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Chapter 23 Online Gaming: Demographics, Motivations, and Information Processing

Vincent Cicchirillo The University of Texas at Austin, USA

AbstrAct Online gaming has become a major part of our culture. In order to understand this new media in our society we must examine the motivations for playing these types of games and how that impacts indi- viduals processing of information. This book chapter sets out to examine those motivations and how motivational processing influences in-game content during game play. More importantly how individuals recognize, process, and evaluate information relative to their motivations for playing an online game. Furthermore, this chapter not only explores the product-related segmentation variables, but also demo- graphic segmentation variables. Thus, taken together variables such as motivations, demographics, and game features allows us to paint a clearer picture of the: who, how, and why of online gaming.

IntroductIon a one time fee to purchase the game ($50-$60), but they also must pay a monthly subscription Video and computer games are big business. In fee to play that game online. According to van fact, it was estimated by the Entertainment Soft- Lent if you do the math that’s nearly $1.5 billion ware Association (ESA) that sales for computer dollars annually! The success of online games and video game software reached about $11.7 has even spawned console systems (i.e., X360 & billion in 2008. Blizzard Entertainment, the PlayStation 3) and video games that allow users to developers behind the game World of WarCraft connect to the internet and compete or play with announced in 2007 that they had recruited over other users in a multiplayer format. 9 million subscribers to that particular game (van The gaming industry certainly takes it sales Lent, 2008). Not only do individuals have to pay figures seriously. A person only need to look at the amount of money developers spend upon DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-792-8.ch023 marketing their games, which is usually about

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the same amount of money it takes to produce vations for play is the first step in gaining knowl- that game (Nussenbaum, 2004). Thus, if a game edge about how content within a video or online takes anywhere from $12 million to $20 million game is processed. As academics and industry to create, then this same amount needs to go into professionals we need to understand a) what is marketing that game through multiple advertising online gaming, b) who plays online games, and campaigns in order to ensure that the game makes c) what are individual’s motivations for playing a profit. According to Nussenbaum the increase online games. In order to suggest new directions in costs has game developers seeking secondary in gaming research we need to understand the revenue streams through online subscription fees phenomenon that we are studying. Furthermore, and in-game advertising. Gaming industry leaders the demographic characteristics of online gamers speculate that the amount of money spent on in- may not be as easily presumed as once thought game advertising could reach $2 billion dollars and therefore not as easily targeted as predicted. by the year 2010 (Shields, 2006). In fact there is Therefore, this chapter will integrate what online an advertising corporation called Massive (http:// gaming is along with player demographics in www.massiveincorporated.com) that caters solely order to better understand motivations behind to advertising within video games or in-game playing online games. Once these motivations are advertising. This trend was not lost on the part of understood we can get a clearer picture of how politicians. For instance, newly elected President individuals process information during game play. Barack Obama spent roughly $44,000 on in-game advertising between October 6th and November 3rd in 2008 for multiple Xbox 360 games (Miller, WHAt Is onLInE GAMInG? 2008). The advertisements sponsored voting early and were featured within 17 video games for the Online games have been referred to as MMOR- Xbox 360 (Sinclair, 2008). The amount spent on PG’s, which stands for Massively Multiplayer these advertisements seems relatively small in Online Role-Playing Games. However, online comparison to the entire amount put towards run- games have also been referred to as massively ning a presidential campaign. However, the return multiplayer/multiuser online (MMO’s), massively on the investment would seem to be worthwhile, multiplayer online game (MMOG’s), or massively especially if you asked John McCain. multiplayer online persistent world (MMOPW’s) The increase of in-game advertisements cer- (Chan & Vorderer, 2006). MMORPG’s have tainly brings up important questions related to been defined as “a persistent world… that exists how individuals process information while playing independent of the user” (Yee, 2005, p. 4). Users a video game. Even more important is how that create their own graphical avatars and interact in information is processed when it occurs simul- an online world with other users and their avatars. taneously with game content. Audience analysis Users can login or logout anytime, but the world certainly could give us some insights into the still exists online and is open to numerous users. answers to the previous questions. According to In fact, an interesting aspect of these games is the Livingstone (1999) “As audiences become less fact that most MMORPG’s include a minimum predictable, more fragmented or more variable of about 2,000 users (Yee). Thus, these virtual in their engagement with media, understanding environments at any one point in time can house the audience is even more important for theories numerous avatars and characters. of social shaping, design, markets and diffusion Long before the word MMORPG was a part than, perhaps, was true for older media” (p. 62). of our vernacular; games played over the internet Thus, understanding the audience and their moti- were referred to as MUD’s (Multiple User Do-

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mains/Dungeons) (Kent, 2003). The first MUD ics, and communicate with each other using typed was developed in 1978 by Roy Trubshaw and was chat and templated gestures and expressions. They nothing more than a few interconnected chat rooms interact with the world through a combination of (Bartle, 1990). It should also be mentioned that mouse-driven interfaces and typed commands, and Richard Bartle was also a developer who worked partake of a large number of varied activities that alongside Trubshaw to create these MUD’s (Law- increase in complexity, reward, and time involve- rie, 2002). MUD’s have a longstanding connec- ment which typically operate on a random-ratio tion to role-playing board games like Dungeons reinforcement schedule. These activities revolve & Dragons (D&D), mainly because many of the around character advancement and translate into developers like Bartle were avid fans of D&D a functional advantage in terms of the mechanics (Stewart, 1996). This may help to explain why of the world, whether this is combat capability, most of today’s MMORPGs resemble D&D type social status, avatar appearance, geographic fantasy worlds and role-playing aspects. Accord- knowledge, equipment quality, or even cooking ing to Blackmon (1994) D&D is a fantasy game skills. Whereas the first few MMORPGs focused in which players pick a character and interact with heavily on combat-oriented advancement, recent other characters and obstacles (e.g. monsters). The MMORPGs have offered more diverse forms of game is purely face-to-face as players interact as advancement. For example, in Star Wars Galax- they would when playing a game of monopoly ies, one can become a skilled musician, chef, hair on a game board. Character development and the stylist, animal tamer, or politician. outcome of battles are decided by a series of dice rolls (Blackmon). In games like D&D, a player acts A game called Meridian 59 was one of the first as the Dungeon Master rolling the dice to decide graphical online games developed, but failed to these outcomes, in MUD’s the server controls the meet the criteria for the term “massively” because it outcome (Yee, 2005). MUD’s are essentially D&D could only host 250 users at one time (Kent, 2003). type role-playing, only in online chat rooms that Although, developers often referred to Meridian are primarily text driven and lack graphical repre- 59 as a massive multiplayer, the distinction of the sentations. Thus, players enter the room and read first MMOG often goes to Ultima Online (Kent), descriptions of what the room looks like, smells which was developed in 1997 by Electronic Arts like, and contains. Players interact with other (EA). The debate of what was the first MMOG is players and objects through typed commands. still questioned; however it is not the purpose of Although, this seems fairly primitive compared this chapter to solve that argument. The inclusion to today’s online games, MUD’s are still quite of graphical representations was an important popular among multiple users. development in the history online gaming. The However, one area that revolutionized the advent of graphical representations has expanded online gaming industry was the implementation research into virtual environments with new and of graphical representations. Instead of users read- expanding opportunities. Furthermore, advance- ing what a room looked liked, they actually see ments in graphical technology allow MMORPG’s this world come to life on their computer screens. to offer different factors and features that may give According to Yee (2006b, p. 311): us an understanding of why certain individuals choose to play these types of games. On a simplistic level, MMORPGs could be thought Chan and Vorderer (2006) outlined five aspects of as a scenic chat room with a variety of interactive that differentiate MMORPG’s from other online tasks. Users experience cities, jungles, and even games. Aspects such as persistence, physicality, the falling rain or snow in rich real-time 3D graph- social interaction, avatar-mediated play, verti-

