all cultures are imminently heterogenous (Kraidy, 2005). This particular framework adopts the notion of deculturalization of the past and positions individuals in constant interaction, whose identities are then transforming in the present (Kraidy, 2005). Trans as a prefix to –nationalism and –culturalism indicates movement across spaces (primarily borders), and is not limited only to physical but virtual spaces as well. From this, individuals are ingrained with a reflexive identity that allows them to detach themselves from their own cultural berths to engage in “self-criticism of one’s own cultural identities and assumptions” (Guo & Maitra, 2017, Kraidy, p.307).
The critical-ideology theory propelled the movement to radicalizing the general curriculum by challenging long-standing hegemonic and Euro-centric perspectives that have indoctrinated students to conform to certain ideals. Following the critical-ideology theory, multiculturalism became the practitioner’s go-to solution to achieving and balancing diverse student needs with the incorporation of multicultural contents. This widely used framework received criticism from scholars and theorists concerning perpetual oppression and bias, widening the division between groups (Guo & Maitra, 2017). Transnationalism and transculturalism emerged after realizing this shortcoming of the multiculturalism framework.
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Competing Theory: Assessment of Constructivist Theory
Other theoretical frameworks were considered to help position this study but were deemed incompatible due to underlying philosophical conflicts. One framework researched extensively was the constructivist theory. It was theorized that knowledge is acquired as an individual act and that learning stimulation occurs from participating in the natural and social scene (Dewey, 1958, p.196). Construction of knowledge is achieved through use of activity methods in the classroom such as discussions, experiments, projects, outdoor research and laboratory work, and not by passive learning (Phillips, p. 11). This theory contributed to social and pedagogic policies in education, paving way for constructivist theorists in transforming the traditional classroom into a dynamic learning environment.
The constructivist theorist Jean Piaget believed psychological development occurred within the individual rather than through the social interaction active theory approach supported by Vygotsky (Blake & Pope, 2008, p. 59). Knowledge produced by change and transformation through “basic interconnected psychological systems…enable people to process information by connecting it with prior knowledge and experience, finding patterns and relationships, identifying rules, and generating abstract principles relevant in different applications,” (Garner,
2008, p. 32). The process of realization and the stages we move through as we progressively gain this capacity is held in the constructivist perspective that sees learning as construction (Dahl,
1996, p.2). The constructivist principles set to inspire future education research: discovery learning, sensitivity to children’s readiness, and acceptance of individual differences. However, this theory has been challenged on the basis that social or cultural considerations are not included in studies and underestimates the significance of the latter stemming from a biased perspective.
The constructivist theory has been dismissed as a one universal operational thinking (Blake & 24
Pope, 2008, p. 61). Because of this, it was determined that this approach is not a good fit for this study.
Justification for Multicultural Curriculum Reform Theory
While Banks’ (2004) Multicultural Five Dimensions model, generated from Banks’
Multicultural Curriculum Reform model, is the benchmark for multicultural education reform, it is deemed too “cookie cutter” and dated. However, with some modifications, these tenets could be more relevant for today’s curriculum reform. The MCR theory with the use of the dimensions model supported by the transculturalism lens, will assist in the deeper thinking of the analysis of data collected from the inquiry.
Alignment
Students from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds enrolled in second-language learning online may be receiving the appropriate resources to help them navigate the course.
With the Multicultural Five Dimensions approach, the perceptions of students will provide insight into a potentially beneficial implementation of multicultural content into the online program. More importantly, the inquiry will need to go beyond curriculum assessment and acknowledge how the online culture undergoes a process of deculturalization per the transcultural framework while students are brought together because of their cultural differences
(Kraidy, 2005).
The research questions stemming from the problem of practice are presented from two different angles regarding the potential benefits of a multicultural curriculum:
1. Evaluating the cultural resources that enhance online participation for students based on their experiences; and, 25
2. What students perceive to be ways the online program can incorporate cultural resources to enhance language learning.
Both angles require an examination of online students’ perceptions through the five domains of the multicultural dimensions and transculturalism lenses. Such activities throughout the online course play a significant role in how students perform in the course through interactions and self- and socially-reflective practices.
Conclusion
The problem of practice takes place in an American Sign Language second language distance learning course that may be accessible to students from linguistically and culturally diverse backgrounds. The theoretical frameworks of multicultural curriculum reform and transculturalism will help us understand the benefits, if any, of an accessible curriculum through the perceptions of online students. Each principle outlined in Banks’ Multicultural Five
Dimension is provided as a guidepost to discern whether the online program incorporates or lacks them. It is also important to stress that the Multiculturalism Five Dimensions cannot stand alone and needs a supporting lens to fully realize what is required for the students to receive unabridged benefits of a multicultural curriculum. The question now is how to assess the multicultural approach to an online curriculum using the transculturalism lens? My study will endeavor to accomplish this task.
Summation
The biggest advantage of virtual education allows for students to learn from afar which also poses a risk of potentially excluding diverse students by not incorporating cultural and linguistic educational content that may enable student success. Seeing the problem through the proposed frameworks helps the investigator identify the type of contents that promote positive 26 language learning experience for American Sign Language professional studies students at
Gallaudet University. The research interest is further explored and supported with the literature review in the preceding chapter. 27
Chapter Two: Literature Review
This chapter provides a comprehensive literature review of multicultural education within distance education. The purpose of this study is to understand student perceptions and experiences taking an online course that added culturally enriched content to the curriculum and the impact on their learning progress. The current problem of practice is presented through a lens that shows students in disadvantaged positions that need resources to help them successfully navigate second language acquisition online courses in American Sign Language (ASL) within a professional studies program at a higher education bilingual institution. The standard online curriculum, a product of dominant ideologies, incorporates outdated pedagogical approaches and only speaks to a privileged audience (Anyon, 1981). It is critical that the online program is prepared and equipped with appropriate resources to meet the needs of culturally diverse online students.
Recurring themes were identified from at least 45 peer-reviewed publications retrieved from Northeastern University’s Scholar OneSearch and Ulrich’s Web databases. The body of work is trifurcated into the following sections: American Sign Language Education, Distance
Education, and Multicultural Education. The literature review opens with the history of the institute’s ASL online program, followed by an overview of ASL as a second language in education, learners’ attitudes towards ASL, and the introduction of the technical platform to ASL education. The second section of the literature review analyzes practices for inclusive experiences, student perceptions of online learning, and perceived distance learning communities and culture. Finally, the multicultural foundational framework promoting culture and social justice in education in this review are examined which inform the groundwork for online 28 education practices that are beneficial to the online student population. A summary will conclude this literature review.
The American Sign Language Online Program
Located in Washington, D.C., Gallaudet University is a federally chartered private university for the education of the deaf and hard of hearing. In general, the ASL Professional
Studies Program at Gallaudet University offers accredited ASL levels 1 through 6 and special topic courses (Fingerspelling 1 & 2, Classifiers 1 & 2, and Visual Gestural Communication) to the institution’s staff, employees, and graduate students, external credit-seeking students, and other students such as parents with deaf infants, family and friends of the deaf who are interested in acquiring a new language. Also, the program offers off-site ASL-teaching opportunities at federal constituents such as the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA), the Social Security Administration (SSA), The White House, the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA); non-profit organizations, and local businesses. The program is also contracted with a consortium university to provide ASL courses on their campus.
The online component of the ASL program came to fruition in 2010 under the previous coordinator’s tenure. This was set up as an asynchronous platform where students log on at any time to view lessons through videos in ASL, as opposed to meeting at a predetermined time with the course instructor and online peers. The videos were developed by staff members in the ASL program, who were middle-aged, Caucasian female educators that participated as actors in the videos as well. The content was built in the Learning Management System (LMS) where students and instructors can access their assignments, rubrics, grades, and feedback. Only ASL levels 1 and 2 were offered at the time of the study. 29
A previous program coordinator devised the current ASL online program that has evolved over the years. This program also included two additional ASL levels and a virtual ASL language support service designed for parents with deaf infants. With substantial growth in enrollment and revenue potential from ASL online courses, tuition revenue was able to support an early intervention language support program for families to receive free services for up to eight weeks. Supporting the bilingual mission of the university with these services garnered university-wide recognition from executive administrators and leaders.
Building the ASL online curriculum was a team effort comprising a content producer, an instructional designer, and a program coordinator. It was not a single process but an ongoing collaboration to remain consistent with current online education practices through research, professional development, conferences, and graduate and doctoral studies. Changes over time have included upgrades of educational videos, the LMS interface, learning content, online resources, and additional tools by encompassing diverse representation in ASL videos, interactive gamification, cultural themes and discussions, an assemblage of student amenities, and the most appropriate add-on platforms to enhance ASL learning. These components were added and updated because program administrators realized that all students needed could not benefit from the courses’ original designs.
American Sign Language Second Language Education
American Sign Language (ASL) was reported to be the third most sought after foreign and modern language option for college students with approximately 107,000 students enrolled in 2016 nationwide (Looney & Lusin, 2018). After decades of traditional instruction in the classroom and keeping abreast with evolving trends, ASL education expanded its instructional capacity to distance learning. Research focused on second language acquisition topics range 30 from student motivation to assessment tools to learner attributes to pedagogical approaches within an online platform. However, there is limited research concerning the application of these topics to ASL in distance learning. The following section discusses the status of ASL education, language attitude towards ASL, and an outline of ASL on current virtual platforms.
Status of ASL Second Language (L2) Education
Formal education in sign language as a second language (L2) proliferated as a result of sign language recognition in the U.S. (Allbutt & Ling, 2016). With this recognition, sign language achieved linguistic status that would be deemed acceptable in education through ASL research stemming from the 1970’s (Allbutt & Ling, 2016; Peterson, 2009). Another result of sign language recognition is that focus on ASL education has shifted to hearing young children, hearing entrepreneurs and hearing parents. What is overlooked are the valuable linguistic resources and supports for deaf education that are frequently unattainable for this community, its deaf children, and deaf parents (Snoddon, 2014). The danger of placing priority on ASL education for hearing students can negatively impact the potential linguistic and cognitive benefits of signed languages (Snoddon, 2014). The approaches to ASL teaching and learning L1 and L2 differ, yet it is important to expose hearing students with linguistic and cultural deficiencies to challenges that the ASL learning community faces. Exposing this inequity requires dismantling the ASL curriculum to identify a paucity of cultural and linguistic awareness within the educational content.
Research has identified gaps within the curricula in postsecondary ASL education through a study conducted by Swaney and Smith (2017). The intent of the study was to assess gaps within the curricula for American Sign Language courses, levels 1 through 4, the amount and kind of supplemental materials used to support the curricula, the implementation of 31 interactive language exercises, and the application of learning outcomes and standards in ASL instruction. While practitioners responded positively to the curriculum in textbooks, they reported that the top three textbooks used for ASL instruction lacked “grammar instructions, information on culture, insufficient vocabulary, signs, classifiers, and activities” (Swaney &
Smith, 2017, p. 317). They also indicated that at least two textbooks were from older curriculum and supplemental materials repeatedly used outdated content.
Regarding gaps in curricula, it was unclear if instructors utilized other types of materials such as technical media (vlogs, videos, DVDs, social media) in addition to task-based activities
(Swaney & Smith, 2017). Hearing students typically engage with one another through dialogue to discuss an activity or educational content before demonstrating an activity to the class
(Swaney & Smith, 2017; Richards & Rodgers, 2014). These activities are conducted through labs to provide more opportunities for students to engage in ASL. Ideally, this practice would be standardized; however, many mitigating factors impede incorporation of these materials and activities. Several reasons include lack of funding for labs, inappropriate and insufficient cultural materials, students’ limited schedules or funds, and unclear standards (Swaney & Smith, 2017).
Establishing standards for learning outcomes in ASL as second language education requires consistent implementation of supplemental materials and standards (Swaney & Smith,
2017). Because there is no consistency with learning outcomes, it is difficult to gauge which materials are appropriate to use to support ASL instruction. Swaney and Smith (2017) stated this is likely due to adjunct instructors having limited access to new trends in educational research and theory, degrees in ASL pedagogy, or standards training. The authors suggested that participating in World-Readiness (ACTFL) and language-specific ASLTA standards was needed. 32
However, there was no further mention of ways to increase cultural knowledge for the instructor or how to embed cultural content into these standards to benefit student learning.
One of the many benefits of learning through a reconstructed ASL curriculum, as opposed to learning from an antiquated or less structured method of instruction, are opportunities for students to explore signs as social concepts and not as one word/sign per concept, as many misperceive (Adam, 2015). Also, this gives an opportunity for students to capture the sociolinguistic variation and learn coalescence linguistic and cultural phenomena. Studies on linguistic variations are examined based on the following features (Lucas & Valli, 1992; Lucas,
Bayley, & Valli, 2001):
1. regional (where people live in a specific country)
2. age (older people and younger people)
3. gender (men and women)
4. education (how a person was educated)
5. family background (whether there are Deaf members of the family or not)
6. social (networks a person is in contact with)
7. ethnicity (where a person comes from)
8. register (different situations e.g. formal, informal, etc.)
9. lexical (different ways of saying the same thing)
Lourdes Ortega (1999) explained the discipline of foreign language teaching is missing a substantial component for the goals of language education. The discussion of societal language attitudes and power struggles stemming from ownership of language and culture by specific groups is noticeably absent (Ortega, 1999; Reagan, 2011). Ortega emphasized that foreign language education and teaching professions need to reintroduce and reconceptualize the “socio- 33 cultural, political, and professional forces that affect the realities and potentials of foreign language teaching communities” (Ortega, 1999, p. 243). When deconstructing and reconceptualizing, it is critical to also include students’ personal experiences in second language learning. Disregarding this reflects poorly on the planning and updating of curricula design
(McKee & McKee, 1992) in that students are the main recipients of such information and their worldviews and attitudes are impacted and shaped through pedagogical delivery.
ASL Language Attitude
A major indicator for successful language learning is the attitudes students have towards
ASL. This does not mean that perceptions and attitudes towards ASL are static but are a dynamic process where students navigate through historical and cultural aspects of language. Explorations of language attitude and perception vary across contexts. Krausneker (2015) described Baker’s
(1992) language attitude types, which are inventoried under the language attitude umbrella term.
Such research critically examined specific attitude types in the following topics as depicted in Figure 1.2.
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Figure 1.2. Diagram of various attitudes towards language categories
Figure 1.2. Diagram of various attitudes towards language categories. Adapted from “Nature of
Language Attitude” by C. Baker, 1992, Attitudes and Language, p. 29. Copyright 1992 by Colin
Baker.
Previous research has linked successful language acquisition to course content attributes, ability to transfer from first language (L1) to second language (L2), and a desire to engage with the deaf community (Allbutt & Ling, 2016; Quinto-Pozos, 2011). Successful learning also has been associated with the learner’s characteristics namely “gender, age, cognitive processes, motivations, personality, attitudes, and anxiety” (Allbutt & Ling, 2016; Bergfield-Mills &
Jorden, 1980; Gardner, 2001; Kyle, Woll, & Llewellyn-Jones, 1981; Kyle & Woll, 1985; Lang et. al, 1996). A set of variables correlated with sign language were evaluated in Kyle et. al (1981) and Kyle and Woll (1985) including hearing status, years of signing, continuation of sign language courses, linguistic competency, language sensitivities and attitudes towards deaf people. Relationships between ASL language competency, attitude towards deafness, the deaf 35 community, its members, and learner motivation in Lang et. al’s (1996) study showed that there were remarkably positive relationships between variables. These predictors showed that attitude toward deafness as a cultural phenomenon, comfort around deaf people, and motivation increased ASL proficiency among students.
Language-immersion opportunities with native ASL users promotes positive language skills-building and reduces challenges with knowledge transfer from L1 to L2. (Allbutt & Ling,
2016; Kyle & Woll, 1985). Engaging with deaf ASL users in Deaf clubs, a social space for Deaf members, helps hearing signers with gaining cultural knowledge (Quinto-Pozos, 2011) and motivates learners to continue with ASL education in order to maintain and improve communication access with the deaf community. While interdependent, there are varying degrees of interactions between hearing and deaf signers in relation to learning facilities. Hearing signers are given access to these facilities based on their motivation and attitude toward learning
ASL and their experience engaging with the deaf community (Pivac, 2014).
However, student perceptions of learning ASL as a second language are not always positive. A study by Christison and Krahnke (1986) showed receptive language skills as students’ area of weakness and not meeting standards per academic curricula and classroom activity. Teachers reported that students were unwilling to engage with and contradicted students’ narratives on the value of interaction to acquire a second language (Christison &
Krahnke, 1986). McKee and McKee (1992) described students’ interaction expectations as problematic because of students’ lack of confidence engaging with ASL. Students expressed intimidation, lack of confidence, and incompetence to proceed when interacting with deaf signers. The investigators learned that the reason for these self-doubts were due to cultural differences and being thought of as outsiders or unwanted visitors (McKee & McKee, 1992). 36
This did not mention whether these self-doubts impacted their motivation and attitude in their language learning process.
During adult second language acquisition, people view language within bilingual and multilingual contexts in three ways: language as a problem, language as a right, and language as a resource (Ruiz, 1984, 1990, 2010). This stems from how an individual positively or negatively perceives language diversity, whether language issues arise from societal attitude or appreciation of linguistic diversity as a fundamental human right, or the significance of having linguistic diversity in a society (Reagan, 2011; Ruiz, 2010). The former is embedded in social issues related to equity, access, education, and economics. Ruiz (2010) explains that this viewpoint actively disempowers groups in contributing to cultural divisiveness, whereas the language as a right relies on the tenets of social justice and supports those tenets as fundamental human rights.
The latter standpoint for language as a resource is where society develops, encourages, and advocates linguistic diversity as cultural capital (Reagan, 2011; Ruiz, 2010).
ASL and Distance Learning
American Sign Language in virtual platforms flourished over the past few decades through social media, online education, textbook DVDs, and live virtual tutoring. Although much research has been done on linguistic, cultural, identity, and community aspects of ASL and its users, very little examination has been done concerning ASL pedagogy and curriculum in online platforms (Saunders, 2016). Earlier research conducted by Miller et. al (2008) focused on the comprehensive overview of an online course design and application of performance assessment. With a four-year FIPSE (Fund for Improvement of Postsecondary Education) grant from the U.S. Department of Education, an e-assessment system was developed using design- 37 based research as an “integrated, network-based software system to capture, evaluate, and manage ASL learner performances” (Miller et. al, p. 156).
Advancements in academic language recognition have both positive and negative consequences. Positive impacts include increases in linguistic and cultural awareness of the Deaf community, the proliferation of ASL teaching and learning opportunities at local and global levels, and the bridging of deaf and hearing communities which allowed for economic, political, and social supports and growth. However, while online technology offers greater access to content, negative perceptions of Deaf individual’s intelligence arise from limited exposure to the deaf community, since outsiders generally perceive Deaf speech as undecipherable, gestures and facial expressions as exaggerated, and Deaf peoples’ stature as inferior because of their inability to speak, hear, or behave like the hearing population (Saunders, 2016).
Not incorporating a cultural lens in the ASL online curriculum puts both the Deaf community and online students of ASL in a disadvantaged position. Students are not able to relate to the online cultural content. With a diverse student body in online courses, it is necessary to begin the class from a place of familiarity through shared cultural experiences, interactions, attitudes, and behaviors of others. Shared experiences in ASL online courses enable students to successfully complete a course because they can cultivate an understanding of different cultural identities as well as their own (Saunders, 2016).
Perspectives on Distance Education
The proceeding section of the literature review examines three critical components of perspectives in distance education: perceived effective practices for inclusive experiences in online education, perspectives of online education and student experience, and distance 38 education community and culture. Each section emphasizes the critical development of the curriculum based on the feedback and perceptions of participants pertaining to culture.
Beneficial Inclusion Practices in Distance Education
Various studies identified approaches to inclusive practices for distance learning such as culturally relevant pedagogy, culturally responsive teaching, multicultural education, constructivist learning, and other cultural models and guidelines (Flynn et al., Gay, 2010;
Woodly et al., 2017). These models were intended to reform the curriculum to ameliorate assessments and learning outcomes for culturally and linguistically diverse students. Culturally inclusive practices benefit students in ways that effectively engage and empower them in the educational content (Flynn et al., 2017). While meeting the needs of an expanding diverse population, the curriculum should contain a flexible structure and design to allow for effective navigation of the online learning content. Pedagogical content knowledge is a marriage between content and teaching practices where “particular topics, problems, or issues are organized, represented, and adapted to the diverse interests and abilities of learners, and presented for instruction” (Flynn et al., 2017, Shulman, 1987, p. 8). Accomplishing online inclusive practices brings about potential learner success.
Creating a supportive online learning environment is one way to close the gap between students feeling disconnected in the virtual classroom and the learning content. Based on tenets of Vygotsky’s (1978) constructivism, Wenger’s (1998) communities of practice, and culturally relevant pedagogy, students produce meaningful discourse and cross-cultural understanding in the online course (Flynn et al., 2017). One way this can happen is through discussion boards, which allow students to participate and voice their perspectives on the course content using critical thinking skills that comprise “analysis, synthesis, and evaluation of other’s understanding 39 and making inferences” (Gilbert & Dabbagh, 2005, p. 6). This empowers disenfranchised students and provides opportunities for personal transformation through academic achievement, cultural awareness, and social good (Flynn et al., 2017).
Challenges surround online learning environments and the development of assessment tools and strategies. This is due to multiple perspectives from students with diverse cultural backgrounds. Culturally responsive teaching, as Woodley et al. (2017) described it, creates an environment that recognizes, observes, and “builds upon the cultural capital that learners and teachers bring to the online classroom” (p. 471). Students’ life experiences shape the online curriculum design since their cultural and linguistic backgrounds are instrumental in the construction of the curriculum. Woodley et al.’s (2017) commitment to inclusivity, diversity, and social justice reflects Ladson-Billing’s (1995) notion that encouraging academic success and cultural competence guides students to acknowledge, understand, and examine current social inequalities. Rooted in Gay’s (2010) culturally responsive practices, Woodley et. al (2017) suggested activities under each practice that better support linguistically and culturally diverse online students: validating, comprehensive, multi-dimensional, empowering, transformative, and emancipatory.
Validating
Culturally responsive teaching incorporates cultural knowledge, awareness from previous interactions with diverse students, shared different standpoints, and working with diverse students’ performance to enhance effective student learning. This allows students to engage with content that is relevant to them through their areas of strength (Gay, 2010; Woodley et al., 2017).
Proposed activities at the beginning of an online class to gauge students’ comfort level with technology include everything from introductions and sharing personal background information 40 in virtual discussion boards to sharing stories about superheroes/heroes from popular culture
(Woodley et al., 2017). The latter also provides opportunities for students to share their cultural wealth with the class (Woodley et al., 2017; Yosso, 2005).
Comprehensive and multi-dimensional
Culturally responsive teaching provides opportunities for students, especially those of color, to maintain identity and relationships with their communities. Students take a proactive approach by participating in fellowship, sharing accountability, and developing ethics and expectations within the curriculum. This ties in with multiple facets of culturally responsive teaching such as online context, climate, relationships, content, strategies, management and assessments (Gay, 2010; Woodley et al., 2017). Suggested activities require students to partake in high cognitive tasks to elicit higher order thinking. This is done through comparing, analyzing, and responding to course content, participating in social justice projects, contributing to interactive debates with class members, completing reflection activities, and collaborating with other students in an assigned group (Woodley et al., 2017).
Transformative
Culturally responsive teaching provides flexibility to incorporate a culturally enriched curriculum that goes beyond the boundaries of traditional practices that benefit students of color.
Incorporating aspects from and respecting the cultures of students becomes a positive resource in the learning environment because it acknowledges students’ strengths (Gay, 2010; Woodley et al., 2017). Recommended actions include having initial student-teacher meetings to establish course guidelines and goals, resolving anticipated concerns taking the courses, participating in weekly course discussions to ensure students are on track; providing opportunities for team presentations so students can learn strategies from peers and provide constructive feedback for 41 improvement, and facilitating student discussions that build skills in organizing and constructing knowledge (Woodley et al., 2017).
Empowering and emancipatory
Culturally responsive teaching helps empower and enable students to become successful learners that possess “academic competence, personal confidence, courage, and the will to act”
(Gay, 2010, p. 34). Culturally responsive teaching also expands students’ ways of knowing outside the confounds of traditional learning. This liberation not only validates, informs, and instills pride; it also allows students of color to be more attentive and thorough when learning tasks (Gay, 2010; Woodley et al., 2017). Three effectual activities Woodley et al. (2017) presented were student-teacher facilitation to find innovative ways to engage with peers and enhance online course design, group-led discussions that incorporated technology, learning, and engagement with social media culture, and co-designed courses that permitted students to identify, negotiate, and implement activities and assessments (Woodley et al., 2017).
