ICONICITY AS A CREATIVE FORCE IN THE OF LITERATURE

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of the Ohio State University

By

Karina Ross. M. A.

* * * * *

The Ohio State University 2003

Dissertation Committee: Approved by Professor Charles E. Gribble, Adviser

Professor Daniel E. Collins ______Adviser Professor Anelya Rugaleva Slavic Graduate Program

ABSTRACT

In recent decades, much attention has been focused on literary and linguistic iconicity. Poetry became the primary focus of investigations, while prose received substantially less attention. The primary premise of this research is the existence of correlations between ideas and beliefs that preoccupy a particular society, and the literary forms in which those beliefs are expressed; i.e. the theory that language possesses non- arbitrary linguistic signs. Thus, it is natural to suppose that any literary movement which advances a set of specific ideas develops expressive forms that become distinctive of it.

Such distinctive characteristics emerge not only in poetry but in prose as well.

The proposed investigation concentrates on iconic elements of which mirror those concepts and beliefs, which are generated by Russian literary movements and which preoccupy the society during the periods of their preeminence. The four movements examined in this thesis are Sentimentalism, Romanticism, the “Natural

School” and three examples of the prose of the Silver Age. The target of this research is establishing connections between ideas and forms, and distinguishing recurring instances of iconicity that are conditioned by a particular movement. As it becomes apparent that numerous prose works that refer to a particular literary movement exhibit persistent syntactic characteristic, one may wonder what conditions their recurring use in the works

ii of a particular author or even of numerous authors. Upon a closer examination of these devices, it appears that many are connected with the general premises of the dominating literary movement. It becomes necessary to comprehend what movement-generated ideas stand behind these iconic devices and why.

The methodological framework of this thesis is based on R. Jakobson’s research in the domain of the language of literature. It also largely hinges on E. Anderson’s profound research titled The of Iconism, which accounts for various iconic forms in literary .

iii

Dedicated to my husband

iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to thank my adviser, Dr. Charles Gribble, for his encouragement and

continued support and for his patience in correcting my mistakes.

I thank Dr. Daniel Collins, whose classes inspired my interest in the topic of this research.

I am thankful to Dr. Anelya Rugaleva for her interest in this thesis and her

comments and suggestions.

I also wish to thank Dr. Irene Masing-Delic, who offered her time and advice while

answering my questions pertaining to the domain of literature.

Finally, I am infinitely grateful to my husband, who had the patience to correct my

stylistic errors and encouraged me through the years of studies and research. This thesis

would have not been possible without him.

v VITA

March 15, 1972………………………………………………………Born – Kursk, Russia

1993…………………………………………….B.A, Moscow State Linguistic University

1997……………………………………………………...M.A., The Ohio State University

1997 – present………………………………………..Graduate Teaching Associate, The Ohio State University

PUBLICATIONS

1. K. Ross, “Rendering Iconicity in the Translation of Poetry.” In A Festschrift for Leon Twarog: Working Papers in Slavic Studies, vol. 1. Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio State University Department of Slavic and East European Languages and Literatures, 2001.

FIELD OF STUDY

Major Field: Slavic and East European Languages and Literatures.

vi TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………ii

Dedication………………………………………………………………………………...iv

Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………..v

Vita………………………………………………………………………………………..vi

Chapters:

1. Introduction………………………………………………………………………..1

2. Symbolism……………………………………………………………………….12

2.1 Sentimentalist Values and Principles……………………………………….12 2.2 Veneration of Nature and the Use of Elaborate Syntax in its Depictions…..16 2.3 Repetition as an Icon of Emotive Intensity…………………………………28 2.4 The Sentimental Hero. Triviality of Individual Characteristics………….…32 2.4.1 Delayed Introduction or Parenthesis as a Mode of Character Presentation…………………………………………………………..32 2.4.2 The Use of Series and Parallelism as a Means of Ascertaining the Link between Appearance and Character Traits…………………37 2.4.3 Emphasizing Importance through the Use of Doublets……………...43 2.5 Concluding Remarks……………………………………………………...... 53

3. Romanticism…………………………………………………………………….55

3.1 Romantic Opposition as the Characteristic Trait of the Movement……….55 3.2 The Prominence of a Romantic Setting in Marlinskij’s Tales. The Harbinger of the Conflict between Man and His Surroundings……….61 3.3 Negations Series as Icons of Contrast between the Romantic and the Mundane in Pavlov’s Prose……………………………………………..68 3.4 The Struggle against the Environment in Odoevskij’s Tales……………….79 3.5 Evil Forces against Man. Who is in Charge? «Уединенный домик на Васильевском»...... 83

vii 3.6 The Opposition between Reality and Fantasy in «Вечера на хуторе близ Диканьки»………………………………………87 3.7 Concluding Remarks………………………………………………………..99

4. The “Natural School”………………………………………………………………………….100

4.1 Seeking Material in “Life as It is”………………………………………...100 4.2 Classifications of Character Types and the Use of Parallel Constructions..105 4.3 The Use of Parallel Constructions in Depictions of Social Groups…...…..110 4.4 Nominative Series in Character Portraits………………………………….118 4.5 Nominative Series in Depictions of Social Groups……………………….124 4.6 The Use of Series in Setting Depictions…………………………………..128 4.7 The Use of Merismus in Depiction Settings………..……………………..134 4.8 Concluding Remarks………………………………………………………136

5. Three Tales of the Silver Age…………………………………………………..137

5.1 The Supernatural as an Alternate Reality……………………………...... 137 5.2 Parallel Constructions as Icons of Correlation between the Natural and the Mystical Worlds in Brjusov’s «В зеркале»...... 140 5.3 An Incursion of Chaos in Sologub’s story «В толпе»...... 143 5.3.1 Verbal Series as Icons of Motion…………………………………...144 5.3.2 Repetitions Iconizing the Transmitting of Moods in the Crowd……………………………………………………………….148 5.4 Co-existence of Paganism and Orthodoxy in Remizov’s «Неуeмный бубен»...... 156 5.4.1 Dual Repetitions as Icons of the Stability of Life……………………...... 157 5.4.2 Binary Repetitions with One Negated Constituent as Icons of Ambiguity…………………………………………………………..164 5.5 Concluding Remarks……………………………………………………...166

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………...168

Appendix A……………………………………………………………………………..174

Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………177

viii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Semiotics has generated increasing interest since the start of the twentieth century.