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cal game play, and perpetuity all contribute to all online communities and websites are dedicated what makes an online game a MMORPG (Chan to role-playing. The consistent fact is that regard- & Vorderer). Persistence often refers to the fact less of the type of virtual world or community that the “virtual world” users inhabit exists con- all provide opportunities to interact with objects tinuously, whether or not that player is logged in and environments that symbolize tangible items. or not. Other users can login and play anytime Virtual objects can be bought and sold by users they wish and the number of individuals playing across multiple types of online games for their the game at any one time may fluctuate. Thus, avatars to use or profit from the sale. Accord- events in this “virtual world” occur even when the ing to Natkin (2006) players have the ability to person is not logged onto the server, these events influence and interact with the virtual economy are often driven by other users (Yee, 2006b). The of the game, which may also have an impact on persistence aspect may offer a few insights into the real world economy. Individuals in the World the motivations behind playing online games. of WarCraft can buy or trade for objects such as The worlds in which these users inhabit seem weapons, shields, potions, and even reputations to resemble real worlds in terms of consistency. (see www.guild-bank.com). In non-fantasy based Thus, players of online games may do so to es- games such as the SIMS furniture, clothing, and cape the real world into a fantasy world, but still other items can be bought and sold online (Natkin). require a level of consistency or persistence that This virtual commerce aspect of the game means real worlds or environments provide. Another that individuals may not just see these games as form of persistence relates to a chosen players enjoyment, but also economic opportunities. This representation (avatar) that maintains the same may also add a different kind of motivation that identity and/or personality (Chan & Vorderer). has not been considered by researchers. Although, an individual’s avatar may increase in Chan and Vorderer (2006) further identify abilities (e.g. physical, magical, stamina, etc…), social interaction and avatar-mediated play as they generally keep the same contacts and personal specific characteristics of an MMORPG. The characteristics. A player’s avatar is an important simple fact that numerous individuals at any one aspect of an online game. As will be discussed, point in time are playing online adds to the fact individuals do not just spend time advancing or that individuals are likely to interact with other enhancing their avatars, they spend money on players. Many games offer the ability to join enhancements for that avatar. groups, clubs, and even have romantic relation- According to Chan and Vorderer (2006), physi- ships with other players. Ducheneaut, Moore, cality indicates that these worlds are representa- Nickell (2007) state that “unlike previous video tions of material objects and environments. As Yee games, MMOG’s require players to exchange in- suggested, these locations can replicate anything formation and collaborate in real-time to progress from the jungle to frozen tundra and incorporate in the game” (p. 129). Online games even offer all of the processing capabilities of computers to different ways to interact with other players either create 3-D graphical environments. The fantastic through typed text or live audio between two or nature of the avatars and the worlds would seem more players. Individuals may specifically seek out to infer that most games revolve around fantasy MMORPG’s for the specific purpose of interacting role-playing in distant castles and lands. However, with other players. Numerous researchers point some games such as SecondLife offer anything to socializing as a major reason why individu- from playing games to partaking in virtual class- als play online games (Bartle, 1990; Griffiths, rooms provided by educational institutions (http:// Davies, & Chappell, 2004b; Kerr, 2006; Yee, secondlifegrid.net/programs/education). Thus, not 2006a). Avatar-mediated play is a characteristic

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that allows players to create their own characters One key aspect of MMOG’s is the word “mas- or avatars within that game. In fact, the World of sive”. Most if not all online games that want to be WarCraft offers ten playable races and numerous considered a true MMOG or MMORPG must have primary and secondary classes and professions the ability to support thousands of players. Wood- (http://www.worldofwarcraft.com/info/races). cock (2006) has been collecting subscription data Thus, individuals are offered unique opportuni- to online games since 2002 based upon multiple ties to become whomever or whatever they wish sources (corporate data, press releases, news articles, within that online environment. Individuals may anonymous sources, etc…). The results of this unique seek out online games in order to try a new pro- analysis have allowed researchers to gain valuable fession, career, life-style, race, or even gender. insights into how many individuals worldwide are Thus, experiencing what it might be like to live playing MMOG’s. Currently, the World of WarCraft as another person with different characteristics is dominating the gaming market with over 10 and personalities could be motivating game play. million subscribers worldwide (Woodcock). Other Finally, Chan and Vorderer (2006) identified games such as Everquest II and City of Heroes/Vil- both vertical game play and perpetuity as MMOG lains have over hundreds of thousands of players; characteristics. Both of these characteristics are however games such as Sphere and PlanetSide are based upon how players define their achievement estimated towards the lower end between fifteen & within play. Most online games are persistent twenty-thousand players (Woodcock). Although, worlds that continuously exist in virtual environ- these estimates are not without error it does suggest ments where there is no end or final completion to that a great multitude of individuals have been and/or that game (perpetuity). Thus, players of MMOGs are starting to play MMOG’s. It could be that sheer can never truly say they have beaten the game. size of these worlds is a motivation in and of itself. Their level of success is measured by their char- Individuals may play simply because a multitude acters attributes, wealth, reputation, and weapons/ of different individuals from across the country and equipment (Chan & Vorderer). Success can also world are playing online. be measured by the level or rating of a players avatar. In fact, individuals may even purchase an avatar that has been advanced a few levels by sEGMEntInG tHE onLInE another user or company that pays individuals to AudIEncE tHrouGH advance characters/avatars for sale. For instance, dEMoGrAPHIcs the web site BuyMMOAccounts (http://www. buymmoaccounts.com) offers individuals the In order to understand the motivations behind play- chance to purchase a World of WarCraft charac- ing online games, we need to understand who plays ter that has been advanced up a few levels from these types of games. According to Oliver (2002) anywhere between $300 and $500 dollars. Natkin “the existence of certain individual characteristics (2006) suggests that since there is no set concept may heighten or intensify media influences or of game length, attachment to the game follows may even provide a necessary condition for media certain social and material aspects for continuous, influences to occur” (p. 518). Research conducted repeated game play. Goals and objectives within by Griffiths, Davies, & Chappell (2003, 2004a, MMORPGs often change and are in no way static. 2004b) as well as extensive research conducted The ability to offer players continuous game play by Yee (2005, 2006a, 2006b) has provided excel- with ever-changing plots, objectives, and goals lent insights into the question of who plays online can be a powerful motivating factor and addictive games. One assumption is that online game play- quality of online games. ers are often younger socially withdrawn males.