To improve teaching practices, Hernandez, Morales, and Shroyer (2013) developed a model of culturally responsive teaching based on literature and synthesized thematic categories in a multicultural education framework. Based on teacher candidates’ responses, it was evident that learning content in the online course was effective in the following five areas: content integration, facilitating knowledge construction, prejudice reduction, social justice, and academic development (Hernandez et al., 2013). Figure 1.1 shows each thematic category reflecting the activities and behaviors aligned with the thematic definitions in the modified model.
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Figure 1.3. Compressed model design for culturally responsive teaching
Content Integration
Content from other cultures Positive teacher-student High expectations are established and is included relationships are fostered adhered to
Facilitating Knowledge Construction
Discover what students know Realistic and relatable Develop critical and independent thinkers and build upon that examples and expanding their horizons
Prejudice Reduction
Ability to provide support to Promoting positive student- Aim and maintain a prejudice-free native language users student interactions practice learning atmosphere through their own language
Social Justice
The instructor takes on role as agents of Motivate students to be more curious about how the world change works and challenge the status quo to prepare them in their advancement in sociopolitical activities and critical awareness through modeling
Academic Development
Providing opportunities in the learning Focusing on research-based instructional strategies to environment for all students to succeed support diverse student academically
Figure 1.3. Compressed model design for culturally responsive teaching. Adapted from “The
Development of a Model of Culturally Responsive Science and Mathematics Teaching,” by C. M
Hernandez, A. R. Morales, and M. G. Shroyer, 2013, Cultural Studies of Science Education, 8, p.
816. Copyright 2013 by Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht.
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Online Education and the Student Experience
There is a need to incorporate cultural awareness in academic curricula because of an increasingly diverse student population. This poses a conundrum for online curriculum designers because the cultural component must be mediated in a technical platform. Developing an effective cultural component should incorporate the perspectives of students and welcome opportunities to explore various viewpoints from their class peers. This provides feedback and ways of framing the content to help shape and transform the students’ worldview.
Garrett-Rucks (2013) found that online English students who overcame ethnocentric worldviews became more sensitive to cultural differences during online peer discussions while acquiring French as a second language in a distance learning introductory course. Students gained cultural awareness through discussion prompts on relationships between behaviors, artifacts, and perspectives in French culture. For example, one prompt encouraged students to focus on French cultural views on greeting practices and perceptions of personal space. Online students’ responses through text and interviews were assessed using Bennett’s (1993) ethnocentric and ethnorelative stages: denial, defense, and minimization; and acceptance, adaptation, and integration, respectively. Through these stages, the study showed that students moved from ethnocentric thinking towards deeper intercultural sensitivity as they progressed through the course (Garrett-Rucks, 2013). Including the cultural perspectives of the target language user, with the help of visual media to capture metalingual cues (gestures, voice inflection, and facial expressions), cultivated meaningful cultural exploration for language learners (Garrett-Rucks, 2013).
Distance learning studies often focus on comparing content and assessments in different instructional mediums, but few studies have conducted comparative analysis with learner 44 expectations and teacher perspectives. It was reported that students taking foreign language courses suffer greater anxiety than other courses of study because their self-concept and self- expression negatively impacts cognitive processing in language acquisition (MacIntyre &
Gardner, 1994; Murphy et al., 2011). Foreign language teachers are expected to have specific skill sets, including awareness of online student needs, when reflecting on their practice (Murphy et al., 2011).
The top skills, attributes, and content knowledge students and tutors perceived as critical for online learning was having subject matter expertise (Murphy et al., 2011). Students and tutors viewed this skill as understanding how learners learn grammar, have native or near native competency, take different learner styles, and offer language models. Teacher participants added that being up to date with cultural/linguistic developments in target language countries was helpful (Murphy et al., 2011). There was no further discussion on the perception of cultural content provisions in language courses. This indicates that teachers’ perspectives did not align with students’ learning goals.
Distance Education Community and Culture
Culture is contextually based and considered to be a viable part of education including online education. Below are the definitions for culture and their application in distance learning.
Culture as online identity and community
Salvatore (2003) summarized the definition of culture as “…comprised of beliefs, norms, assumptions, knowledge, values, or sets of practice that are shared and form a system” (p. 109).
Community and identity are more explicit in virtual platforms where the student makeup is more diverse. Salvatorre (2003) posited this was due to higher education learning opportunities made more readily available and accessible regardless of students’ geographical location, which 45 allowed for a more diverse and representative global presence within online classes. Hongcheng
& Minhui (2010) credit modern education with shaping communities in the nation and making communication possible among different regions and cultures. However, while state education systems pass on mainstream cultures and values to students, there is little latitude to share ethnic minority’s culture, preserve local language and customs, beliefs and values, and promote cultural diversity (Hongcheng & Minhui, 2010).
Gunawardena (2014) defined an online culture as a group of members who engaged with multiple cultures and identities on the Internet in order to create a more distinct online culture.
This identity formation is cultivated from participants’ ability to retain anonymity while online and have the freedom to express themselves and role-play. Online interaction for these members is viewed as a “liberating environment that equalizes status differences, thereby providing them with a level playing field” (pp. 35-36). Gunawardena also proposed that culture influences beliefs and attitudes about learning and cultural clashes originate from learning models that students are accustomed to outside of the virtual classroom. Cultural values of individualism, secularism, and feminism are acknowledged by cultures whose principles align with their religion, group efforts, and gender norms (Gunawardena, 2014). Members with different convictions are less affected by one or more of these groups in a “neutral zone” when online as the removal of the face-to-face environment reduces any potential threat.
Biesenbach-Lucas (2003) argued that English native speakers and nonnative speakers in asynchronous discussions within Blackboard courses tended to shy away from challenging and critiquing classmates’ work because Asian nonnative students believed it was inappropriate to do so. Culture in this instance was shown as a guideline for what is considered permissible and 46 acceptable during student interactions, which does not impact the educational experience for all participants.
Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions and online collective culture
Hofstede’s 30-year old theory of cultural dimensions was reviewed by Taras & Kirkman
(2010) to analyze the relationship between Hofstede’s cultural dimensions and organizational behaviors. This theory was originally developed to discuss cross-cultural differences in work- related values. The popularity of this concept was extended to various fields outside of social psychology in the likes of linguistics studies, cultural studies, organizational studies, and online education studies. Listed below are the criteria that distinguishes cultural values and a brief description of each based on Hofstede’s 1994 publication:
1. Individualism-collectivism - “the degree to which people in a country prefer to act as
individuals rather than members of groups” (Hofstede, 1994, p.4);
2. Power distance - “the extent to which a society accepts the fact that power in institutions
and organizations is distributed unequally” (Hofstede, 1980b, pg.45);
3. Uncertainty avoidance - “the extent to which society feels threatened by uncertain and
ambiguous situations and tries to avoid these situations by…establishing more rules, not
tolerating deviant ideas and behaviors and believing in absolute truths…” (Hofstede,
1980b, p. 45);
4. Masculinity-femininity - “the extent to which the dominant values of society are
‘masculine’-that is assertiveness, the acquisition of money and things” (Hofstede, 1980b,
p. 46).
Tara & Kirkman (2010) found that although the dimensions are multilayered, the individualism-collectivism is the most prominent criteria because individual attributes within the 47 dimensions are considered the most significant factors that determine the individual’s preference on the spectrum. Applying Hofstede’s theory to cross-communicative experiences via online courses, Cronje (2011) described the characteristics of individualism as an association to personal achievement through success, materialism, and consumerism while collectivism was more closely associated with political agendas. The result of this research showed that with reduced hierarchical presence (instructor vs. student) and proactivity from course participants in completing tasks, individuals in the online course leaned more towards collectivism. This reduced communication uncertainty and increased individual accountability (Cronje, 2011).
Another perspective from Kurubacak (2011) states that there are three cultural groupings, identified as global, national, and regional, that affect organizational behavior, and which persevere over time. The author admitted that the concept of global culture was a vague notion due to the complexity interwoven between design, diverse personal values, and collective culture, as well as the dissociation between practices and orientations.
Other as culture
A term that frequently appears in multicultural and online education literature is the word
“other”, which is typically found in italicized format or in quotations. According to Hongcheng
& Minhui (2010), internal “others” were ethnic minorities from local cultures who were faced with several challenges: an unfair, unified, national evaluation system, poor cultural adaptation and academic performance, and difficulties with upward mobility. However, earlier research
(Tanno & Jandt, 1991), within the same multicultural context challenged the notion of other by using the term broadly to apply to all multicultural study participants and cultural collectives.
The purpose of this redefinition was to narrow the dominance gap between the observer and subject. This rhetoric is also used as an empowerment mechanism, that “tri[ed] to understand the 48 other as a separate objective; the focus is on recreating with the other a shared reality” (Broome,
1991, p. 247). Clearly this author’s concept of “emphasizing multivocality and inclusiveness”
(Broome, p. 235) emerges in transculturalism work.
Multicultural Education
Multicultural education is perceived by many school administrators and education specialists as an entitlement program that benefits disenfranchised students when, in fact, multicultural education benefits all students, including middle-class white males (Banks, 1993).
Students, regardless of background, “…will acquire knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to function effectively in a culturally and ethnically diverse nation and world” (Banks, 1993, p. 23).
Scholars who acknowledge the need for curriculum reform focused on improving cultural content to enhance awareness. However, this cannot be integrated into a curriculum without understanding the principles of social justice that propelled the Multicultural Curriculum Reform movement.
Bank's Multicultural Curriculum Reform (MCR)
Banks (1988) discussed the different approaches the dominant society takes to incorporate cultural content into the curriculum: contributions approach, additive approach, transformative approach and social action approach. This model was designed to remove mainstream-centric lens from the curriculum, but this was met with resistance from educators due to ideology conflicts, lack of cultural knowledge of others, and heavy reliance on textbooks
(Banks, p. 260). Banks suggested that to reform the curriculum, blending the approaches is most instrumental if starting at the curriculum core rather than adding to an existing curriculum.
However, this is still just scratching the surface.
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Figure 1.4. Approaches to Multicultural Curriculum Reform
Figure 1.4. Approaches to Multicultural Curriculum Reform. Adapted from “Approaches to
Multicultural Curriculum Reform,” by J. Banks, 2010, Multicultural Education: Issues and
Perspectives, p. 233. Copyright 2010 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Contributions approach
The establishment of honorary holidays and recognition of heroes supports the aim of inclusion without modifying the mainstream (Banks, 1998). This added-on form of inclusion does not impact the curriculum’s core, outcomes, or principal attributes. Integrated ethnic content such as birthdays and holidays, history or pride months, and memorial days such as
Cinco de Mayo, Black History Month, and Cesar Chavez Day are considered a part of this approach. Lessons revolving around these days, weeks, or months require students to participate in shared experiences lived by celebrated ethnic groups by writing biographical essays, creating timelines of victories, and/or classroom recitals.
As Banks (2016) mentioned the approach only provides a limited global view of the community and not its comprehensive issues. Glorified famous people and dates divert attention from critical information and concepts such as oppression, discrimination, and other factors that 50 perpetuate deficit views. Students usually only get a glimpse of a small community that is seen as a subculture—a branch or appendage of society, not as a fixed collective group.
Additive approach
Like the contribution approach, the additive approach incorporates ethnic content into the curriculum. The additive approach also brings in concepts, themes, and perspectives without altering the curriculum’s cardinal design, objectives or elements. This could be an addition of a book, a documentary, or a specific event that shares the ethnic perspective. However, careful consideration is given when integrating additional content because the essence of the content could impact the curriculum based on the framing of the lesson.
Transformative approach
Dissimilar to the contributions and additive approaches, the transformative approach allows students to consider “various perspectives, frames of references, and content from various groups that will extend the student’s understanding of the nature, development, and complexity of U.S. society” (Banks, 2016, p. 251). The curriculum’s underlying theory is distinct in that the infusion of culturally enriched content provides opportunities for a deeper appreciation of mainstream culture and society and its intricate relationship with ethnic groups. This approach allows students to examine historical events from multiple viewpoints rather than what is taught in the dominant education curriculum.
While the transformational approach is thought to be the most ideal approach of the four, it is also the most time-consuming because of the reform process. Curriculum would be infused with various ethnic or cultural points-of-view, positionalities, and themes that broaden the student’s understanding of the world and its complexity throughout society. An example of the infusion of cultural content was illustrated in Garden’s (2013) article: The author required her 51 online medical students to read “Wildwood” by Junot Diaz, a short story narrating the life experience of a teenage Dominican runaway. This was done to help students gain empathy and compassion that would extend their newfound realization to their medical patients.
Social action approach
The social action approach includes all the critical components from previous approaches while taking actions on challenges and obstacles that need social reform. This approach permits students to explore social issues, evaluating the variables that are present in the issue (norms, values, and beliefs), and empower them to plan and execute actions that impact the political sphere (Banks, 2016). Understanding the status quo regarding racial, gender, class issues increases participation in decision-making processes at the local, state, and federal levels.
Guidelines for Teaching
Integration of diverse racial, ethnic, cultural, and language groups in a curriculum is not limited to materials such as articles, data, or statistics. It also includes a personal investment in building knowledge from within. Alongside Bank’s curriculum reform model are guidelines for effective teaching, which include the following:
1. Read sources on racism including at least one book that surveys U.S. history and culture.
2. Be judicious in the selection of teaching materials. Avoid stereotypes.
3. Be sensitive to your own and others’ racial attitudes, behaviors, and comments in the
classroom.
4. Display classroom materials that portray positive and complex messages regarding
diverse cultural groups.
5. Use books and films to supplement the textbook’s treatment of diverse ethnic, racial,
cultural, or language groups. 52
6. Get in touch with your own cultural and ethnic heritage, which will create a climate of
sharing and transparency in the classroom.
7. Be sensitive to the developmental levels of students when selecting concepts, content,
and activities (Banks, pp. 258-260).
The Gallaudet University’s ASL online program incorporated the first two levels of Bank’s curriculum reform in ASL 1 and 2, which addressed holidays and heroes celebrated in the Deaf community, and themes and perspectives from the Deaf experience. The transformative and social justice approach is embedded in discussion boards and assignments for ASL 3 and 4 for students who are building on exposure to cultural knowledge gained in ASL 1 and 2. The next section provides an exploration of how to incorporate Banks’ Multiculturalism’s Five
Dimensions into an online course.
Banks’ Multiculturalism’s Five Dimensions
Online courses are not exempt from deficiencies in ethnocentric curricula. The goal of the multicultural curriculum reform model was to provide scholars and practitioners deeper knowledge and understanding of multicultural education that was often overlooked. The reform was initially thought to be an emendation of the curriculum to include cultural contents such as ethnic groups, women, and other cultural groups (Banks, 2004). However, Banks emphasized that this model was intended to augment personal and social multicultural awareness (2004).
A brief description of the five dimensions was derived from Brown’s (2013) analysis of the elements within online courses at Washington State Community Colleges including content integration, knowledge construction, equity pedagogy, prejudice reduction, and empowering school culture.
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Content Integration
This process entails content integration of borrowed materials from various cultures and groups to identify relationships between examples, data, and information, and key themes, tenets, and philosophies in a program of study (Banks, 1993). Based on Brown’s (2013) findings from a study on the multiculturalism dimensions’ framework in online courses, the use of case studies, field research, and diverse texts raised concerns regarding consistency between interviews and observations with online students. Furthermore, online students were unsure and unaware how the use of content materials were relevant to the course.
Knowledge construction
Knowledge is produced through tactic cultural assumptions, perspectives, positions, and predispositions in classroom discourse. This may include revisiting antiquated education philosophies and adopting new worldviews and revisionist theories. These new worldviews challenge the frame of reference used in mainstream education that utilizes dominant pedagogies. Interview responses and observations collected from the online program for Brown’s study showed that students and instructors saw information differently. While the instructor has information, it is the delivery of the content that helps students scaffold knowledge and fully realize its goals. The quality of knowledge construction is deemed successful when done with the richness of knowledge instruction (Brown, 2013).
Prejudice Reduction
This dimension discusses strategies to change or develop positive attitudes and values about race. The purpose of the prejudice reduction intervention process is to help students procure more democratic racial attitudes (Banks, 2013). Empathy building, student-led corrections, and teacher-monitored interactions were a few elements that interviewees in 54
Brown’s study felt were present in the online course. Assignments such as written reflections describing childhood experiences, posted announcements on online etiquette policies, and the use of online resources to discuss ethnic genocides were assignments that were given to reduce prejudice (Brown, 2013).
Equity Pedagogy
Academic achievement of students from diverse cultures can be accomplished when effective teaching techniques and methods are used deliberately. This dimension was in response to a cultural deprivation paradigm, cultural difference theory, and an “at-risk” concept. The aim was to help instructors make use of strategies for students of color and low-income students
(Banks, 2013) by tailoring the delivery to accommodate student learning. Feedback from online students in the study demonstrated a strong need for instructors to provide “more clarity and non- offensive language” in class assignments (Brown, p. 756). However, study participants had positive responses to the course’s student-centered approach where instructors encouraged students to co-create the class content (Brown, 2013).
Empowering School Culture and Social Structure
This concept aims to challenge and correct the culture and organization of a school. This requires an understanding of institutional practices that affect student learning, as well as the campus climate and expectations for student success (Banks, 2013). According to Brown (2013), viewing education from this dimension revealed discrepancies in technological access issues, students viewing online classes as empowering, and if the environment was empowering. The only course element that was identified as empowering was access to the course and student communication around Dropbox issues. For online students to fully exploit technical resources, 55 they must have guidance to build an understanding of its functions, the purpose, and the use without being burdened with costs of the resource (Brown, 2013).
Social Justice Lens in the ASL Online Platform
An examination of problems within the ASL online education curriculum through a social justice framework is critical because it reveals the way online components, which typically are designed for mainstream audiences, can negatively impact online students’ academic progress and success. A discussion is needed of students’ experiences in an online course from whiteness lenses, critical race theory lenses, and community cultural wealth lenses. Each lens is distinct and provides different views of the problem: the whiteness lens examines privilege and how it’s denied to people of color (Warren, 1999); the critical race theory lens challenges the ways race and racism impact (educational) structures, practices, and discourses (Delgado &
Stefancic, 2001; Yosso, 2005); and the community cultural lenses extend the notion of cultural capital beyond the privileged to minority groups (Yosso, 2005). Examining ASL courses through these lenses is paramount to understanding how the online curriculum is designed in a way that promotes institutionalized oppression, even if that wasn’t the intent.
Whiteness lens
Whiteness was described as a “privileged signifier”: a race that is already at an advantage compared to other racial groups not privy to similar privileges and opportunities (Leonardo,
2002). For centuries, whiteness has been embraced for its racial significance and defended when members’ power, perks, and privileges are threatened or eradicated. Those who associate with this notion exist in various parts of the world by way of identity and sameness with a strong sense of superiority. Whiteness is prevalent in white identity politics and appears in the English- only movement, anti-immigrant nativism, and western-centric curricula. Coates (2017) detailed 56 how whiteness establishes a power structure between the white population and other races and self-perpetuates its own need to persevere. An example provided in his argument were left-wing and liberal hypocrites, who snubbed and held contempt for working-class, blue-collar
Americans, but were then were frustrated with the declining economy in their areas, yet, they blamed Blacks and Latinos for the collapse (Coates, 2017). These middle-class white Americans want the nation to be more powerful by gaining control and being the primary decision-makers of the health, education, and economic systems of racial minorities without foreign intervention or influence.
Acknowledging whiteness and its impact in a diverse society is critical, especially in the classroom. Landsman (2001) shared an experience about how her diverse students saw themselves differently from their teacher - they viewed themselves as inferior. Her students viewed her as a wealthy, educated, white woman, while her students were from poverty and were doubtful about their own success in school. Current curriculum in most classrooms impact non- white students’ academic performance, which can be affected negatively or positively based on how the teacher communicates course content and its relevance to their daily lives outside the classroom. By dismantling the online curriculum and rebuilding the curriculum to incorporate realistic and relatable content (e.g. multicultural curriculum), students will be given equal and equitable opportunities to succeed in the classroom.
In the process of shifting from the original to the current media format, the online program made careful selection of sign models to ensure diverse representation is seen in educational content and scenes while using ASL. These actors were native or native-like ASL users from various ethnic backgrounds, were current students, faculty, and alumni, and demonstrated a gamut of singing styles. Storytelling videos used as part of the educational 57 content contained history, poetry, and stories in ASL portraying their cultural values and norms from all parts of the nation. Students are able to see the language in action, and while focusing on linguistic features they are able to learn, relate, or appreciate the message in the language usage.
Critical race theory lens
Critical race theory (CRT) emerged in the mid-1970s when a group of attorneys, activists, and scholars realized they needed to seek new theories and strategies to maintain the progress they had made during the 1960s civil rights era (Delgado & Stefancic, 2001). This new movement aimed to identify and combat new faces of racism in blatant and hidden forms, and to transform the relationship between race, racism, and power. Originating in the legal arena, critical race theory was later extended to economics, history, contexts, group- and self- interests, and disciplines within education, politics, and ethnic or American studies (Delgado &
Stefancic, 2001).
Critical race theory is the offspring of two invaluable movements: critical legal studies, which borrowed the concept of legal indeterminacy where “the idea that not every legal case has the correct outcome”, and feminism, which used their “insight into the relationship between power and the construction of social roles, as well as the unseen, largely invisible collection of patterns and habits that make up patriarchy and other types of domination” (Delgado &
Stefancic, 2001).
Although students from diverse cultural backgrounds that participate in online platforms are almost anonymous and their physical appearance is not immediately discernible, some students can feel a disconnect with materials and content within the course. Leaders in the online sector need to place students in a position to succeed. Designing a course that incorporates the five tenets of critical race theory in education is needed. The five tenets are: intercentricity of 58 race and racism with other forms of subordination; challenge to dominant ideology; commitment to social justice; centrality of experiential knowledge; and utilization of interdisciplinary approaches (Solórzano, 1997, 1998). Below are descriptions of each tenet:
Intercentricity of race and racism with other forms of subordination
CRT acknowledges that race and racism cannot be separated from any analysis of U.S. society, and centers them as fundamental to defining and understanding it. This racialization and subordination occur through many layers, including "gender, class, immigration status, surname, phenotype, accent and sexuality" (Crenshaw, 1989, 1993; Valdes et al., 2002).
Challenge to dominant ideology
CRT attempts to dismantle any claims by educational institutions towards objectivity or neutrality in their research, exposing deficits in research that silences, ignores, and distorts epistemologies of People of Color (Delgado Bernal, 1998; Ladson-Billings, 2000). CRT exposes these claims as a cover used by dominant groups in U.S. society to maintain and preserve their power and privilege (Bell, 1987; Calmore, 1992; Solórzano, 1997).
Commitment to social justice
CRT offers a response to racial, gender, and class oppression that is committed to liberation and transformation in the way of social justice (Matsuda, 1991), and exposes the double-edged "gains" allowed through an "interest-convergence" that allowed for gains by the dominant group, as well (Bell, 1987). Exposing this is critical in the works in educational spaces towards dismantling racism, sexism and poverty, and contributes to the empowerment of people of color and other subordinated groups (Freire, 1970, 1973; Solorzano & Delgado Bernal, 2001).
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The centrality of experiential knowledge
CRT's framework allows for and values the experiential knowledge of people of color in its interrogation of racial issues, recognizing it as "legitimate, appropriate, and critical to understanding, analyzing and teaching about racial subordination" (Delgado, 2002, p. 91).
The transdisciplinary perspective
CRT crosses and transcends boundaries between disciplines in its analysis of race and racism "within both historical and contemporary contexts, drawing on scholarship from ethnic studies, women's studies, sociology, history, law, psychology, film, theatre, and other fields"
(Yosso, 2005, p. 74).
White privilege continues to be preserved in many educational institutions, with its ideology reinforced through the oppression and marginalization of students (Yosso, 2005).
CRT's framework helps students become aware of their oppression and offers avenues of empowerment and provides tools to resist and defend against oppression through critical arguments and analysis of their past experiences and stories.
Community cultural wealth lens
Yosso (2005) provided a comprehensive overview of community cultural wealth by expounding on various critical race theorists’ views on cultural capital and illustrated ways students of color are empowered. One way is by drawing from and supporting each other while navigating an educational system dominated by white patriarchy. The original notion of cultural capital, penned by Bourdieu in the 1970s, articulated that cultural resources are transmitted, accumulated among, and reserved for, White middle class people who keep out knowledge, resources, and power from non-White groups (Robbins, 2005). A teacher’s responsibility in the classroom is to bring and expand a student’s knowledge using culturally enriched resources that 60 enhance student learning (Shutz, 2006). Teachers need to remove their personal biases, or deficit views, to allow students to thrive from a curriculum that exploits the “household funds of knowledge” (Shutz, 2006 p. 711). One way teachers can gain knowledge about is by being emerged into a non-White community so they can share what they learn with students and help build a bridge between teachers, students, and community networks.
