DOCSLIB.ORG

Numerical Calculations to Grasp a Mathematical Issue Such As the Riemann Hypothesis

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Numerical Calculations to Grasp a Mathematical Issue Such As the Riemann Hypothesis information Article Numerical Calculations to Grasp a Mathematical Issue Such as the Riemann Hypothesis Michel Riguidel Department of Computer Science and Networks, Télécom ParisTech, 75015 Paris, France; [email protected]; Tel.: +33-67687-5199 Received: 3 April 2020; Accepted: 23 April 2020; Published: 26 April 2020 Abstract: This article presents the use of data processing to apprehend mathematical questions such as the Riemann Hypothesis (RH) by numerical calculation. Calculations are performed alongside graphs of the argument of the complex numbers ζ(x + iy) = a + ib and ξ(x + iy) = p + iq, in the 1 critical strip. On the one hand, the two-dimensional surface angle tan− (b/a) of the Riemann Zeta y y function ζ is related to the semi-angle of the fractional part of 2π ln 2πe and, on the other hand, the Ksi function ξ of the Riemann functional equation is analyzed with respect to the coordinates (x, 1 x; y). − The computation of the power series expansion of the ξ function with its symmetry analysis highlights the RH by the underlying ratio of Gamma functions inside the ξ formula. The ξ power series beside the angle of both surfaces of the ζ function enables to exhibit a Bézout identity au + bv c between ≡ the components (a, b) of the ζ function, which illustrates the RH. The geometric transformations in complex space of the Zeta and Ksi functions, illustrated graphically, as well as series expansions, calculated by computer, make it possible to elucidate this mathematical problem numerically. A final theoretical outlook gives deeper insights on the functional equation’s mechanisms, by adopting a computer–scientific perspective. Keywords: Riemann Hypothesis; numerical calculation; functional equation; congruence 1. Introduction This article presents the use of data processing to apprehend mathematical questions such as the Riemann Hypothesis (RH) by numerical calculation. The geometric transformations in complex space of transcendental functions, illustrated graphically, as well as series expansions, calculated by computer, make it possible to elucidate this mathematical problem numerically. The article sets out its reasoning using descriptive graphics. The mathematical calculations have been developed and checked by computer, and the graphics have been performed through extensive specific Python programs. The RH [1] (“non-trivial zeros are located exclusively on the critical line x = 1/2”) is illustrated here with mathematical notions and numerical calculations: power series expansions of the Gamma function and Ksi function of the Riemann’s functional equation, and calculations on complex numbers and angles between two surfaces or two curves. The whole study is focused in the critical strip . S The study contribution follows from the examination of the two-angle conjunction of the Zeta function and the Ksi function. On the one hand, the Zeta function has a remarkable property on the critical line: The real/imaginary ratio of the Zeta function is interpreted as the tangent of an angle. On the other hand, the Ksi function is congruent, within a homothety and a rotation, and to a remainder series, whose sum function angle is not symmetrical with respect to the critical line. On the contrary, the residual congruent series intrinsically contains this symmetry on the critical line. It is therefore essentially an angular functional constraint of the holomorphic Zeta function and of the associated Ksi function, which is at the origin of the property of the RH. This constraint enigma is contained in the Gamma functions’ ratio of the Ksi function. Information 2020, 11, 237; doi:10.3390/info11050237 www.mdpi.com/journal/information Information 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 32 Information 2020, 11, 237 2 of 31 Ksi function, which is at the origin of the property of the RH. This constraint enigma is contained in the Gamma functions’ ratio of the Ksi function. The nine-pagenine-page article,article, in in German, German, by by B. B. Riemann