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Distilling Zinc in China: the Technology of Large-Scale Zinc Production in Chongqing During the Ming and Qing Dynasties (AD 1368-1911)

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Distilling Zinc in China: the Technology of Large-Scale Zinc Production in Chongqing During the Ming and Qing Dynasties (AD 1368-1911) Distilling Zinc in China: The Technology of Large-Scale Zinc Production in Chongqing During the Ming and Qing Dynasties (AD 1368-1911) Wenli Zhou Thesis Submitted to University College London for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Institute of Archaeology University College London September 2012 1 I, Wenli Zhou confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been indicated in the thesis. 2 Abstract Zinc made a relative late appearance in the metallurgical history of China. As a volatile metal, its production required sophisticated distillation installations. The production of this metal played a special role in both the technological and economic history of Ming and Qing China: as a key constituent of the copper-alloy brass, zinc was employed for coinage and also exported via long-distance maritime trade. Our understanding of Chinese zinc distillation technology has traditionally been limited by a lack of studies of production remains. Recent excavation of zinc smelting sites in Fengdu and Shizhu, Chongqing, provides an excellent opportunity to address this issue. This thesis presents the analyses, technical interpretation and socio-economic contextualisation of the production remains from three sites in Fengdu and one site in Shizhu. Zinc ore, zinc metal, retorts and slag were analysed by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectrometry (SEM-EDS), electron probe micro-analyser with wavelength dispersive spectrometry (EPMA-WDS) and X-ray diffractometry (XRD). Following on a detailed technological reconstruction, some differences were found between the zinc distillation technologies in Fengdu and Shizhu, not only in technical efficiency but also in the organisation of production. These differences can be explained as adaptation of the zinc production for coinage to the different social, political and economic constraints affecting each group of sites. This thesis thus offers a first contribution towards a detailed comparative reconstruction of Chinese zinc distillation technology that considers both variations in time and space as well as common elements that characterise the Chinese technological style. The significance of Chinese zinc production is contextualised and discussed with reference to coinage in Ming and Qing China, but also by comparing it to other brass and zinc making technologies in China, India and Europe, and by assessing the influence of Chinese zinc in the international maritime trade. 3 Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................ 3 List of Figures .................................................................................................................. 9 List of Tables .................................................................................................................. 16 Acknowledgements........................................................................................................ 19 Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 21 1.1 A brief history of the metallurgy of zinc and brass ........................................... 21 1.2 Problems and research gaps in the study of Chinese zinc distillation technology ................................................................................................................................. 25 1.3 Research aims and objectives............................................................................ 33 1.4 Structure of the thesis ........................................................................................ 35 Chapter 2 Historical and Technological Background to Zinc Production in China ......................................................................................................................................... 37 2.1 The history of brass and zinc in China .............................................................. 37 2.1.1 Accidental brass ..................................................................................... 37 2.1.2 Imported brass ........................................................................................ 38 2.1.3 Cementation brass .................................................................................. 39 2.1.4 Speltering brass ...................................................................................... 40 2.2 The use of brass and zinc in Ming and Qing China .......................................... 42 2.2.1 Ming and Qing China ............................................................................. 42 2.2.2 The use of brass and zinc in the periods ................................................ 43 2.3 Traditional zinc smelting in modern China ....................................................... 54 2.4 Summary ........................................................................................................... 67 Chapter 3 Theoretical Framework and Methodology ............................................... 68 3.1 Theoretical framework ...................................................................................... 68 3.1.1 The chaîne opératore, technological choices and technological style ... 69 3.1.2 Historical texts ....................................................................................... 71 4 3.1.3 Ethnoarchaeology ................................................................................... 72 3.1.4 Organisation of production .................................................................... 74 3.2 Methodology ..................................................................................................... 76 3.2.1 Sample selection..................................................................................... 76 3.2.2 Optical Microscopy (OM) ...................................................................... 77 3.2.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy - Energy Dispersive Spectrometry (SEM-EDS) ..................................................................................................... 79 3.2.4 Electron Probe Micro-analyser - Wavelength Dispersive Spectrometry (EPMA-WDS) ................................................................................................. 82 3.2.5 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) ...................................................................... 82 3.2.6 Refiring experiments .............................................................................. 83 Chapter 4 Analyses of Zinc Smelting Remains in Fengdu ........................................ 85 4.1 Zinc smelting sites in Fengdu ........................................................................... 85 4.1.1 Three Gorges Archaeology..................................................................... 85 4.1.2 Zinc smelting sites ................................................................................. 89 4.2 Miaobeihou (YM) ............................................................................................. 90 4.2.1 Site description ....................................................................................... 90 4.2.2 Results .................................................................................................... 93 4.2.2.1 Minerals ...................................................................................... 93 4.2.2.2 Coal ............................................................................................. 99 4.2.2.3 Metallic zinc .............................................................................. 104 4.2.2.4 Retorts ....................................................................................... 108 4.2.2.5 Slag ............................................................................................ 129 4.2.2.6 Zinc-rich crusts.......................................................................... 133 4.2.3 Discussion ............................................................................................ 135 4.2.3.1 Retort design ............................................................................. 135 4.2.3.2 The charge ................................................................................. 139 4.2.3.3 Conditions of reduction and condensation ................................ 141 4.3 Puzihe (YP) and Muxiexi (CM) ...................................................................... 145 4.3.1 Site description ..................................................................................... 145 5 4.3.2 Results .................................................................................................. 146 4.3.2.1 Retorts ....................................................................................... 146 4.3.2.2 Slag ............................................................................................ 155 4.3.3 Discussion ............................................................................................ 159 4.4 Zinc production in Fengdu .............................................................................. 162 4.4.1 Zinc distillation technology in Fengdu and Tian Gong Kai Wu ........... 162 4.4.2 Organisation of production .................................................................. 165 4.4.3 Scale of production .............................................................................. 168 Chapter 5 Analyses of Zinc Smelting Remains in Shizhu ......................................
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