The application of the community cultural wealth lens to an online course has multiple benefits for students. The interactive activity required for students to complete the course is conducted through a web-based platform where students meet with language mentors from across the nation. This allows online students to engage with mentors to not only improve their language skills but also see mentors from different walks of life. Some of the discussion topics during these sessions covered families, birthplace, communication practices in the ASL community, and identity. Sharing cultural wealth outside the ASL community is intended to build language recognition and create allies inside the virtual classroom.
Summation
The purpose of this chapter is multifaceted. First, it covered issues surrounding ASL as a second language education, its practices and assessments, attitudes toward ASL education, and
ASL education in distance learning. Second, the chapter explored perspectives on distance education such as optimal inclusion practices, student experiences, and community and culture within virtual platforms. Lastly, this chapter sought to examine foundational frameworks for promoting culture in education, the Multicultural Curriculum Reform Model, and the
Multiculturalism’s Five Dimensions framework, which laid the groundwork for online education practices that are beneficial to the online student population. Finally, social justice was defined 61 through whiteness lenses, critical race theory lenses, and community cultural wealth lens to show deficiencies within the present curriculum and provide ways to address these limited areas.
There is little research that pertains to American Sign Language distance learning. Also, there has been a paucity of research on cultural resources in online ASL courses. There is scant evidence that there is a precedent for integrating cultural components into a second language learning curriculum. Additionally, there is no guarantee that such a blueprint would contribute to elevated consciousness. Without this key component, there is no way of knowing whether online students will achieve authentic understanding and appreciation of societal and cultural variation, including their own. Literature showed that cultural implementation has been effective in online courses covering subjects relating to the social and teaching disciplines such as healthcare practitioner training and teacher training. However, there is limited research that shows that the
MCR framework has been applied in online ASL learning courses. There was no design or approach in how to effectively implement the cultural content. These gaps in the research literature calls attention for further inquiry into non-traditional adult learning within a culturally enriched online course using a multicultural lens.
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Chapter Three: Research Design
The purpose of this study was to understand the student experience while using culturally enriched content in an online American Sign Language (ASL) course. Specifically, this study sought the perspectives of second-language learners on how embedded multicultural content impacted their learning progress with online American Sign Language. Having established the groundwork of the problem of practice in the initial chapter, and a thorough literature review in chapter two, the methodology was presented using a case study design. The following research question drove this inquiry:
Based on the perceptions of online students, what is the impact of having a culturally enriched curriculum in an American Sign Language Professional Studies distance learning course at a higher education institution?
The first section in this chapter addresses the rationale for the research approach, followed by its methodological processes, and various data collection methods. The second section discusses the study participants, the research site, and the methodological procedures for the study comprising data collection, data storage, and data analysis. Final sections discuss ethical considerations and limitations. A summary concludes this chapter.
Qualitative Research Approach
The qualitative research approach identified within the constructivist paradigm allows the researcher to conduct inquiries through a hermeneutic lens, which is the interpretive understanding or meaning from a certain standpoint (Mertens, 2010). This paradigm was born from Edmund Husserl and Wilhelm Dilthey’s hermeneutics studies (Eichelberger, 1989) and later espoused by contemporary philosophers who described this perspective as, “All knowledge... developed within a preexisting social milieu, ever interpreting and reinterpreting 63 itself” (Clegg & Slife, 2009). Within this paradigm, Dilthey posited that all knowledge is socially constructed by those in contact within the fieldwork. Its research process helps researchers understand the complexities of lived experiences from the perceptions of those who live it
(Schwandt, 2000; Mertens, 2010). The application of the theoretical framework, which informed the study, involves the process of collecting data that presented themes which were interpreted by the researcher (Creswell, 2013). This research inquiry required the perspectives of participants and meanings, investigator’s reflections, and existing literature within the context examined to help the researcher understand root causes of issues (Creswell, 2013).
Case Study Methodology
The case study research approach selected for the methodological framework in this study comprised various philosophies which framed the study from the modern social science aspect, stemming from the anthropology and sociology disciplines (Creswell & Poth, 2018). Yin
(2014) and Stake (1995) defined features of case studies as current and real-life situations that are ongoing, and information captured and documented are “not lost by time,” (Creswell & Poth,
2018, p. 97). Case studies are identified by parameters that are bound by specific locations and timeframes within a contemporary context (Yin, 2014). The intention of conducting this type of study was to understand a specific issue through a detailed and in-depth qualitative inquiry of multiple sources (Stake, 1995). With this understanding of the case study, the researcher was able to generalize or make a general statement for the phenomenon examined.
Philosophical underpinnings. Seminal scholars widely associated with the case study approach uniquely address their problems through a design that best guides their methodological inquiry. Yin (2002) posits that the theoretical undertaking of case study methodology obscures a clear design and because of this, he provided templates to help novice researchers begin their 64 case study. Stake (1995) relied on a set of interpretative relative positions such as “naturalistic, holistic, ethnographic, phenomenological, and biographic research methods” (Stake, 1995, p. xi) to build a comprehensive report of the problem. Merriam’s work focused on the guiding principles for the methodological application in a case study to avoid any confusion as to what constitutes qualitative research methods (Merriam, 1998, p. 19). These scholars contributed to the process of disciplined inquiry to conceptualizing, designing, and conducting the case study design (Yazan, 2015).
Case study design. While Yin, Stake, and Merriam defined case study as a bounded system and that qualitative research is generally characterized as holistic and interpretive (Yin,
2002; Stake, 1995; Merriam, 1998), they have divergent views of the precise definition of case study. Yin leans to a more technical definition that describes a case as a comprehensive inquiry rather than deriving data from sources in the likes of history, experiment, or surveys. He believed it required many more variables or factors to help frame the how and why a phenomenon exists.
Merriam saw a case study as the phenomenon within its parameters; may it be a program, an institution, a person or a process (1998) while Stake had more flexibility with the definition.
Stake (1995) defined case study as a “specific, complex, functioning thing…as an integrated system” (p. 2). Merriam and Yin both advocated for more structured and defined research methodology, benefitting novice researchers.
The construction of the research process also varies among these seminal researchers.
Yin (2002) puts much thought into every aspect of the study design and allows for maximal use of instruments to seek insights into the research questions. Contrary to Yin’s approach to the study design, Stake (1995) believed a little room for teasing out the problems in the case may assist in a holistic manifestation of the conceptual structure. Merriam identified her strategy as 65 incorporating both approaches aforementioned but also argues the deficiency in Yin’s rigorous design and Stake’s flexible approach is the presentation of the case study structure early in the investigation, which is through the literature review, theoretical framework, and constructing the research questions.
Data collection. What makes the case study approach unique to other qualitative approaches is the collection of evidentiary sources used to capture the essence of the problem in its complexity and entirety (Yazan, 2015). Yin perceived case study research data to be triangulated, with previous theoretical propositions that guide data collection and analysis (Yin,
2002). Unlike Stake and Merriam, Yin strongly promoted the combination of quantitative and qualitative sources in case studies and deriving data using six tools: documentation, archival records, interviews, direct observations, participant observation and physical artifacts. Data gathering should also include “identification of helpers, data sources, allocation of time, expenses, intended reporting (Stake, 2005), as well as data collection tools in the form of a quality interview structure: asking the right questions, prompts to avoid, interview guide, commencing the interview, interviewer and interviewee interaction, recording and evaluating the interview data (Merriam, 1998). However, missing from the three methodologists’ approaches are initial data collection activities outlined by Creswell and Poth (2018), and two strategies which included gaining access using gatekeepers in the community and gaining the confidence of study participants.
Analytic methods. Various approaches to data analysis are based on each methodologist’s epistemological perspective and their appreciation of knowledge and reality
(Yazan, 2015). With the emphasis of validity and reliability stemming from and with rigorous data analytic processes, Yin (2002) deployed five principle techniques for analyzing data: pattern 66 matching, explanation building, time-series analysis, program logic models, and cross-case synthesis. The process comprises examining, categorizing, tabulating, testing, or resynthesizing quantitative and qualitative data to “address the initial propositions of a study” (p. 109). This is then followed by validating data using construct validity, internal validity, external validity and reliability to triangulate various sources, chains of evidence and member checking. Validation of data also establishes analytic techniques (pattern matching); analytic generalization; and study protocols and databases, respectively (Yazan, 2015).
Stake adopted a more holistic approach and viewed the process to be an inquiry into the meaning of the initial impression and the final compendium of data through both the collection and analysis (Stake, 1995). The researcher determines the formula for the data analysis by way of reflections and experience (p. 77). The strategies are bifurcated as two separate examinations of the evidence: categorical aggregation and direct interpretation, which presents techniques for identifying patterns for each approach. Triangulation strategies are offered to minimize misrepresentation and misunderstanding and to enhance the most credible interpretation or knowledge about the case by conducting data source triangulation, investigator triangulation, theory triangulation, and methodological triangulation (Yazan, 2015).
Merriam (1998) described the data analytic process as incorporating a hermeneutic influence that involves consolidating, reducing, and interpreting what participants express and the researcher’s experience. This process of meaning making emerges from simultaneous collection and analysis of study data through ethnographic analysis, narrative analysis, phenomenological analysis, constant comparative method, content analysis, and analytic induction (Merriam, p. 178). 67
Presentation of findings. According to Creswell & Poth (2018) the composition of a case study followed a general presentation template from Lincoln & Guba (1985) in that a report introduces the problem in its environment, with a deeper description of the context and is like a story. This paints a picture for their readers, the audience, so they can capture the chronological recapitulation from the incidence or occurrence to the end of the investigation. This includes the processes that occur throughout the observation. Themes that emerged from the analysis are discussed followed by insights into the causations of the problem and what could have been done to address it (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
Specifically relating to Asmussen & Creswell (1995), a case study that discussed a campus shooting presented the key themes of denial, fear, safety, retriggering, and campus planning which led to two overarching topics: organizational themes and social-psychological themes. The authors did not rely on any theoretical lenses to guide them through this inquiry but rather “described the incident, analyzed it through levels of abstraction, and provided some interpretation and relating the context to larger theoretical frameworks” (Creswell & Poth, 2018, p. 304). Other ways to present findings in a case study are through a single narrative about the case with themes that emerge from interpretations of the narratives or through a cross-analysis with multiple cases (Yin, 2014).
Rationale for Case Study Approach
The instrumental single case study research approach was selected for the methodological framework in this study because it was conducted during a period within a specific location. The focus of the study was an 8-week accelerated language-based online course at the world’s only higher education bilingual institution that serves the deaf and hard of hearing student population.
The researcher sought to understand how and why multicultural curriculum in a second language 68 learning-based online courses impacted students’ performance. Extensive data collection from this course was gathered throughout the online course to provide deeper insights on the complexities of the case study.
Participants
Participants selected for this study were online students over the age of eighteen that possessed a range of ASL proficiency skills within the first four levels based on the institution’s language development standards. Although the ASL online courses attract students from various parts of the world, all participants in the study were from the United
States. These participants were mainly credit-seeking students and took ASL courses to meet foreign language requirements through their higher education home institution. Other students included were a family member or friend of an ASL user; a professional who worked with clients/patients/customers who are ASL users; and people that worked with colleagues who use ASL. All participants were hearing.
For this study, the researcher used maximum variation sampling, a purposeful sampling strategy, to recruit six participants. A criteria for recruitment was intended to
“maximize differences,” and “increase the likelihood that the findings will reflect differences or different perspectives” (Creswell & Poth, 2018, p. 158). The purpose of the purposeful sampling approach welcomed varied participant perspectives based on conditions that may reveal a broad range of experiences, attributes and situations (Creswell & Poth, 2018).
Although this is a single case study, gathering perspectives from interviews and observations not only from online students but also from online facilitators and language mentors provided a more in-depth detail of their experiences. This criterion included those who had successfully completed their course with a grade of B or higher and contributed to all course activities 69 while excluding those who were taking the course with a tuition waiver (university staff, faculty, or matriculated students). This reduced the pool to those who could provide extensive details about the online course rather than narratives that may have detracted from the purpose of the study. The motivation for learning between university-affiliated students and external students differ because the former requires them to complete the courses to meet ASL proficiency requirements through an on-campus course in order to maintain tuition or employment eligibility. This happens for a variety of reasons such as interest in the language, meeting language requisites, and acquiring communication skills for professional and personal reasons. It is rare to see a university-affiliated student in the present professional studies program.
Research Site
The research site for the current study was an ASL online program, a component of the
American Sign Language Professional Studies Programs within a bilingual higher education institution, during the Fall of 2019. Virtual courses offered by the ASL online program are accelerated and intensive ASL 1-6 8-week sessions where students complete assignments through Blackboard, a Learning Management System (LMS) and GoReact, a web-based tool integrated into the LMS. The ASL online program served approximately 130 students in at least ten online courses with a facilitator pool of five certified online instructors. The interactive portion of the curriculum for all courses required students to meet with language mentors an average of 21 sessions. The program contracted with at least 50 language mentors with higher education backgrounds to perform interactive duties that promote language growth. The program coordinator had access to all content embedded within the virtual 70 courses including submitted video assignments, reflections posted in the discussion board, and course evaluations received at the end of each 8-week session.
Students were sent a recruitment announcement (Appendix C: Recruitment
Announcement) through the LMS with a Google Forms link. Seven online students expressed interest and documented their name, email address, preferred communication modality (signed or spoken), and their interview availability in this form. Out of the seven, only six participants proceeded with the interview.
Data
Data sources for this study were interviews, archived videos (recorded video interactions), video artifacts (video assignments), and course evaluations received at the end of an eight-week session. Each source brought valuable information to the examination of the problem of practice.
Interviews
Individual in-depth narratives were collected through a blended semi-structured interview protocol and holistic interview approach from six voluntary participants who completed the 8- week online course. The interviews were conducted through Whereby.com, a web-based video conferencing platform which incorporated a recording feature that automatically archived recorded videos in the Whereby.com account once the session was completed. An additional recording tool using PhotoBooth as a back-up also recorded the interviews which were saved on an external hard drive. Recorded interviews helped “by suggesting explanations (i.e., the “hows” and “whys”) of key events, as well as the insights reflecting participants’ relativist perspectives.”
(Yin, 2018, p. 118). These short interviews remained open-ended in search of findings that may already have been established through the participant’s experiences, thoughts and perspectives. 71
Participants who volunteered for the interview received an electronic invitation (in English text) shared through the LMS announcement page, which was automatically redirected to their school email account. The investigator responded with a consent form and a link to an appointment calendar to schedule their 45-minute interview with a confirmation of preferred language modality during this meeting - spoken English or American Sign Language.
All participants opted to use their voice during the interview and a pre-interview confirmation form determined an ASL interpreter was required. The interpreter hired through the research institution followed a strict code of ethics and all interpreting fieldwork was confidential. The same interpreter was used throughout the interviews. Participants’ identities were anonymous and they were informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time with no retaliation or issues.
Archival Videos
The program’s language mentoring platform was one of the major components embedded in the online course. Students were required to meet with a language mentor through an all-in- one platform to close the social gap that was normally present in asynchronized online courses.
This platform contained a built-in scheduling feature, session recording tool, and stored data archives. A total of 50 language mentors were contracted with the 8-week program to provide language support to all ASL 1-4 online students for an average of 21 meetings total. Students and mentors were permitted to meet up to three times throughout the online course. Each session was automatically recorded for quality assurance and they were randomly selected for program review. In this study, recorded videos in the system’s archives were selected based on students or mentors in unique geographical locations.
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Figure 1.5. Language Mentoring Platform with Actors.
Video Artifacts
A web-based tool, GoReact, was embedded in the LMS to capture a student's signed performance for assessment. At the end of each session, ASL 1 and 2 online students were required to assemble a portfolio containing four video artifacts. These were works where students demonstrated ASL skills while sharing personal experiences, retelling ASL stories, and
ASL lesson activities. In these artifacts, the researcher observed cultural implications in the student’s or language mentor narrative. Table 1 shows the number and type of data source that were selected for analysis based on each participant.
Table 1
Types of Documents
ASL Level Documents ASL 1, 2, 3 Artifact Narratives of Personal Discussion Board Customs and or 4 Sessions Experiences Posts Traditions
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Figure 1.6. Sample of an Artifact session through GoReact with Actors.
Course Evaluations
A standard anonymous end-of-session evaluation (Appendix B: Online Course
Evaluation Form) for online courses was deployed in the LMS through Enterprise Surveys a week before the last day of the courses. Results were received when the evaluation period closed the Monday following the last day of the courses. Online facilitators and the program coordinator were the recipients of these surveys. The evaluation contained five sections: Syllabus, Overview, and Introduction; Student Engagement; Course Technology; Student Support; Assignments and
Evaluations; and Registration. Each section included several questions with drop-down boxes to select one of the 6 following options: Not Applicable, Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Neutral,
Agree, and Strongly Agree. Each component had an unlimited text response for additional comments. The evaluation collection garnered a wide variety of responses which identified a pattern as well as unique perspectives from students.
Accessing several sources to obtain data brought a wealth of information and not carefully reviewing the sources could potentially diminish the integrity of the study. 74
Documentation and archival records were of great benefit to the researcher because these could be reviewed frequently. They are also “unobtrusive…specific…(and) precise.” (Yin, 2018, p.
114). However, there were risks of presenting bias reflected through the investigator’s retrievability, whether it is intentionally selecting or withholding data that would skew the findings. Along with interviews, artifacts contained significant information pertaining to cultural aspects, direct focus on the study topic, and personal views and attitudes through narratives (Yin,
2018). The current researcher exercised discretion when selecting the data.
Procedures
The purpose of this qualitative method was to analyze data derived from an array of sources capturing experiences and perspectives of online students in a second-language distance learning course. A detailed organization of the process in retrieving, storing, and analyzing data were presented through the data collection, data storage and data analysis sections.
Data Collection
The investigator developed questions pertinent to the research questions to elicit online student responses regarding multicultural contents (Appendix A: Interview Protocol and
Questions). Utilizing Yin’s (2014) approach to a bounded system, the investigator collected data through various sources: observations of virtual interactions, course documents, course evaluations and interviews with online students (Creswell & Poth, 2018).
The interviewees, identified under pseudonyms, were purposely selected because of their affiliation with the American Sign Language online course offered though the program the interviewer currently coordinates. Insights shared through the exchange were recorded using
Whereby.com. Then, all recordings were downloaded, transferred to saved files, and were sent to
Rev.com (an online captioning, transcriptions, and subtitling service) for language transcription 75 and translation from English audio to English text. The full transcription was formatted on a time-stamped document to track the discourse. The audio-to-text transcription and video observation by the researcher were compared for accuracy and corrections. This was then transferred to a linear numerated document for further analysis. Notes and investigator’s reflections were documented in a specific manner to maintain an audit trail.
The first two audio files sent to Rev.com were corrupted and the investigator instead transcribed the video-recorded interview manually. Questions on signs used by the interpreter were clarified for accuracy by the interpreter during the transcription process. It was also determined that ELAN would not be the best approach to the transcription process as this is best used for American Sign Language analysis, which was not the purpose of the interviews.
Therefore, ELAN was removed from the process before transcriptions were conducted.
Data Storage
All data collections, along with electronic signed consent forms, were preserved and securely stored in an encrypted external hard-drive, accessible only by password. The hard-drive is kept in a locked drawer in an office located on the research site and will remain there for up to three years. The investigator is the only person with access. This complies with The Common
Rule-Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Title 45 Part 46 (research subjects).
Data Analysis
Interviews provided rich data that served as a story for the researcher to interpret and retell (Saldana, 2016). After the initial phase of transcribing dialogue through Rev.com, observing the video, and transferring the final execution of the text discourse onto a linear numerated document, the researcher conducted the first cycle with the narrative coding process.
The approach to the narrative coding process had a strong influence from sociolinguistics, 76 literary, anthropological, and psychological perspectives (Saldana, 2016). This approach was pertinent to examining interpersonal and intrapersonal experiences to gain insight of the participant’s truth (Saldana, 2016). Stanzas from the participants’ narratives were divided for analysis. Subcoding schemes associated with narrative coding were guided by abstract notions of multiculturalism. The researcher was able to create a compilation of the participant’s personal understandings discovered throughout the course of the interview with a combination of story types and themes.
Holistic and narrative coding were used to analyze study data. The selection of holistic coding was based on the general idea of the kind of investigation that would be applied to the data (Saldana, 2016). A large chunk of text or excerpts were coded to capture the essence of the data and then were lumped together under a category for further inquiry (Dey, 1993). This was detected in the second cycle coding. In tables two and three, an example of the analysis was used to demonstrate the design and strategy of the coding cycles. The excerpts below were from an interview with one of the participants in the ASL online courses.
The primary codes used in Table 2 focused on the psychological perspectives that were often found in multicultural studies and literature. The five codes selected for this coding label (value, identity, revelation, awareness, and affirmation) placed the perspectives on various levels of identity development. The primary codes were then defined in the second coding process in Table 3 through observation summary and developing themes.
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Table 2
Phase One: First Cycle Coding Example
EXCERPTS NARRATIVE CODING
56 After learning [ASL]...that’s just life...to them. It is what it is. IDENTITY
82 …people were signing [different] things…a very wide variety of REVELATION people…it also made it difficult sometimes. 89 Before this course I thought, “oh wow! That must be so difficult” AWARENESS because I didn’t understand.
102 I am hoping to continue progressing in the ASL course VALUE
103 ...and eventually use that to advocate for deaf children that have AFFIRMATION been discouraged
Transitioning from first cycle coding to second cycle coding, extra consideration went into the combined process of codes to themes and code charting. This allowed the researcher to elaborate on the codes by identifying the reflective actions based on interpretations relevant to multiculturalism. Once the brief descriptive summaries were documented in the code chart, these were then categorized by way of focused coding. This process, focused coding, revisited the theories to discern any correlation with the findings (Saldana, 2016).
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Table 3
Phase 2: Second Cycle Coding Result
PRIMARY GENERAL THEMES/CATEGORIES CODES OBSERVATION SUMMARIES REVELATION Making known of something Cultivating Cultural Competence: not yet revealed and producing knowledge and · Defining the tactic cultural Multiculturalism and Inclusion assumptions, perspectives, · Losing the Rose-Colored Glasses positions, and · Developing predispositions. Empathetic Attitudes · Connecting the Dots AFFIRMATION Emotional support or Building Cultural Competence Through encouragement and using Engagement: effective strategies to help one succeed in a · Building a Bridge disadvantaged position. Between Communities
IDENTITY Characteristic or close · Applying Cultural affinity and helping procure Theory to Practice more democratic cultural attitudes about self and others.
AWARENESS Concern and well-informed Discerning Cultural Relevance: interest, and understanding of practices that affect self · Meaningful Cultural and others. Content
VALUE Personal and shared · Contextual perspectives of importance Juxtapositions
and developing positive attitudes and values about self and others.
The second cycle coding allotted the primary codes into thematic categories based on observation summaries. The observation summary column in Table 3 was a formulation of the collected stanzas or pieces of narratives that are categorized by codes (value, identity, revelation, 79 awareness, and affirmation). These observation summaries were then reinterpreted and recategorized into themes, which were part of the focused coding process. With a focus on
Bank’s 5 Dimensions (Banks, 2004), Content Integration, Knowledge Construction, Prejudice
Reduction, Equity Pedagogy, and Empowering School Culture and Social Structure, each description from the summaries helped designate the codes into each dimension that demonstrates the process of expanding personal and social multicultural awareness. In these processes, note that all thematic actions begin with a gerund, -ing, to demonstrate the evolving progress in personal cultural awareness and growth.
Trustworthiness
Guba and Lincoln (1985) propounded four dimensions to strengthen trustworthiness in qualitative studies: credibility (assurance of the integrity of findings), transferability (findings are applicable to external contexts), dependability (consistency in findings and can be used repeatedly), and confirmability (researcher’s interests, motivation, and bias do not shape the research but the study is shaped by the findings).
Validity and credibility
Guba and Lincoln (1985) proposed the use of triangulation to corroborate findings and to ensure the findings are “rich, robust, comprehensive, and well-developed,” (Guba & Lincoln,
1985). More specific triangulations for this study were methods and analysis, which data collected falls more apart on the spectrum providing more insights, and to grasp divergent views and interpretation of the data, respectively (Denzin, 1978; Patton, 1999). Triangulating data from multiple sources and having participants review and correct any potential discrepancies were strategies to ensure we are providing accurate reflections. This also included inviting a colleague to assess procedures (Creswell & Poth, 2018). Because of the length of time to conduct the 80 transcription and the length of the ASL sessions, only two participants responded to the investigator’s request to verify the information within the interview documents. The interpreter used during the interviews also verified information conveyed during the interviews. Themes and categories developed during the data analysis, several data sources from the study (discussion posts, archival videos, and interviews), the multicultural education theory, and the participant’s verification of the researcher’s findings “constructs validation as recognizing the constructs that exist rather than imposing theories,” (Creswell & Poth, 2018; Later, 1991). Member checking, or participant validation, strengthens the credibility of the interpretations and findings of a study by sharing the draft of the work for participant feedback (Stake, 1995).