In the domain of language this interest developed among linguists and literature scholars

alike. In contrast with Saussure’s notion of the “arbitrariness” of a linguistic and the

Peircean contention that it is merely a symbol which operates by means of arbitrary

association, Jakobson showed that it can also be an index and an icon. He viewed artistic

text as a relational and dynamic system which, while possessing its own laws and

mechanisms, was not detached from the world.

The premise that iconicity is the structure of experience reflected in the structure of

language stimulates interest towards the relational aspect of a work of art. Any artistic text displays internal laws and mechanisms that generate its particular aesthetic character but it also bears a communicative function.

Poetry has enjoyed the special attention from semioticians. Possibly this can be

explained by the obviousness of verse’s structural design. Even an unconventional

unrhymed verse exhibits a regular metrical pattern which distinguishes it from prose. The

regular metrical pattern of free verse is likely to put constraints on the syntactic organization a versified piece, where the sequence of sentence constituents may be more

1 conditioned by the requirements of a verse’s metrical organization rather than those of

normal grammatical patterns, especially in languages exhibiting a relatively flexible

order, such as Russian. Thus, a poem usually represents an entirety that is more iconic

than the language of prose. Moreover, as Earl Anderson notes, “poets cultivate a variety

of poetic voices or iconic ‘dialects’ that depart from the norms of ordinary in

many ways.”1 Any poem exhibits some degree of departure from the linguistic norms

existing at the time of its composition. The fewer the divergences, the less expressive a

poem appears.

In the language of prose fiction, divergences generally are not as conspicuous due

to its higher resemblance to ordinary speech. Innovative prose, which displays greater

divergences from the literary norm at the time of its creation, certainly displays more of

various types of departures. While examples of extremely innovative prose fiction require

a close examination of their syntactic organization, specifically of those modes in which

they contrast with contemporaneous prose works of the same genre, generally they are

not likely to display the same degrees of departure from the non-versified language’s

syntactic norms as verse would.

Furthermore, the emotional aspect is significantly more formidable in poetry. It

often exhibits such forms of iconism as kinesthesia and synaesthesia, which are directly

linked with emotive perception.

1 Anderson, Earl. A Grammar of Iconism. Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press; London: Associated University Press, 1998. P.315.

2 While these elements may appear in a prose text, they are usually not as pronounced, since prose usually transmits ideas, while emotions can be often of equal or secondary import to the author. Of course the above statement in no way refutes the existence of lyrically and emotionally charged examples of prose. For instance, the start of the twentieth century brought about various novel prose styles which were primarily aimed for emotional rather than mental perception.* However, such prose is perceived as lyrical and highly evocative of poetry.

So the role of iconicity is more prominent in poetry because it is normally highly charged with imagery. Still, fiction arises through artistic aspirations of a literary artist and differs from ordinary language as it strives not only to deliver new information but to make an emotional impact, i.e. it appeals not only to the intellect but to the senses.

The more pronounced preoccupation of prose with the intellectual side of perception results in another intricacy: a work of prose is frequently less personal than a poem because it usually possesses a more elaborate plot and entails a higher degree of the author’s concealment. It is not my contention that an author of a prose work does not show any emotional expressiveness or that a poem has to be devoid of ideas or a narrative, but simply that relatively to each other they exhibit these features pronounced to different degrees. Then, the intellectual or ideological aspect of prose fiction is often

linked closer to the ideological and philosophical preoccupations of a society at a

particular time stage. It is necessary to reiterate here that the above contention does not

* The above statement certainly does not refute the role of emotions in perception of any literary work or art in general. It simply suggests that a work of a writer representative of the Natural School appeals to mental reasoning more than for instance Belyj’s symphonies.

3 preclude a poem’s or a poet’s close connection with his time and surroundings, which can be observed through various uniformities present in the poetry from a particular period or integrated in a specific literary movement.

Still, ideological and philosophical aspects are usually more conspicuous in prose than in poetry. Perhaps that is why prose iconicity has received significantly less attention than poetic iconicity.

Any allegations of iconicity at work presume an assertion of a certain reality. This

reality is of a dual nature: on the one hand, it is the reality of an interpreter; on the other

hand, it is the reality of the author. The latter always has a degree of subjectivity when it

is attributed to the author by an interpreter. The goal of an interpreter then is to

demonstrate that his understanding of the author’s reality is plausible.

It is the question of interaction between these “initial” and “interpreted” realitites

that raises questions about the empirical foundations of iconicity among the proponents

of the arbitrariness of language. Various arguments exist for and against empirical

grounds for iconicity in general and for linguistic iconicity in particular.* Beliefs that

iconicity is a linguistic reality are often founded on what proponents contend are

consistent universal correspondences between form and meaning in certain semantic

fields, such as . Opponents of iconicity explain the existence of such

universals by chance or biological homogeneity.