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However, research on the demographic char- Gender acteristics of online game players questions this stereotypical image of online game players. Thus Another stereotypical belief is that online gam- research that dispels commonly held assumptions ing is a male dominated activity. Early research about who plays online games needs to be under- conducted on the examination of demographic stood before discussing how these demographics characteristics of video game players suggested may influence the possible motivations of online that only adolescent boys played video games game play. (see McClure & Mears, 1984). This stereotype has been upheld in subsequent examinations Age of the effects of video game play (see Ballard & Lineberger, 1999). Lucas and Sherry (2004) It is a common held assumption that most online noted that a random sample of college students gamers are teenagers. However, a recent demo- who admitted to playing video games were more graphic sample of MMOG players has disputed likely to be male (88.3%). However, a majority this widely held belief. Griffiths et al. (2003) con- of the samples mentioned above were answering ducted a secondary data analysis of demographic questions primarily about console games and not information from two fan websites dedicated to online games or MMOG’s. Williams (2006) notes the massive online player game of Everquest. The that this gender gap may occur because a majority results showed that out of 11,457 players from one of research aimed towards examining the effects website that approximately 72% were between the of video game play has used adolescent samples. ages of 14 to 29 years (Griffiths et al.). The other It is very possible that a majority of adolescent website reported a larger age range between 10 boys play console games and girls avoid such and 30 years for 71% of the 12,538 sampled from activities because they may have been deemed a that particular site (Griffiths et al.). Thus, evidence male activity (Williams). suggests that wide ranges of age groups are playing However, as mentioned before a majority of these types of games. This research paints quite a older individuals play MMOG’s compared to ado- different picture in terms of the stereotypical image lescents. Thus, females may start to play MMOG’s of an MMORPG player. Yee (2006b) examined later on life because they provide activities in the demographics of MMORPG players across the gaming arena not typically male dominated, a three-year span by recruiting them through such as combat or killing. Griffiths et al. (2003, multiple websites dedicated to online gaming. 2004b) found evidence suggesting an increasing The results of this sample further challenged the number of females are starting to play online youthful stereotype. The results showed that the games (15%-20%). Although, not directly related average age of the respondents was 26.57 years, to playing MMOG’s, the Entertainment Software with only about 25% of the sample being teenag- Association (ESA) released a news report on July ers (Yee). Thus, we can no longer assume that the 16, 2008 stating that 40% of computer and video market segments of online gamers are younger game players are women. Yee (2007) found evi- adolescents. Just like in real world environments dence to suggest that a large majority of female different generations of individuals are interacting online gamers are between the ages of 23 and in online gaming environments. 40. Thus, it could be suggested that as females get older they are more likely to find reasons for playing online games than younger females. Al- though, the majority of MMOG players are male, female MMOG players should not be discounted.

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Furthermore, motivations for playing an MMOG MotIVAtIon sEGMEntAtIon And may be very different for male and female players. InForMAtIon ProcEssInG occupation/yearly Income/ Why are motivations important to information pro- Marital status cessing? The Uses and Gratifications perspective of media effects may add some insight on how to Yee (2007) found evidence to suggest that over answer that question. The Uses and Gratifications 50% of MMORPG players work full-time. The approach to media effects was developed by Katz, slight majority of occupations goes to individu- Blumler, and Gurevitch (1973) to help explain als in the information technology field (28.7%), individual’s motivations for media use and selec- however there seems to be great diversity when tion. According to Rubin (2002) audience activity it comes to occupations that play MMOG’s (law- and media orientations are two essential concepts yers, doctors, nurses, homemakers, office work, of uses and gratifications. Audience activity refers manual work, etc…) (Griffiths et al., 2004b). to the fact that individuals are not passive viewers Griffiths et al. (2003) found that about 21% of of media, but rather, they are active participants online gamers make less than $35,000, 20% make who select and choose what they watch, hear, and between $35,000 and $60,000, and 14% make read from media outlets. However, this activity is over $60,000 year. The above results make sense viewed on a continuum with individuals switch- as most MMORPG’s require a monthly fee and ing back and forth between passive and active faster computer processing speeds, which cost viewers (Rubin). Thus, in terms of information money. The fact that individuals in the informa- processing, individuals often have different levels tion technology and computer science fields are of cognitive involvement at any one point in time more likely to play MMOGs is also not surprising, when processing a media message. The level of as these individuals are more computer oriented. cognitive involvement is likely to influence what An interesting finding by Yee (2006b) relates to is remembered or recalled when playing an online marital status of MMOG players. The results of game. For instance, an individual who is using a demographic analysis reveal that most female medium to gain knowledge or seek information players are married, while most male players (ex. watching a TV show about sharks) may have are single. Evidence suggests that a majority of a different cognitive frameset than someone who female players get involved because of a roman- is watching that show simply to alleviate boredom tic partner (Yee). Thus, motivations may widely (Sherry, Lucas, Greenberg, & Lachlan, 2006). differ between men and women when deciding The amount of cognitive processing may be more to start playing MMOG’s. Finally, understand- effortful for people seeking to gain information ing these motivations may also help to predict than the person watching to pass the time. How- how information is processed during game play. ever, the person watching to pass time may be Individual’s motivations for playing that online more susceptible to background features of the game may influence what in-game content is paid TV show because they are not as involved as the attention too and what is ignored. person with the information seeking motivation. If an individual is devoting a large amount of cogni- tive processing to completing a mission within an online environment or socializing with another player for information then it is likely that other sources of information are likely to be blocked out or passively processed. However, as will be

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discussed individuals may still recall in-game habitually found the same kinds of thing about content passively through implicit associations. the game ‘fun’, but there were several (four, in Rubin (2002) further offers two distinct types fact) sub-groupings into which opinion divided” of motivations about individuals’ attitudes and (p. 2). The sub-groupings in which he refers to expectations of their media use: ritualized and are four personality types that define individual’s instrumental. In ritualized motivations individu- reasons for playing. The personality types are als seek out media outlets to consume time or Achievers, Explorers, Socialisers, and Killers for diversionary purposes (Rubin). Instrumental (Bartle). Achievers at the most basic level play motivations are more goal-directed such as seek- the game in order to achieve game related goals, ing information about an object, environment, or whether it is beating monsters or gaining points/ individual. This may draw connections to eco- treasure (Bartle). Explorers play the game in nomic perspectives about motivations because order to discover new virtual worlds, in the case virtual objects may also be bought and sold be- of MUD’s this would be another virtual room. tween vendors and players (Natkin, 2006). Thus, Socialisers play the game to interact with other utilitarian motivations of purchasing behaviors players. Finally, Killers play in order to impose should be considered as a reason why individu- upon other players, thus to kill or inflict damage als play online games. According to Mort and on other players in the game (Bartle). Rose (2004) utilitarian motivations relate to the Bartle (1990) further suggested that to main- functional purposes of outcomes produced by tain a proper working MUD, game administrators goods or products. This means that individuals would need to find a delicate balance between may simply go online to purchase new clothing, these four personality types. Meaning, the MUD weapons, or a means of transportation for their or “World” would need to emphasize certain as- avatar. Any type of information related to these pects of the world or players, and the types of play items would take cognitive processing priority (socializing or fighting) at any one point in time. over other aspects such as completing missions For instance, Bartle mentioned that increasing the or socializing. Thus, these media orientations of- number of Killers in the game could drastically fer insights into audience activity when using a reduce the number of Achievers and Socialisers. specific medium (Rubin). In terms of processing However, Bartle’s taxonomy of player types as- information during game play this means players sumes that each personality is independent in terms may give cognitive processing priority to content of the individual (Yee, 2006a). Thus, a person can that relates to their current motivations. only be an Achiever and not a Killer, or a Killer An important aspect of the uses and gratifica- and not a Socialiser. Players in most MMOGs tions perspective is that it allows for the develop- may have multiple motivations for playing. Fur- ment of unique taxonomies of motives for using thermore, graphical MUDs or MMOGs offer rules a specific type of media (Harris, 2004). Since of engagement that already hamper killers from online gaming offers opportunities for a multi- simply destroying every player in the environment. tude of interactions, events, and behaviors one For instance, many MMORPGs like the World of needs to consider multiple motives for playing. WarCraft do not allow players to “duel” or engage Bartle (1990) was one of the first researchers to in combat with another player unless both parties examine the motives for playing online games. agree to this action (http://www.worldofwarcraft. Although, Bartle was addressing the motivations com/info/basics/duels.html). Thus, MMOGs of- for playing MUD’s, his research offers an entry fer experiences and rules that are beyond what point into the MMOG motivation literature. Bartle theorized would allow for a successful According to Bartle “a pattern emerged: people MUD. That said, Bartle’s taxonomy does offer