Transferability. In describing the phenomenon, it is important to take into account the small participant pool which may limit applicability to external contexts (Guba & Lincoln,
1985). The generalization of findings in a study is when readers identify relevant patterns within the experiences of participants and other sources that provide “thick and rich description,”
(Merriam, 2001; Misco, 2007). These patterns enhance credibility of the study among readers.
Dependability. To evaluate the authenticity of the research, inviting an external reader to formulate their perspective that may or may not challenge the methodology and findings is advantageous (Guba & Lincoln, 1985). Having external auditing could lead to two different conclusions: stronger articulation of the findings or a conflict in perceived results of the findings.
Either way, the investigator is prepared to address the findings or interpretations. In this research methodology lies full disclosure of the research design and data collection processes to strengthen dependability.
Confirmability. An audit trail or, in this case, a detailed outline that includes the processes used to collect data in this study is kept in an electronic journal. This includes raw data 81 and condensed notes, designs and mapped strategies (coding analyses), and reflective notes and observation materials (Guba & Lincoln, 1985). A record of the processes provides transparency and clarity of the research techniques.
Positionality Statement
The purpose of the current study was to understand the impacts of cultural content in an
American Sign Language second language distance learning program using online students’ perspectives. Through a qualitative analysis of the research problem, details garnered and elucidated presented opportunities for the program to build an equitable and accessible culturally enriched online curriculum by understanding the need for providing accommodations that goes beyond curriculum policies or mandates, or lack thereof.
This study’s goals were twofold in that there was an underlying conflict whether the goal of the research is essentially for the online student’s gain or for the researcher’s community’s gain. This is due to the researcher’s identity being closely tied to the philosophy of ASL teaching and learning. This also broached potentially ethical concerns regarding the research approach and conduct with the student population within this study. The following paragraphs explicate the researcher’s role related to the research problem, perspectives of the problem of practice, and the challenges of working with Other (Briscoe, 2005) in terms of power, privilege, and bias.
The program and the investigator’s role. The ASL Professional Studies Program offers accredited ASL 1-6 and special topic courses (Fingerspelling 1 & 2, Classifiers 1 & 2, and Visual
Gestural Communication) to Gallaudet University staff, employees, graduate students, external students, and other students with an interest in acquiring a new language such as parents with
Deaf infants or family and friends of the Deaf. Also offered are off-site ASL-teaching opportunities at federal constituents such as the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), the 82
Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Social Security Administration (SSA), The White
House, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA); non-profit organizations, and local businesses. The program recently contracted with a partnering university to provide ASL courses on their campus through a consortium program.
Having been hired to fill a coordinator position for the American Sign Language
Professional Studies Program (ASL PST) housed under the Department of American Sign
Language and Deaf Studies at a higher education institution, the upper administration’s strong support for the growth of the ASL virtual education impelled me to focus on this area of the program. The ASL online program generates one of the largest revenue streams for the university and the goal of the program was to increase enrollment, strengthen retention, and ensure quality assurance. My 15-year career in entrepreneurship, customer service, innovative marketing strategies, and education background prepared me for these tasks.
Principal responsibilities while managing the online program comprised administrative and online operation duties to ensure students, instructors, and ASL mentors can fully participate in the online platform. The most important of the three responsibilities was to provide a positive online experience that enhances student academic success. Currently, ways of learning about student experiences are through end-of-semester surveys and email correspondences regarding student concerns.
The problem from the investigator’s perspective
In preparation for launching the newly built online platform in a nationwide campaign in
Spring 2018, beta testing was conducted to modify and recondition the online courses to accommodate students based on best practices since introducing the new platform design in 83
Spring 2015. I learned that the online platform was not fully prepared to provide all necessary means to enhance student success for second-language learners because the means go beyond the technical sphere of accessibility and accommodations for students. Since then, I have worked on improving areas in the course to ensure students’ needs are met. Information obtained from online evaluations concerning online course content, feedback from online instructors, and conversations with students who wished to withdraw or drop requests from online classes were significant clues to the course’s curriculum quality.
Power, privilege, and bias
Having been on opposite ends of the spectrum as an online student and online instructor within the last decade, I am able to identify relevant issues that impact the learner’s academic progress in an online course. Empathy is evoked when students express frustration with lack of access to critical information within the virtual platform. However, before delving further into resolving the issue(s) at hand, there is an initial underlying assumption that students conveying dissatisfaction do not possess internet literacy nor do they have technical experience within the online education domain prior to this course. This assumption stems from students expressing frustration with the course technical design that prevents them from completing discussion posts.
Also, I assume that students registered for these courses have lower expectations than if they had registered for a spoken second language course. New students taking ASL courses tend to believe that ASL is gestural communication - consisting of basic hand movements without grammatical structure and complex linguistic features to express basic ideas and concepts.
Cultural-historical views of minority students in the courses vary based on how students perceive themselves and how they are perceived by others in their social, cultural, political, educational, and economic statuses (Bloom & Trumbull, p.1134). Although American Sign 84
Language is my first language and having obtained two degrees in Linguistics, I recall my first exposure to ASL linguistics and having difficulty comprehending ASL grammatical structure when it was described as having similar word orders to the French language. The notion that these shared linguistic patterns belonged to a prestigious language was intimidating to me.
However, had ASL been described as a sister language to Spanish, then I would have been less likely to view ASL as a superior language. I believe the perception of inferiority to specific languages and cultures stems from the fact that I am a member of two oppressed communities, being a woman and being Deaf coupled with my experiences interacting with diverse language and cultural populations. Being multiracial and raised in an environment with Spanish-speaking family members allowed me to identify closely with their culture.
Over the years, I have been involved with virtual education; I moved away from being a student to an instructor to the opposite ends of the gamut of language education as a program coordinator. Considering the students who presumed American Sign Language courses to be simplistic and uncomplicated and are taught “basic gestural communication tactics”, they are later surprised to find that the courses are, in fact, much more challenging than they had anticipated. Students could interpret this in two ways: the language is unintelligible and disorganized to them, which continues to perpetuate the myth of branding ASL as ‘baby signs’, or they’ve acquired a newfound perspective that ennobles ASL as a complex and legitimate language, igniting interests in advancing language courses. The former is one example of a common belief built from “class-based curriculum knowledge and dominant reproductive social ideologies” (Anyon, p.119).
For an investigator, this is challenging because ASL has been the center of many political debates pertaining to language policy and is continual at risk of being abolished due to the 85
Oralist movement, an education for the deaf through lip reading, speech, and mimicking mouth shapes (McCullough & Duchesneau, 2016). However, being a coordinator comes with additional responsibilities to ensure that students are enlightened about ASL and actively participate within the community. Instead of acting as a gatekeeper to the ASL community, I seek to transform traditional ways of thinking by inviting students to share their experiences indulging in and appreciating a variety of cultural differences. I am able to work closely with course designers to revise the curriculum to incorporate a design that allows students to benefit from an ASL course in a way that students begin to understand how and why their perceptions of certain cultures are formed. It is also important to stress that this is in no way to compare experiences since each individual experiences a different degree of oppression. Sharing a similar concern, Briscoe
(2005) discusses the risk of misrepresentation of the other and the significance of acknowledging the positioning of classroom participants, which requires careful devising of the course content.
I, as a researcher, should be more diligent in structuring ASL community’s history of oppression to initiate a productive online dialogue.
Limitations
As a researcher, it was critical to capture the participants’ narratives. This posed a challenge for the study in that it was the students who shared their experiences and perceptions of the multicultural content. If the instructor did not provide an accessible and comprehensive multicultural curriculum in the virtual space because of limited knowledge of multiculturalism and cultural resources, then how can online students be expected to succeed? The current study’s findings provide a rationale to develop a required educator multicultural training for online educators to undergo as part of their teaching contract. 86
In addition, because there is a paucity of research on multiculturalism in American Sign
Language online courses, there was more room and freedom when handling the data. This was one of the dangers of a case study. Without a rigorous structure in place, the data analysis process may be prolonged due to an obscured and ambiguous analysis approach, which could have led to inconsistent conclusions.
Summation
The qualitative research design focused on data from various sources to seek and understand how and why having a multicultural content in an online language-based program impacts student’s learning progress. By eliciting meaningful reflections of the participants’ experiences in their ASL online courses, it was hoped that their perception would provide a deeper appreciation of the problem. Alongside the examination of the interviews are archival videos, video artifacts, and course evaluations to allow for a diverse response to identify potential patterns and to capture unique perspectives. The research design outlined in this chapter aligns the rationale and context of the study described in Chapter One and the literature review in
Chapter Two. 87
Chapter Four: Findings and Analysis
This chapter reports the findings and analyses from participant interviews, surveys, and recordings of video sessions. Research questions for the current study center on the perceptions of online students taking an American Sign Language distance learning program and the impact of the course’s multicultural content on their understanding and experience. This study aimed to identify the following:
1. How do current cultural resources enhance language acquisition?
2. How can the program incorporate additional materials that cultivates cultural captial for
online students that are learning American Sign Language?
Findings from the study were examined using the Multicultural lens to highlight both the perspectives and experiences, and the content that may have impacted their language learning.
Utilizing various data sources, findings were derived from six online participants’ narratives, forty-seven end-of-session surveys, and observations of twenty archival videos and fifteen video artifacts for analysis. The interviews were transcribed and coded employing the narrative, holistic, and focused coding approaches before conducting the thematic analyses.
Themes revealed from the interviews, video observations, and surveys are supported through triangulation of data sources.
As a result of this data collection and analysis, three superordinate themes and nine sub- themes were identified through the Multicultural lens. The first theme, Cultivating Cultural
Competence, identifies what online students already know and the various stages of awareness progression. Theme One includes the following sub-themes: Defining Multiculturalism and
Inclusion, Losing the Rose-Colored Glasses, Developing Empathetic Attitudes, and Connecting the Dots. The second theme, Building Cultural Competence Through Engagement, discusses the 88 perceptions of current and future engagement practices through online student’s narratives. The second theme comprises three sub-themes: Building a Bridge Between Communities, Applying
Cultural Theory to Practice, and Aspiring Allies Versus Aspiring Helpers. The final theme,
Discerning Cultural Relevance, presents students’ appreciation of cultural content through two sub-themes: Meaningful Cultural Content and Contextual Juxtapositions. This chapter opens with participants’ profiles and findings through sources followed by thematic discussions, and a conclusion.
Online Participant Profiles
Seven participants were scheduled for interviews and of the seven, six shared their experiences in a 45 to 60-minute session. The participants were part of the Fall 2019 Session A online cohort and were enrolled in ASL courses with various course facilitators. Table 4 below lists pseudonyms and ASL levels completed in the American Sign Language program as well as demographic locations for the six participants.
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Table 4
Online Participant Profiles
Participant ASL Level Completed Location (Pseudonym) Online
Amanda ASL 1-4 NC
Bonnie ASL 1 WA
Chelsea ASL 2 CT
Dori ASL 1 VA
Elizabeth ASL 2 MI
Fiona ASL 1 GA
Amanda
A recent newlywed located in Wilson, North Carolina, Amanda was inspired to learn
American Sign Language courses through her family-run Christian ministry where both hearing and deaf families use ASL in the faith-based environment. Amanda has completed all online
ASL courses, levels 1 through 4 at Gallaudet University, with ASL 4 recently completed during the time of this interview. Prior to the online ASL online courses, she had taken a few other courses, both online and in person, through local community colleges to complete her general education requirements. She put this aside to focus on the family’s vocation. Amanda also operated a pet-sitting side business when she was not actively involved with the church.
Bonnie
Originally from Phoenix, Arizona, Bonnie was a full-time undergraduate student at
Seattle University in Washington with an aspiration to participate in a graduate program for 90 clinical psychology. She was also a part-time undergraduate research assistant at Fred Hutch
Cancer Research Center. She completed ASL 1 online and was registered for ASL 2 for the latter session of the fall semester, continuing her ASL education through Gallaudet University. Bonnie had previously taken online math courses in high school. Her parents are divorced and her mother was remarried to a Londoner. While Bonnie’s father is still residing in Phoenix with her younger sister, her mother and husband relocated to Dallas, Texas.
Chelsea
A Connecticut-based artist with an online store selling crafts, Chelsea recently completed
ASL 2 online through Gallaudet University. She hoped to continue on to ASL 3 online in spring.
She wanted to complete that course along with her husband whom she shares three children. This online ASL course was the second ASL course Chelsea had taken through this institution.
Dori
A Virginia resident, Dori had been a veterinarian technician for twenty years and was reconsidering her career goals. She shared a home with her sister along with her two cats and a dog. Other than taking a biology course required for work through Penn Foster’s online program,
Dori completed ASL 1 online with Gallaudet University. Initially, she signed up for free online lessons, which then led her to apply for the Gallaudet online course when she completed the modules. Her partner worked as an interpreter and was a doctorate student in the Department of
Interpretation and Translation at Gallaudet University.
Elizabeth
Elizabeth was raised in Petosky, Michigan in a close-knit family of five children. She lived with her sister and her nephew (her other sister’s son). Although she completed ASL 2 online, she had exposure to American Sign Language within the last 30 years after first picking 91 up the language in Lansing, Michigan. After receiving her Master’s in Education, Elizabeth began working with Blind and Deaf Blind Instruction. She applied credits earned upon completion at Gallaudet’s online ASL courses towards her teacher preparation endorsement through the Michigan Deaf and Hard of Hearing Consortia. Elizabeth was constantly engaged in her small community where deaf people and interpreters were also members.
Elizabeth took various online courses focusing on autism, foundations of deafness, and language acquisitions through Minot State University in North Dakota. Because there was no longer a deaf education program in Michigan, a consortium program allowed her to enroll in courses at different universities to fulfill her requirements for endorsement. Audiologists and teachers advancing their training were among the students taking online courses in her cohort.
Fiona
Fiona was still determining her career goals, going between theater and theater interpretation, when she found her calling to establish a theater program for the Atlanta Area
School for the Deaf. Her first exposure to the language was when her mother and grandmother briefly picked up American Sign Language for enjoyment during Fiona’s elementary school years. She also had a few friends who used sign language, but she was no longer in contact with them. Fiona worked as an office manager at a logistics brokerage firm for freight trucks that financially supported her education for her teaching credentials. Combined with her ASL learning in progress, she aspired to become a certified interpreter within the next 2 to 3 years.
She lived with her fiancé and pets near her parents and 16-year old brother.
Fiona chose to register for the ASL 1 online course with Gallaudet University because of her perception of the institution’s trusted reputation of reliability, accuracy, and affordability.
She found that the quality of the ASL online content delivery was like previous online courses 92 she had taken in the past for her general core requirements. Fiona was working on her finances so she could enroll in ASL 2 in the spring session.
Overview of Course Evaluations
Forty-seven survey responses from 102 possible online students enrolled in eight
American Sign Language distance learning courses were garnered for this study through
Blackboard’s Enterprise survey platform. The survey was customized to display seven major categories with a total of 17 areas for assessment and six comment boxes in the survey form (see
Appendix B: Online Course Evaluation Form).
Tables 5 through 11 delineate each category and its assessed areas with correlating student responses. These responses were measured percentage-wise generally as agree (blue), disagree (red), or other (yellow). Agree and disagree are definitive while other contains, for the most part, conditional statements. Additional comments at the end of each category were inputted as open-entry responses. Only the assessments tied with the notion of multiculturalism were discussed in the theme section of this chapter. These tables identified the courses’ strengths and weaknesses based on students’ responses to the survey questions.
Table 5 concerned the information in the syllabus, overview of the course (provided in the course LMS or Blackboard), and the introduction video developed by the course facilitator in the Blackboard course. The purpose of this content was to help students orient themselves to the online course. Most students in the online program agreed that the content was beneficial and helpful; however, instructions on where and how to begin the course needed to be improved.
Students also believed that instructions were misplaced, and they were overwhelmed with the information displayed on the screen when first accessing the course.
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Table 5
Part 1: Syllabus, Overview, and Introduction
Instructions make clear how to get started and where to find various course components.
Etiquette expectations (sometimes called “netiquette” for online discussions, email, and other forms of communication are stated clearly.
The self-introduction by the instructor is appropriate and available online.
Minimum technical skills expected of the student are clearly stated.
Additional comments about the Course Syllabus, 38 comments Overview and Introduction:
Table 6 focused on student engagement and the interactive experience. Table 6 depicts overall positive responses to the student engagement component of the online course. Students stated that language mentoring was the strongest element of the program and helped build their confidence in communicating with native signers while increasing their ASL skills. The biggest 94 weakness reported in student engagement was the scheduling platform. Students faced challenges with language mentors not showing up to their appointed sessions or sessions being cancelled at the last minute.
Table 6
Part 2: Student Engagement
Clear standards are set for instructor responsiveness and availability (turn-around time for email, grade posting, etc.).
The requirements for student interaction through [language mentoring] are clearly articulated and language sessions are beneficial to language growth.
Additional comments about Student Engagement: 37 comments
In Table 7, the efficiency and effectiveness of technology platforms and tools were assessed. Students reported having positive experiences with several technological tools that supported ASL learning. The two major concerns expressed among students were the lack of infrastructure in instructional support for Blackboard and slow response times or assistance with the 2-step verification requirements from the institution’s technology services. The latter concern prevented students from accessing the course because of the additional time needed to reset their
Blackboard account password.
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Table 7
Part 3: Course Technology
The tools and media appropriately support the learning objectives.
Navigation throughout the online components of the course is logical, consistent, and efficient.
Students have ready access to the technologies required in the course.
Instructions on how to access resources at a distance are sufficient and easy to understand.
The course design takes advantage of available tools and media.
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Which of the following technologies caused you problems during this course? Please list all that apply and provide details in the comment box. ● Blackboard ● GoReact ● ConexEd ● I did not have technology problems in this course Additional comments about Course Technology: 31 comments
Table 8 focused on student support within and during the course. Students provided mostly positive feedback on two areas: instructions for receiving assistance with the platform and the quality of course facilitators’ responses to student concerns. One student expressed frustration with the timeliness of responses from their online facilitator because he or she expected communication to occur within 24 hours of reporting an issue.
Table 8
Part 4: Student Support
The course instructions explain or link to clear descriptions of the technical support offered.
The instructor was willing to help when contacted with problems or requests for information or clarification.
Additional comments about Student Support: 26 comments
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Table 9 shows how students felt about the course’s assignments and evaluations. Students reported that instructions on how to complete assignments and how comprehension and production skills would be assessed were clear. Overall, students said that instructor feedback on video submissions were received in a timely manner. A few students shared that some areas of assessment were not explained because signed linguistic concepts were ambiguous in the lesson.
Table 9 Part 5: Assignments & Evaluations
Instructor provides clear instructions for assignments and submissions.
Instructor demonstrates a clear, precise, and accurate use of assessments for student performance.
Additional comments about Assignments & Evaluations: 30 comments
Table 10 displays students’ concerns with the course registration process. While there were many positive responses, there were a few complaints about registration communication through consortium schools causing delays with students being able to enroll. Students also complained about not receiving a confirmation message after registering because it would end up in their spam folder. Lastly, students pointed out that they did not always receive electronic invoices that would prompt them to pay for a course.
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Table 10 Part 6: Registration
The registration process is efficient, clear, and self- explanatory.
Lastly, Table 11 illustrates students’ responses to the question of whether or not they would recommend the online ASL course to others. Most students agreed that they would recommend the online courses, but some students believed that prospective students should already have a basic understanding of ASL linguistic features before taking the program’s first course. Two students reported that they would not recommend the online program because they believed the courses were disorganized and too accelerated for language learning.
Table 11
Part 7: Recommendation
Please share if you would recommend this course and include why or why not
The questions asked in the survey data mostly addressed students’ experiences with the onboarding process relevant to the technical platform, student interaction, and instructions. Areas of concern raised by participants provide consideration for ways to improve the online program.
Some areas of improvement include ensuring that the navigation of instructional materials are accessible and feasible and reassessing the institution’s approach to LMS security. Overall, 99 students’ experiences with the onboarding procedures in the online platform, as well as their comments on whether they would recommend the online ASL program to others, indicated what impacted their language learning progress. While these assessments do not focus specifically on the multicultural content within the program, there may be other factors not directly mentioned in neither the survey nor student comments that may be relevant to multiculturalism.
Overview of Video Observations
Twenty language mentoring archival video sessions and 15 video artifacts were retrieved from the ConexEd platform as data sources for analysis. The videos were randomly selected by the online program’s instructional designer; then, the compiled videos were sent through Google
Drive in folders categorized by each ASL level. These were downloaded and saved on a hard drive and the original transfer was deleted to preserve participants’ anonymity. Those relevant to the current study were analyzed using the themes in this chapter.
Archival Videos
Each archival video captured half-hour language mentoring sessions designed as a conversational learning approach between language mentors1 and online students. Five videos were selected for each ASL level, 1-4. The videos demonstrated diverging discussions on topics related to online lessons disguised as a prompt by the language mentor. In Tables 12 through 15 on the proceeding four pages, language mentors are identified as numbers and gender while online students are identified as letters, gender, ASL level, and session number with a brief description of the topics they discussed. Each table will have preambles of ASL Student
1 Language mentor is a term that better describes the type of interaction as opposed to tutors. Tutors provide corrective and constructive feedback on basic instructions while language mentoring uses implied actions and guidance through conversation. This reduces anxiety for students and closes the power dynamics gap between the tutor and the student. 100
Learning Outcomes to provide the objectives for each ASL level, starting from basic to developing to beginning intermediate to intermediate.
Per the Student Learning Outcome (SLO) for ASL 1, students in the online course will achieve 6 learning objectives: (1) comprehend and express oneself with basic ASL vocabulary and correct grammar, (2) identify and compare their beliefs, values, products and practices found within the Deaf communities, (3) converse to discuss key concepts in other disciplines, (4) compare and contrast students’ languages and cultures with those of Deaf communities at basic level, (5) demonstrate an awareness of grammatical features that make ASL a complex human language at basic level, and (6) engage and converse with Deaf community members.
Table 12
ASL 1 Sessions
Mentor/ Student/ gender gender Session Topic Mentor #1 Participant A 8 Hobbies, describing family, getting (female) (female) Deaf person’s attention, discuss other languages learned Mentor #2 Participant B 8 Opposites, clothing items (male) (female) Mentor #3 Participant C 2 Same/different, numbers, family (female) (male) members, why are you learning ASL? Mentor #4 Participant D 6 Why are you learning ASL? (male) (female) Mentor # 5 Participant E N/A Discussion on travels (male) (female)
The Student Learning Outcome (SLO) for ASL 2 states that students will have learned the following by the completion of the online course: (1) comprehend and express oneself with developing ASL vocabulary and correct grammar, (2) identify, compare and analyze their 101 beliefs, values, products and practices found within the Deaf communities, (3) converse to discuss key concepts in other disciplines, (4) compare and contrast students’ languages and cultures with those of Deaf communities at developing level, (5) demonstrate an awareness of grammatical features that make ASL a complex human language at developing level, and (6) engage and converse with Deaf community members.
Table 13
ASL 2 Sessions
Mentor/ Student/ gender gender Session Topic Mentor # 5 Participant F 1 Discussion of cultural etiquette (male) (female) (bathroom, attention getting, etc.) Retelling Motel Story Mentor #6 Participant G 5 Cultural greetings and homework (female) (female) practice Mentor #2 Participant H 19 Conversation (female) (female) Mentor #7 Participant I 13 Deaf clubs (female) (female) Mentor #8 Participant J 25 Deaf clubs (female) (female)
According to ASL 3 SLO, online students will (1) comprehend and express oneself with intermediate ASL vocabulary and correct grammar, (2) engage, debate, and exchange information and perspectives on topics of Deaf culture and related products successfully at beginning intermediate level, (3) engage in discussion and exchange more information and perspectives on topics of other disciplines, (4) compare and contrast students’ languages with those of Deaf communities on grammatical and discourse structures, and cultural products, practices, and perspectives at beginning intermediate level, (5) ability to articulate and demonstrate intermediate grammatical features that make ASL a complex human language, and 102
(6) engage and converse information and share perspectives with Deaf community members at the beginning intermediate level.