* Earl A. Anderson’s book A Grammar of Iconism contains an extensive discussion of empirical foundations of iconicity. The author addresses various approaches to the question of whether iconicity is a linguistic reality, including discussions of folk linguistics, psycholinguistic experiments and language universals, citing arguments and contra and discussing counterexamples.

4 Perhaps some arguments in defense of iconicity can be found in the domain of hermeneutics. The mere assertion of Schleiermacher that interpretation is an art undermines the question of objectivity of the issue. He maintains that, in order to understand an utterance, the interpreter needs to possess both complete knowledge of the language and complete knowledge of the speaker. The latter is obviously impossible: one person cannot look at the world truly through the eyes of another.

However, the former also constitutes a problem. Even among contemporaries who interact very closely, idiolectal variations preclude absolute understanding, but in literary crititcism one also confronts a time gap or, in Schleiermacher’s ,

“linguistic heritage modifies our mind”2.

Boeckh also refers to the limitations of interpretation. While he suggests that the optimum linguistic interpretation should involve native language proficiency and awareness of the ideas that a literary work deals with, he also contends that interpretation heavily relies on intuition and introduces the notion of a “kindred interpreter”3.

This idea was also expressed by Ščerba, who emphasized the importance of a

“linguistic instinct”:

«...многие лингвисты продолжают до сих пор считать, что и живые языки можно исследовать только на основании различных текстов, полагая, что исследователь не имеет права ссылаться на свое языковое чутье. В этом есть своя доля правды, но есть и недоразумение. В самом деле, в чем состоит языковое

2 Schleiermacher, Friedrich D. E. “General Hermeneutics”//The Hermeneutics Reader. Ed. Kurt Mueller- Volmer. New-York: Continuum, 1985. P.75.

3 Boeckh, Philip August “Formal Theory of Philology”//The Hermeneutics Reader. Ed. Kurt Mueller- Volmer. New-York: Continuum, 1985. P.133.

5 чутье? Само собой разумеется не в возможности непосредственного усмотрения истины, а в умении создавать языковые контексты, тонко понимая их смысл, в умении отличать возможные контексты от невозможных.»4

Ščerba’s observation about the necessity of distinguishing plausible contexts from implausible ones relates to another of Boeckh’s ideas – that expression of the general spirit of time can be discerned if the interpreter witnesses similar grammatical elements in the writings of different authors representing one time period. An actuality that supports the general contention of this research (i. e. that structural element of syntax can correspond to an ideological or philosophical foundation of a particular literary movement) is the presence of uniform syntactic constructions in a great many works from a period in question. Syntactic uniformity suggests that the ideas expressed through such distinctive syntactic constructions are related to each other. Of course the possibility of stylistic and formal imitations is not precluded by this contention. Every movement has one or several leaders whose works inspired and initiated it. Their followers wish to imitate the archetypes to a greater or a lesser extent. Such imitations are conditioned not only by aspirations to imitate what is believed to be a finer expressiveness of an accepted and admired author but also by the writers’ ideological affinities. For instance, Gogol’s influence on the Natural School is undisputed and well investigated. His treatment of language, such as the use of colloquialisms and personal innovations, caught on, and lexical novelties more and more frequently appeared in the literature of the early 1840s.

4 Щерба Л. В. Преподавание иностранных языков в средней школе. Общие вопросы методики. Москва / Ленинград: Изд-во Академии Наук СССР, 1947, с. 47.

6 Finally, the idea that the presence of uniformity facilitates understanding is expressed by Dilthey, who writes: “Individuals are also understood by virtue of their kinship, by the features they have in common”5.

Looking back at a time period and ascertaining what constituted its reality may appear overly ambitious. That is why it is important for me to state that, in my analyses of literary movements, I reconstruct possible realities behind them and offer my personal interpretations of iconic expressions. My task is facilitated because in my contentions about philosophical backgrounds of literary movements I rely on fairly well-established characteristic features that define them. For instance, it is generally not disputed that Sentimentalism is characterized by heightened preoccupations with sensibility and the worship of nature or that the Natural School produced short prose works with detailed depictions of everyday life, static characters and limited plots.

At the same time, any investigator who assumes a historical perspective has an advantage: while his understanding of the past is distorted by separation in time, he is able to look back at a particular phenomenon in its entirety, i.e. he is able to assess its evolution from birth to demise. Moreover, it is possible for him to view a particular period in comparison with the ones preceding and possibly following it. Thus, a critic can evaluate Romanticism in comparison to Neoclassicism or Sentimentalism. Literary works can be viewed as artifacts that produce revelations about their time.

One who studies literary works that belong to one literary movement may notice stylistic resemblances among them. Investigations of the styles of a literary movement

5 Dilthey, Wilhelm. “The Understanding of Other Persons and Their Life Expressions”//The Hermeneutics Reader. Ed. Kurt Mueller-Volmer. New-York: Continuum, 1985.

7 usually deal with its distinctive choice of lexicon. However, the syntactic uniformities of some literary movements are often quite striking too, and it is hard to dissociate them from the given movements. Any literary movement exerts influence on the literary language of its time. The two interactive forces that shape the language of literature are at play here: on the one hand there is a language-external factor: the power of the ideas and philosophy associated with a new movement; on the other hand, old means of expressiveness which emerged as iconic erode through frequent repetitions and growing conventionality, so that there arises a need for new means of expressiveness. In the words of Olga Fischer and Max Nanny,

“Many linguistic signs (or structures) may once have started off as icons, but in the course of time they become worn down to mere symbols… In language, however, there is a constant opposition between economy, which causes linguistic items and structures to be eroded, thus becoming conventional, that is, more and more ‘symbolic’ (arbitrary), and the need for expressivity to counterbalance erosion.”6

When a literary movement starts showing signs of demise, it is not only a sign of its ideas losing their potency but also of an exhausted expressiveness of its favored linguistic forms.