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a beginning insight into some of the underlying in new and changing environments that provide motivations of online game play. Also, individuals a certain level of control. who habitually play for certain reasons are more Individuals do not necessarily want total con- likely to attend to features with the online game trol, overcoming goals would be too simple and that pertain to that style of play. Here, information the game would be predictably easy if a player processing is increased when an online game offers controlled everything that occurred in the envi- individuals the opportunities to play or interact ronment. Players want a level of unpredictably in a virtual environment that meets the needs of and challenge, thus according to Klug and Schell different kinds of players. (2006) they want the “illusion of control” (p. 92). For instance, it is noted by Salen and Zimmerman developer Perspectives (2005) that for game play to be meaningful, play- ers’ actions must result in a system outcome. The MUDs may offer a textual guide on how to design game must respond to player’s actions, because effective virtual environments. As mentioned, if this does not occur then a player has no con- MUDs are primarily chat rooms with text de- trol over what happens. A lack of control would scribing the look and feel of the virtual room or likely hinder information processing for goals environment. The effectiveness of a virtual envi- or objectives during game play because players ronment may depend upon how that space meets would view the experience as a pointless endeavor. individual’s needs or motivations for playing and/ However, the reverse may also be said for total or interacting in that space. Cheng, Farnham, and control, if players see objectives or goals within Stone (2002) conducted research into the designing the game as too easily attainable it will likely and deploying of virtual environments by examin- result in diminished information processing of ing user feedback during the design process. The game play content. Thus, there must be a delicate results suggest users and designers prefer 3-D balance of control in order facilitate higher levels environments with little abstraction that provide of information processing. third-person points of view (Cheng et al.). Fur- Furthermore, a player’s actions must be dis- thermore, users of these environments preferred cernable to the extent that the game offers some environments that fostered social interaction form of feedback that something has occurred and graphical representations that could present (Salen & Zimmerman, 2005). If a player acts non-verbal cues similar to real-life interactions. upon an object or another player then the system Other design aspects have been found to influ- should provide feedback in the form of visual or ence enjoyment of video and computer games. auditory responses in terms of the outcome of what For instance, Hsu, Lee, Wu (2005) examined the occurred to that object or player. Although, this design features of action video games in order may seem to be fundamentally obvious, provid- to assess what consumers of this type of media ing users with the appropriate feedback cannot be thought were fun and not fun. Hsu et al. asked understated as a key to the success of a computer participants to evaluate 28 different versions or video game. According to Garris, Ahlers, and of the same game (Pac Man) and then describe Driskell (2002) appropriate game features that can why these games were evaluated positively or be represented in the form of feedback increase negatively. The results suggested that consumers individuals’ interest and involvement during play. favored aspects like novelty, interactivity, sense Cognitive processing may be increased through of control, and appealing presentation (Hsu et feedback that meets with the consistent visual or al.). At a structural level, players want to be able auditory response to an action within an online to customize their avatars and interact with them game. The implications are that proper feedback

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and means to achieve objectives highly influence ambitious findings of online games. Yee (2006a) the level of cognitive effort and focused attention developed a taxonomy of MMORPG motivations a person gives when playing an online game. through a factor analysis and social interaction was Finally, it is suggested that individuals play categorized as a main component of motivations in order to seek out romantic relationships in a for playing (p. 773): safe environment. According to Klug and Schell (2006) “…if the game business can figure out a • Social Component way to provide greater exploration of the kinds ◦ Socializing—Having an interest of fantasy relationships that men and women in helping and chatting with other both want…that kind of content could really players grow the industry exponentially” (p. 97). These ◦ Relationship—The desire to form types of interactions (not always romantic) have long-term meaningful relationships been taking place long before the introduction with others of graphical representations. As mentioned pre- ◦ Teamwork—Deriving satisfaction viously, researchers examining the motivations from being part of a group effort behind playing MMORPGs have consistently noted that socialization aspects are quite often Thus, the ability to socialize and interact is a the reason why people play. common reason for playing online games (Yee; Griffiths et al., 2004b). Furthermore, the subcat- social Interaction egories offer more insights into what kinds of interactions are taking place during game play. Griffiths et al. (2004b) examined the demograph- Thus, it can be seen that socialization taking place ics and motivations of individuals who were during game play goes beyond mere romantic in- online gamers of the popular MMOG Everquest. teractions as suggested by Klug and Schell (2006). His research demonstrated that player’s favorite Interactions that involve helping other individuals aspects of the game were related to social interac- or working as a team are common aspects that tion, while the least favorite aspect related to the make MMOGs enjoyable. The more enjoyable an immaturity of other players (Griffiths et al.). How- online game is the more likely a person will be ever, there were numerous other favorite aspects involved within that gaming environment. including: being able to group together, character Cole and Griffiths (2007) examined the dif- advancement, tactics, trade skills, being part of ferences between social interactions that occurred guild membership, strategic thinking, taking on online and those that occur off-line (face-to- leadership roles, guild competition/politics, and face). The researchers reasoned that since social the fact that there was no end to the game (Griffiths interaction is an important aspect of MMOGs, it et al., see p. 483). Examples of their least favorite may facilitate the development of friendships. aspects included: helping inexperienced players, Furthermore, this research suggests these online hand-to-hand combat, solo play, team play, and interactions offer qualities and characteristics that lack of customer service (Griffiths et al.). may be more positive and rewarding than offline Yee has provided the most detail in terms interactions. Cole and Griffiths surveyed a large of motivations for playing online games. Yee’s sample of both male and female MMORPG players research began in 1999 through online surveys about their online friendships. The results suggest of MMORPG players and is called the Daedalus a majority of male and female players have built Project (http://www.nickyee.com/daedalus/). friendships with individuals that they met dur- This research presents the most extensive and ing game play. Furthermore, over 80% of those