Table 14
ASL 3 Sessions
Mentor/ Student/ gender gender Session Topic Mentor #5 Participant K N/A Poem discussion (Kristine Hall) (male) (female) and Deaf Clubs Mentor #6 Participant L 13 Recent purchases and its cost (female) (female) Mentor #2 Participant M 17 Student questions the language (female) (female) mentor about his upbringing (Deaf schools, mainstream, SEE vs ASL) Mentor #1 Participant N 5 Describing rooms, Poem (female) (female) discussion (Kristine Hall) Mentor #4 Participant O 2 Injuries and treatments (male) (female)
ASL 4 SLOs expect students to accomplish the following goals by end of term: (1) comprehend and express oneself with advanced level ASL vocabulary and correct grammar, (2) engage, debate, and exchange information and perspectives on topics of Deaf culture and related products successfully at intermediate level, (3) engage, debate, and exchange more information and perspectives on topics of other disciplines, (4) compare and contrast students’ languages and cultures with those of Deaf communities on grammatical and discourse structures, and cultural products, practices, and perspectives at intermediate level, (5) ability to articulate and demonstrate intermediate grammatical features that make ASL a complex human language, and
(6) engage and converse information and share perspectives with the Deaf community at the intermediate level. 103
Table 15
ASL 4 Sessions
Mentor/ Student/ gender gender Session Topic Mentor # 5 Participant P N/A Conversation (male) (female) Mentor #4 Participant Q 1 Storytelling situations (male) (male) Mentor #6 Participant R 10 Troll/goat story (female) (female) Mentor #2 Participant S 1 Storytelling situations (female) (female) Mentor #9 Participant T N/A Troll/goat story (male) (female)
Video Artifacts
A total of fifteen recorded videos were retrieved from ConexEd consisting of thirty- minute sessions with online students and their course facilitators. Five videos from levels ASL 1-
3 were selected and each level had a different facilitator. ASL 4 did not require recording of the sessions, so none were selected for this study. The purpose of these sessions were for facilitators to track their students’ progress in the online course and determine if additional support was needed. Discussions included reviews of language mentor meetings, questions from the lessons, and personal exchange of views on social and political issues in the Deaf community. Although there were no specific prompts designed for this portion of engagement sessions, spontaneous conversations through signed interactions were observed and findings related to multiculturalism were used for this study.
A theme chart below displays the organization and presentation of the superordinate themes and subordinate themes in the next section. The categorization of themes manifested 104 primarily from the analyses of participant interviews and underpinned by findings from video archives and artifacts.
Theme Chart
I. Theme One: Cultivating Cultural Competence A. Defining Multiculturalism and Inclusion 1. Multiculturalism 2. Inclusion B. Losing the Rose Colored Glasses 1. “This is hard” 2. Cultural awareness expansion C. Developing Empathetic Attitudes D. Connecting the Dots II. Theme Two: Building Cultural Competence Through Engagement A. Building a Bridge Between Communities B. Applying Cultural Theory to Practice C. Aspiring Allies Versus Aspiring Helpers III. Theme Three: Discerning Cultural Relevance A. Meaningful Cultural Content B. Contextual Juxtapositions
Theme One: Cultivating Cultural Competence
The superordinate theme, Cultivating Cultural Competence, revealed ways that online students developed cultural cognizance during various stages of awareness progression, especially through language learning. Data from interviews, artifact videos, and archival videos revealed that cultural competence in having awareness of not only one’s own cultural identity, but also learning about diverse cultures and communities, was emergent in student’s narratives.
Data also showed the students’ ability to recognize and celebrate those communities was a motivating factor in learning ASL. This superordinate theme includes the following sub-themes:
Defining Multiculturalism and Inclusion, Losing the Rose Colored Glasses, Developing
Empathetic Attitudes, and Connecting the Dots.
105
Defining Multiculturalism and Inclusion
The notion of multiculturalism and inclusion are not commonly introduced in early stages of language learning, so individuals may have different definitions of what these terms mean.
Responses from online students regarding their understanding of multiculturalism and inclusion and demonstrating what they know and to what extent, were similar.
Multiculturalism. When asked what multiculturalism meant to them, all participants hesitated to answer and needed a few moments to mull over their responses. Elizabeth and Dori described multiculturalism as a variety of people and cultures. Elizabeth shared that multiculturalism is, “A variety of people from different backgrounds...It can be, um, different languages, it can be different, uh, you know, ethnic backgrounds. Just a variety of people.” Dori labeled multiculturalism as ‘combining several cultures’, which is a conglomerate of various cultures in one shared space. Bonnie believed multiculturalism to be more than just diverse groups and cultures, she perceived multiculturalism as, “... being able to see from other perspectives, other people and their perspective of culture, and what it means to them...instead of making assumptions.”
Fiona’s response, however, focused on acceptance: “I, uh, honestly I'm just thinking of general, uh, diversity, um, in accepting of others.” Amanda’s description of multicultural was more detailed, and tied to awareness: “Multicultural. Hmm. I believe it means to have awareness of more than one culture. Awareness of their own language, values, their own experiences. Just aware and understand there are differences...understanding others.”
Defining multiculturalism yielded a range of understanding among participants which included diverse people and cultures, the amalgamation of cultures, diverse cultural perspectives, acceptance, and awareness of own’s and other’s language, values, and experiences. This showed 106 that the students did not see this term as a unitary concept but rather they perceived this concept as it is applied to them, and within their level of understanding.
Inclusion. All participants believed that inclusion in the general sense meant to involve others in the learning process; however, the kinds of involvement were situated and defined differently. Dori described inclusion as an interconnected group, “...to include not like things but like a group of what’s involved.” She further described her experience in the online course in terms of inclusion: “I’m just curious about other people’s perspective. I feel really solo, isolated.
It didn’t feel like inclusion. If we’re talking about people, it didn’t feel like I had inclusion.” Dori did not believe she had access to her peers; therefore, she did not think she was in an inclusive environment.
Fiona and Bonnie perceived this term to encompass the student(s) and the professor.
Bonnie felt that the professor’s role in promoting inclusion was to encourage collaboration:
I would say being able to...I guess I think the big part of inclusion is the professor-student
relationship. It still feels like being in a class instead of being alone like taking a course
from a PowerPoint and reading from it. I want to feel like I’m a part of the course and
collaborating with other people.
Bonnie’s view on inclusion comprised the relationship between the student and the professor as well as the student with other students. Fiona’s explained that inclusion required having a form of rapport with the instructor for accommodation purposes, “...[so] everyone involved can have an individual relationship with the professor, or other students, whoever to accommodate each person's individual needs appropriately.” Elizabeth and Amanda also saw inclusion to serve as a means to access information. Elizabeth pointed out that participation was 107 key, “...everybody can participate, and that there's accessibility,” while Amanda saw inclusion as equal opportunity:
Umm...inclusion. I guess they mean to make the class accessible...to any student. Specifically,
for the course, I would imagine any student themselves interested in learning
about a specialty should have an equal opportunity to have access to it. With hearing
people, English as a first language, it helps to have English reinforcement to make sure
everything is clear, to make sure we understand, ongoing understanding. So...I guess
that’s how I imagine what makes equal opportunity for students.
Amanda believed that having access to information through their native language or natural language modality was critical for students. She thought that bolstering access led to greater transparency.
Participants’ views on multiculturalism and inclusion captured the general sense of the concepts while providing different perspectives on how they are applied. Multiculturalism was described as the co-existence of diverse people, cultures and cultural perspectives with acceptance and awareness of one’s own and other’s language, values, and experiences. Inclusion was described as involving others in the learning process within various contexts. This included access to other peers and their perspectives, access to the instructor and other students to build relationships and peer collaboration, access to content information, and access as equal opportunity.
Losing the Rose-Colored Glasses
Many participants in a new language course have underlying assumptions and biases prior to participation. Participants described their moments of realization while progressing through the course, challenges they faced, and what they learned from taking the course. Data 108 showed that many of the students’ initial assumptions were either invalidated or replaced with a new sense of awareness after completing the course.
“This is hard”
Fiona, who recently completed ASL I, recalled challenges during language sessions with
ASL language mentors. She expressed that undergoing these sessions with a variety of signers from various regions were demanding and taxing:
Everyone was very nice, but since everyone was so different, you know, some signers were
signing very fast, and it was hard to follow along. And other people, you
know, were signing things that weren't covered yet in the lesson plan. So, it was like
really advanced, you know, it was just a very wide variety of people, which, like I said is
very good, but it also made it difficult sometimes.
The challenges Fiona faced with language mentors were not limited to ASL 1 students. Elizabeth had a similar experience with the difficulties of comprehending new signs and signing styles during her ASL 2 online course; however, she talked about the importance of the language mentors:
Language mentors were much easier for me to understand. Um, it's, like, an auditory
perception when people have accents. You know? Some people are easier for me to, you
know, understand from a hearing perspective. But, in sign language, some people... like,
there were some (mentors), even though they were signing conversations that I didn't
have the signs for, I could follow them very easily, and other times (laughs) some
people's signs were just really difficult for me to understand. But they were all very, very
helpful in making sure I understood and, uh, making it clear to me so that it wasn't just, 109
you know, a lot of, like, signs that I didn't understand. If I didn't get it, I could ask, they
would repeat or they would say it a different way or put it in signs that I did understand.
Elizabeth was not deterred when faced with language learning obstacles and she saw the benefits of meeting multiple mentors. She alluded to these differing signing styles as having ‘accents’, with some being harder to register than others. She also saw these as opportunities to see these signed concepts in various lexical forms.
Lastly, in an observation of a language session between Mentor #4 and Participant Q, who was based in Vermont, shared that although he had been learning ASL for the past three years, taking ASL 4 online was “hard”. In this particular session, he was required to tell several personal stories employing a narrative construction2 that demonstrated the appropriate grammar rules to conceptualize the story. Participant Q struggled to switch from one register to another, from colloquial use to a formal storytelling discourse structure, while applying foregrounded grammatical features. All these examples demonstrated that learning ASL, while challenging, was less so with the help of language mentors.
Cultural awareness expansion. Awareness expansion are moments when students become aware of newfound knowledge introduced in their courses. Interview data showed how students’ perceptions of ASL changed when they learned about the origins of ASL, the culture, and the ASL community.
Amanda recalled her surprise from ASL 1 when she realized ASL did not originate in
America and the language was an amalgamation of French Sign Language (LSF), traits from
Martha’s Vineyard Sign Language (MVSL), and home signs in America:
2 Narrative construction is the construal of a subjective event from the signer’s perspective that includes the maintenance and consistency of spatial relationships through grammatical structures (Janzen, 2008). 110
Wow...it gave me awareness about France, it provided awareness that it’s not just [an]
America ‘born and raised’ kind of language. There was a lot of influence from other
countries. Now I have that kind of awareness and that’s important.
Elizabeth described her experience as a revelation, “I didn't really have that knowledge before. So, it just kind of expanded, you know, my awareness of it and, um, my appreciation for their contributions.” As someone who was pursuing ASL for the first time, Bonnie was astonished to discover that ASL goes beyond the language itself and admitted that she was naive about its culture:
I was very naive when I began ASL. I was - now, I had no idea about deaf culture or the
deaf community, so this was definitely a learning experience. I’m still learning. I
happened to start researching myself - the only thing I heard was, I remember, one
biology course during college, we learned about the Martha’s Vineyard story based on [a]
genetic example we had to do for the class, it had nothing to do with the deaf community.
I remembered hearing about that story and thinking, WOW! And then when I heard the
story about Gallaudet and Clerc, I wanted to learn more. I researched more articles,
journals, videos - it sparked something inside of me. I didn’t expect it from this course.
For Bonnie, awareness of ASL expanded as she did more research and learned more about the language and its history. Bonnie’s awareness eventually crossed over to the social justice sphere when she learned about linguistic discrimination after incorrectly assuming that ASL was a generally acceptable communication modality and was dismayed when becoming aware it was otherwise.:
I just assumed sign language has been around for a long time and no one would
discriminate against that. It didn’t make sense to me to discriminate. But I had no idea 111
about ASL at all, the language itself. After I took the course, not only did I understand
language a little; I learned a little bit about the culture, too. That was nice...I didn’t know
how severe the discrimination was against the deaf community. It started a new path.
This new path was the catalyst to incorporating ASL communication into her practice and this is further explored in the “Inspiring Allies” section of this chapter.
Another account of awareness expansion was from an observation of a language mentoring session between an ASL 1 student, Participant E, and Mentor #5. A conversation about the student traveling to Malaysia during winter break was the topic of discussion. The mentor suggested that the student stop by Kulak in Thailand to visit a deaf school and explained that their sign language was a mix of ASL and Malaysian Sign Language. He further explained that she should refrain from the practice of communicating in ASL in other countries and instead communicate in the visiting country’s native sign language to prevent linguistic imperialism. The student seemed surprised at this advice because her mouth was agape and upon closing her mouth, she nodded and signed, “Cool...I did not know that!”
This student was unaware of the country’s language status quo and learned how the proliferation of ASL could be deemed a threat to signing communities in other countries.
Through this interaction, this became an information sharing opportunity to expose the student to political aspects of language ownership.
Many online ASL students came into the course with limited knowledge which was expanded at some point in the learning process leaving them with new impressions of the language. Losing the rose-colored glasses means that students changed their presumptions and biases as their awareness expanded and learned about such topics as ASL discrimination and sign language in other countries. While students faced challenges, they saw the benefits from working 112 with the language mentors, the storytelling exercises, and learning about the ASL history and culture.
Developing Empathetic Attitudes
A part of building cultural competence is developing empathetic attitudes towards others.
Evidence from participant interviews and video sources identify ways online students could associate with the culture through understanding and sharing perspectives.
Upon completion of her first ASL course, Fiona saw the culture as a community that was no different than any other community. She shared that she initially thought that those communicating through ASL had a difficult way of life:
I think it’s easier to observe times that I, before the course, had thought, ‘Oh wow, that
must be so difficult’. You know, because I didn’t understand. And now after learning and
speaking, it is what it is, you know, I mean, that's just life. That's not, it's not anything to
them. Does that make sense? That's (laughs) it’s just, it is, you know, it is what it is.
Fiona had realized by the end of her ASL 1 course, that ASL is the language modality used in the signing community and a way of life, not a life of adversity. American Sign Language has its own distinct nature and as Fiona added, “...and for the culture to have thrived and grown as much as it has is incredible.” This empathetic attitude occurred when Fiona’s stigmatization changed to improved perceptions of the deaf community.
Bonnie related to the complex layering of identities within her personal community through her online course: “I felt [like] I was immersed in the culture and also at the same [time] deaf culture had different cultures within the deaf community. It’s important to see the deaf culture and different sub-cultures that relate to my life and I understood this.” She acknowledged the community’s multiple cultural identities in which one or more overlapping identities were 113 directly tied to its culture and other cultures. This understanding allowed Bonnie to see a perspective that was different from her own as she experienced the course’s multicultural content.
Additional evidence of students’ ability to empathize happened after they watched a video in ASL 3 that included a poem recited by Kristine Hall3. In the video, Kristine’s performance depicted a common phenomenon among deaf and hard of hearing individuals who returned home to their hearing, non-signing families after socializing at a Deaf club. Hall, who was enlightened after being in the company of other signers, again felt isolated when faced with the lack of communication with her family. During observations of language mentoring sessions, students seemed to empathize with this experience. For example, Participant O shared with her language mentor that she had suffered personal drawbacks in the previous year, a similar isolating experience.
Relating to the topic of isolation and exclusion, another student, Participant P from ASL
4, told her mentor that a Deaf 13-year old ASL user in her classroom at a reservation school lacked ways to communicate even with his instructors. She conveyed her frustration and disappointment in the system’s failure to provide that student with better accommodations.
Overall, students were able to empathize with many of the experiences presented in course materials especially through conversations with language mentors and an ASL poetry video. Students had personal connections with the cultural content which also increased their
ASL understanding.
3 Kristine Hall is a contemporary figure, Deaf ASL instructor, ASL poet, and advocate for the Deaf community. 114
Connecting the Dots
A shift in perspective and making a connection from the course cultural content to the language learning process is a pivotal moment in language acquisition. The following evidence from interviews and video observations present data where students understood that there was a relationship between two things pertinent to the course - language exercises and cultural lessons.
Fiona found herself becoming enthusiastic about the Deaf community’s history and endeavors while studying ASL 1:
Between each language lesson, I remember saying and thinking, like, ‘Wow, that's really
cool how far this has come.’ Because it started, like, centuries ago and it’s just been
kinda, like America and a lot of other countries just haven't given any credit, given any
thought. And for the culture to have thrived, and, grown as much as it has, it’s incredible.
Um, and it’s very exciting (laughs) to read about. I remember being enthralled.
Fiona’s excitement about the historical content aligned with the moment her perspective shifted and this helped her overcome qualms about learning the language structure:
My perspective has definitely changed. I was hesitant about the structure primarily. Um,
and I was also nervous about communicating with all of the [language mentors], but by
the end, um, I got less anxiety. (laughs) And the structure proved to be beneficial as it
was designed to be - building upon ASL lessons with more focus and emphasis on ASL
linguistic structures and other features
Additionally, Chelsea revealed when she finally progressed to what was her most enjoyable activity in ASL 2:
[My] favorite activity...storytelling. I guess up to that point...I think first with the Timber
Story...up to that point from learning signs and watching the dialogues and documenting 115
my answers, and then we arrived to the storytelling. It’s like something opened up for me.
Like, it became more...it became more fun. At that point, I started to enjoy myself more.
It wasn’t just sitting, watching, focusing, learning, and memorizing everything
(correctly). At that point it became more relaxing and enjoyable.
The storytelling assignment provided Chelsea with an outlet where she was able to apply the fundamentals she learned up to that point in the course. This is the moment when the scaffolding of language learning through cultural customs shifted her perspective:
This (activity) definitely (gave me) a different perspective. Like before I started taking it,
I really didn't know much at all about the Deaf Community, and, uh, even learning now
how sign language has cha- has changed, and I ... I didn't know there were different sign
languages in different countries, even something as simple as that.
The storytelling activity not only gave Chelsea motivation to build her language skills; it also provided a new perspective on the ASL culture and history through storytelling.
When asked which assignment or topic had a significant impact on her language learning process in ASL 4, Amanda replied that ASL poetry was the most notable. She explained how she was able to perceive a wider span of lexical usage in ASL poetry and its larger capacity of manipulating morphemes4:
…ASL poetry in ASL 4, that part really opened my eyes. It was about Deaf culture, how
they view the world differently than hearing people [and] their language framing. It was a
completely new level - it brought a new level of perspective. Like people have more
limited words whereas ASL is lively and just blossoms. I loved that…that was awesome.
4 A morpheme is a meaningful linguistic unit, a base or root word that gives its word a principal meaning, and cannot be divided into smaller parts. 116
I really enjoy learning more about ASL poetry. I want to learn more - it’s not enough! I
want to learn more about that.
Amanda credits the poetry unit with helping her further appreciate the deaf cultural experience. Bonnie, also, had identical sentiments about ASL story assignments and felt that the
ASL story was what precipitated her improved language skills:
Umm...I think the stories were fun for me because it was more than just vocabulary and
memorizing. I was trying to understand the full concept through sentence structures. I
really enjoyed that. It felt like a break, not like identifying immediate structures and
testing placements. It was through a narrative where I understood and also the [language
mentors] sessions. That was fun. I really enjoyed those. I think that really elevated my
whole learning experience. I had to use whatever knowledge I had and figure out how to
do it correctly. If they don’t understand, I would have to fix it, and ask them to explain it.
Lastly, Bonnie specifically mentioned that the narrative model, which served as a medium for learning appropriate grammatical rules, helped her the most with sentence structures and sentence formation.
Tethering cultural content to language acquisition courses is a motivator for students to learn a language. In an observation of a language mentor session with Participant I from an ASL
2 course and Mentor #2, they were describing their neighborhood and it appeared that both had different assumptions about the other. The mentor described her gated community in Anaheim,
California, as diverse and comprised of Deaf, Asian, African American, Latino, Blind and elder people. The student described her area as predominantly White with few African Americans and
Latinos in Richmond, Virginia. The mentor demonstrated signs for each group and the student was taken aback by some of the lexical signs. One sign in particular was BLACK to represent the 117
African American community, which is the same sign for the color black. The student, who was already aware of lexical signs for colors, became more engaged and asked about lexical signs for various ethnic and racial groups. This topic might not have come up in the course were it not for this culturally relevant conversation about neighborhoods.
Making a connection from the cultural content embedded in the course to the language learning exercises shifted online students’ perspectives. New realizations emerged from language learning tasks through cultural discussions where students were able to identify critical information. These included lowering inhibitions in acquiring linguistic skills using historical storytelling activities, poetry exercises, and sharing real life cultural situations.
Theme one conclusions. The first theme, Cultivating Cultural Competence, described ways that online students evolved through various stages of awareness during language acquisition. Their growing realizations were identified in three stages of progression as presented in the sub-themes: Losing the Rose Colored Glasses, Developing Empathetic Attitudes, and
Connecting the Dots. Common occurrences from the data show that students shed parts of their inner bias and assumptions during the online courses when contemplating cultural content. These were moments when students grasped new information that began to reshape their perception of
ASL and its community, and also become more cognizant of their own beliefs and values. From this revelation is the germination of empathetic attitudes where students gain the ability to understand and share perspectives of others through personification of cultural experiences. The process of unpacking bias and assumption and developing empathetic attitudes appear to incentivize students to improve their language proficiency. 118
The next theme, Building Cultural Competence Through Engagement, discusses ways that engagement expanded cultural competence and how they are applied, and where students wish to carry this cultural competence.
Theme Two: Building Cultural Competence Through Engagement
The second theme, Building Cultural Competence Through Engagement, explores online students’ perceptions of current and future engagement practices. This examines the dynamic processes when conversations, interactions, and exchanges between individuals or groups within different communities occurred in the learning environment. The theme also encompasses engagement practices from cultural lessons and future aspirations to continue engagement with
ASL users outside of the academic context. Through observations of archival videos, video artifacts and narratives, emergent data are categorized into three sub-themes: Building a Bridge
Between Communities, Applying Cultural Theory to Practice, and Aspiring Allies Versus
Aspiring Helpers.
Building a Bridge Between Communities
Language mentoring sessions in the online course connect two individuals from different regions and personal backgrounds through a web-based platform. Through data derived from videos and narratives, online students described what they perceived to be beneficial through their interactions with language mentors.
Fiona was asked what was unique about her experience as a language mentee and she stated that it was the myriad of encounters that enhanced her learning:
...getting the opportunity to speak to so many different people, um, it wasn't just one
person that I was always talking to, giving me the same notes. Um, you know, with each
person, you talk about different things, you have different interests, so you, you know, 119
you start, it gets off book, which is good. Um, you know, you have the opportunity to talk
about different things that I wouldn't have gotten to even think about talking about with
my professor, or just, the same person, over and over again.
The spontaneity of the conversation between Fiona and ASL mentors allowed for discussions on various interests. For Dori, however, this was a way she assessed her ability to understand the materials and to communicate effectively:
The best part of everything was the [mentors]...the interactions were better than me
wondering if I was communicating effectively or watching the DVD thinking or feeling
puzzled. When I talked with the (language mentors), you can see their facial expressions
that implies that I’m not being clear. If they nod their head, it meant I was clear. Or when
I ask a question and they respond; I knew I was communicating effectively. It felt real. It
makes it real. We were done with the assigned curriculum 5 minutes each time because
we understood we have 25 minutes for me to ask what I wanted to know. Things I’m
interested in. To watch them sign and ask them to slow down and to teach me. A lot of
time it was just chatting.
Through interactions with language mentors, students can detect their own inappropriate use of conversation skills prompted by the mentors’ visual cues. Backchanneling is a covert way for the passage of information and during discourse, the participants often convey gesture to show that they are being attentive. This naturalistic approach reduces the student’s affective filters, hence increasing their receptive and productive abilities.
Amanda also valued the times she met with language mentors as this was an opportunity for her to review the lessons while observing various signing styles during each session: 120
[Language mentoring] sessions...definitely. I loved those. I loved having diverse deaf
people to engage with, enjoy conversations, or to ask questions. I always brought my list
of questions and asked away. [Language mentoring] sessions gave me a chance to
socialize with a variety of people, observe different styles, different regional signs, and
gave me permission to ask questions that I couldn’t find answers online.”
Amanda added that these sessions compelled her to put her best efforts forward:
I was very vigilant, pay close attention and understand because it was a completely new
experience for me. And engaging with a new group of deaf people. I was only focused on
my ministry with signing deaf people. That kind of thing. Gallaudet opened a whole new
range of deaf people from different regions. I think I felt a little bit nervous. Am I to learn
only their signs? Am I able to keep up? Will I miss anything?”
Amanda was not the only one who saw the benefits of meeting and observing native signers from across America. Elizabeth claimed socializing with mentors expanded her conversational skills:
I got to talk to people from all over the United States with a variety of backgrounds,
interests. And, again, it was that whole ability to expand in a conversational way and use
the signs in conversations so it wasn't just about learning vocabulary. And I got great
feedback from them. The topics were a variety of things. You know, sometimes it was
gardening because that's one of my hobbies. Sometimes it was about travel because that's
also another thing I'm interested in. Um, so it gave me an opportunity to have
conversations and not just learning vocabulary.