The understanding of the creative expressiveness of language and literature as a progression raises the question of how a particular time period affects it. As Alderson notes,

“…simply to define ‘iconicity’ and then to locate examples in literary texts and gloss their internal literary function is <…> insufficient. Such an approach lacks a historical awareness that might allow us to get a sense of what that iconic usage means

6 Fischer, Olga and Max Nanny, “Introduction: Iconicity as a Creative Force in Language Use”. In Form Miming Meaning: Iconicity in Language and Literature (ed. Fischer and Nanny). John Benjamins Publishing Company. Amsterdam/Philadelphia, 1999.

8 to an author, an audience, a period; what functions it may or may not perform; what it is normal or abnormal, unusual or even impossible in the texts of a period and why”7.

This study examines links between iconic usages and the time periods during

which they evolved. Due to the potential enormity of such a task, I have limited the

corpus of my sources to short works of prose such as short stories, povesti and sketches;

I have excluded poetry and novels. Including a wide variety of genres would necessarily

entail taking into account genre-specific influences on iconic devices. For instance, the

structure of a novel usually displays extensive plot and evolutions of characters, which

are likely to impact structural aspects. Also, short prose fiction is the most abundant

genre represented in most well defined literary movements.

Each chapter is dedicated to a well defined literary movement: Sentimentalism,

Romanticism, the “Natural School” and Symbolism.

This study will investigate syntactic iconicity only. Syntactic iconicity can reflect various concepts such as chronology, hierarchy, preference, direction, length or duration and complexity versus simplicity.8 Only those iconic devices that are believed to be linked with the ideas and world-viewsare preoccupying the society at the time of their

creation are analysed in this study.

Any literary movement is a result of a new philosophy and ideology. These ideologies generate perceptions of what is more or less important, what aspects of life are

viewed as complex and deserve more attention. On the level of syntax these views can be

7 Alderson, Simon J., “Iconicity in literature: Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Prose”. In Form Miming Meaning: Iconicity in Language and Literature (ed. Fischer and Nanny). Amsterdam / Philadelphia , John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1999. 8 Anderson, Earl. A Grammar of Iconism. Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press; London: Associated University Press, 1998. P. 265.

9 reflected through the arrangement of elements in a sentence. For instance, parallel constructions may reflect correlations among ideas; syntactic dislocations can iconize the importance of an idea or a concept generated by the ideology of the time; extensive series of homogeneous sentence elements, words or phrases, or repetitions can also iconize importance. It is crucial, however, to distinguish between iconic devices connected with a particular literary movement and those connected with a reality that does not depend on a particular time period. The latter are not historically conditioned. For instance, a cluster of abrupt sentences may iconize speed, but, while fast motion is a reality, it may not be linked to any ideas behind a literary movement.

Interest toward the expressiveness of the language of literature intensified at the start of the twentieth century with . Its proponents included Šklovskij,

Tynjanov, Èjxenbaum and other scholars who were interested in text-internal mechanisms of expressiveness. They established that a literary text’s capacity of making strange (ostranenie) was what demarcated it as an artistic text. They turned their attention to specific instances of ostranenie in the realm of literature. Later Jakobson and Tynjanov investigated the expressiveness of literary texts on the linguistic plane.

Literary iconicity has become a popular scholarly topic since Jakobson’s studies of the expressiveness of the language of literature. The second half of the twentieth century showed increasing interest among linguists and literary scholars alike in semiotics and iconicity in particular. In the former Soviet Union the renaissance of semiotics occurred at Tartu University in Estonia under the leadership Jurij Lotman. The Tartu School addressed not only the semiotics of literature but that of linguistics and culture as well.

10 In 1997 an international symposium was held in Zurich that was entirely dedicated to iconicity in language and literature. The papers presented at the symposium were assembled in the volume Form Miming Meaning: Iconicity in Language and Literature.

Their topics ranged from phonological iconicity to iconicity and typography and graphic design, to syntactic iconicity.

One of the most prominent publications on literary iconicity is Earl R. Anderson’s

A Grammar of Iconism. His volume contains a comprehensive discussion of all levels of linguistic iconicity in literature: phonetic, morphological and syntactic. It also features numerous examples of iconic usages, mainly in English-language poetry.

Another important work which largely deals with expressiveness of the language of literature is Boris Uspenskij’s Poètika Kompozicii. This work discusses the problems of text organization based on the concept of “point of view” as the basic factor responsible

for the structural organization of a literary text. Uspenskij affirms the need to determine

“points of view” from which a narration is conducted. Awareness of the differences

among various “points of view” permits one to understand a literary text accurately.

Uspenskij’s idea is particularly applicable to this study. Uspenskij demonstrates how

different “points of view” present in one artistic text can be seen on the phraseological

level when different characters display different stylistic characteristics of speech. A

historical approach demands recognition not only of text-internal “points of view” but text-external too, that is, those of the author and contemporaneous society. In other words, it involves the awareness of time-conditioned reality.

11 This investigation does not undertake to give a full account of iconic usages produced or linked to a particular literary movement, but merely to demonstrate that there is a connection between them and to illustrate it by examples. If one deems that an artistic text displays iconic representations of depicted reality, it is reasonable to suppose that distinctive philosophies of different literary movements did not simply influence the style of the language of literature but that literary innovations may reflect ideas behind the given movement. Syntactic structures that are analyzed in this study pertain to correspondences between time-related meaning and form.