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sampled had mentioned that they enjoyed playing tional mediums. Thus, individuals may choose their chosen MMOG with real-life friends and more interactive mediums because they offer family (Cole & Griffiths). The results also suggest more competitive situations. The achievement there are differences to these interactions based or goal-attainment of succeeding over another upon gender of the player. For instance, female individual can elicit positive emotions that in- game players were more likely to discuss sensitive dividuals routinely seek-out. According to Klug issue with online friends than real world friends. and Schell (2006), individuals compete in video It should also be noted that close to half of the games to experience positive emotions about participants had met online friends outside of the themselves because they have out performed MMOG in real-life. Although offline relationships another individual. are often referred to as real-life friends, online To this end, Vorderer, Hartmann, and Klimmt friendships can be just as real. Kerr (2006) has (2003) explored the interactive and competitive suggested that “Social relationships may also be aspects that make video and computer games important in terms of understanding game prefer- enjoyable. These researchers conducted an ex- ences, duration, and frequency of play” (p. 125). periment and an online survey in two separate From an information processing perspective, studies to explore the enjoyment of competitive online game players may be more likely to cog- situations in computer games. Results support nitively focus on interactions with other players the hypothesis that higher levels of competition whom they have a long standing relationship than (more monsters) and more alternatives for action newly formed relationships. However, first time showed the highest levels of enjoyment (Vorderer contacts within that game may initially receive et al.). Moreover, results suggest that individual’s a similar amount of attention, but have a shorter motivation to compete against others has more attention window. Finally, games that offer more influence in the choice of a competitive computer opportunities for interactions with other players game rather than an individual’s self-efficacy to are more likely to gain cognitive efforts towards succeed in a computer game competition (Vor- such endeavors. derer et al). Thus, even though individuals may not have confidence in their ability to succeed in competition competitions during game play they still choose computer games that are highly competitive. As Bartle (1990) noted in his typology of MUD Yee’s (2006a) analysis of MMORPG motiva- players, Achievers typically enjoy the game when tions has shown that competition is a subcompo- they get chances to accomplish game-related goals nent of a larger structure related to achievement. such as finding/accumulating treasure and beating As mentioned, even though online games may not monsters or other players. This finding may have offer rewards in the form of completion of a game, offered the first explanation of how competitive they can offer other forms of markers for success aspects of online game play (graphical or not) or achievement. Aspects like the accumulation of contribute to its overall experience. Furthermore, wealth and power (advancement), game optimiza- some individuals may find this aspect more en- tion and analysis (mechanics), and challenging joyable than others and may seek out instances of and dominating others (competition) all contribute competition when playing. Vorderer, Klimmt, and to the higher component of Achievement (Yee). Ritterfeld (2004) suggest that motives for the use For instance, World of WarCraft (http://www. of newer technologies are linked to competition worldofwarcraft.com/wrath/features/gameplay/ and achievement because these technologies offer achievements) allows individuals through quests, more interactivity than the rather passive tradi- events, world exploration, and player-to-player

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situations to advance their character in abilities First, many games take the customization of and cosmetically (new armor, hair, clothes, etc…). characters very seriously. As previously discussed, Thus, competing against another individual of- the World of WarCraft offers players the option fers the reward of winning, but there are also of choosing their avatar representation from ten other achievements related to advancement of an playable races and numerous primary and second- individual’s avatar. ary classes and professions. Avatar-mediated play is also a main characteristic associated with most Immersion MMOG’s (Chan & Vorderer, 2006). Cheng et al. (2002) noted that individuals prefer to have some Yee’s (2006a) factor analysis yielded four sub- control over the creation and appearance of their components of immersion. These include aspects avatars. It would seem rather pointless to offer such as exploration (discovery), story line and numerous customization options for the look and character history (role-playing), appearances and appearance of their characters, then not let them accessories (customization), and relaxation/escape view that appearance within the environment. (escapism) (Yee). Discovery was possibly one This may also influence other aspects related to of the earliest aspects of immersion discussed. identity formation and identification with avatars For instance, Bartle’s (1990) taxonomy of MUD that first-person perspectives do not allow. Thus, players identified Explorers as individuals who third-person perspectives may offer an underlying play games “to find out as much as they can about motivation of character/avatar customization. In the virtual world” (p. 3). Role-playing involves terms of cognitive processing individuals who are the incorporation of a character with a unique highly motivated to upgrade or change the appear- background story or narrative. Schneider, Lang, ance of their own characters maybe more likely Shin, and Bradley (2004) examined the effects of to pay attention to such elements within the game including a story narrative within a video game on that allow for such options. That is, players may identification, presence, emotional experiences, be more likely to pay attention to other player’s motivation, and physiological arousal. Recent avatars for ideas about how to customization video games, regardless of content, have come their own avatars. This likely plays a small, but to include very intricate story lines (see any of significant factor of the socialization aspect of the Halo or Grand Theft Auto series games) and online gaming. character backgrounds. The results showed par- Finally, playing computer or video games al- ticipants who played a story-based video game lows users to participate in and perform activities compared to non-story based video game reported they would not normally be able to do in real-life greater levels of identification with their game (Klug & Schell, 2006). Yee (2006a) referred to characters and felt more presence within that game this subcomponent as escapism, which means that (Schneider et al.). Also, the story-based video game computer and video games have the ability to allow condition elicited more positive emotional valence users to escape from the real-world. Furthermore, than the non-story based condition (Schneider et individuals can be transported to fictional locations al.). The inclusion of a story narrative along with that do not exist. As in most video games, the 3-D a character/avatar narrative is likely to increase environments transport individuals to times and enjoyment and positive affect towards the game. places that either do not exist or visit events in a The third subcomponent of immersion relates historical sense (The Wild West, WII, Civil War, to the ability to create and customize an avatar Medieval Times, etc…). Thus, not only do video (Yee, 2006a). Most MMORPGs provide view- and computer games offer experiences that indi- points from a third-person perspective. Why? viduals may only know as an observer, but they

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also allow users or consumers to take on personas include enjoyment, curiosity, and because that and live vicariously in different times and places particular gender was attributed certain sought (Klug & Schell). In terms of processing infor- after characteristics or skills. mation this means that individuals may be more likely to pay attention to features or aspects of the Gender virtual environment that add to the consistency of that time period or location. For these individuals, Thus, there may be significant differences in mo- socializing or competing is secondary to exploring tivations based upon gender. Cole and Griffiths the environment, which should present the most (2005) found evidence that while both males cognitive effort. Thus, background features are and females enjoy socializing in MMOGs, male essential to a user who plays for escapism as the players may socialize for a sense of teamwork virtual environment is an important reason why or camaraderie, while females may socialize for they play video or computer games. relational and intimacy purposes. Although, this may seem somewhat stereotypical of males and Gender swapping females the evidence does seem to point in this direction. For instance, Yee (2006a) found evi- One unique aspect of online games that has not dence to suggest significant gender differences in been discussed as a possible motivation is the the relationship subcomponent of gaming motiva- ability to gender swap. Gender swapping refers to tions, but there were no differences in the social- the phenomenon of “playing a different gendered izing subcomponent. In a subsequent analysis, character from oneself” (Hussain & Griffiths, Yee (2006b) found that “female players prefer to 2008, p. 48). Differences in the demographics of relate to other players, while male players prefer who are and are not participating in this type of to work together to achieve goals” (p. 319-320). activity suggests important underlying motiva- Royse, Lee, Undrahbuyan, Hopson, and Consalvo tions. For instance, Griffiths et al. (2004a) found (2007) investigated the uses and negotiation of that a majority of game players are likely to swap women’s usage of computer games from a feminist genders and that older male individuals are the standpoint. The conclusions showed women who most likely to engage in this activity. From here, played more frequently did so for motivations Hussain and Griffiths explored the reasons behind of achievement and competition (Royse et al.). gender swapping. Results suggest a majority of However, women who were deemed to be mod- both male and female players gender swap, this is erate game players were motivated by escapism contrary to results found by Griffiths et al. How- and control. ever, the results also seem to suggest males and Although, not specifically related to online females gender swap for different reasons. Hussain gaming research has examined differences in and Griffiths note that females may gender swap information processing based upon gender. in order to avoid male players soliciting them Hendriks-Vettehen, Schaap, and Schlosser (2004) during game play. Thus, female users play as a argued that TV news is largely a masculine me- male avatar in order to prevent male players from dium because it is typically created by men and flirting or making sexual advancements towards is a stereotypically male profession. This aspect them during online interactions. However, from seems to be similar in relation to the creation and a male user’s perspective, it may be that “play- development of online games. An interesting find- ing a female character meant that male gamers ing from Hendriks-Vettehen et al. was that female treated him far better” (Hussain & Griffiths, participants expressed an overall lack of clarity p. 52). Other motivations for gender swapping with information presented in the news. Here, it

