BEGININNG OF ARCHAEOLOGY IN MALAKAND- SWAT (1896-1926) PROTAGONISTS, FIELDWORK AND THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK By RAFIULLAH KHAN TAXILA INSTITUTE OF ASIAN CIVILIZATIONS QUAID-I-AZAM UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD 2014 CERTIFICATE This thesis by Rafiullah Khan is accepted in its present form by the Taxila Institute of Asian Civilizations, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, as satisfying the thesis requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Asian Studies. Dr. Ghani-ur-Rahman Supervisor _________________ Dr. Luca Maria Olivieri Co-Supervisor __________________ External Examiner Prof. Dr. Pervaiz Iqbal Cheema __________________ External Examiner Prof. Dr. Taj Ali __________________ Director (TIAC) Prof. Dr. M. Ashraf Khan __________________ Dated: __________________ DECLARATION I hereby declare that this thesis in its present form is the result of my individual research and it has not been submitted concurrently to any other university for any other degree. _______________ Rafiullah Khan TAXILA INSTITUTE OF ASIAN CIVILIZATIONS QUAID-I-AZAM UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD We hereby recommend that the Dissertation prepared under our supervision by Mr. RAFIULLAH KHAN, entitled BEGINNING OF ARCHAEOLOGY IN MALAKAND-SWAT (1896-1926): PROTAGONISTS, FIELDWORK AND THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK be accepted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Asian Studies. _________________ _____________________ Dr. Ghani-ur-Rahman Dr. Luca Maria Olivieri Supervisor Co-Supervisor To the Noble Soul Contents Pages Acknowledgement v-viii 1. Introduction 1-11 2. Malakand-Swat: Geography, ethnography and history 12-45 3. Scholarship in context: organic intellectuals and imperial representations 46-91 4. The archaeological profile of Malakand-Swat: a study in early reports 92-197 5. The imperial consciousness: management of Indian cultural heritage 198-232 6. Conclusion 233-240 7. Bibliography 241-265 8. Appendix 266-268 9. Figures 269-300 v Acknowledgement Even a minor piece of research can hardly be successfully done without the help and cooperation of a medley of people not to speak of a PhD dissertation. I have a long list in this respect. A number of my teachers and mentors have been a source of inspiration for me. Sir Khurshed Khan (Assistant Professor, Govt. Degree College, Mingawara, Swat) comes first as being my mentor since my Intermediate. Similarly, I am indebted to Prof. Dr. Sayed Wiqar Ali Shah (Allama Iqbal Professor, South Asia Institute, University of Heidelberg, Germany), Prof. Dr. Sikandar Hayat (Distinguished Professor of History and Public Policy, Forman Christian College, Lahore), Prof. Dr. Razia Sultana (Chairperson, Dept. of History, QAU), Prof. Dr. Khurram Qadir (ex-Director, NIHCR, QAU) and Dr. Sultan-i-Rome (Associate Professor, Govt. P.G. Jahanzeb College, Saidu Sharif, Swat). Prof. Dr. M. Ashraf Khan’s (Director, TIAC) help, both as a teacher and Head, need a special mention as he always facilitated and encouraged me. He guided me about some material and also provided a number of articles and books. Dr. Ghani-ur- Rahman, supervisor, always remained friendly and helped me in multiple ways. My Co-Supervisor, Dr. Luca Maria Olivieri, Co-Director, Italian Archaeological Mission to Pakistan, stands as the most prominent in the list of scholars to whom I am deeply indebted. His most demanding supervision and always timely response is the raison d'être behind the completion of this project within time. He provided a great number of materials to me. vi Prof. Sayed Wiqar Ali Shah read the portion of the thesis related to Major Deane and shared his valuable comments. Dr. Sultan-i-Rome should be remembered for discussion and provision of material about Deane, Malakand Agency and some references to Stein’s visit to Swat in 1926. Prof. Khurram Qadir always welcomed me for discussion and he read a draft of the dissertation. I am greatly obliged to Dr. Tahira Tanweer (Deputy Director, National Archives of Pakistan) as she provided every kind of facility during my work in the National Archives. Miss. Ifqut Shaheen’s (PhD scholar, TIAC) constant help throughout the period of this study is to be also appreciated and I am thankful to her. I am also grateful to Prof. M. Farooq Swati (Dept. of Archaeology, University of Peshawar) for brief but fruitful discussion. Prof. Nasim Khan (Dept. of Archaeology, University of Peshawar) guided me about some material related to inscriptions from Malakand- Swat. It is due to his kind and quick response, whenever I needed his help and guidance, that Dr. Saifur Rahman Dar is to be always remembered. He gave valuable comments on chapter four. Upinder Singh (India) enlightened me about her book, The discovery of ancient India: early archaeologists and the beginnings of archaeology, which ultimately proved of great help in this study. Similarly, Gabriel Moshenska (Lecturer in Public Archaeology, Institute of Archaeology, UCL, UK) deserves my gratitude as he guided me regarding