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Groundwater Irrigation and Its Implications for Water Policy in Semiarid Countries: the Spanish Experience

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Groundwater Irrigation and Its Implications for Water Policy in Semiarid Countries: the Spanish Experience Groundwater irrigation and its implications for water policy in semiarid countries: the Spanish experience Alberto Garrido · Pedro Mart´ınez-Santos · M. Ramon´ Llamas Abstract Over the last decades, groundwater irrigation Resum´ e´ Depuis les dernieres` decennies,´ l’irrigation avec has become commonplace in many arid and semiarid re- l’eau souterraine est devenue commune dans plusieurs gions worldwide, including Spain. This is largely a conse- regions´ arides et semi-arides, incluant l’Espagne. Ceci est quence of the advances in drilling and pumping technolo- largement une consequence´ due a` l’avancement aux tech- gies, and of the development of Hydrogeology. Compared nologies de forages et des pompages, et au developpement´ with traditional surface water irrigation systems, ground- de l’Hydrogeologie.´ Compare´ avec des systemes` tradition- water irrigation offers more reliable supplies, lesser vulner- nels d’irrigation utilisant l’eau de surface, l’irrigation avec ability to droughts, and ready accessibility for individual l’eau souterraine offre une technique d’alimentation plus fi- users. Economic forces influence the groundwater irriga- able, une vulnerabilit´ e´ alas` echeresse´ moins grande, et une tion sector and its development. In Spain’s Mediterranean accessibilite´ plus aisee´ pour chaque utilisateur. Les forces regions, abstraction costs often amount to a very small economiques´ influencent le secteur de l’irrigation par fraction of the value of crops. In the inner areas, groundwa- l’eau souterraine et son developpement.´ Dans les regions´ ter irrigation supports a more stable flow of farm income de l’Espagne Mediterran´ eenne,´ les coutsˆ d’exploitation than rainfed agriculture. The social (jobs/m3) and economic representent´ toujours une petite fraction de la valeur des (€/m3) value of groundwater irrigation generally exceeds cultures. Dans les regions´ interieures,´ l’irrigation par l’eau that of surface water irrigation systems. However, poor souterraine supporte une agriculture plus stable et continue groundwater management and legal controversies are cur- qu’une agriculture reposant sur l’eau de pluie. La valeur so- rently at the base of Spain’s social disputes over water. A ciale (emploi/m3)eteconomique´ (€/m3) de l’irrigation avec thorough and transparent assessment of the relative socio- l’eau souterraine, excede` gen´ eralement´ celle des systemes` economic value of groundwater in relation to surface water d’irrigation avec l’eau de surface. Neanmoins,´ des gestions irrigation might contribute to mitigate or avoid potential pauvres de l’eau souterraine et des controverses legales´ sont future conflicts. Enforcement of the European Union’s Wa- couramment a` la base de disputes sociales sur l’eau. Un ter Framework Directive may deliver better groundwater bilan transparent et minutieux des valeurs relatives socio- governance and a more sustainable use. economiques´ de l’eau souterraine en relation avec l’eau de surface d’irrigation, devrait contribuer a` eviter´ de potentiels et futurs conflits. Un renforcement de la Directive Cadre de l’Union Europeenne´ devrait apporter une meilleure gou- vernance et un usage plus durable. Received: 1 September 2005 / Accepted: 17 October 2005 Resumen Durante las ultimas´ decadas,´ la irrigacion´ con C Springer-Verlag 2005 agua subterranea´ se ha vuelto comun´ en muchas regiones aridas´ y semiaridas´ alrededor del mundo, incluyendo a A. Garrido () Espana.˜ Esta´ es en gran medida una consecuencia de los Departamanto de Econom´ıa y Ciencias Sociales Agrarias, adelantos en las tecnolog´ıas de perforacion´ y bombeo, Universidad Politecnica´ de Madrid, y del desarrollo de la Hidrogeolog´ıa. Comparada con 28040 Madrid, Spain e-mail: [email protected] los sistemas tradicionales de irrigacion´ con agua superfi- Tel.: +34-91-336-57-82 cial, la irrigacion´ con agua subterranea´ ofrece suministros mas´ fiables, la vulnerabilidad es menor a las sequ´ıas, y P. Mart´ınez-Santos Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Facultad de Ciencias posee accesibilidad inmediata para los usuarios individ- Geologicas,´ uales. Las fuerzas economicas´ influyen el sector de irri- Spain gacion´ con agua subterranea´ y su desarrollo. En las re- e-mail: [email protected] giones mediterraneas´ de Espana,˜ los costos de extraccion´ M. R. Llamas suman a menudo una parte muy pequena˜ del valor de las Royal Academy of Sciences, Ciudad Universitaria, cosechas. En las areas´ internas, la irrigacion´ con agua sub- 28040 Madrid, Spain terranea´ constituye un flujo mas´ estable de ingresos para la e-mail: [email protected] Hydrogeology Journal (2005) DOI 10.1007/s10040-005-0006-z