Many of the conversations that the mentors had with students covered an array of topics from favorite foods to traveling to critiquing films. However, one video session included a 121 deeper, more sensitive discussion. A student, Participant F from ASL 2, who identified as a new cochlear implant5 (CI) user, elected to learn sign language so she could communicate without using her devices. She explained that after a few hours of wearing the instrument, she would experience excruciating pain along with other uncomfortable side effects commonly found in CI users. Much to her surprise, Mentor #5 was a former CI user. He went on to elaborate on his personal journey which involved disappointing his parents when he decided to stop wearing his
CI and fully adopt ASL as his sole communication modality. He justified this decision with examples of his successes such as graduating with a bachelor’s degree, obtaining employment, and being fully functional in society. This, the language mentor revealed, challenged his parent’s notion that deaf children can only achieve societal acclimation through Oralism6 supplemented with CIs. The online student related to the mentor through a commonality and received a different perspective from a native signer. This sharing of perspectives is beneficial to the language learning process.
Another student shared in a video session that she enrolled in the ASL course to learn how to communicate with her deaf friends better. By sharing stories from personal experience, the student believed this improved their signing skills and facilitated bonding and connections between the student and the language mentor.
Language mentoring sessions in the online course connected two individuals from various regions and backgrounds. Online students who shared personal stories with each other and built relationships, perceived having close connections to be beneficial through their
5 A cochlear implant is a surgical implant that is comprised of small, complex technological apparatuses to facilitate sense of sound to those who are profoundly deaf or severely hard of hearing (www.nidcd.nih.gov). 6 Oralism is a communication method (lipreading, speech, emulating mouth shapes, and breathing patterns) for the deaf and hard of hearing children to communicate in education settings heavily supported by Alexander Graham (A.G.) Bell.
122 interactions with language mentors. These connections stimulated language growth through self- correction utilizing visual cues, improving communication skills, increasing lexical capacity, and the ability to ask questions in the company of a trusted mentor.
Applying Cultural Theory to Practice
Actively engaging with members from other communities using cultural content embedded in the ASL online courses was an essential component of language learning. Students are provided opportunities to learn cultural rules and apply them, whether it is through mentoring sessions or outside of the course.
Dori reminisced about her visit to Gallaudet University during Homecoming week, one of the largest annual alumni gatherings, to learn more about the campus and its community. She described her first encounter with a large deaf group and applied social rules and attention- getting techniques she learned in ASL 1:
...getting someone, their attention. If two people are conversing, don’t be obvious trying
to be polite and cut through them. Before I had no idea. I had to let them know I was
walking through and I looked stupid. That was a lesson I had to use last weekend at
Gallaudet Homecoming. It was cool to apply what I learned. The first time someone
tapped me on the shoulder and asked me a question, I’m not used to that kind of contact
with a stranger. I know in theory my first experience was the other person tapping me on
the shoulder. But I’m fully comfortable when someone tapped me the first time. And I
didn’t speak the whole time I was there. I could, there were hearing people there, but I
didn’t want to. I didn’t want to speak.
Bonnie’s confidence in engaging with members of the ASL community transpired 123 because of her ability to comprehend and produce signs conversationally. Starting with the course lessons, she built her competence by learning how to retell the Gallaudet and Clerc story:
We did a lot in the workbook. They have sections we had to read about the history and
cultural things in the book. And then there was the Gallaudet story in the end. I learned
all of that. I had to memorize the story and present this to the (language mentor). I had to
narrate the story to a (language mentor).”
With her competence and confidence built, Bonnie was able to transfer her cultural and linguistic knowledge from the academic context to the personal context:
Personal goals, personal life...this means now I’ve also made more friends because I’m
involved in some Facebook groups in Seattle with other people who are learning ASL.
You can meet up for coffee and chat and sign. I think that’s huge now that I have the
ability to connect with more people out there. In the beginning, if someone only signs and
didn’t speak, I wouldn’t try to engage in a conversation but that’s happening now. I go to
a coffeeshop and I see someone trying to communicate or trying to order something, I
would think, omigosh, that’s cool! I’m understanding their signs.
Students were able to engage with members from other communities using cultural content embedded in the ASL online courses. Evidence showed that students were provided opportunities to learn cultural rules and apply them utilizing ASL with confidence in spaces outside of the online course.
Aspiring Allies (Advocacy) Versus Aspiring Helpers (Inspirational)
The third sub-theme under Cultural Competence through Engagement addresses students’ aspirations in future engagement with the ASL community after completing the ASL program.
Online students revealed ways they wished to engage with the community in two ways: 1) 124
Advocacy or a dedicated activity by the student of supporting a cause to influence social systems or institutions, and 2) Helpers or those who provide aid in immediate situations where ASL communication access is needed. Therefore, data was organized into two categories, Aspiring
Allies and Aspiring Helpers.
Aspiring allies. Amanda confessed that she and her family wanted to build an environment where ASL and English were used simultaneously in their sermons for deaf and hearing audiences:
My family is completely hearing. We just felt we wanted to set up a ministry, to start a
church because there were deaf people...and they were separated. There (was) a hearing
group and the deaf had interpreters in their group but families couldn’t intermingle
together equally. This led us to this ministry.
Other than establishing inclusive practices, Amanda also wanted to spread appreciation of the Deaf culture to bring people together, especially families:
I want to help families to learn how to communicate and having the Deaf culture
awareness, I want help in that field. For me personally, understanding this will help me
convey this information and explain to other people to help them understand - especially
[the] hearing culture. Me, as a hearing person...I can bring this to other hearing parents in
their own language, through English, more about Deaf culture...that kind of thing.
Primarily, how would this benefit me.
Amanda’s commitment to learn ASL to incorporate into her religious homilies has been steadfast. However, Fiona’s goal in attaining ASL changed from ASL theater interpreting to becoming more involved in the ASL community: 125
I recently switched, um, my whole, like, career track. Um... I was originally doing theater
and wanted to do, um, theater interpretation. Um...but recently I was like ‘Nope!’ And I
want to do, um...Atlanta has a school for the deaf and I just feel really called to start a
theater program there, and um, do... uh, teach third or fourth grade, um, just in general.
Like Amanda, Bonnie wished to work with children who are ASL users but in the medical field. Bonnie, who has trained to become a child clinical psychologist, seeks to have direct communication with her young patients:
My goal in the future is to do child psychology like clinical practice with children so I am
able to sign with the deaf child instead of bringing in an interpreter. I think this is a big
deal to have direct communication with children, to have that relationship and trust. With
psychologists, that’s amazing.
She believed that removing the interpreter from conversations will strengthen the rapport she has with patients and will provide more confidentiality in whatever is disclosed.
Having direct access to ASL for the deaf population in early intervention and education has been the center of debate for many years. This topic was present in several language mentoring sessions and online students who worked in the education field from pre-K to K-12 were compelled to share their personal perspectives and goals. A student in the class that was involved with special education in Los Angeles worked with a 2-year old deaf boy and his mother to learn ASL as part of an early intervention support, so the students hoped to continue those types of practice. Another student, who is a pre-K teacher in Maine, hoped to teach both hearing and deaf children at an elementary school in his school district. He explained that there were deaf students at the school, and he wanted to ensure there were no communication barriers in case a deaf student was placed in his classroom. 126
Early intervention provides support and resources for children who may have developmental language delays that stem from a disability to help them succeed academically if early intervention is introduced earlier in age. One of the video sessions between a student, who was a teacher’s aide for students with CIs, and a language mentor revealed the student’s reason for learning ASL. She wanted to learn ASL in order to provide alternate communication methods with her students. The online student was already aware of concepts such as language deprivation in Oral schools and Deaf Education because of Gallaudet’s ASL curriculum. The student shared that the school where she was employed espoused the A. G. Bell7 philosophy and were staunch supporters of Oralism.
Aspiring allies are those who wish to advocate for the deaf community to influence social systems and institutions. Participants shared their desires to incorporate ASL in church sermons, medical practice, education and early intervention. These approaches affect the deaf and hard of hearing in how having access to ASL shapes their lives.
Aspiring helpers. Aspiring helpers were students who saw themselves serving deaf and hard of hearing people in order to increase accessibility. Elizabeth pictured herself using ASL to support communication for her deaf or hard of hearing peers and to ensure information was not lost:
I have a friend who's deaf, and so, um, you know... Like, we were at a professional
development today and, um, there was no captioning on the videos, so I was able to give
her, through sign, some information without it being disruptive to some of the other, um,
attendees. So, you know, I know that's kind of professional but, at the same time, we have
7 A.G. Bell was the inventor of the original telephone and promoted the eradication of deafness. Bell was an influential member of the Oralist movement where sign language was banned and a strong emphasis was on instructing the deaf on how to speak (Thumann & Simms, 2009). 127
conversations. We had lunch together and, um, I utilized sign to, uh... to a lip reader, um,
and oral. But, um, sign supplements... she knows signs so it supplements the
conversation. So, I use that a lot with her. Um, and I have another friend that's, um...
unilateral hearing loss who signs, so I sometimes do sign when I'm talking to her.
At the time of the study, Dori was unsure of her professional future with ASL. Dori sensed that her path could possibly lead to training hearing dogs (or other animals) or becoming an ASL interpreter for the deaf:
My world will include ASL from this point on. I don’t know which level but I feel
strongly… I will include [but] I don’t know if I will work with animals, like hearing dogs
or will become an interpreter...I don’t know. But I feel it will include ASL and I’m
excited to keep going.
Unlike Elizabeth and Dori, Chelsea’s aspirations did not include ASL communication as the main future goal but as a way to provide economic opportunities for deaf artists to showcase their work on her craft website. Chelsea did not mention how she would spotlight ASL in this endeavor; however, Deaf art is a large element in the deaf culture:
...I am thinking of starting a deaf artists' group. Uh, since I do the online bank and I do
my website, I'd like to have a website where, um, I could sell the crafts or, you know, the,
the deaf artists would bring their crafts and I would sell them and give them the money.
Aspiring helpers are people who are invested at the minimum and, to some extent, for their own personal benefit. This includes facilitating information between the information source and the (deaf or hard of hearing) ASL user within the facilitator’s personal space, training animals to respond to ASL, and promoting deaf artists for monetary gain. 128
Theme two conclusions. Three sub-themes from Theme Two: Cultural Competence through Engagement were discerned, Building a Bridge Between Communities, Applying
Cultural Theory to Practice, and Aspiring Allies Versus Aspiring Helpers. The data provided three conditions of engagements where students perceived to be impactful to their language acquisition progress and goals. Based on the student’s narratives, the language mentoring platform was suggested to be the most advantageous and gainful in their language learning process with the implementation of cultural content in their online courses. Students also conveyed that they were able to successfully transfer linguistic and cultural rules from the academic context and apply these to external contexts. Finally, students shared their future aspirations with ASL prompted from cultural exposure in the online courses.
The final theme, Discerning Cultural Relevance, focuses first on the students’ perceptions of the cultural content’s quality and its influence on their language acquisition. Second, students gauged whether content delivery accommodated or hindered their ability to acquire language skills.
Theme Three: Discerning Cultural Relevance
Students acknowledged the relevance of cultural content embedded in the language courses and expressed that tying cultural history, art, behaviors, and pivotal historical characters to the lessons within the curriculum were beneficial. However, the program’s pedagogical approach may have fallen short because it did not seem to leave a stronger impression on the online students. The final theme, Discerning Cultural Relevance, is bifurcated into two sub- sections: Meaningful Cultural Content and Contextual Juxtapositions.
129
Meaningful Cultural Content
Students in the ASL online courses articulated their appreciation for the embedded cultural content and believed it was essential to their language learning. In ASL 1, the famed
Gallaudet and Clerc story introduced students to the history of ASL through a DVD from a supplemental student textbook. The Gallaudet and Clerc story was the start of the new frontier for deaf and hard of hearing education when Thomas Gallaudet sought the best approach to communication in the classroom by going overseas. After visiting an Oral school in England,
Gallaudet traveled to France and discovered sign language as a means of communication at the institution where Laurent Clerc taught deaf and hard of hearing students. Inspired by this communication method, Gallaudet later convinced Clerc to return to America to co-establish the first deaf school in America, the American School for the Deaf, in Hartford, Connecticut in
1817. Online students viewed this clip and answered the following questions with their language mentors using ASL: Who were the main characters of the story? Who did Thomas Gallaudet meet? Why was meeting this person pivotal to Gallaudet? Students also had to summarize the story.
Dori recalled a discussion of the historical figures but was unable to retell the story due to a lapse in memory: “...just the story about Gallaudet and Clerc. I don’t know how to pronounce it but Clerc. That was relevant and I think I should have been more challenged.” Although Dori mentioned this significant historical account, she also believed that the reading the story as part of a story retelling exercise detracted from embracing the story fully. This is further elaborated in the following section. 130
Elizabeth had similar recollection issues. She was more interested in the story’s controversial debate on communication methods for the Deaf and hard of hearing in formal education:
Um, just, basically, the, you know, history of Gallaudet and Clerc. Um, you know,
different backgrounds in terms of, um, oral versus sign and, uh, the long history of debate
between the two, um, trying to, uh, bring those two concepts together rather than it being,
necessarily, uh, this or that, trying to utilize, uh, the philosophies of both... um, the
strengths in both. Excuse me. Um, so, yeah, and how they came together. How they, um,
brought what they knew to the United States so that we could start schools here and work
with our... [inaudible]... um, students that were here in the United States in a formal
educational setting.
Both Dori and Elizabeth were able to name the historical heroes, yet they were not able to pinpoint what exactly the monumental figures had accomplished to propel the ASL movement in ASL history. Elizabeth explained that while she could not remember the story, her cultural perspective widened by gaining this new knowledge:
I don't know that it changed my view about American sign language as much as, um,
appreciating the perspective of, um, how it's viewed from the perspective of somebody
who's deaf versus somebody who's hearing, and how they added to, um, whatever their
field was. You know what I mean? Um, so just looking at the impact that they made, I
guess. It didn't really change my view of sign language so much as, you know, their
impact in the history of art or the... in architecture or, um, science or whatever their
contribution was, just from their perspective.
Although the historical account of Gallaudet and Clerc influenced Elizabeth, she 131 saw more cultural impact from the exploration of artwork produced by members within the community. De’Via Art, abbreviated from Deaf View/Image Art, showcases a motley of work from various artists (both Deaf and hard of hearing) that represents the Deaf experience and perspectives, ranging from linguistic and cultural oppression to Deaf Gain8 (Durr, 2006). This revelation was also mentioned in another interview with Chelsea:
One thing I found most interesting I thought because of what I do for work - De’Via Art.
That’s one... just deaf people. Like a cultural thing. I know that, I've learned that they're
very, a lot of them, very creative. Like we have a Starbucks group, and there's a whole
bunch of women that do different kinds of jewelry and painting and card making. It's just
really cool, very intricate, beautiful work.
Elizabeth mentioned a topic of interest other than Deaf education and art - Black
American Sign Language9 - that was discussed during ASL 2:
And then, also, bringing in, um, artists and people that are, um, famous for different, you
know, aspects of, um... whether it be education, physical education, art, um, you know,
the Black Sign Language, which was something I didn't know about versus, um, you
know, all of that kind of history. So, I found those added pieces very interesting.
The online students’ primary focus was on building linguistic and communication proficiency, yet they were simultaneously gaining a small degree of critical cultural knowledge.
Participants briefly mentioned that the Gallaudet and Clerc story, cultural art, and Black ASL had an impact on them. However, they did not expound on the significance of this information and the possible reasons for this led to the next discussion regarding the pedagogical approach.
8 Deaf Gain shifts the mainstream deficit perspective of hearing loss to a different standpoint illustrating ways society benefits from deaf people and sign language (Bauman & Murray, 2014). 9 Black ASL is a variation of ASL used by Deaf African Americans that was shaped prior to the desegregation 1954. This dialect continues to permeate Deaf African American communities in the south (McCaskill et al., 2011). 132
Contextual Juxtapositions
Curriculum design is essential to the learning process in that the content has to be carefully organized in order for students to acquire a new language. This includes recognizing which subject elements inspired motivation by assessment points as well as the significant cultural materials that are relevant to language learning. Students shared how the course content was inadequate and how this impacted their ability to acquire ASL skills and cultural knowledge.
Dori recounted an assignment in ASL 1 where she had to retell the Gallaudet and Clerc story to a language mentor. She described how the task was based on a linguistic memory retention exercise and this detracted from her understanding the purpose of the story:
...there were no challenges - no questions I had to answer...no retaining of information. I
just browsed through them and didn’t feel it was memorable. Culture was there but really
didn’t seem like a priority compared to colors and numbers, Monday through Friday.
That was the one thing, the culture was not a priority. When I had to retell the story about
Gallaudet and Clerc, it forced me to memorize the story. It was the only time culture was
included for me.
Amanda, who had completed all four levels of ASL online, affirmed Dori’s statement that the emphasis of the storytelling assignment was more about constructing narratives rather than revisiting the history of ASL:
I don’t believe there was an emphasis on the history of ASL because we focused more on
conversation, all that. So really, it was light history that was taught. I don’t recall really
anything that ASL 1 history lessons passed on to ASL 4. It wasn’t significant. But I guess
my answer is no, it didn’t shift my perspective because before I came into the course, I
was already aware. 133
Conducting the storytelling exercise through conversation with a language mentor had more value than the meaning of the story for Dori and Amanda, which is why they did not sense that cultural history was emphasized in this assignment. Bonnie believed that an emphasis on cultural history would have impacted language learning had the story been introduced at the beginning of the 8-week ASL online course:
Well, there was one that stuck with me, that was the Gallaudet story. That triggered
something for me. I want to know more. It’s almost a shame that this story was at the end
of the course, I wish there was more in the beginning. I know it’s difficult to understand
but to listen to that story in the beginning would have been more interesting. It took me a
while to become interested in both the language and culture.
Students voiced discontent with other areas in the course design that included: the sign choices among language mentors, the language modality used in Blackboard discussion boards, and technical issues within the language mentoring platform. Through sessions with various language mentors, Elizabeth became confused with mentors’ use of various lexical signs among mentors. She had assumed they were regional signs and when replicating these signs during sessions, Elizabeth would be corrected by a mentor and informed that the signs were inaccurate:
…taking the course through Gallaudet, I learned that the signs were different, um, in
some... in some respects. I guess learning a little bit more about that because (laughs)
when I would talk to the (mentors) in different regions they would use some signs that I
had learned. I'm like, "Oh, that is ASL." Because I said, ‘This person says it's not. This
person says it is.’ So, it's just... It's interesting. Like, is that a regional sign? You know
what I mean? I was a little confused at times about that.
Online students expanded their linguistic capacity while conversing with native signers 134 from across the nation and being exposed to diverse lexical signs and styles. When students were told that their signs were inaccurate, especially based on geographic region, this possibly stunted their growth because they started questioning whether the signs they learned were legit.
Hindering language acquisition may also occur through limited signing opportunities, or lack thereof, within the Learning Management Software or platform.
Amanda explained that the discussion board in ASL 4 was her least favorite course activity because the formatting required students to submit their posts in English text as opposed to uploading their signed video as an attachment via Blackboard’s submission feature:
I guess...well, honestly, I loved the discussion board but it was also my least favorite
because it was more English oriented and it did not have direct signing discourse. Even
though it was beneficial, still, it was just a different thing. Because I wasn’t signing and I
wasn’t watching someone signing-it wasn’t in an ASL context-it was separated from the
ASL environment.
Not presenting the work in ASL appears to contradict the purpose of the course. The matter of discussions was heavily cultural-related in ASL 4 and, considering the level of proficiency, online students would have the ability to convey their discourse utilizing ASL.
In regard to the lack of ASL exposure, online students were at a disadvantage when experiencing no-shows for language mentoring. Some students were not able to complete their sessions because language mentors failed to make an appearance. This is detrimental to students’ learning progress because those appointments are tethered to lesson plans. Unfortunately,
Elizabeth fell victim to this dilemma:
When I was able to connect with (mentors), they were wonderful. They were probably 135
one of the best things about the class. But it was very frustrating because they weren't
available or they canceled or they no-showed (laughs) or... It was just a very frustrating
process because there were so many meetings we had to get in a short time. Um, so that
part was a little- little rough. Um, but the actual meetings with them were wonderful.
Thoughtful organization of the curriculum design is necessary to ensure successful delivery of content information in language acquisition. Students described the shortcomings of pedagogical delivery in several ways: the timing of introduction of cultural content, emphasis on reconstructing narratives and cultural knowledge, clarity on diverging lexical signs, and language mentoring arrangements. These inadequacies impacted their ability to acquire ASL skills and cultural knowledge.
Theme three conclusions. The final theme, Discerning Cultural Relevance was divided into two sub-themes: Meaningful Cultural Content and Contextual Juxtapositions. These refer to impactful content that encouraged language learning and pedagogical deliveries that may have assisted or impeded with the learning process. Online students shared what they found to be beneficial to their language learning in terms of cultural information; the Gallaudet and Clerc story was used to introduce ASL history towards the end of an ASL 1 8-week course, and students were to retell the story to a language mentor through ASL. Findings show that while students were aware of the story, they could not fully explicate why or what exactly occurred that made this a monumental historical moment. Participants also provided limited information on the significance of Deaf cultural art and Black ASL.
These findings could be a result of greater emphasis on linguistic memory retention tasks to garner the most possible points to complete the course in good standing in contrast to examining the significance of these cultural content. ASL 1 may be too soon to assess students 136 on narrative construction since the Gallaudet and Clerc story was used for this particular exercise and assessed towards the end of the online course. By introducing the story earlier in the course and employed for discussion via Blackboard’s discussion post and language mentoring session for assessment, perhaps students would assimilate the momentousness of the story. This would also apply to De’Via and Black ASL as well.
The context in which information is disseminated, the platform needs to be utilized within best practices. One, the method of content delivery should be through the same linguistic means received during cultural exploration through Blackboard posts, especially in upper level online courses. Two, improved language mentoring training and monitoring for quality assurance is necessary. This is to ensure sessions are available to the student as mutually agreed between the mentor and student, and to remain consistent in the students’ learning progress.
Summation
This study examined the perspectives of online students on the impacts of multicultural content embedded in an American Sign Language distance learning program. This study also aimed to identify how cultural materials promoted language growth and ways the program could further integrate content into the curriculum to expand students’ cultural awareness. Data from various sources in this analysis highlighted three major themes: Cultivating Cultural
Competence, Cultural Competence Through Engagement, and Discerning Cultural Relevance.
Findings are discussed within the sub-themes for each category with justified arguments.
Students’ understanding of multiculturalism and inclusion is minimal at best.
Participants’ narratives showed that they were able to define them based on general theory yet were not able to distinguish them in the lessons or course activities. This corroborates the need to expose them to cultural resources early in the language course. Students believed that being 137 introduced to cultural history at the start of the first level language course would be a motivating factor in learning a new language, as well as having less emphasis on memorizing linguistic structures and signs. Students shared examples of when they realized what they initially believed about ASL and the culture was different from what they perceived, and when they learned that
ASL possessed a rich cultural history rife with victories and linguistic discrimination and oppression through stories, art, and poetry. Evidence shows that during this evolution of learning, students developed empathetic attitudes where they were able to relate to the experiences within cultural materials and because of this, they began enjoying the language learning process.
Evidence further shows that in the social aspect, the online course built more confidence in students’ language use by way of language mentoring and were able to apply these skills and social rules outside of the online course. They also saw themselves contributing to the ASL community in the future through advocacy or service. These findings validate the cultural content’s significance in the online language course as this is an incentive to increase their ASL proficiency and expand their cultural knowledge.
The proceeding chapter, Chapter Five: Discussion and Implication for Practice, provides an analytical discussion of the findings in relation to current literature and the theoretical framework. The chapter will conclude with implications for practice, policy and research and researcher’s reflection on the study process and findings. 138
Chapter Five: Discussion and Implications for Practice
The purpose of this qualitative study was to understand online students’ perspectives on multicultural content that was embedded in a distance learning American Sign Language course.
Specifically, the research focused on two areas: the impact of the multicultural content on students’ second language acquisition and how the program could incorporate more content in the future. The online students’ perspectives provided a gateway for identifying both the strengths and weaknesses of the program’s ability to help students gain language and cultural competencies. This problem of practice will help transform the American Sign Language education curriculum at Gallaudet University.
Bank’s (2004) Multicultural Curriculum Reform (MCR) theory was selected as the theoretical framework that guided this research. Bank’s (2004) Multicultural Curriculum Reform theory encompasses culturally diverse backgrounds and knowledge through histories, perspectives, literature, texts, values and beliefs that increases academic advancement and social awareness. MCR (Banks, 2004) provides a lens for examining a curriculum that is intended to transform the way students assimilate information using updated cultural content and pedagogical delivery. To bolster the primary framework, a transculturalism lens was also used to assist with understanding the construction of reflexive identities through critical engagement and constant interactions of the cultural content (Guo & Maitra, 2017, Kraidy, 2005). Specifically, this framework helps us understand the process of online students’ awareness growth, of oneself and others, through interactions with members from other cultural groups and through discussions on cultural concepts.
The single case study approach was employed and several sources were used to collect data for analysis. The criteria for a case study included the period and location of the fieldwork 139 and sampling data from references within the study site (Creswell & Poth, 2018). Six participant interviews, end-of-session surveys, archival videos and video artifacts produced data that were analyzed using holistic and narrative coupled with thematic and focused coding.