L.A. Waddell and pointed out some material. My colleague Sadeed Arif (Lecturer-cum-Field-Supervisor, TIAC, QAU) also facilitated me during this study and I am really indebted to him. Niaz Ali Shah Bacha (Curator, Dir Museum, Chakdara) also helped me during my fieldwork in Dir and I am grateful to him. vii Sardar Lala (UDC, TIAC), Qaim Ali Shah (Lab. Assistant, TIAC), Fateh Haider Jafari (Librarian, TIAC), M. Nasim (Naib Qasid, TIAC), Basharat (Naib Qasid, TIAC), Tayyiba Mussarat (Naib Qasid, TIAC) and Javaid Masih of TIAC have extended their help in one way or another and I am sincerely mindful of it. Together with them is to be remembered the widely known, among Quaidians, Guddu for serving special tea especially when he would himself bring it to TIAC on Saturday and on Sunday. I would also like to mention the help of M. Ibrahim and M. Amin (TIAC graduates) with regard to computer-related issues and fieldwork in Buner respectively. Mr. Khurram Shahzad of the Library of National Archives of Pakistan also remained always cordial and I am thankful to him. Similarly, I should refer to the moral help of my friends M. Ilyas, Umar Hayat, Sarfaraz Khan, Shaheryar Khan and Zulfiqar Ali Kalhoro. Irfanullah Khan of Gogdara, Swat, (PhD scholar, National Institute of Pakistan Study, QAU) also facilitated me in the fieldwork. Besides, a large number of native people of Swat, Buner and Malakand guided and assisted me during my strenuous fieldwork. I owe much to them especially when I discovered some of the presently unknown sites which in the archaeological reports are preserved. Their names are as follows: Fainda Mand (Ser, Swat), Khanunu (Ser, Swat), Aurangzeb (Maizaro-dherai, Swat), Lal Bacha (Manglawar, Swat), Dost Muhammad Khan (Charbagh), Musharaf Khan Khogda (Guli-bagh), Shah Wazir Khan Khaki (Aman-kot), Azim (Barikot, Swat), Sharif Kaka (Dir Museum), Muhammad Israr (Top-dara, Buner), and Saeed-ul-Haq (Takhta-band, Buner). viii Finally, I have a profound feeling of obligation to my parents who always wished and prayed for my success. My brothers, Rahimullah Khan, Inam Khan, Ihsanullah and Haleem Gran, have been all the times my real strength and I should accept that the credit largely goes to them for all my achievements. Rafiullah Khan 1 Chapter 1 Introduction Archaeology has been widely practiced in Indo-Pakistani subcontinent since the turn of 19th century. This activity might be categorized into field archaeology, theoretical archaeology, legal archaeology, history of archaeology and so on. In British India the interest revolved around field work and preservation through legal protection. Indian archaeology, its development, and empire went hand in hand and both reached Khyber-Pukhtunkhwa by mid-19th century. Subsequently, extensive archaeological activity was seen in the shape of large-scale surveys, excavations and conservation. Swat and Malakand, lying beyond the administrative borders of British India, were not an exception. However, the initial activity here was very poor as it was not motivated by serious academic concerns. This, no doubt, applies to L. A. Waddell and A. Caddy who simply had to collect Gandhara art pieces for Calcutta Museum. But later works done by A. Foucher and A. Stein are more systematic as they are in line with modernist approach to knowledge and epistemology. Major Deane’s work also garners importance especially his collection of inscriptions. Other scholars such as Bühler, Lüders, Senart, Rapson etc. contributed to paleographic studies of Uḍḍiyāna. All this activity spreads over the period between 1896 and 1926. This is to be rightly termed as the beginning of archaeological activity in Malakand and Swat. This research is focusing on the beginning of archaeology in Malakand and Swat, a development which is profoundly correlated with the political events taking place in the area at the turn of the 20th century. It covers the period between 1896 and 1926. Two factors may be taken into account for the significance of this time-scale, namely 1) the British entrance into Malakand and the creation of the Malakand Agency in 2 1895 and 2) the formation of the Yusufzai State of Swat (hereafter Swat State) in 1917. The two historical facts need to be posited as the real starting-points for all the archaeological activities in the Malakand Protected Area, parts of Lower Dir and ex- Swat State (i.e. present-day districts of Swat, Buner and Shangla/Ghorband area). However, it should be noted that the area had attracted scholars’ attention decades before. Archaeological researches got started in the subcontinent by the 3rd-4th decade of 19th century and by the end of the century considerable achievements in the field had been made. The services and contributions of James Prinsep and James Todd in the field of ancient Indian scripts and numismatics paved the way for the study and reconstruction of ancient Indian history. They were followed by Alexander Cunningham, who twice served in the capacity of Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India (hereafter ASI), from 1861 to 1865 and from 1871 to 1885.