12

CHAPTER 2

SENTIMENTALISM

2.1 Sentimentalist Values and Principles.

In the history of Russian literature the Sentimentalist movement covers a relatively short period, approximately the last decade of the 18th and the first decade of the 19th

century.

In order to comprehend the philosophy and aesthetics of Sentimentalism it is crucial

to bear in mind that it divides two major movements: neoclassicism and Romanticism. In

many respects the two latter movements expressed polar ideologies and sentiments

dominating in the societies of their respective epochs. Neoclassicism glorified such

concepts as the orderly structure of the universe with God as the creator and the guarantor

of this order, which in its turn was reflected in the structure and the organization of the

state with the monarch at the top of the orderly hierarchy. The order was inspired by the

veneration of reason and rationalism that arose due to the weakening of the Church’s

cultural and spiritual authority in the post-Peterine era and to the subsequent

secularization of the upper classes.

Vis-à-vis Neoclassicism the Romantic period appears to be the opposite. All values

that had been suppressed or undermined in the Neoclassical epoch surfaced with the

13 emergence of Romanticism. The prominence of order and the attention to society as a whole was replaced by the adoration of individuality with all the complexity that it entails. At the same time there arose interest in the questions of national identity. The transition between such contrary ideologies could not occur overnight. Sentimentalism appears to be the bridge that allowed the transition between the ideas of the two opposite philosophies.

In the realm of language, the shift was as dramatic as that in ideologies. While

Neoclassicism communicated its ideas mainly through verse, especially the solemn ode and the epic, with other genres such as drama or satirical journals being of secondary, the

Romantic period instigated major advances in the development of prose fiction.

However, prior to it the Sentimentalist period marks the departure from verse as the dominant mode of literary expression. The main genre of Sentimentalism is повeсть.

The development of Sentimentalism also marked the establishment of prose style.

Along with the reflection of aesthetical and philosophical ideas of its time, the syntactic

manner peculiar to Sentimentalism reflects the newness of the emerging prose.

In order to understand how the ideological concepts of the late 18th century are

mirrored in the syntactic structure of Sentimentalist prose, one needs to understand the

ideals of Sentimentalist aesthetics. The writers of that period regard human sentiments

and emotions as the measurement of all that is true, real and valuable. For a man of the

Sentimentalist era, emotions are the reason and purpose of living, because all the

pleasurable occurrences and experiences deal with the emotional side of humans.

14 V. Izmailov summarizes this philosophy in a passage from his novel «Ростовское

озеро», where he describes the upbringing of his main character, whose he never reveals.

«Чувствительность есть источник бесчисленных, неизъяснимых удовольствий, но вместе бывает причиною и вечных, ничем не изгладимых горестей. Мне еще не было десяти лет, а я живо уже и глубоко чувствовал печали и радости, ежели не свои собственные, то чужие.»1

In the introduction to «Бедная Лиза», Karamzin describes the narrator’s state when

he visits the surroundings of Simonov monastery: «Я люблю те предметы, которые

трогают мое сердце и заставляют меня проливать слезы нежной скорби»2. A

statement most likely paradoxical for a contemporary reader, but perfectly sensible for

the Sentimentalist period.

The positive heroes and heroines of a typical Sentimentalist novel are endowed with

sensitivity and emotional responsiveness. Therefore, in the center of a Sentimentalist

novel there is always a conflict between the heart and feelings, on the one hand, and cold

mentality that aspires to material gains or emotional coldness, on the other. A hero, a

heroine or a couple encounter various obstacles on the way to their happiness. These

obstacles can appear in various manifestations: the suffocating conventions of society

(«Модест и София, Истинное приключение благородной россиянки»), the power of

money («Бедная Лиза»), the will of parents opposed to the characters’ happiness

1 Измайлов В.В. «Ростовское озеро». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 149. 2 Карамзин Н. М. «Бедная Лиза». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 95

15 («Инна», «История бедной Марьи»), the power of Destiny which turns out to be indifferent to happiness or sorrow («Парамон и Варенька») or even the religious

dogmas («Пламед и Линна»). P. A. Orlov notes

«...отличительная черта творческого метода писателей-сентименталистов состоит в том, что их положительные герои выступают как носители природной чувствительности, а отрицательные – как лица, полностью или частично утратившие ее»3.

Perhaps the repetitiveness of its matter resulted in the Sentimentalist

movement’s having such a short reign. It expired as quickly as one of its unfortunate heroines. Another reason for such a short life of the movement could lie in the realm of

language, due to the fact that stylistically the novels of the period appear to be extremely

uniform. It is not surprising that there are a lot of novels from that time published by unknown authors that still cannot be attributed to a certain person simply due to the inexpressiveness of individual style. But for a language scholar the style of that period is

of interest because a new literary prose begins to form with the rise of Sentimentalism.

2.2 Veneration of Nature and the Use of Elaborate Syntax in Its Depictions.

The contrast between nature and the city is one of the underlying Sentimentalist

themes. The view that nature presents a natural environment for the man in his genuine

innocent state, while the city is a model of an oppressive and unnatural form of

civilization was first expressed by Rousseau and proved to be of lasting importance. Ideal

Sentimentalist characters are without exception in tune with nature and repressed by the

3 Орлов П. А. «Вступительная статья». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 7.

16 corrupt modern civilized society which populates metropolitan areas. The entire movement became infatuated with the “Noble Savage” who leads simple and virtuous existence in tune with nature. As a result peasantry became idealized as authors attributed those noble qualities to it. An ideal peasant lad or girl usually leads a simple life away

from the commotion of big cities, content with the fruits of his or her labor and in no

need of many possessions.