Riemann [1 ],[1], is essentialis essential in thein the history history of mathematics of mathematics and isand instructive is instructive in understanding in understanding the conjecture’s the conjecture’s context. context. Historical Historical articles articles by Hadamard by Hadamard [2], Vall [2],ée PoussinVallée Poussin [3], Bohr [3], and Bohr Landau and Landau [4], Hardy [4], [ 5Hardy], and Hardy[5], and and Hardy Littlewood and Littlewood [6] allow us[6] toallow grasp us the to extentgrasp ofthe the extent question’s of the question’s difficulty. difficulty. Deligne’s demonstrationDeligne’s demonstration in 1973 [7 ,in8], 1973 via algebraic[7,8], via geometry,algebraic geometry, gives the visiongives the and vision the victorious and the pathvictorious in the path case ofin finitethe case sets. of A finite thoughtful sets. A introduction thoughtful introduction to the properties to the of theproperties Zeta function of the Zeta is the function book by is EC the Titchmarsh: book by EC 1951 Titchmarsh: edition [ 91951], 1986 edition edition [9], [ 101986]. Less edition fundamental [10]. Less booksfundamental retrace books the various retrace works the various up to theworks years up 1974to the [11 years] and 1974 1985 [11] [12 and]. A 1985 deep [12]. insight A deep of analytic insight numberof analytic theory number concepts theory and concepts methods and can method be seens incan the be 2004 seen book in the by 2004 Iwaniec book and by Kowalski Iwaniec [and13]. TheKowalski search [13]. for non-trivial The search zeros for non-trivial using the properties zeros usin ofg complexthe properties analysis of orcomplex number analysis theory is or presented number intheory historical is presented and recent in historical publications and [recent14–20]. publications [14–20]. After this introduction, Section2 2 presents presents thethe methodology,methodology, i.e.,i.e., thethe graphicgraphic andand computationalcomputational illustration strategy. Section Section 33 presentspresents preparatorypreparatory calculationscalculations thatthat areare essentialessential forfor thethe results.results. Section4 4 presents presents thethe resultsresults ofof thethe calculationscalculations byby graphicalgraphical representationsrepresentations andand powerpower expansions.expansions. Section 55 presents presents thethe discussiondiscussion onon proofproof strategies,strategies, beforebefore thethe conclusion,conclusion, wherewhere thethe resultsresults areare summarized and research roadmapsroadmaps areare presentedpresented moremore abstractly.abstractly. 2. Methods This articlearticle presentspresents aa relation relation' of of the the function functionζ(s )=()ζ=(x +(iy+) = a) +=+ib in a congruencein a congruence form au + bv c, with a and b being the real and imaginary parts of ζ(s), respectively,( ) and, u and v being form ≡ + ≡ , with and being the real and imaginary parts of , respectively, and, independentand being functionsindependent of Zeta, functions which of are Ze dependentta, which are only dependent on x and yonly. This on congruence and . This has itscongruence source in the Riemann’s functional equation ζ(s) = ξ(s)ζ(1 s)( and) the Gamma( ) function G whose variations has its source in the Riemann’s functional equation− =() 1− and the Gamma function Γ andwhose dependencies variations and are investigated.dependencies The are study investigated is based. onThe the study specificities is based of on the the Zeta specificities function, the of Ksithe functionZeta function, and the the Gamma Ksi function function, and by the analyzing Gamma them function, with respectby analyzing to the aforementionedthem with respect relations. to the Theaforementioned components arelations.and b, formed The ofcomponents ripples, cancel and each other, formed out periodically of ripples, and cancel alternately, each other and thusout causeperiodically on the criticaland alternately, line, in the and neighborhood thus cause ofon these the undulations,critical line, thein the emergence neighborhood of an additional of these zeroundulations, but, this the time, emergence common of to an both additional curves. Thezero article but, this thus time, provides common a numerical to both curves. illustration The article of the Riemannthus provides Hypothesis a numerical (RH). illustration of the Riemann Hypothesis (RH). The methodology flowflow chart is summarized inin FigureFigure1 1:: Figure 1. Methodology Flow chart of numerical calculationscalculations to grasp the RH issue. 