granja, que la agricultura dependiente del agua lluvia. El sands of farmers to become groundwater irrigators. Little valor social (empleos/m3) y economico´ (€/m3)delairri- wonder, then, that groundwater use is overall more effi- gacion´ con agua subterranea,´ generalmente excede a aquel´ cient than surface water irrigation. The aim of this section con sistemas de irrigacion´ de agua superficial. Sin embargo, is to provide an overview of the Spanish groundwater irri- la gestion´ pobre del agua subterranea´ y las controversias gation sector, discuss its key economic elements and offer legales estan´ actualmente en la base de las disputas so- an economic interpretation about the future challenges for ciales en Espana˜ acerca del agua. Una evaluacion´ completa sustainable management. y transparente del valor socio-economico´ relativo de agua Spain’s groundwater irrigation sector (SGIS, hereafter) subterranea´ respecto a la irrigacion´ con agua superficial, represents 27% of the 3.3 M ha (M=million) of total podr´ıa contribuir mitigar o evitar los conflictos potenciales irrigated acreage. About two-thirds of the SGIS are located del futuro. La entrada en vigor del Marco Reglamentario in the Mediterranean or southwest regions, and one third de Agua de la Union´ Europea, puede conllevar a una ad- in the Castillian plateau (central Spain). With rough mea- ministracion´ mejor del agua subterranea´ y a un uso mas´ sures, one can think of two types of agricultural regions sostenible. within SGIS: one endowed with a mild Mediterranean climate, and another located in regions about 500 m above Keywords Irrigation . Groundwater management . sea level and subject to a much shorter window of adequate Groundwater economics . Water policy . Spain physiological temperatures for crop production, which can be referred to as Continental Spain, as opposed to the Mediterranean and Coastal regions. Introduction The economic processes governing these two types of SGIS are entirely different. On all social and economic Intensive groundwater use for irrigation in most arid and calculations, agricultural productivity differs by at least semiarid regions has experienced a spectacular increase one order of magnitude. over the last four decades. This development, considered With comparatively much better climate than most other by some a “Silent Revolution,” has been carried out mainly European countries, the Mediterranean SGIS behaves as by modest individual farmers, often with little planning dynamically as any other industrial sector. As an example, and control on the part of governmental water authorities consider the Atlantic coastal areas of Huelva (Fig. 1). This (Llamas and Martinez-Santos, in press). region is one of the largest world producers of strawber- Intensive groundwater irrigation has given rise to abun- ries, second only to California, USA. Just when the sector dant social and economic benefits in Spain. However, poor became mature and stable, growers began to grow rasp- management has all too often been the cause of certain un- berries in response to increasing strawberries supplies in wanted effects, including groundwater quality degradation Poland and southern Italy. By the time the value of crops is and other ecological impacts. Usually overlooked by wa- close to 40,000 €/ha, strawberries are considered too risky ter decision-makers and the general public, these matters and growers start moving to a new crop. The citrus indus- are at the very heart of Spain’s current debate over water try follows a similar, albeit less evident trend. If a variety resources. of oranges does not get good response in France, UK or The aim of this paper is two-fold. First, to analyse the Germany, then growers graft an entirely new variety. For the economic significance of groundwater irrigation in Spain first time in history, Spain is exporting 100,000 tonnes of and to review the factors that explain its relative strengths; mandarins to the US, overcoming US trade barriers based and second, to provide an overview of the role played by on claims of found traces of larvae insects found in 2001 groundwater in Spain’s water policy. Note that a distinc- shipments. Groundwater-irrigated productivity ranges from tion has been made throughout this paper between surface 4 €/m3 with pepper and tomato to less than 0.2 €/m3 with and groundwater irrigation. Wherever this difference is not field crops like corn, sunflower or cereals. Labour demand specified, the authors refer to irrigation in general. may range from 300 man-days per ha for peppers and toma- toes to 10 man-days in field-extensive crops. Full ground- water irrigation costs represent between 2 and 15% of di- Groundwater irrigation in Spain: an economic rect costs of crop production. The price signal needed to analysis deter irrigators’ water consumption is nearing the cost of desalinised brackish waters, at 0.25–0.30 €/m3. Save
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