Three superordinate themes and nine sub-themes emerged from the data. Theme One:
Cultivating Cultural Competence identified what online students already knew about ASL prior to taking a course and their various stages of awareness progression. The first theme included the following sub-themes: Defining Multiculturalism and Inclusion, Losing the Rose-Colored
Glasses, Developing Empathetic Attitudes, and Connecting the Dots. Theme Two: Cultural
Competence Through Engagement discussed the program’s current and future engagement practices based on online students’ perspectives. The second theme comprised three sub-themes:
Building a Bridge Between Communities, Applying Cultural Theory to Practice, and Aspiring
Allies Versus Aspiring Helpers. The final theme, Discerning Cultural Relevance, discussed how much students appreciated the program’s newly-added cultural content. This theme produced two sub-themes: Meaningful Cultural Content and Contextual Juxtapositions.
The current chapter provides a discussion of the major findings in reference to the theoretical framework. This chapter will also revisit the current literature to substantiate findings.
Next, an exploration of implications for future practice will be provided. These implications will include a modified curriculum model for instructional designers, program coordinators, and online facilitators. Finally, the chapter will offer recommendations for future research and the researcher’s final thoughts.
Interpretation of the Findings
The themes derived from the study provided insight into how multicultural content impacted online students’ learning processes in a second language course. First, participants 140 demonstrated stages of cultural competency progression based on their perceptions of embedded content within the online ASL courses. Second, participants viewed the cultural content in relation to engagement practices to be beneficial to language acquisition and its use for future application. Third, participants described significant content in their course and their thoughts about content delivery.
Findings in Relation to the Theoretical Framework
Findings for the current study are aligned with Bank’s (2004) theory of Multicultural
Curriculum Reform (MCR). Bank’s (2004) theory emphasizes the importance of using multicultural curriculum models instead of a Eurocentric lens so students “will acquire knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to function effectively in a culturally and ethnically diverse nation and world” (Banks, 1993, p. 23). The study aimed to understand what this cultural and language acquisition looked like for online students. To facilitate this, the following section examines three major research findings through the lens of MCR theory in order to determine whether the integration of cultural content at each level positively impacted students’ language learning.
Finding 1: Cultivating cultural competence. According to Banks (1991), the approaches that make up the levels of content integration (the contributions approach, the additive approach, the transformative approach, and the social action approach) feed the knowledge construction process to “...help students understand, investigate, and determine how implicit cultural assumptions, frames of references, perspectives, and biases...influence how knowledge is created,” (Banks, 1991). Many participants seemed to have a minimal understanding of the words “multiculturalism” and “inclusion” without the researcher defining them. Once students understood the definitions of both words, they were able to share how the 141 embedded cultural content provided them with an expanded worldview while developing their linguistic skills.
The finding that students presented with language learning obstacles overcame them once their biases and assumptions were introduced to cultural content aligns with the theoretical framework. Multicultural content that was introduced in various levels of the American Sign
Language courses included holidays and heroes; concepts, themes and perspectives, examinations of historical events from multiple viewpoints, and exploration of social issues
(Banks, 1991). In this study, learners categorized the content as challenging but beneficial. When online students met with language mentors for lesson reviews, they realized that these sessions helped them decipher lexical signs among mentors from across the nation and understand that there were regional variations. Students, through this engagement and within the social context they participated in, were able to remove their preexisting normative and value assumptions and construct new knowledge (Banks, 1991).
There is also evidence that students’ cultural awareness was expanded when they learned about ASL’s cultural history, which supports Bank’s framework. Participants were surprised that
ASL was comprised of borrowed signs from French Sign Language (LSF), Martha’s Vineyard
Sign Language (MVSL), and American home signs. However, for Bonnie, her awareness expansion didn’t stop with this new information regarding the origin of ASL. In Bonnie’s interview, she pieced new information she gathered through cultural content in the course with preexisting information she had of Martha’s Vineyard’s history of deaf people. It was because of this new knowledge, Bonnie was able to further expand her awareness through independent and reflexive exploration by applying this to more advanced topics, specifically discrimination of
ASL. The cultural history provided Bonnie with the opportunity to explore “...various 142 perspectives, frames of references, and content from various groups that...extend(s) the student’s understanding of the nature, development, and complexity of U.S. society” (Banks, 2016, p.
251). The process of knowledge expansion can be seen starting from when Bonnie expressed her naivete about the culture and community behind American Sign Language to analyzing ASL’s linguistic history through a more advanced and complex discourse.
Another attribute of cultivating cultural competence is building empathy towards others from various backgrounds and experiences. Through the MCR theoretical framework, online students were able to learn about the experiences of deaf people and the Deaf community by means of cultural content. What helped online students develop empathy was through the personification, or embodiment, of other perspectives and experiences such as a video poetry recital, sharing personal experiences of deaf children in the education system and their lack of communication access in mentoring sessions, and sharing personal experiences with isolation with their mentors. Empathy building through the knowledge construction process, Banks (1991) believed students will become aware, care, and behave in ways where they will foster principles that support an equitable society. By adopting this behavior and principles, students will give a voice to all members of U.S. history and culture (Banks, 1991, p. 12).
Findings describe ways online students evolved through various stages of awareness while acquiring a second language. These moments of realization occurred when online students gained new knowledge that reshaped their perspective of ASL and its community. The
Multicultural Curriculum Reform theory is also supported by the findings in that the cultural contents embedded in the online course enhanced awareness and contributed to increased motivation, empathy, and better understanding of linguistic features. 143
Finding 2: Building cultural competency through engagement. The second finding represents the most positive experience for the online students regarding cultural engagement.
According to the framework, knowledge is constructed by interacting with content that provides a lens to help students comprehend, explore, and ascertain their own biases and assumptions while positioning this knowledge within the social, political, and economic context (Banks,
1991). Study participants believed the language mentoring sessions were extremely beneficial for several reasons. First, they were able to improve their conversational skills by discussing an array of topics, especially cultural topics that were relatable through personal experiences.
Second, students were able to successfully transfer linguistic and cultural rules from the academic context and apply these to external contexts. Third, students were inspired to continue their use of ASL into areas of advocacy and become communication facilitators for deaf and hard of hearing people.
Some of the conversations students participated in were about more than personal experiences; some conversations were about controversial topics in the Deaf community. One such topic was about Deaf and hard of hearing people and cochlear implants (CIs)10. A student (a current CI user) and a language mentor (a former CI user) compared their own stories and experiences. This discussed how ASL is a visual language whereas CIs produce artificial sounds from the environment for the brain to interpret which then provide access to auditory and verbal language. CIs are not in themselves a guarantee that language will be acquired. This conversation helped the student broaden her worldview through bonding and connecting with her language mentor. The finding aligns with the theoretical framework that students further their knowledge
10 When CIs were first introduced in the medical field as an early intervention tool, medical experts painted a picture that deaf and hard of hearing patients would acquire full access to auditory information that would support their language growth. This misperception of CI’s ability to “cure” deafness was harmful in that ASL was viewed as a last resort should the CI fail to work and even disregarded entirely to avoid language delay. 144 through the Transformative Approach where they gain empathy, compassion, and appreciation of society’s relationship with ethnic groups (Banks, 2016).
The Contributions Approach from the MCR theory incorporates ethnic content into the curriculum (Banks, 1998). Even though there is continued debate about whether or not the ASL community is considered an ethnic group, ASL concepts, themes, and perspectives were introduced in the online program. Examples of the ethnic perspective in the online course include the video of Kristine Hall’s story about returning home from school, the Gallaudet and Clerc story, and the storytelling exercises or retelling stories that are embraced in the ASL community.
These activities related to cultural elements within the curriculum were discussed during language mentoring. Students shared that they were able to perform within these areas and continue to improve their skills. Gaining the capacity to perceive and produce language through the combination of linguistic exercises, ethnic content, and engagement promotes cultural competency.
What online students gained from the cultural content in the online course is applied to their reality outside the online American Sign Language platform. The most critical finding pertaining to cultural engagement is how online students planned to use their language and cultural competencies after the course. Bank’s (1991) Social Action Approach posits that students participate in transformative social change by taking action for reform and challenging the status quo and systemic values. The current study revealed two archetypes of ASL learners: aspiring allies and aspiring helpers. Those who were aspiring allies wished to advocate for the deaf community to influence social systems and institutions by utilizing ASL as a direct means of communication with deaf patients and patrons, and in early intervention for deaf children.
Aspiring helpers are those who provide aid in immediate situations where ASL communication 145 access is needed. This finding did not wholly support Banks’s framework since social action was not a universal aspiration for all online participants.
Finding 3: Discerning cultural relevance. The third finding presented some contradictions when positioned against the framework. Study participants commented that cultural content such as information about historical events, Deaf art, Black ASL, and Deaf education was meaningful in their learning process. Although the online student’s primary focus was on constructing linguistic and communication knowledge, they also gained cultural appreciation through diverse perspectives. The content also helped students understand linguistic rules and applications while simultaneously learning about symbolic meanings, artistic dimensions, and cultural values from the deaf perspective. This finding supports Banks’ framework since students should “acquire knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to function effectively in a culturally and ethnically diverse nation and world” (Banks, 1993, p. 23).
Conversely, students shared their perspectives on deficiencies in the curriculum and when content was not optimized through the delivered method. While students were meeting the objectives of the assignments, they did not believe cultural aspects of the course were as critical as the linguistic aspects. Some students felt there was more emphasis on memory retention exercises through the storytelling and narrative construction assignments. Others believed that the cultural content should have occurred at the beginning rather than towards the end of the course because the content had less significance at that point. Lastly, students reported that interactive experiences and practice with signers had less impact on their language acquisition because of issues with the LMS and scheduling conflicts. The application portion of the framework appeared to be unsuccessful in this respect; therefore, this finding does not support the application part of the theory. 146
Conclusions on Banks’ Multicultural Curriculum Reform Theory. The three major findings detailing participants’ perspectives while engaging with cultural content provides some interesting insights. This brings us to examine these perspectives in terms of Banks’ (1991) theory of multicultural curriculum reform. Findings do suggest that online students are benefitting from the integration of cultural content in American Sign Language distance learning courses and that students are developing cultural awareness while advancing in their ASL language studies. The content empowers students to apply what they learn in their courses to different dimensions of their lives including advocacy and inclusion. Therefore, the program has provided the basic content resources that are needed to ensure student success academically and socially.
However, it should be noted that Bank’s MCR theory did not address the organization of content within each level of integration. While Banks’ (1991) Levels of Content Integration illustrate ways to incorporate multicultural content into curriculum, the focus was more on the saturation of the content rather than the organization of content. It was suggested that the curriculum reform process would see a stronger impact on the students’ learning progress if the content in MCR approaches were blended starting at the curriculum core than implementing the approaches to an existing curriculum (Banks, p. 260).
Given the nature of the mixed findings, program designers would be remiss if they did not proceed with Bank’s (1991) recommendation of dismantling the curriculum entirely and rebuilding the content with learning experiences that adhere to the principles of multicultural education. This is rather difficult to do once a curriculum has been established. However, another option, to prevent disrupting the entire program, is to dismantle the curriculum at the individual skills level. The instructional designer would prepare the program curriculum blueprint and 147 begin disassembling the curriculum at the skills level that would experience the least disruption.
In most cases, this would be the advanced skills level where all linguistic foundation skills should already have been established. This advanced level would incorporate all contents from the MCR approaches.
The next section of this chapter examines findings in relation to the literature in Chapters
1 & 2.
Findings in Context of the Literature Review
Finding 1: Cultivating cultural competence. The first finding in this study presents intriguing corroborations and takeaways from current literature on building cultural sensitivity and awareness while acquiring a new language. The first finding broadly suggests that cultural content integration in various ASL levels cultivated cultural awareness for students when they participated in ASL learning tasks in the online courses.
Relevant to the knowledge of key concepts, participants disclosed their level of understanding of multiculturalism and inclusion, and their perceptions of what they meant.
Multiculturalism was defined in numerous ways: a variety of people and cultures; cultures intermingled in a shared space; including diverse perspectives; and promoting acceptance and awareness. Additionally, inclusion was defined as: involving people in the learning process; an interconnected group; relationships between the student, instructor and their peers; and collaboration and access. Literature supports the definitions of inclusion in that culturally inclusive practices benefit students in ways that effectively engage and empower them in the educational content (Flynn et al., 2017). Participants’ notions of multiculturalism in relation to online courses, however, were not supported by the literature. The current study did not address 148 what students knew about multiculturalism and inclusion prior to the course or if students had more clarity about the terms after viewing the course’s content.
One major finding shows that students’ cultural awareness evolved as they were introduced to cultural content in the ASL online courses. Evidence showed that while reflecting on cultural content, students abandoned their inner biases and assumptions during the courses.
This finding supports the Garrett-Rucks (2013) study, which found that online students learning a second language overcame ethnocentric worldviews and became more sensitive to cultural differences during an online class. Students in the current study gained cultural sensitivity through prompts on multicultural relationships, behaviors, artifacts, and perspectives. However, participants in the current study did not display the denial, defensiveness, and minimization that was present in students from the Garrett-Rucks study (2013). A consideration as to why students in the online ASL course did not display the negative behaviors during language acquisition is because of their access to community members who use the target language.
Some students who enroll in popular second-language courses from specific language communities facing blatant oppression and discrimination, such as Spanish or Arabic, have certain perceptions of the groups based on stereotypes and stigmas. At the same time, certain language communities that are viewed as prestigious such as French and Mandarin, are not free from stereotypes nor stigmas as well. It is likely because these stereotypes and stigmas are not usually removed from their worldviews because of lack of exposure and connection to members of these communities. Learning American Sign Language as a second language is often perceived to be easy and is assumed to be non-threatening due to how little is known about the language and culture. While the stereotypes and stigmas are very much prevalent, these are 149 removed when students are in constant engagement with various members from the deaf communities in the course.
Cultural competency is an evolving process and students in the current study experienced various stages of comfort/discomfort while building their cultural competency. Students reported difficulty with deciphering signs and mastering ASL grammatical placement rules. This supports
McKee & McKee’s (1992) study that showed students expressing intimidation, lack of confidence, and incompetence while interacting with deaf signers (McKee & McKee, 1992).
Students in their study claimed they felt the way they did because of cultural differences and them being viewed as unwanted visitors by the deaf signers (McKee & McKee, 1992). Students in the current study did not report having such negative experiences; instead, they believed that sessions with language mentors and native signers helped them gain confidence and language skills. This suggests that an emphasis on the type and level of engagement, linguistic and cultural, were considered in the online curriculum. The ASL online program’s intended curriculum design of incorporating various linguistic exercises and cultural discussions into the appropriate engagement setting reduced the students’ initial trepidation and transformed the learning experience. Focusing on the objective of the exercises and discussion with the support of language mentors helped students overcome these discomforts and continue to make progress in language acquisition.
The current study confirms that creating an environment that recognizes, observes, and
“builds upon the cultural capital that learners and teachers bring to the online classroom”
(Woodley et al., 2017) is instrumental to learning. Gallaudet University and the ASL program’s commitment to inclusivity, diversity, and social justice reflects Ladson-Billing’s (1995) notion that encouraging academic success and cultural competence guides students to acknowledge, 150 understand, and examine current social inequalities. Evidence showed that online students’ knowledge of language and culture, including social justice awareness, expanded during their time in the courses. Participants acknowledged new cultural information and shared appreciation for the Deaf language and its cultural history. The culturally-specific curriculum design allowed students to engage with linguistic content that was relevant to them (Gay, 2010; Woodley et al.,
2017).
The culturally-specific curriculum design also played a large part in prejudice reduction because students were exposed to cultural materials and opportunities to navigate through historical and cultural aspects of the language (Banks, 2016). While students progressed through the course, they moved from ethnocentric thinking to deeper intercultural sensitivity (Garrett-
Rucks, 2013). The transition from discerning cultural differences and perspectives based on their own worldviews and cultural standards to discerning cultural differences and perspectives through the eyes of cultural members was the development of empathetic attitudes among students. During the growth of empathetic attitudes towards the language community is the formation of positive attitudes towards ASL, which is an indicator of student success in language acquisition (Lang et al., 1996).
Studies have shown that there are strong links between successful language acquisition ability to transfer first language (L1) to second language (L2), and a desire to engage with the deaf community (Allbutt & Ling, 2016; Quinto-Pozos, 2011). While the Allbutt & Ling (2016) study did not specifically denote what type of course content would lead to greater success, other multicultural studies posit that incorporating cultural content into the curriculum removes mainstream-centric lens (Banks, 1998); this suggests that including culturally-relevant content in
ASL courses promotes learner success and increased second language acquisition. Participants 151 noted when they began to understand the relationship between two things pertinent to linguistic learning exercises and cultural lessons, thus highlighting a turning point in their cultural awareness growth. By including the cultural perspective of the native (target) language user and their metalingual cues cultivated meaningful cultural exploration for language learners (Garrett-
Rucks, 2013). Online students replicate these behaviors through personification of cultural experiences and develop an understanding from others’ perspectives.
Finding 2: Building cultural competence through engagement. All study participants indicated they were able to successfully transfer linguistic and cultural rules from the online academic context to external contexts. Students also shared that their aspirations for using ASL in the future were prompted from cultural exposure in the online courses. This is consistent with
Adam’s (2015) study that found that the benefits of learning through a reconstructed ASL curriculum, as opposed to an antiquated or less structured curriculum, were opportunities for students to explore signs as social concepts and not simply one word/one sign per concept with native signers (Adam, 2015). Also, this showed that students had opportunities to capture sociolinguistic variations and learn linguistic and cultural phenomena through dynamic interactions with people within the course. Lastly, having hearing students actively engage with deaf ASL users in social spaces helped hearing students gain cultural knowledge and motivated them to continue learning ASL in order to maintain and improve communication skills with deaf participants (Quinto-Pozos, 2011).
In terms of engaging through the mentoring platform, participants reported having positive experiences that enhanced their cultural awareness and linguistic skills. Studies noted the benefits of having language-immersion opportunities with native ASL users. Such engagement with native ASL users promoted language skills-building and reduced challenges 152 with knowledge transfer from L1 to L2 (Allbutt & Ling, 2016; Kyle & Woll, 1985). However, there was a missed opportunity to enhance deeper-rooted cultural discussions through exercise skills-building and topics surrounding societal language attitudes and power struggles pertaining to language ownership and culture. By reintroducing and reconceptualizing “socio-cultural, political, and professional forces that affect the realities and potentials of...communities”
(Ortega, 1999; Reagan, 2011), students would be able to situate their learning through a social justice lens. The online program is not only obligated to update the curriculum by introducing critical social topics, but the professionals responsible for designing the language curriculum, the pedagogical delivery, and selecting cultural content should have the comprehension of social themes that impacts the Deaf communities. Professional development opportunities are strongly encouraged to help support student learning.
Study participants planned to continue using ASL to engage through advocacy or to provide aid in communicating with Deaf people when needed. Engagement practices in the course inspired students to carry their linguistic skills and cultural knowledge outside the classroom, and into the Deaf community’s social and political arena. This is aligned with literature on engagement practices empowering students and provides opportunities for personal transformation through academic achievement, cultural awareness, and social good (Flynn et al.
2017). Through mentoring in second language acquisition, online students viewed ASL within bilingual and multilingual contexts in three different ways - “...language as a problem, language as a right, and language as a resource” (Ruiz, 1984, 1990, 2010). The course design provided students with the impetus to continue their future advocacy and ASL participation.
Such engagement practices can alter or enhance online student’s perspectives on language diversity whether it is related to societal attitudes, or viewing linguistic diversity as a 153 fundamental human right, or the significance of the existence of linguistic diversity in society
(Reagan, 2011; Ruiz, 2010). The goal of mentoring as a cultural means was achieved in that discussions with online students highlighted critical issues in linguistic diversity and social issues pertaining to equity, access, education, and economics. This stance disempowers thinkers who promote cultural divisiveness and views linguistic diversity through social justice lens, (Ruiz,
2010). Per online students’ discussions on their future aspirations, ASL was viewed generally as a resource “...where society develops, encourages, and advocates linguistic diversity as cultural capital” (Reagan, 2011; Ruiz, 2010). The findings align with the literature in that participants in this study conveyed that learning ASL and its culture inspired them to promote inclusivity in their clinical practice, ministry, classrooms, and their artistic endeavors to ensure deaf and hard of hearing people have access to information through ASL.
Finding 3: Discerning cultural relevance. The literature suggests that there is a great deal of variation with meaningful cultural content and its pedagogical delivery (Flynn et al.,
2017; McKee & McKee, 1992; Sanders, 2016; & Shulman, 1987). Participants lamented the challenges they experienced with the language mentoring platform which led to concerns about not maximizing their ability to practice and improve their ASL skills. Issues were also noted with cultural information appearing at the wrong times within the course and the discussion board not maintaining consistency with the program’s target language modality. These course structure and delivery problems support literature on limitations that come with curriculum design, organization of content, and pedagogy in online courses (Sanders, 2016).
The literature also discusses critical pedagogical approaches that incorporate culturally inclusive practice, befitting a flexible structure and design, to meet the needs of an expanding diverse population (Flynn et al., 2017). Pedagogical content knowledge was defined as a 154 marriage between content and teaching practices where “particular topics, problems, or issues are organized, represented, and adapted to the diverse interests and abilities of learners, and presented for instruction” (Flynn et al., 2017, Shulman, 1987, p. 8). In the current study, the principle was upheld in theory, however, it was not upheld entirely in practice. As significant as the cultural content was, the placement of cultural content in the ASL course was too close to the end of the course. Bonnie shared that this would have been beneficial to her language learning had it been introduced at the beginning of the course. Additionally, the content used for discussion boards would be more meaningful had it been maintained in ASL. Amanda enjoyed this aspect of the ASL course, however, believed it would have made more of an impact if it was conducted through the course’s targeted language modality.
In contrast to the inconsistencies between the findings and literature in regards to pedagogical delivery of content, online students were able to identify meaningful content that impacted their learning as well as improving their receptive and productive skills. Students conveyed that tying cultural history, art, behaviors, and heroes to the lessons were beneficial in acquiring language. The relationship between variables such as ASL language competency, attitude towards deafness, the deaf community, and learner motivation were positive (Lang et al.,
1996). This points to the conclusion that attitude towards deafness as a cultural phenomenon, comfort around deaf people, and motivation amplify ASL proficiency among students.
Other Analyses
Two major discoveries from the study that were not addressed through the theoretical framework nor the literature review were language mentorship and allyship11. What was interesting about language mentors was the impact their presence had on online students’ second
11 The language mentoring platform was implemented in the online course to fulfill the interactive requirement that was otherwise lacking in initial online platforms. 155 language acquisition and cultural awareness. Online students gained several achievements through language mentoring: an appreciation of culture, an understanding of linguistic rules, confidence and trust, language skills to apply to real life situations, relationships with their mentors, and intentions to continue ASL as a life-long goal.
First, students gained cultural competence by discussing significant historical figures,
Deaf education, De’Via (Deaf art), and Black ASL in their language mentoring sessions in the online courses. Second, students developed appropriate linguistic proficiency through skills- building exercises with language mentors. Third, language mentors applied language learning techniques that focused on comprehension and production exercises. Through this mechanism, students’ affective filters were reduced and helped build confidence in their performance and trust the learning process. Fourth, online students built relationships with their mentors based on shared experiences. One instance was the student and mentor who had compared their experiences as CI users. Lastly, students expressed their desires to advocate the use of ASL in their professional and personal lives as a clinical professional, minister, artist, and educator. It was because of this mentorship that the notion of allyship was possible. All the achievements that students gained from mentorship are budding characteristics of an ally.
Literature states that allies are supporters who serve one or more communities and are generally those who are deeply committed to humanitarian efforts to improve access and resources and empower community members and its stakeholders to exercise agency (Bishop,
2002 & Miller 2015). Allies in the change process promote self-advocacy, agency, and purpose for members who are in disadvantaged or disempowered positions. Allies in close relation to the
Deaf community often have a degree of understanding of the Deaf experience through their own personal experiences, their understanding and truth of the Deaf perspective, their understanding 156 of diverse dimensions of deaf culture, and continued involvement in the lives of deaf and hard of hearing people (Ladd, 2011 & Miller, 2015). Allies’ commitment to the deaf community is twofold in that they are committed to elevating cultural awareness and are committed to their belief as to what is “...socially just, morally right, and humanistically appropriate in order to take action, and support strengths-based forward movement” (Bishop, 2002 & Miller 2015).
By committing to allyship, the extension of community cultural wealth is given to online students indirectly to continue influencing persistence and social mobility for those who are confronted with systematic barriers (Yosso, 2005; Burciaga & Erbstein, 2010). This extension is a form of paving the way for the deaf and hard of hearing community to move closer to achieving the status of cultural importance rather than being viewed as a deficient community.