2.1. Strategy for Discovering Fertile Domains and Sterile Domains to Zeros We try to identify, in a domain s = x + iy, s C , a function ' of the complex plane which We try to identify, in a domainD ≔{=+,∈ℂ2 }, a function of the complex plane ( ) = 2 obeys:which obeys:s ∀ ∈ ⊂ℂ∶C : ' ζ∘s ()0=0. Expressed. Expressed in inR ℝ, the, the requirement requirement is is as as follows: follows: wewe trytry toto 8 2 D ⊂ n ◦ 2 o 2 identify, in a domain M = (x, y) R a pair (u, v) of real functions in R which obeys: M identify, in a domainD ≔{=(2, ) ∈ℝ } a pair (, ) of real functions in ℝ which8 2obeys: D ⊂ R2 : (ζ(s)) u(x, y) + (ζ(s)) v(x, y) = 0. ∀ ∈< ⊂ ℝ ×∶ ℜ()×= (, )×+ ℑ()×(, ) =0. This domain is a fertile domain where it is possible to find non-trivial zeros, since (ζ(s)) = 0 This domain D is a fertile domain where it is possible to find non-trivial zeros, since< ℜ()= then entails (ζ(s)) = 0, and vice-versa. This function pair (u, v) must obey the following requirements: 0 then entails= ℑ()=0, and vice-versa. This
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Of the Riemann Hypothesis
    A Simple Counterexample to Havil's \Reformulation" of the Riemann Hypothesis Jonathan Sondow 209 West 97th Street New York, NY 10025 [email protected] The Riemann Hypothesis (RH) is \the greatest mystery in mathematics" [3]. It is a conjecture about the Riemann zeta function. The zeta function allows us to pass from knowledge of the integers to knowledge of the primes. In his book Gamma: Exploring Euler's Constant [4, p. 207], Julian Havil claims that the following is \a tantalizingly simple reformulation of the Rie- mann Hypothesis." Havil's Conjecture. If 1 1 X (−1)n X (−1)n cos(b ln n) = 0 and sin(b ln n) = 0 na na n=1 n=1 for some pair of real numbers a and b, then a = 1=2. In this note, we first state the RH and explain its connection with Havil's Conjecture. Then we show that the pair of real numbers a = 1 and b = 2π=ln 2 is a counterexample to Havil's Conjecture, but not to the RH. Finally, we prove that Havil's Conjecture becomes a true reformulation of the RH if his conclusion \then a = 1=2" is weakened to \then a = 1=2 or a = 1." The Riemann Hypothesis In 1859 Riemann published a short paper On the number of primes less than a given quantity [6], his only one on number theory. Writing s for a complex variable, he assumes initially that its real 1 part <(s) is greater than 1, and he begins with Euler's product-sum formula 1 Y 1 X 1 = (<(s) > 1): 1 ns p 1 − n=1 ps Here the product is over all primes p.
    [Show full text]
  • The Riemann and Hurwitz Zeta Functions, Apery's Constant and New
    The Riemann and Hurwitz zeta functions, Apery’s constant and new rational series representations involving ζ(2k) Cezar Lupu1 1Department of Mathematics University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, PA, USA Algebra, Combinatorics and Geometry Graduate Student Research Seminar, February 2, 2017, Pittsburgh, PA A quick overview of the Riemann zeta function. The Riemann zeta function is defined by 1 X 1 ζ(s) = ; Re s > 1: ns n=1 Originally, Riemann zeta function was defined for real arguments. Also, Euler found another formula which relates the Riemann zeta function with prime numbrs, namely Y 1 ζ(s) = ; 1 p 1 − ps where p runs through all primes p = 2; 3; 5;:::. A quick overview of the Riemann zeta function. Moreover, Riemann proved that the following ζ(s) satisfies the following integral representation formula: 1 Z 1 us−1 ζ(s) = u du; Re s > 1; Γ(s) 0 e − 1 Z 1 where Γ(s) = ts−1e−t dt, Re s > 0 is the Euler gamma 0 function. Also, another important fact is that one can extend ζ(s) from Re s > 1 to Re s > 0. By an easy computation one has 1 X 1 (1 − 21−s )ζ(s) = (−1)n−1 ; ns n=1 and therefore we have A quick overview of the Riemann function. 1 1 X 1 ζ(s) = (−1)n−1 ; Re s > 0; s 6= 1: 1 − 21−s ns n=1 It is well-known that ζ is analytic and it has an analytic continuation at s = 1. At s = 1 it has a simple pole with residue 1.