The Sentimentalist movement required some constant ideal that could endure despite the trials and tribulations depicted in the novels and remain a reliable certainty. Nature becomes this perpetual ideal. In the view of the Sentimentalists, nature, or “Natura”, as they referred to it, represents the unadulterated standard of beauty and simplicity that enriches the human soul. Feelings and emotions, beauty and nature are the main components of Sentimentalist literature that are in various ways reflected in the syntax of its language.

In almost every novel of the Sentimentalist period, the depiction of nature occupies a prominent place. It is of great importance for the understanding of the author and the characters. The central characters of Sentimentalist novels typically grow up surrounded by nature, away from the destructive influence of big cities. They are often young peasant men or women, or nobles who are uncomfortable in the cities and try to escape in the country. That is why Sentimentalist novels frequently start and end with the depiction of nature.

The descriptions of nature in Sentimentalist novels are almost always presented in a very complex syntax. The sentences are saturated with three and more clauses, not

17 necessarily of uniform nature. Such a heavy syntax also contrasts with the passages describing the actual events, in which the sentences become simpler and shorter.

This complexity in the descriptions of nature iconizes its stability and continuity or

importance in the view of the authors, the characters, and the readers. It often determines

the mindset and the emotional state of the narrator and the characters.

The most prominent iconic mode in passages describing nature is clausal complexity,

which can be seen in the following examples:

In the сельская повесть «Роза и Любим», the environment of the two characters is

described in a complex sentence where the clauses make up a chain in which every next

clause modifies the immediately preceding one

«...они были почитаемы всеми земледельцами, живущими в обширном селе, лежащем по крутой горе, орошаемой сим ручьем, который, прыгая, как серна, по ее кремнистым утесам, мчал далее вьющиеся свои струи».4

In the novel «Inna» V. Kamenev prefaces the events described in the novel by an

elaborate adoration of the graveyard, a typical final abode of Sentimentalist heroes.

«Древняя роща, ты, которой долговечные сосны посмеиваются бурям и свирепству зимы суровой, ты, которой темно-зеленый иглистый лист осеняет гробы, вмещающие в себе прахи любезных моему сердцу, ты часто принимаешь меня в густую сень свою».5

In this passage clausal complexity is combined with the parallelism of the two

italized subordinate clauses. It also has another iconic device, anaphora – the repetition of

the pronoun ты in the beginning of the three subordinate clauses. And in the same

4 Львов П.Ю. «Роза и Любим». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 35.

5 Каменев Г. П. «Инна». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 186.

18 example a chain of clauses similar to the one mentioned previously is described, that is the second, the third and the fifth clause modify the initial one (древняя роща) while the

fourth clause refers to the third one. Such intricate complexity sets the emphasis on the

mood of the novel depicting the fate of two unfortunate lovers. This somber tone is far

more important for the author than the actual events. That is why the actual plot of the

novel is virtually uneventful – the love of two young people is cut short by the

unexplained drowning of the young man and the subsequent suicide of his lover. It is

important to note that the scanty events are presented in simple and relatively short

clauses. Such is even the climax of the short повесть, when the heroine commits suicide

at the grave of her lover. The events are delivered hurriedly; the plot appears to be needed

only in order to justify the author’s grievous disposition.

«Инна долго пребывала бесчуственна. Сие подобие смерти долго держало ее в страшных своих объятиях... Ее сердце указывает ей могилу Русинову... Она подходит и вдруг вонзает смертоносную сталь в грудь свою, где пылал пламень любви непорочной... Кровь сверкнула из раны глубокой. Инна пала на могилу любимца души своей.»

The above account of the events brining about the author’s melancholic disposition

are in fact of lesser significance to him than those feelings themselves.

Another example of chained subordinate clauses is taken from Šalikov’s повесть

«Темная роща, или памятник нежности». The emotional state of Èrast, the main

character, who is in love with Nina, is established by the setting, роща, where the two

lovers see each other.

19 «Это был час, когда романтические красоты природы кажутся еще более романтическими от таинственного сумрака, который, сгущая тени зеленых рощей и опуская занавес вполовину на отдаленные предметы, дает воображению всю волю бродить средь призраков, им самим сотворенных, бродить в химерическом, чудесном, очаровательном мире».6

Again, the environment determines the mood of the novel. And again, it is more

important to the author who is trying to evoke an emotive response to his work.

In the novel by an unknown author, «Пламед и Линна», the elaborate syntax of

passages depicting the surroundings of the monastery where the events evolve iconizes

the expansiveness of space. The young monk Plamed appears to be lonely and helpless

amidst this vastness of space, an idea that is later confirmed by his story: Plamed’s love

for Linna is not understood and perceived with hostility in his environment.

«[Отсюда] видны обширные степи той стороны Д*-на, опушенной лозовым кустарником, за которым по низким местам струятся озера, покрытые пестрыми стаями диких птиц; смертоносное орудие стрелка не поселяет в них страха убийствами: смелые стопы его не могут проникнуть до жилищ их, окруженных отовсюду намытом и непроходными болотами; вправо мелькает за отдаленностью видимая старинная крепость, влево – дремучий сосновый лес, начинаясь перед монастырем, простирается за горизонт; по одной стороне его течет извилистый Д*-н, а по другой – зеленеют луга и пашни.»7

In this exceptionally long sentence the writer unites twelve clauses. The first four

make up a chain where each subsequent clause refers to the one it immediately follows;

and in the second part of this structure there are two sets each containing two clauses

describing the space symmetrically. The two sets make up a parallel uniform structure

where the word which is present in the first clause of each set (in bold type) is omitted in both of the second clauses (marked with cursive). This sentence exemplifies a spatial

6 Шаликов П. И. «Темная роща или памятник нежности». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 192. 7 «Пламед и Линна». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 255.