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could be suggested that females are not likely to evidence that adolescents typically play for their process information related to stereotypical male own selfish reasons of personal gain. Although, endeavors such as competition and violence. In both age and gender are worthy of consideration, online games this may mean that female players together these two demographic characteristics are likely to focus upon and be more involved offer greater insight. with stereotypical “feminine activities” such as socializing or relationship maintenance. However, this point should be warranted with caution as In-GAME ProcEssInG female players are still likely to enjoy competing against other players. Thus, there does seem to be Motivations for online game play may affect in- some evidence to suggest that males and females dividuals processing of events that occur during may process certain kinds of content differently game play. In-game processing refers to individu- based upon the type of content. However, age al’s memory for events, content, and interactions of the game player may contribute significantly that occurred during game play. Obviously, in a more than gender. sense of consumer or player experiences, positive affect of game play is desired. This is not to say Age that individuals do not remember negative experi- ences of playing MMOGs. In terms of information It seems there may be large differences between retention, positive experiences should outweigh males and females in terms of online game play. negative experiences. Certainly there are different However, Yee has shown that age may be a factor aspects of video and computer games that establish that accounts for greater differences in motiva- the right conditions for involvement and enjoy- tions than gender. As discussed previously older ment. These conditions are likely an interaction individuals (20yrs +) make up the typical demo- between multiple factors related to enjoyment, graphic of MMOG players (Griffiths et al., 2004b). game experience, and player motivations. Thus, Griffiths et al. (2004a) specifically compared ado- determining a player’s motivation is a requisite lescent and adult gamers for possible differences to understanding involvement and enjoyment. in motivations. The results indicate that while both As discussed, there are numerous motivations adults and adolescents enjoyed the social aspects for playing online games (Yee, 2006a, 2006b). of online games, only adolescents enjoyed the Motivations for playing online games can take violent aspects of online games (Griffiths et al., many forms, from playing simply to interact with 2004a). Age of players may interact with gender other players (Cole & Griffiths, 2007), to com- for motivational differences. For instance, most peting or achieving goals (Vorderer et al., 2003), female game players are older individuals (Yee, or to buying a coat or furniture for your avatar 2006b) meaning there is a considerable lack of (Natkin, 2006). Also, there are factors related adolescent female MMOG players. This may to persistence, physicality, vertical game play, be due to the stereotypical image of video and perpetuity, and avatar development and creation computer games being a male activity especially (Chan & Vorderer, 2006) as well as immersion among adolscent individuals. However, with (Yee, 2006a) and gender swapping (Hussain male game players there seems to be a wider ratio & Griffiths, 2008). It has been suggested that in that both adolescent and adult males may be different demographic segments have different likely to play MMOG’s. As Griffiths et al. (2004a) motivations for playing online games. The larger found, adolescents are more likely to play for questions is how can we understand the influence violent purposes. Yee (2006b) has even found that motivations have on information processing

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for in-game content when there is a large variety of Yang et al. randomly assigned participants those motivations. A good starting point that may to one of three conditions. The first two condi- help clear up some of the confusion is too review tions were sports games (EA’s Formula 1 2001; similar research that has examined information EA’s FIFA 2002), while the third condition was a processing (recall of content) of advertisements control condition (Yang et al.). The researchers within video games and websites. measured participants implicit (word completion An important aspect that cannot be overlooked task) and explicit (brand name recall) memory for when it comes to content recall is attention. Mean- the advertisements that appeared within the game ing, the first step in understanding how individuals after participants had finished playing. The word recall material of in-game content is through atten- completion task requires participants to complete tion. According to Salisch, Oppl, and Kristen (2006) word fragments to create a word (i.e., E_P_; for “attention governs the way in which information “ESPN”). A total of 24 word fragments were in- from the electronic game is taken up…Which in- cluded that could be completed as brand names formation is selected depends on the salience and from the two games (Yang et al.). Thus, some of the affective valence of the figures on the screen the word fragments were for brand names that in the sense that attractive protagonists are given did not appear within that particular video game. more attention” (p. 160). Research examining According to the hypothesis, then individuals the recall of advertisements within video games should complete more word fragments for brand offers excellent insights into in-game processing. names that appeared within the video game that Although, this research has been somewhat limited, they played. The results showed that participants a few studies have examined individuals process- were more likely to complete word fragments for ing of advertisements within a video game. Yang, brand names that appeared within the respective Roskos-Ewoldsen, Dinu, and Arpan (2006) exam- video game they had played. Yang et al. suggest ined college student’s memory for brand advertise- implicit memory does influence recall of in-game ments placed within a sports video game. Yang et content and that this may in fact be a more sensi- al. based their expectations upon the differences tive measure of influence for advertising recall. associated with explicit and implicit processing Explicit memory for brand names was only of message content. According to Rovee-Collier, about 45-50% accuracy (Yang et al.). This is a Hayne, and Colombo (2001) explicit processing relatively low estimate seeing that participants involves deliberative, effortful cognitive reflection were explicitly asked to recall the brand names of our memories. Thus, individuals who explicitly only half-hour after playing the video game. The process information do so in a manner that puts results show that recall of content in a video game forth cognitive effort on recall and recognition of does not necessarily have to be based on effortful that information. Conversely, implicit processing concentration upon that specific content. Memory does not involve effort and is usually incidental in for events or content may still be remembered that it pops into the forefront of our minds (Rovee- even if that person is concentrating upon another Collier et al.). Yang et al. hypothesized that because aspect of the game. However, concentration may individuals put forth a large amount of cognitive still be a key concept as will be discussed later. processing when playing a video game that there Internet advertising is also an area that can help is less attention paid to the background features answer questions related to in-game processing of that video game. It was assumed that implicit as online media resembles the interactivity of on- memory would be exhibited for brand names that line games. Research into banner advertisements were placed in the form of billboards within sports may give us a clearer picture of how individuals video games. process and retain attention to one aspect when