    [Show full text]
  • Special Values for the Riemann Zeta Function
    Journal of Applied Mathematics and Physics, 2021, 9, 1108-1120 https://www.scirp.org/journal/jamp ISSN Online: 2327-4379 ISSN Print: 2327-4352 Special Values for the Riemann Zeta Function John H. Heinbockel Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia, USA How to cite this paper: Heinbockel, J.H. Abstract (2021) Special Values for the Riemann Zeta Function. Journal of Applied Mathematics The purpose for this research was to investigate the Riemann zeta function at and Physics, 9, 1108-1120. odd integer values, because there was no simple representation for these re- https://doi.org/10.4236/jamp.2021.95077 sults. The research resulted in the closed form expression Received: April 9, 2021 n 21n+ (2n) (−−4) π E2n 2ψ ( 34) Accepted: May 28, 2021 ζ (2nn+= 1) ,= 1,2,3, 21nn++ 21− Published: May 31, 2021 2( 2 12)( n) ! for representing the zeta function at the odd integer values 21n + for n a Copyright © 2021 by author(s) and Scientific Research Publishing Inc. positive integer. The above representation shows the zeta function at odd This work is licensed under the Creative positive integers can be represented in terms of the Euler numbers E2n and Commons Attribution International ψ (2n) 34 License (CC BY 4.0). the polygamma functions ( ) . This is a new result for this study area. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ For completeness, this paper presents a review of selected properties of the Open Access Riemann zeta function together with how these properties are derived. This paper will summarize how to evaluate zeta (n) for all integers n different from 1.
    [Show full text]
  • An Elementary and Real Approach to Values of the Riemann Zeta Function
    An Elementary and Real Approach to Values of the Riemann Zeta Function∗ Armen Bagdasaryan † An elementary approach for computing the values at nega- tive integers of the Riemann zeta function is presented. The approach is based on a new method for ordering the integers and a new method for summation of divergent series. We show that the values of the Riemann zeta function can be computed, without using the theory of analytic continuation and functions of complex variable. MSC numbers: 11M06, 11B68, 40C15 PACS numbers: 02.10.De, 02.30.Lt 1 Introduction The Riemann zeta function ζ(s) is one of the most important objects in the study of number theory (if not in the whole modern mathematics). It is a classical and well-known result that ζ(s), originally defined on the half plane ℜ(s) > 1, can be analytically continued to a meromorphic function on the entire complex plane with the only pole at s = 1, which is a simple pole with residue 1. arXiv:0812.1878v4 [math.NT] 9 Apr 2010 One of the main reasons of interest to ζ(s) is that the special values of ζ(s) at integers have been proved or conjectured to have significant arithmetic meanings. For instance, Zagier’s [40, 41] conjecture concerning the relation between ζ(n) and the n-logarithms for n ≥ 2 and Lichtenbaum’s [26] conjecture connecting ζ(n) with motivic cohomology. ∗extended version of the contribution to the proceedings of the XXVII International Colloquium on Group Theoretical Methods in Physics, Yerevan, Armenia, August 13-19, 2008 †Institution of the Russian Academy of Sciences, V.A.
    [Show full text]
  • Arxiv:2002.04395V20 [Math.GM] 3 Aug 2021
    Noname manuscript No. (will be inserted by the editor) A lower bound for the modulus of the Dirichlet eta function on partition P from 2-D principal component analysis Yuri Heymann Received: date / Accepted: date Abstract The present manuscript aims to derive an expression for the lower bound of the modulus of the Dirichlet eta function on vertical lines ℜ s α. An approach based on a two-dimensional principal component analysisp match-q“ ing the dimensionality of the complex plane, which is built on a parametric ellipsoidal shape, has been undertaken to achieve this result. This lower bound, C ℜ P ?2 which is expressed as s s.t. s s , η s 1 2α , where η is the Dirichlet eta function,@ P has implicationsp q P p forq | thep q| Riemann ě | ´ hypothes| is as η s 0 for any such s P, where P is a partition spanning one half of the critical| p q| ą strip, on either sidesP of the critical line ℜ s 1 2 depending upon a variable, which regions are complementary by mirrorp q“ symmetry{ with respect to ℜ s 1 2. p q“ { Keywords Dirichlet eta function, PCA, Analytic continuation 1 Introduction The Dirichlet eta function is an alternating series related to the Riemann zeta function of interest in the field of number theory for the study of the distribu- tion of primes [12]. Both series are tied together on a two-by-two relationship 1 s expressed as η s 1 2 ´ ζ s where s is a complex number.