Potential allies from the online courses are fostered through language mentorship.
Originally, the tutoring model was ineffectual, which led to the concept of mentorship to support student learning. Instead of providing corrective and constructive feedback via the tutoring model, students were more responsive to the conversation-based approach where backchanneling cues were the information communicator for self-corrective practices. These cues inform the speaker that their messaging is received or understood. The relevance of mentoring is strengthened by arguments presented in community cultural wealth (CCW) publications. Yosso
(2005) used the CCW framework to argue that individuals, specifically the underprivileged, succeed with support from role models and the community. Mentorship, as demonstrated in this study, proved to be beneficial to online students.
Summation
Findings within the contexts of the theoretical framework and the literature review focused on students’ perceptions of a culturally-enriched curriculum within an American Sign 157
Language online program. The findings showed that students’ language acquisition was positively impacted by multicultural content integrated in various levels of four ASL courses.
Online participants believed current content played a major role in cultivating their cultural competence. Using the Multicultural Curriculum Reform theory (Banks, 1991) as a lens revealed that students acquired linguistic skills and gained cultural experiences while taking the classes.
The multicultural curriculum design allowed students to engage with linguistic content that is pertinent to them (Gay, 2010; Woodley et al., 2017). Being exposed to cultural content helped students be more confident and motivated them to continue improving and learning ASL. The course design also led students to participate in social action for reform through advocacy for
ASL in social, professional and political settings.
Despite these positive outcomes, participants did point out shortcomings of the program particularly in relation to implementing cultural content. Future improvements to be made in the program include modifying student learning outcomes (SLOs) to reflect the cultural learning to be assessed alongside realistic linguistic goals. Additionally, course designers need to introduce cultural content earlier in the course to leave a stronger impression on students, maintain consistency with language modality throughout all aspects of the online course including discussion board postings, and improve language the mentoring platform to support student learning.
Implications for Practice
The purpose of the study was to address a problem and seek ways to resolve issues in practice. The ASL program’s promise to enhance student success through an online program while expanding on cultural diversity and inclusive practices was met with challenges. The recommendations for instructional change and online language-learning improvements are based 158 on the perceptions of online students in this study and their appraisal of multicultural content in online language-learning courses.
Online instructional designers. Instructional designers are responsible for the integration of cultural content in ASL online courses. It is recommended that they be trained on approaches to content integration within an online platform using recommendations from Bank’s
(2004) Multicultural Curriculum Reform (MCR). This process includes seeking and identifying relevant cultural content within the historical and contextual contexts and selecting content through interdepartmental engagement with experts in Deaf Cultural Studies.
Online students felt that introducing cultural content at the beginning of the course would increase their motivation to learn a second language. Course designers could provide better organization for multicultural content, lesson plans for course facilitators, and student assignments. The reorganization should blend the MCR approaches in all language skills levels for a stronger impact on student’s linguistic and cultural competencies. Rather than introducing only ‘holidays and heroes’ from the Contributions Approach content from the Additive,
Transformation, and Social Action Approaches should be ingrained. Because online students in
ASL 1 have yet to demonstrate ASL proficiency, cultural content through visual media can be used to introduce cultural concepts as long as the captioning or English text is in place. The degree of complexity in the cultural content should gradually advance as students move to the next proficiency level in the course.
An example is provided below in Table 16 to portray what the content organization would be for an ASL 1 course that reflects the tenets of MCR. The application of fundamental linguistic exercises could be used creatively and where deemed appropriate:
159
Table 16
ASL 1 Content Organization
APPROACH CULTURAL LINGUISTIC FOCUS APPLICATION CONTENT Contributions Historical figures Fingerspelling exercise Retelling a story Approach
WH-questions and non- manual markers (mouth morphemes, eye gaze, non-manual cues, head- tilting and body shifting)
Additive Cultural customs Attention getting Social context Approach techniques
Introduction to ASL Storytelling techniques Retelling a story humor with application of new lexical items and linguistic features
Transformative Multiculturalism and Discussion post Approach inclusion pre-course quiz and discussion
Introduction of Deaf narratives from multiple perspectives
Social Action Negotiating a signing Eye contact Applying it to Approach environment real life with a ASL backchanneling cues Deaf, DeafBlind, or Hard of Gestures Hearing person
Designers should also develop tutorials for students and course facilitators that would serve as a useful guide throughout the course. These would include a program mission or program learning objectives (PLO) that incorporates the intention of teaching and learning through the multicultural lens and other inclusive practices. Another way to expose students, 160 language mentors, and facilitators to more cultural content is to create a digital cultural hub within the LMS that lists various cultural resources such as ASL videos showcasing Deaf,
DeafBlind, and hard of hearing perspectives from various cultural and linguistic backgrounds.
Additionally, the current study could serve as a guide for online instructional designers to improve and maintain current multicultural curriculum to ensure all students are able to successfully benefit from the ASL courses by learning about cultural content through various perspectives and experiences, including their own.
Program directors and program coordinators. Course facilitators and language mentors are responsible for orchestrating teaching assignments, placing instructors, managing course availability, and determining instructor rates. Additionally, coordinators are responsible for providing facilitator and language mentors with training and professional development opportunities in the multicultural education field so their repertoire of cultural and linguistic knowledge and skills are strengthened. Therefore, tools that gauge student success, such as end- of-course surveys, should be updated to include evaluations of course culturally-relevant content.
The surveys should include questions pertaining to which content students found beneficial and which content they believed had no impact on their language acquisition. Other questions pertaining to language sessions such as length of time, number of sessions, and their experiences should be included as well. This information would improve the mentoring experience for online students significantly. Lastly, program coordinators can use the current study to revise student instructions within the course to reduce bias and prejudice. Coordinators and directors could present the updated design to other units within the institution to encourage them to integrate multicultural content into their courses and trainings. 161
Online facilitators and language mentors. Integration of diverse cultural content in a curriculum is not limited to materials such as articles, data, or statistics; it also includes a personal investment in building knowledge from within. Using Bank’s curriculum reform model as guidance, online facilitators and language mentors need to do the following to support students in the ASL program:
1. Read sources on racism and other -isms in the Deaf community including at least one
book that surveys U.S. deaf history and culture.
2. Be judicious in the selection of course materials. Avoid stereotypes and focus on
intersectional identities and its social and cultural effects.
3. Be sensitive to their own and others’ attitudes, behaviors, and comments in the classroom
in relation to race, language modality, gender, religion, and lifestyle preferences.
4. Display online course materials that portray positive and complex messages regarding
diverse cultural groups.
5. Use deaf narratives, films, and documentaries to supplement the textbook’s treatment of
diverse ethnic, racial, cultural, or language groups.
6. Get in touch with their own cultural and ethnic heritage, which will create a climate of
sharing and transparency in the classroom.
7. Be sensitive to the developmental levels of students when selecting concepts, content,
and activities.
Limitations
The limitations of this study remain even after addressing concerns about trustworthiness and veracity in a time-bound study. Although the participant pool was selected randomly, data came mostly from White, hearing, female participants and did not portray the experiences of 162 every online student enrolled in the American Sign Language program. This implies two things: the courses are too costly and ASL is considered a feminine language. The inaccessibility of the
ASL courses to a more diverse demographic and its perception of ASL as a gendered language does not provide a wholesome assessment of the problem of practice.
Only two participants verified accuracy of transcribed interviews and answered additional questions for clarification. However, four of the six participants did not respond to my follow up emails for verification of the transcribed interview to ensure all information shared were authentic. Because the online program is intensive and accelerated, it is possible that the participants were busy, could not provide enough information about their learning experience to participate, or were no longer enrolled in the program.
Limitations regarding the methodological approach of obtaining and transcribing participants’ narratives presented some concerns. Other than the challenges of securing the same interpreter to facilitate information between myself and the participants, the accuracy of the information transmitted through the interpreter was also a concern. Interpreters have their own perception of what is received and will translate information based on their internal information filter which may differ from participants’ truths. The verification process for the researcher was to use transcriptions of all voiced content and match it with what was being interpreted through video recordings with modifications on part of the researcher, so good faith was needed to proceed with this arrangement and collect data for the study.
Additionally, much has evolved since the start of this study. The implementation of cultural content is continuous and participants’ concerns about the course’s curriculum content placement may be momentary. Perspectives garnered from study participants may not reflect the experiences of the proceeding cohort who could see the course differently once modifications are 163 made. Claims made in this time-bound study may be irrelevant in later cohorts because the course and curriculum are constantly revamped. Also, the impact of online instructor and language mentor turnover should be considered. This study cannot be generalized nor speak to the experience of other online ASL students.
Concerns regarding my objectivity in this research emerged during this process. The fact that I work directly with the program where the problem of practice was scrutinized did not permit me to reveal exact cultural content or content organization used in the program per
Multicultural Curriculum Reform approaches due to proprietary issues. Revealing the exact content would put the program in a vulnerable position with our competitors. This limitation only permitted the readers to learn about the suggested cultural themes within each approach in conjunction with linguistic competency-building exercises.
Another concern was my ability to analyze the quality of the program as a curriculum builder through the theoretical framework objectively. While it may appear that I am pushing in favor of a positive outcome, serious considerations for the program’s shortcomings were outlined for future improvements. This included efforts to be critical of the program’s cultural content and pedagogical strategies, which may have been limited due to my bias.
Finally, there were limitations to the study based on the theoretical framework. Banks’
(1991) Levels of Content Integration is designed to bring multicultural perspectives into the classroom and enhance cultural awareness. Ultimately, the current study sought to close the gap between online American Sign Language education and multicultural education to benefit all students in the learning process. As a qualitative study, this should encompass all types of participants for insight into the problem of practice and to bring divergent perspectives on top of existing perspectives. A factor to consider for the lack of racially diverse participants is the cost 164 of the online course, which could be too costly for people from lower socioeconomic statuses.
Lastly, the study could have included perspectives of course facilitators and language mentors to provide an exhaustive understanding of the problem of practice.
Implications for Future Research
This study’s findings and implications for practice give rise to several areas for future research and practice. The first area regards Banks’ (1988) Multicultural Curriculum Reform theory. As noted above, Banks (1988) did not address the order of introducing the types of cultural content; he only emphasized the successive levels of cultural materials to be integrated.
Understanding how the order of content in curriculum impacts the knowledge construction process would give insights on how students succeed in second-language acquisition courses.
The theory also did not address using mentors as part of the knowledge construction process in these levels. In this study, positive language and cultural growth appears to have tipped the scales in favor of engagement over any other cultural content means; it would be intriguing to explore this phenomenon over time. If students are claiming to benefit from cultural exposure through language mentoring, then performance assessment based on this variable needs to be considered to determine whether this is a factor in successful language learning. This research could examine more closely on the end-of-session surveys focusing on variables involved with mentoring sessions. There has been little research utilizing Banks’ (1988) original theory, and few studies have applied this to second or foreign language acquisition. Given the unique nature of the current study, the way cultural content impacted students’ language acquisition, especially through using language mentors, seems important when continuing language learning over time.
The second area regards extending the participant pool to include not only online students, but also language mentors and course facilitators in the American Sign Language 165 program. This study intended to provide insight into the online participants’ experience, but this was only scratching the surface. The perspectives of language mentors pertaining to the engagement practices could contribute to improvements to the platform, strengthening the knowledge construction process and promotion of allyship. Online course facilitators are primarily responsible for assisting students with the navigation of the LMS, ensuring appropriate uploading of assignments, and maintaining grades for assignments and activities completed in the course. However, their perspective in regard to student language performance assessments is critical. Further inquiry into the assessment practices is ideal when incorporating perspectives from all supporting members of the online program.
The third area of research should examine the online student population taking online
ASL courses. The current makeup of the participant pool suggests that those enrolled in the program are mostly White, hearing females. It would be interesting to frame the research questions to identify and analyze socioeconomic characteristics such as age, gender, education level, occupation, and income level. This would bring insight on how those factors impact a student’s ability to acquire language over time using cultural content and engagement practices.
This future research could also justify the need to establish financial assistance programs for
ASL students enrolled in professional studies programs to welcome a more diverse student population. This information would be valuable to the multicultural curriculum reform conversation.
In a similar vein, the fourth area of research could also explore social action approaches through allyship as a result of online students completing the ASL program. This would not only focus on White, hearing, women advocating the use of ASL for deaf and hard of hearing people, but encouraging other peers, especially people of color, to take ASL courses that would 166 eventually lead them to a profession that utilizes ASL. There is a lack of allyship from people of color for the deaf and hard of hearing communities, and it is vital that people of color have the opportunity to learn ASL to address this lack. This could be tied to the discussion for multiculturalism and inclusion and how to promote best practices within the program and the institution.
The final area for future research concerns the continuation of the Transculturalism framework as it relates to multicultural education. This study recommended that online programs should create opportunities for community-building and social action amongst students. When researching existing transculturalism practices, it was apparent there was a gap in the literature.
While the Multicultural Curriculum Reform is moving in the right direction to bring a larger appreciation of diversity into the curriculum, the transcultural lens will allow students to engage in self-reflective practices while embodying multiple cultural identities and interacting with other humans through the virtual platform.
Conclusion
In conducting a case study on an online American Sign Language program to better understand how multicultural content was integrated and perceived in the program, this study fills gaps in multicultural education and ASL literature. It provides insight on ASL programs through a qualitative research study that offers a deeper understanding of how integrating cultural content can impact online students’ knowledge construction process. The findings in the research supports previous findings that there are benefits of Banks’ (1988) levels of content integration from the Multicultural Curriculum Reform theory. While cultural content from various levels were identified, new findings of a unique means of content integration was identified through the language mentoring platform. This was highlighted in the research in 167 multiple participants’ narratives. These findings will help illuminate MCR for instructional designers, instructors, program coordinators, and program directors, especially those looking to create and promote multicultural education in their language programs. Several significant gaps in the literature remain and this study can help investigators articulate areas of future exploration.
168
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Appendix A: Interview Protocol and Questions
Institution: Gallaudet University
Interviewee (Title and Name): ______
Interviewer: Christina Hopewell-Albert, Coordinator of American Sign Language Education Programs
RESEARCH QUESTION: What are the impacts of having culturally enriched curriculum in an American Sign Language Professional Studies distance learning course at Gallaudet University?
Part I:
Introductory Session Objectives (5-7 minutes): Build rapport, describe the study, answer any questions (under typical circumstances an informed consent form would be reviewed and signed here).
Introductory Statements
You have been selected to speak with me today because you have been identified as someone who has a great deal to share about your learning experiences in your American Sign Language course. My research study focuses on the experiences of online students taking competency- based courses. Through this study, I hope to gain more insight into the efficacy of multicultural curriculum reform in an online program. Hopefully this will allow me to identify ways in which the curriculum can be improved for more cultural inclusivity.
Because your responses are important and I want to make sure to capture everything you say, I would like to video record our conversation today. Do I have your permission to record this interview?
[If yes, thank the participant, let them know you may ask the question again as you start recording, and then turn on the recording equipment].
[If no, then I will let them know that they are excused from the interview and their participation will not be included in the study]
I will also be taking written notes. I can assure you that all responses will be confidential and a pseudonym will be used when quoting from the transcripts. I will be the only one that is privy to the video or audio recordings which will be destroyed three years after they are transcribed.
To meet our human subjects requirements at the university, you must sign the informed consent form I have with me which I will read with you. 187
This interview should last about 45-60 minutes. During this time, I have several questions that I would like to cover. If time begins to run short, then it may be necessary schedule a follow-up interview. Do you have any questions at this time?
Part II: Interviewee Background (5-10 minutes)
Objective: To establish rapport and obtain the story of in the participants’ general with the research topic. This section should be brief as it is not the focus of the study.
A. Interviewee Background
1. Please provide information about yourself such as where you are from, your education background, family situation, occupation, and any other additional information you’d like to share.
2. Why did you decide to register for the online ASL program? Which ASL levels have you taken through this program?
3. Have you taken any other online courses in a degree or non-degree program offered through this university? If yes, which online courses have you taken?
Part III: Inclusive learning activities & multicultural content integration
One of the things we are interested in learning about is the inclusive experience students gain in a language-based multicultural curriculum. I would like to hear about your experiences with multicultural contents embedded in the online course in your own words. To do this, I am going to ask you some questions about the experiences you had.
1. What does the word “multicultural” mean to you?
2. What were your expectations for this course when you signed up? Potential follow-up:
What activities or assignments did you anticipate would be given? What concerns did you
have at the beginning?
3. What do the words “inclusion or inclusive” mean to you in relation to an online course?
4. Please describe an activity or activities in the course that you perceived to be inclusive.
5. What were your favorite activities in the course? Why?
6. What were your least favorite activities in the course? Why?
1. On a scale of 1 to 5, with 1 being totally dissatisfied and 5 being extremely satisfied, rate your interactions with the following people: 188
a. Language mentors i. Why do you rate them this number? ii. How did interactions with language mentors help with your progress in the course? b. Course facilitators? i. Why do you rate them this number? ii. How did interactions with course facilitators help with your progress in the course?
1. Do you recall learning about the historical context of American Sign Language? If no, move on to the next question. If yes, then ask the follow-up questions: a. How did this history lesson change your views about American Sign Language? b. Do you still have these views about American Sign Language after the course? Why or why not?
1. Describe an activity, assignment, or project in the course that increased your awareness of cultures other than your own?
1. With everything that you have learned from this online course, how do you plan to use this information in your personal life?
1. How do you plan to use this information in your professional life?
1. In what ways could the program incorporate more diverse and inclusive content into the online course?
1. Is there anything else you would like to share with me about your experiences in the online course or with including diverse content into the course.
Thank participants for their participation.
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Appendix B: Online Course Evaluation Form
ONLINE COURSE EVALUATION FORM
Course Name & Number: Semester: Semester Year: Year
Instructions - Upon completion of your course be sure to complete this course evaluation form. For each item click on “Your answer” to open the Drop-down box and select one of the following choices:
Not applicable; Strongly Disagree; Disagree; Neutral; Agree; Strongly Agree
Part 1: Syllabus, Overview and Introduction
Instructions make clear how to get started and where to find various course Your components. answer
Etiquette expectations (sometimes called “netiquette” for online discussions, Your email, and other forms of communication are stated clearly. answer
Your The self-introduction by the instructor is appropriate and available online. answer
Your Minimum technical skills expected of the student are clearly stated. answer
Additional comments about the Course Syllabus, Overview and Introduction:
Part 2: Student Engagement
Clear standards are set for instructor responsiveness and availability (turn- Your around time for email, grade posting, etc.). answer
The requirements for student interaction through [language mentors] are Your clearly articulated and language sessions are beneficial to language growth. answer
Additional comments about Student Engagement: 190
Part 3: Course Technology
Your The tools and media appropriately support the learning objectives. answer
Navigation throughout the online components of the course is logical, Your consistent, and efficient. answer
Your Students have ready access to the technologies required in the course. answer
Instructions on how to access resources at a distance are sufficient and easy Your to understand. answer
Your The course design takes advantage of available tools and media. answer
Which of the following technologies caused you problems during this course? Please list all that apply and provide details in the comment box. ● Blackboard ● GoReact ● ConexEd ● I did not have technology problems in this course
Additional comments about Course Technology:
Part 4: Student Support
The course instructions explain or link to clear descriptions of the technical Your support offered. answer
The instructor was willing to help when contacted with problems or requests Your for information or clarification. answer
Additional comments about Student Support: 191
Part 5: Assignments & Evaluations
Your Instructor provides clear instructions for assignments and submissions. answer
Instructor demonstrates a clear, precise, and accurate use of assessments for Your student performance. answer
Additional comments about Assignments & Evaluations:
Part 6: Registration
Your The registration process is efficient, clear, and self-explanatory. answer
Part 7: Please share if you would recommend this course and include why or why not
THANK YOU FOR YOUR FEEDBACK!!!
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Appendix C: Recruitment Announcement
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Appendix D: Consent Form
Informed Consent Document
Northeastern University, CPS Doctor of Education, CTLL Name of Investigator(s): Dr. Hattie Hammonds, Principal Investigator and Christina Hopewell-Albert, Student Researcher Title of Project: An Exploration of Student Perceptions of Multicultural Content in American Sign Language Distance Learning Courses: A Case Study
Informed Consent to Participate in a Research Study We are inviting you to take part in a research study. This form will tell you about the study, but the researcher will explain it to you first. You may ask this person any questions that you have. When you are ready to make a decision, you may tell the researcher if you want to participate or not. You do not have to participate if you do not want to. If you decide to participate, the researcher will ask you to sign this statement and will give you a copy to keep.
Key Information ● Your consent is being sought for participation in a research project and your participation is voluntary. ● The purpose of the research is to see what impact multicultural content in the online ASL course had on your learning and understanding. ● The anticipated amount of time that your participation will take will be 45 to 60 minutes. ● The procedures that you will be asked to complete will be to participate in an interview and fill out a survey. ● The foreseeable risk to the subject is confidentiality breach. ● The potential benefits to the subject are this study will give you an opportunity to reflect on your experiences in the online ASL course. ● Appropriate alternative procedures, if any, are none.
Why am I being asked to take part in this research study? We are asking you to be in this study because you are currently or have taken an ASL course through Gallaudet University’s Professional Studies Program.
Why is this research study being done? The purpose of this study is to improve and maintain online language learning with the appropriate supplemental cultural materials. What will I be asked to do? If you decide to take part in this study, we will ask you to describe your experiences in the online course during your interview.
Where will this take place and how much of my time will it take? 194
You will be interviewed through a virtual conference platform, Zoom.com. The interview will take 45 to 60 minutes to complete. You will also complete an online course survey that will last approximately 10 minutes.
Will there be any risk or discomfort to me? There are no foreseeable risks or discomfort to you.
Will I benefit by being in this research? There will be no direct benefit to you for taking part in the study. However, the information learned from this study may help the online program improve and maintain the quality of language education by implementing beneficial cultural content that may enhance student language acquisition.
Who will see the information about me?
INTERVIEW: Your part in this study will be confidential. Only the researchers on this study will see the information about you. No reports or publications will use information that can identify you in any way or any individual as being of this project.
The interviewees are identified under pseudonyms and insights shared through the exchange will be recorded using Zoom. Then, all recordings will be downloaded, transferred, and embedded into ELAN, a multimedia transcription software, for language transcription and translation from American Sign Language to American Sign Language glossing (brief notations of the meaning of the sign in text) to written English. From here, the full transcription will be formatted on a linear numerated document to track the discourse. Notes and investigator’s reflections will be documented in a specific manner to maintain an audit trail.
SURVEY: Your identity as a participant in this study will not be known. That means no one, except the researchers, will know that the answers you give are from you.
All data collection, along with electronic signed consent forms, will be preserved and securely stored in an encrypted external hard-drive, accessible only by password. The hard-drive will be kept in a locked drawer in an office located on campus for three years. The investigator is the only person with access. This complies with The Common Rule-Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Title 45 Part 46 (research subjects). Once three years have passed, all data will be destroyed.
In rare instances, authorized people may request to see research information about you and other people in this study. This is done only to be sure that the research is done properly. We would only permit people who are authorized by organizations such as the Northeastern University Institutional Review Board or Gallaudet University’s Institutional Review Board to see this information.
If I do not want to take part in the study, what choices do I have? Your participation is voluntary and you may leave the study at any time with no repercussion.
What will happen if I suffer any harm from this research? 195
No special arrangements will be made for compensation or for payment for treatment solely because of my participation in this research.
Can I stop my participation in this study? Your participation in this research is completely voluntary. You do not have to participate if you do not want to and you can refuse to answer any question. Even if you begin the study, you may quit at any time. If you do not participate or if you decide to quit, you will not lose any rights, benefits, or services that you would otherwise have [as a student, employee, etc].
Who can I contact if I have questions or problems? If you have any questions about this study, please feel free to contact Christina Hopewell-Albert ([email protected]) the person mainly responsible for the research. You can also contact Dr. Hattie Hammonds ([email protected]) the Principal Investigator.
Who can I contact about my rights as a participant? If you have any questions about your rights in this research, you may contact Nan C. Regina, Director, Human Subject Research Protection, Mail Stop: 560-177, 360 Huntington Avenue, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115. Tel: 617.373.4588, Email: [email protected]. You may call anonymously if you wish.
Will I be paid for my participation? Participants will not be compensated for participating in this interview.
Will it cost me anything to participate? There are no associated costs for this study.
Is there anything else I need to know? You must be at least 18 years old to participate unless your parent or guardian gives written permission.
This study has been reviewed and approved by the Northeastern University Institutional Review Board (# xx-xx-xx). [protocol # will be provided to you by the HSRP office].
______Signature of person agreeing to take part Date
______Printed name of person above
______Signature of person who explained the study to the Date participant above and obtained consent
______Printed name of person above
196
______I agree to be contacted for follow up or for future research studies
______Contact Information (email or phone)
197
Appendix E: IRB Approval Form
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Appendix F: IIA Form