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there is virtual sea of information presented. to elements and features that relate to those goals. Lohtia, Donthu, and Hershberger (2003) exam- For instance, someone searching the internet to ined the content and design elements of banner buy concert tickets may be more likely to pay advertisements on websites. Furthermore, the attention to elements related to music or the researchers compared business-to-business (B2B) purchasing of tickets rather than online dating- and business-to-consumer (B2C) websites for services or design elements (i.e., animation). their click-through rates. The researchers content However, when individuals search the web for analyzed numerous banner advertisements for entertainment purposes or no particular reason, color, interactivity, animation, emotional appeal, elements of design such as color, animation, and and incentives then analyzed each advertisements trade characters are more likely to gain attention click-through-rate (CTR). Typically, clicking on (Rodgers & Thorson). In relation to online gaming an advertisement takes the user to another web it is important to understand why an individual page. The CTR is the number of times a banner logged into the game. The purpose in any gaming advertisement is clicked on by the number of times session will likely influence what information gets it is served to the user’s browser (Lohtia et al.). cognitively processed. Results suggest the incorporation of interactiv- Pravettoni, Leotta, and Lucchiari (2008) ity and incentives actually lowered the CTR of furthered examined the relationship between B2B banner advertisements, whereas emotion recall of banner advertisements based upon and animation increased the CTR of B2C banner external factors and internal motivations. The advertisements (Lohtia et al.). It seems that differ- researchers assumed that what is eye-catching ent design elements are more effective for B2B to users depends upon their motive for use. and B2C banner advertisements, with exception According to Pravettoni et al., a person with an of medium color, which was successful for both intended objective will give attention to features types of advertisements. The differences in CTR that relate to their motivations, however if a rates based upon types of advertisements (B2B person has an exploratory (no specific objec- vs. B2C) could be attributed to differences in user tive) objective then banner stimuli will likely motivations. Similar results have been generated influence attention. The researchers conducted from banner advertisements examined on online two experiments differing in the level of adver- casino websites (see Robinson, Wysocka, & Hand, tisement (banner vs. pop-ups) and objective (set 2007). Thus, motivations for searching contributed objective vs. no objective). It was hypothesized to what information was recalled. that individuals with a goal-directed task (set Rodgers and Thorson (2000) developed an objective) would be less likely to be influenced integrated model of information processing for by external elements (design features) of both internet advertising based upon function and banner and pop-up advertisements. The results structure. Design elements (structure) and con- showed that individuals who were given a spe- sumer’s motivations (functions) for using the cific task had less recall of banner advertise- internet will influence their recall, attitude, and ments and pop-up advertisements (Pravettoni behavior towards those advertisements. In fact, et al.). However, one interesting result was that “Probably most important to how interactive when the pop-up advertisement was congruent advertising operates are the motives and modes with the task goal it was better remembered (serious versus playful) with which people enter than if it was not congruent (Pravettoni et al.). cyberspace” (Rodgers & Thorson). Individuals Thus, factors of an online game may be paid who have goals (motives) in mind when they log attention to simply because they relate to that onto the internet are more likely to pay attention players goal or current mission.

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Finally, repetition is likely to influence recall optimal experience and customer loyalty. Here, of banner advertisements. Yaveroglu and Donthu Choi and Kim constructed a conceptual model (2008) examined repetition strategies to banner composed of social and personal interactions advertisements in an online environment. Results that may combine to influence an experience of from this study demonstrated that repetition of flow, which then influences customer loyalty. The advertisements both single ads and varied ads researchers invoked flow as the operationalization for the same products created increased brand of an optimal experience. Flow can be attributed name recall and intentions to click (Yaveroglu & to the work of Csikszentmihalyi (1990), who Donthu). Thus, repetitive content is more likely characterized flow as an experience that results to influence recall. How does this relate to recall from immersion in ones actions. Flow has been of content from MMOGs? Griffiths et al. (2004a; defined as an interaction between an individual’s 2004b) have conducted research into the frequency skills and the challenge or difficulty of the task and length of game play along with demographic at hand. A difficult video or computer game characteristics. The results have showed that close may bring about frustration from an individual to 25% of online gamers play for 10-20 hrs per who cannot advance within the game to the next week (Griffiths et al., 2004a). The low end of level. If the person can too easily advance it may frequency of online gaming is somewhere around likely result in boredom. The ultimate state of 5hrs per week. Yee (2006b) found a large majority flow lies between frustration and boredom, such of respondents spent close to 22 hours per week that a player may lose track of time and self- playing online and even more interesting was consciousness when trying to advance a level or that 60% of the respondents reported playing for complete a mission. However, flow has also been at least 10 hours continuously! Thus, there are defined as “total concentration in an activity and greater chances of exposure to repetitive content the enjoyment which one derives from an activity” due to the increased amount of time per week (Ghani & Deshpande, 1994, p. 382). Thus, flow and time per game-play session that individuals results when a person feels immersed within a give to MMOGs. virtual environment through focused attention on In the case of online games, information that goal attainment and an even interaction between relates to ones goals or motivations for playing skill and challenge. are likely to be given priority over other types of Choi and Kim assumed that positive interac- information within the game. It could be suggested tions between the system (game) and other users that content aspects related to the encouragement, would contribute to the overall experience of development, and enhancement of motives for playing an online game and thus flow would be playing that online game would likely garner experienced. The researchers differentiated be- higher recall. However, effortful cognitive pro- tween personal and social interactions. Personal cessing is not the only way information can be interactions are based upon goals, operation, and recalled from a video game. Yang et al. found feedback (Choi & Kim). Goals can be any type of evidence that implicit processing of information objective or mission within that online game (i.e., may also aid in the recall of content during video collecting coins or beating a monster). Operation game play. As mentioned previously it may not is based upon the means set out in order to achieve just be the content itself, but the overall experi- those goals, while feedback allows players to ence of playing an MMOG that contributes to know that they have accomplished that goal (i.e., content recall. monster dies) (Choi & Kim). The results of the For instance, Choi and Kim (2004) examined study showed that positive personal interactions features of online game play that contribute to an (appropriate goals) and social interactions posi-

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tively predicted individual’s sense of flow during within an online gaming environment can also be game play (Choi & Kim). applied to recall of in-game advertisements. For Flow is a construct that is likely to help explain instance, Nelsen (2002) examined the effective- the level of an individual’s recall of content when ness of brand placements within video games in motivation for playing is consistent with goals terms of recall and players attitudes towards the and objectives. The more individuals achieve a game and advertisement as outcomes. Nelsen sense of flow the more likely that it will increase differentiated the types of brand placements via their concentration or attention for content within passive (background features, ex. billboards) and that online game. Sweetser and Wyeth (2005) active (characters & equipment, ex. name brand conceptualized a concept of flow defined as baseball bats) advertising. However, both types of “GameFlow” that combined eight elements or brand placements seem to be similar in that neither concepts as a model of computer game enjoyment. are pertinent to the narrative or the game itself, but These concepts include concentration, challenge, rather background props or items to be obtained. skills, control, clear goals, feedback, immersion, The results did suggest that game players were able and social interaction (Sweester & Wyeth). Thus, to remember seeing brand names in the game they concentration is a likely condition that needs to played across both short and long-term measures. be met in order for an individual to experience Furthermore, these results suggest that when the flow. However, there are other criteria that can es- item is a part of the game (e.g., using a Nike golf tablish increased concentration and flow. Weibel, club) individuals have better short term recall of Wissmath, Habegger, Steiner, and Groner (2008) that object (Nelsen). Finally, Nelsen suggested examined differences in individuals’ sense of flow brand placements within a video game resulted and enjoyment within an online game based upon in increased perceptions of realism associated whether or not a user was playing against another with that game. Thus, including advertisements in user-controlled opponent or computer-controlled the forms of brand placements or billboards can opponent. Most if not all MMOGs offer both op- enhance that video games realism. Although, not tions in terms of opponents. Weibel et al. reasoned specifically related to flow, it can be suggested that since a motivation of online gaming is social that this research points to aspects of recall that interaction that competition with another human can be associated with the assumptions of flow. opponent would increase an individual’s sense of For instance, increased realism can lead to higher flow and enjoyment with that game. The results perceptions of immersion. Nelsen’s research also did show that participants who played against a showed that player’s overall had positive percep- user-controlled (human) opponent reported higher tions of brand images within the video game. levels of flow and enjoyment. Also, Yee (2006a) Enjoyment is a key aspect to the experience of had suggested that competition is a subcomponent flow and with an interaction between realism. of a larger motivation associated with achieve- This could suggest that individuals experienced ment. Thus, a sense of flow may also be established a sense of flow. However, future research needs if an individual can achieve certain objectives or to be examined in order to provide evidence for goals, while playing that game. this assumption. Furthermore, those goals or objectives should Overall, research on advertising recall on the in- be consistent in order to gain the most amount of ternet and in video games suggests that individuals concentration or attention to in-game content. As who have goal-directed motivations (instrumental defined, implicit memory for background features or utilitarian motivations) when using a medium and items may also benefit from increased concen- are more likely to remember content that is related tration to aspects of the game during play. Flow to those motives. User/player motives for playing