    [Show full text]
  • On the Nontrivial Zeros of the Dirichlet Eta Function
    On the nontrivial zeros of the Dirichlet eta function Vladimir Garc´ıa-Morales Departament de F´ısica de la Terra i Termodin`amica Universitat de Val`encia, E-46100 Burjassot, Spain [email protected] We construct a two-parameter complex function ηκν : C → C, κ ∈ (0, ∞), ν ∈ (0, ∞) that we call a holomorphic nonlinear embedding and that is given by a double series which is absolutely and uniformly convergent on compact sets in the entire complex plane. The function ηκν converges to the Dirichlet eta function η(s) as κ →∞. We prove the crucial property that, for sufficiently large κ, the function ∞ ηκν(s) can be expressed as a linear combination ηκν(s) = n=0 an(κ)η(s + 2νn) of horizontal shifts of the eta function (where an(κ) ∈ R and a0 = 1) and that, ∞ P indeed, we have the inverse formula η(s)= n=0 bn(κ)ηκν (s + 2νn) as well (where the coefficients b (κ) ∈ R are obtained from the a ’s recursively). By using these n P n results and the functional relationship of the eta function, η(s)= λ(s)η(1 − s), we sketch a proof of the Riemann hypothesis which, in our setting, is equivalent to the fact that the nontrivial zeros s∗ = σ∗ + it∗ of η(s) (i.e. those points for which ∗ ∗ ∗ 1 η(s )= η(1 − s ) = 0) are all located on the critical line σ = 2 . arXiv:2007.04317v1 [math.GM] 9 Jul 2020 1 1 Introduction Let s := σ + it be a complex number. The Dirichlet eta function η(s), also called alternating zeta function, is given in the half plane σ > 0 by the conditionally convergent series [1] ∞ (−1)m−1 η(s)= (1) ms m=1 X which is absolutely convergent for σ > 1.
    [Show full text]
  • The Dirichlet Series That Generates the M\" Obius Function Is the Inverse Of
    The Dirichlet series that generates the M¨obius function is the inverse of the Riemann zeta function in the right half of the critical strip Roupam Ghosh April 3, 2019 Abstract: In this paper I introduce a criterion for the Riemann hypothesis, and then using ∞ s 1 that I prove k=1 µ(k)/k converges for ℜ(s) > 2 . I use a step function ν(x)=2{x/2}−{Px} for the Dirichlet eta function ({x} is the fractional part of x), which was at the core of my investigations, and hence derive the stated result subsequently. arXiv:1009.1092v13 [math.GM] 18 Jan 2015 1 In 1859, Bernhard Riemann showed the existence of a deep relationship between two very different mathematical entities., viz. the zeros of an analytic function and prime numbers. The Riemann Hypothesis is usually stated as, the non-trivial zeros of the Rie- 1 mann zeta function lie on the line ℜ(s) = 2 . Although, this is the standard formulation, one of the exciting features of this problem is, it can be formulated in many different and unrelated ways. The approach I take in this paper is influenced by Beurling’s 1955 paper: A closure problem related to the Riemann zeta function and B´aez-Duarte’s 2001 paper: New versions of the Nyman-Beurling criterion for the Riemann Hypothesis, although it takes a new approach. In this paper I would be studying a simple step function ν relating it to the Dirichlet eta function η. I will show how the step function ν convolves with the M¨obius function µ(n) and gives a constant, which I think is a new result significant at attacking RH.