20 diagram that iconizes vastness and the isolation of the monastery, and, ultimately, the main character. The monastery is detached from the surrounding world from all four sides. Its solitude and remoteness from the outside world is further emphasized by the implication of the immensity of space around it: the barely visible fortress on one side

and the boundless forest on the opposite side, as well as the presence of a river on the

third side (a common symbol of a dividing border) and the merging greenness of

neverending fields on the opposite fourth side.

After reading several повести from the time period discussed, one may notice that

despite the elaborate depictions of nature, these depictions appear very static. The authors

do not describe what is happening in nature at a given moment. Even if the time of year

is mentioned – frequently autumn, which is in tune with the author’s melancholic state –

the description of the setting is very general. The emphasis on the mood established by

such pictorial images of nature explains the authors’ inattention to what actually happens

in nature. Despite its prominent place in the literature of that period, the nature of

Sentimentalism is a mere background important for the understanding of the feelings

inspired by it, but not the focus in itself.

This factor explains the frequent use of extremely elaborate clauses, constructed

with the help of adverbs connecting descriptive subordinate clauses. Such subordinate

clauses make up links of a chain where each new element is attached to the preceding

one. The continuity of clausal constituents mirrors the continuity as well as stability of

nature. Stability can be linked with vastness which, in its turn, is closely related to

incomprehensibility. Thus, Sentimentalist nature acquires divine-like characteristics and

21 presents the only reliable constancy in contrast with the futility and the finite character of human existence. This is seen in a sentence from Mamyšev’s novel «Злосчастный» where clauses are chained together by adverbial modifiers.

«С правой стороны видна неизмеримая степь, чрез которую лежит прямая и широкая дорога, обсаженная по сторонам полуоблетевшими ивами и осинником, изредка краснеющим».8

In that example each new subordinate clause describes an item in the preceding one.

The overall picture is that of perpetuity and of infinity.

Another iconic device often encountered in passages describing nature is the

progressive expansion of units or clauses presented in series or sequences. Along with

clausal complexity, progressive expansion iconizes the perception of the surrounding

world as an immeasurable entity that induces admiration and frequently a sense of the

pettiness of human existence amidst it. In the novel «Злосчастный» the increasingly

meditative state of the narrator is rendered through expanding subordinate clauses.

«В задумчивости смотрел я то на заходящее солнце и бегущие серые облака, то на пустынную степь и поля, с которых весь хлеб был уже собран, то на многочисленные стада птиц, с томным криком отлетавшие в темные полуденные страны, то на светлый ручеек, который, извиваясь по равнине между кустами диких вишен, падал в глубокий ров тонкими струями и рассыпал в виде прозрачного бисера мелкие капли свои по гладкой поверхности водоема; слушал нежное воркование голубей и погрузился в глубокую задумчивость.»9

In this sentence each subsequent clause is expanded by elaborate modifiers and

additional internal clauses. The rendering of this deep reflective state is increased through

anaphora – here, the repetition of the word то at the start of four parallel subordinate

8 Мамышев Н. «Злосчастный». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 267.

9 Ibid.

22 clauses. Parallelism in combination with anaphora creates the effect of being lost in thought and increases the effect of progressive expansion: the main clause that describes the state of the narrator is substantially shorter than the embedded chain of clauses depicting the nature scene surrounding him.

Similarly, in another passage from «Темная роща или памятник нежности», the intensification of the character’s emotive state is mirrored in the intermittently increasing length of a series of subjectival units:

«Наконец, особливая приятность майского дня, тихий закат солнца, глубокое безмолвие природы, величественный вид дикой рощи, последние гимны пернатых ее обитателей, томное расположение души, живое ощущение противоположности между мирным состоянием природы и волнением сердца – все это настроило воображение и чувства в Эрасте к таким мечтам и восторгам, которые соделывают нас в сии минуты совсем другими людьми».10

The syntax of Sentimentalist prose frequently tends to be overloaded by sequences

of phrases. In such sentences the authors enumerate features that produce a

certain emotional effect on the characters or the reader. Such enumeration results in an

imbalance between the nominal and the verbal components in sentences; that is, one verb

often refers to several nouns or even nouns enhanced by expansive modifiers. The

multitude of the nominal components once again pertains to the strong pictorial aspect of

the Sentimentalist novels. In the two latter examples the nominal units are progressively

expanded by complex modifiers.

The following sequence of left-shifted subjects united by one verb creates the effect

of the character’s increasing state of emotional distraction:

10 Шаликов П. И. «Темная роща или памятник нежности». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 192-193.

23 «Бледные тени ночи, минутная тишина, следующая за дневным шумом, легкое дыхание ветерка, тихо шевелящего каждую травку и каждый листочек, зеленые берега озера и прекрасные его окрестности, блеяние прогоняемого стада, песни веселых поселян, оживляющие воздух, – все это привело меня в какое-то неописанное восхищение».11

The elements that constitute the surrounding scene are incorporated through non- agentive unifying demonstrative pronouns все это, which denote nature, the entity attributed with the highest agentivity. The presence of non-agency is possibly caused by the inability to explicate the link between the state of nature and the state of mind or emotions; such connection can be captured only intuitively.*

The word неописанное appears to be the key for understanding why the author

resorts to such a heavily loaded syntax: the ineffability of feelings and sensory

perception of the surroundings is compensated by the multitude of features of these

surroundings. Moreover, the adverbial modifier тихо шевелящего каждую травку и

каждый листочек contains a pair of direct objects (a smaller series) and the repetition

of the word каждый. The complexity of syntax mirrors the inexpressible complexity of

the character’s state.