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online games are as diverse as the individuals who content. One assumption or criteria to establish subscribe to such games. And there are different flow is concentration (Sweetser & Wyeth). If motivations for playing MMOGs and those mo- concentration or effortful cognitive processing tivations can be even further broken down based can aid in the recall of in-game content (Yang et upon differences in demographics. Online gam- al.) then it may be likely that the establishment of ing content that is congruent with user motives flow in an online game can increase individual’s is more likely to establish higher user recall, than information processing of content during game content that is incongruous with those motives. play. Furthermore, it has been established that Thus, online game designers and administrators explicit and implicit memory constructs have would be wise to develop in-game strategies shown to influence the recall of in-game content that reinforce different individual motives for (i.e., Brand name recognition) (Yang et al.). This playing online games. Online games that involve also needs to be further examined within online social interaction in order to achieve goals along environments and the concept of flow. For in- with appropriate operations (means to achieve stance, can increased concentration, enjoyment, objectives) are likely to generate higher content social interaction, skill level, or competition aid recall. Furthermore, suitable feedback is needed in implicit memory for in-game content? If indi- in order to gain and keep a player’s attention. If viduals are highly immersed within that virtual online games can establish a sense of flow through environment and focused upon the task at hand meeting individual’s needs for playing, it is more can players implicitly remember other aspects or likely that in-game content will be remembered. background features during game play? Yang et al. However, it could be suggested that individuals did find evidence to suggest that implicit memory may not always have an explicit motivation in for name brand recognition was stronger via im- mind when participating (e.g., ritualized moti- plicit measures than explicit measures. However, vations). Diversionary motives are more likely Yang et al. did not give participants instructions to be difficult to predict in terms of information or goals when playing the video game. Would processing. However, it is possible that past mo- implicit memory still be as strong if participants tives will influence what content is attended to were given a goal or objective when playing? and recalled. Thus, which form of online game play motivation is likely to aid in implicit memory for in-game content: instrumental or ritualized motivations? FuturE dIrEctIons It has also been established that individuals play online games for various reasons. Features It could be suggested that knowing before hand or of online games from social interaction with other addressing content that meets the needs of players players (Chan & Vorderer), to gender swapping will likely result in higher recall of content and (Hussain & Griffiths), to the larger component of overall a more enjoyable experience. The difficult achievement (Yee) all contribute to individual’s task for researchers, designers, and marketers is motives for playing these types of games. Un- knowing an individual’s motivations for playing derstanding these motives is important to under- that game before that person logs into the game. standing enjoyment and customer loyalty as well This means that designers and marketers must as recall and attitudes towards in-game content. think of new ways to establish in-game reinforce- Certain features and aspects of online games are ment of content related to the goals or motivations likely to garner more attention from individuals of users/players. Also, research needs to examine based upon their reasons for playing at that time. links between concepts of flow and recall of Furthermore, another motivation that may often

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be overlooked is that individuals play online Bartle, R. (1990). Early MUD history. Retrieved games to purchase virtual objects or commodi- from http://www.mud.co.uk/richard/mudhist.htm ties (Natkin). Thus, utilitarian motivations related Blackmon, W. D. (1994). Dungeons and dragons: to the outcome of purchasing goods or services The use of a fantasy game in the psychotherapeutic (new armor, weapons, clothing, etc…) such as in treatment of a young adult. American Journal of an increase in respect or advancement within that Psychotherapy, 48, 624–632. online game should be considered as a motivation. This “commodity” motivation may bring up BuyMMOAccounts.com. (n.d.) Retrieved Febru- questions related to in-game recall of content ary 10, 2009, from http://www.buymmoaccounts. related to product placements within virtual en- com vironments. Online games certainly have more Chan, E., & Vorderer, P. (2006). Massively multi- than enough capabilities to incorporate features player online games. In Vorderer, P., & Bryant, J. of product placements and virtual billboards. (Eds.), Playing video games: Motives, responses, However, this should be warranted with caution, and consequences (pp. 181–194). Mahwah, NJ: as Nelsen (2002) did find evidence to suggest that Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. even though individuals thought brand placements within in a video game increased its realism, par- Cheng, L., Farnham, S., & Stone, L. (2002). ticipants also suggested that this highly depends Lessons learned: Building and deploying shared upon the context and story of the game. For in- virtual environments. In Schroeder, R. (Ed.), The stance, players suggested that if the placement of social life of avatars: Presence and interaction in the advertisements within the game did not match shared virtual environments (pp. 90–111). London: real-life instances that it highly “deterred” from the Springer Verlag. overall gaming experience (Nelsen, p. 87). Thus, Choi, D., & Kim, J. (2004). Why people continue it could be suggested that an overload of gaudy to play online games: In search of critical design advertising is likely to backfire in poor player factors to increase customer loyalty to online evaluations of the game itself and lower player contents. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 7, 11–24. recall of content. Products within the game need doi:10.1089/109493104322820066 to be more subtly presented to players/consum- ers in order for it to a) add to the realism of the Cole, H., & Griffiths, M. D. (2007). Social in- game, b) not deter from the gaming experience, teractions in massively multiplayer online role- and c) increase recall of the content related to playing gamers. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, that product or service. Perhaps product place- 19, 575–583. doi:10.1089/cpb.2007.9988 ment might better serve in online games because Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychol- it may not be so overt as a large virtual billboard ogy of optimal experience. New York: Harper in the Silvermoon City of the Eastern Kingdom! and Row. (World of WarCraft). Ducheneaut, N., Moore, R. J., & Nickell, E. (2007). Virtual third places: A case study of sociability in rEFErEncEs massively multiplayer games. Computer Support- ed Cooperative Work, 16, 129–166. doi:10.1007/ Ballard, M. E., & Lineberger, R. (1999). Video s10606-007-9041-8 games and confederate gender: Effects on reward and punishment given by college males. Sex Roles, 41, 541–558. doi:10.1023/A:1018843304606

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