    [Show full text]
  • A Reformulation of the Riemann Hypothesis
    A Reformulation of the Riemann Hypothesis Jose Risomar Sousa November 28, 2020 Abstract We present some novelties on the Riemann zeta function. Using the analytic con- m tinuation we created for the polylogarithm, Lik(e ), we extend the zeta function from <(k) > 1 to the complex half-plane, <(k) > 0, by means of the Dirichlet eta function. More strikingly, we offer a reformulation of the Riemann hypothesis through a zeta's cousin, '(k), a pole-free function defined on the entire complex plane whose non-trivial zeros coincide with those of the zeta function. 1 Introduction The Riemann Hypothesis is a long-standing problem in math, which involves the zeros of the analytic continuation of its most famous Dirichlet series, the zeta function. This Dirichlet series, along with its analytic continuation, constitutes a so-called L-function, whose zeros encode information about the location of the prime numbers. Riemann provided insight into this connection through his unnecessarily convoluted prime counting functions2. The zeta function as a Dirichlet series is given by, 1 X 1 ζ(k) = , jk j=1 and throughout here we use k for the variable instead of the usual s, to keep the same nota- tion used in previous papers released on generalized harmonic numbers and progressions and interrelated subjects. arXiv:2012.08558v3 [math.NT] 10 Jul 2021 This series only converges for <(k) > 1, but it can be analytically continued to the whole complex plane. For the purpose of analyzing the zeros of the zeta function though, we produce its analytic continuation on the complex half-plane only, <(k) > 0, by means of the alternating zeta function, known as the Dirichlet eta function, η(k).
    [Show full text]
  • Computation and Structure of Character Polylogarithms with Applications to Character Mordell–Tornheim–Witten Sums
    Computation and structure of character polylogarithms with applications to character Mordell{Tornheim{Witten sums D. H. Bailey∗ J. M. Borwein.y June 9, 2014 Abstract This paper extends tools developed in [10,8] to study character polylogarithms. These objects are used to compute Mordell-Tornheim-Witten character sums and to explore their connections with multiple-zeta values (MZVs) and with their character analogues [17]. 1 Introduction In [10] we defined an ensemble of extended Mordell{Tornheim{Witten (MTW) zeta func- tion values [18, 34, 24, 25,7, 12, 36, 38, 32]. There is by now a huge literature on these sums; in part because of the many connections with fields such as combinatorics, number theory, and mathematical physics. Unlike previous authors we included derivatives with re- spect to the order of the terms. We investigated interrelations amongst MTW evaluations, and explored some deeper connections with multiple-zeta values (MZVs). In this article we continue the research in [8, 10] by studying character polylogarithms and applying them to analyze the relations between MTW character sums defined by X χd1(m) χd2(n) 1 µ (q; r; s) := ; (1) d1;d2 mq nr (m + n)s n;m>0 ±d n−1 where for d > 2, χ±d(n) := n ; and χ−2(n) := (−1) ; χ1(n) = 1: When d1 = d2 = 1 these devolve to classical Mordell{Tornheim{Witten (MTW) sums, as defined in (2) below for K = 2. ∗Lawrence Berkeley National Lab (retired), Berkeley, CA 94720, and University of California, Davis, Dept. of Computer Science, Davis, CA 95616, USA. E-mail: [email protected].
    [Show full text]
  • Rigorous Proofs for Riemann Hypothesis, Polignac's and Twin
    Rigorous Proofs for Riemann Hypothesis, Polignac's and Twin Prime Conjectures in 2020 c Professor Bernhard (Pseudonym) Riemann, viXra, Wednesday 15 January 2020 Abstract Dedicated to my youngest daughter Jelena born 13 weeks early on May 14, 2012. Huge thanks to Rodney Williams (Civil Engineer & Mathematician) and Tony O'Hagan (Software Engineer & Mathematician) for providing peer reviews on this paper. Mathematics for Incompletely Predictable Problems is associated with Incompletely Predictable problems containing Incompletely Predictable entities. Nontrivial zeros and two types of Gram points in Riemann zeta function (or its proxy Dirichlet eta function) together with prime and composite numbers from Sieve of Eratosthenes are Incompletely Predictable entities. Correct and complete mathematical arguments for first key step of converting this function into its continuous format version, and second key step of applying Information-Complexity conservation to this Sieve result in direct spin-offs from first key step consisting of proving Riemann hypothesis (and explaining two types of Gram points), and second key step consisting of proving Polignac's and Twin prime conjectures. ISBN 9781660905768, https://www.amazon.com/-/e/B07T4T Keywords: Dirichlet Sigma-Power Laws, Exact and Inexact Dimensional analysis homogeneity, Information-Complexity conservation, Plus Gap 2 Composite Number Continuous Law, Plus-Minus Gap 2 Composite Number Alternating Law, Polignac's & Twin prime conjectures, Riemann hypothesis 1. Introduction In this research paper,
    [Show full text]
  • An Investigation of the Non-Trivial Zeros of the Riemann Zeta Function 3
    Noname manuscript No. (will be inserted by the editor) An investigation of the non-trivial zeros of the Riemann zeta function Yuri Heymann Received: date / Accepted: date Abstract The zeros of the Riemann zeta function outside the critical strip are the so-called trivial zeros. While many zeros of the Riemann zeta function are located on the critical line ℜpsq “ 1{2, the non-existence of zeros in the remaining part of the critical strip ℜpsqPs0, 1r remains to be proven. The Rie- mann zeta functional leads to a relationship between the zeros of the Riemann zeta function on either sides of the critical line. Given s a complex number ands ¯ its complex conjugate, if s is a zero of the Riemann zeta function in the critical strip ℜpsq Ps0, 1r, then we have ζpsq “ ζp1 ´ s¯q. As the Riemann hypothesis states that all non-trivial zeros lie on the critical line ℜpsq“ 1{2, it is enough to show there are no zeros on either sides of the critical line within the critical strip ℜpsqPs0, 1r, to say the Riemann hypothesis is true. Keywords Riemann zeta function, Riemann hypothesis 1 Introduction The Riemann zeta function named after Bernhard Riemann (1826 - 1866) is an extension of the zeta function to complex numbers, which primary purpose is the study of the distribution of prime numbers [14]. Although the zeta function which is an infinite series of the inverse power function was studied long time ago and is referred to in a formula known as the Euler product establishing the connection between the zeta function and primes, Riemann’s approach is linked with more recent developments in complex analysis at the time of Cauchy.
    [Show full text]
  • Dirichlet Eta and Beta Functions at Negative Integer Arguments: Exact Results from Anti-Limits
    Dirichlet eta and beta functions at negative integer arguments: Exact results from anti-limits Kamal Bhattacharyya* Harish-Chandra Research Institute, Chhatnag Road, Jhusi, Allahabad 211019, India Abstract A route to evaluate exact sums represented by Dirichlet eta and beta functions, both of which are alternating and divergent at negative integer arguments, is advocated. It rests on precise polynomial extrapolations and stands as a generalization of an early endeavor on lattice sums. Apart from conferring a physical meaning to anti-limits, the scheme advanced here is direct, independent and computationally appealing. A new interpretation of summability is also gained. Keywords: Dirichlet eta and beta functions; divergent saw-tooth sequence; anti-limit; lattice sums PACS: 02.30.Gp; 02.30.Lt MSC: 11M41; 30B50; 40A05 Abbreviations used: extrapolation scheme (ES); linear extrapolation (LE); polynomial extrapolation (PE) *E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] 0 1. Introduction Saw-tooth sequences emerge from alternating series. The limit point S∞ of a convergent sequence {Sj} of partial sums thus defines the actual sum of the parent series. Such sequences diverge when the parent series diverges. However, assigning a ‘sum’ to a specific divergent series is not always a straightforward task. Hardy [1] discussed at length on the sense in which such ‘sums’ are to be interpreted. Dirichlet eta and beta functions at negative integer arguments provide considerable insights [1] in the context of divergent alternating series. On the other hand, Riemann zeta function belongs to the other category, diverging monotonically at negative integer arguments. Some of the members of these two types are mutually linked too [1].
    [Show full text]