The examples discussed above show how the authors depict the state of their

characters as often conditioned by nature surrounding them. But depictions of nature may

be aimed at the reader as well. They are intended to make the reader experience feelings

similar to those of the character. So an author desires that the reader becomes a co-

experiencer. Then pictures of nature can be presented with the intention of causing an

11 Измайлов В. В. «Ростовское озеро». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 151. * I would like to thank Dr. Daniel Collins for pointing out the paradoxical relationship between nature as an agentive entity and its non-agentive expression.

24 emotional response. While presumably many authors attempt to induce certain emotional responses in their readers, it is significant that Sentimentalist authors appear to not be

concerned at all with the communication of their ideas to the reader, let alone with

producing any multi-faceted reactions. In other words they wish that their reader feels in

the same way they do, while what he thinks does not appear to preoccupy them. The

unknown author of «Пламед и Линна» ends his novel by describing the place where the

two lovers were buried; here he resorts to progressively expanding clauses which in combination with anaphora (может быть) creates an increasingly melancholic effect:

«Может быть, густой камыш растет над нею [могилою], может быть, пушистые вершины тростника колеблются над гробницею несчастных, может быть, вьют над ней гнезда лебеди и томным голосом воспевают по вечерам песнь надгробную».12

Progressively expanding units or clauses are diagrammatic icons which reflect the

escalation of an emotional state through the augmenting length of components. Clausal

complexity is a simpler icon that reflects the complexity of perception through

convoluted syntax. It can be argued that one of the reasons of the short life span of

Sentimentalism lies in the authors’ conscious or unconscious denial of the possibility of

expressing human complexity. The ineffability of complex feelings forced the authors to

resort to a convoluted style characteristic of that period that quickly became a cliché:

series of pictures of nature which cause the characters feel somehow sad, but no one

actually explained how.

12 «Пламед и Линна». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 266.

25 It was noted above that, for the Sentimentalists, nature embodied stability and infinity, contrasted against the futility and transitiveness of human life. Therefore, the structure of a Sentimentalist novel often contains the presence of a stagnant state in the beginning, then its disturbance – the actual events that rock the stability and often

escalate to a tragic ending and the return to a new motionless state, often through the

depiction of the character’s grave. The stability of nature is often rendered through repetition as if the author asserts this constancy and steadiness. The tale «Пламед и

Линна» contains repetitions both at the beginning and at the end. The initial stability and seeming happiness found in the everyday routine of the monastic life is rendered through parallel clauses containing anaphora.

«Отсюда, сквозь частую железную решетку маленького окна удивлялся он ему [Творцу]в благотворном веянии кротких ветерков весеннинх и в стонающих ревах бури, в светлом дне и мрачной ночи; отсюда встречали взоры его лучезарное солнце, когда оно, подъемлясь из-за лесу, освещало постепенно желтые нивы, зеленые луга и, наконец, реку….»13

Soon the steadiness of his peaceful life as a monk is shattered by his sudden love for Linna. The larger central part of the novel is comprised by a passionate dialogue between Linna and Plamed. In a typical conclusion the landscape surrounding the characters’ grave is described, expressing a new level of permanence surpassing the short-lived disturbance brought about by the tragedy. Here double repetition emerges in the last two paragraphs of the novel iconizing permanence and duration.

«Давно уже, давно стоят одни печальные развалины обоих монастырей; две ветхие деревянные часовни и груды камней напоминают страннику, что здесь жили некогда люди, что здесь были храмы творца вселенной».

13 Ibid. P. 256.

26 The absence of the conjunction и between two uniform subordinate clauses

increases the suggestion of the indefinite duration of life.

Depictions of nature occupy a prominent place in Sentimentalist prose. Syntactic complexity of these depictions signifies the importance of nature for the Sentimentalist view of the world. In the literature of that period, depictions of nature are more prominent than the plot or characters themselves. Nature represents a constancy that counteracts the fragility of being. It becomes consecrated as the only part of existence that possesses meaning and that may bring consolation. As such, it exerts a strong influence on human beings. The sacredness of nature in the eye of Sentimentalists also accounts for the fact that positive characters appear to be in sync with it, while negative characters exhibit detachment from nature as the source of goodness.

As with many experiences of the Sacred, the experience of nature’s influence possesses a degree of inexpressibility. The difficulty of expressing one’s state can result in an excessive complexity in its renditions. The syntactic intricacy of passages that contain nature scenes may be a result of attempts to interpret or explain one’s complex emotions.

2.3 Repetition as an Icon of Emotive Intensity.

Repetition is a device that can iconize repetitive action and duration as well as hesitation, confusion, or inexpressibility (Anderson). It appears that repetition should be examined in combination with other devices. Repetition in combination with complex syntax tends to mirror permanence, while in short sentences it allows an author to express

27 emotions such as despair, excitement, anger and confusion. Intense emotional reactions often result in a demotion of reasoning. As a result repetitions may be used as attempts to express one’s feelings when they are difficult to explain.

As mentioned above, the central part of «Пламед и Линна» is the actual dialogue between the two characters, which comprises short, frequently exclamatory sentences with abundant repetitions. Among them are frequent exclamations of «Пламед!

Пламед!» (259) «Линна! Линна!» (263) as well as epizeuxis, an immediate repetition of a word or phrase:

«Линна: Дай, дай мне обнаружить тайну души моей.» (261),

«Линна: Никогда-никогда не видать тебя?»(263),

«Пламед: Остановись, остановись Линна!»(261),

«Пламед: Любовь? Линна! Любовь?» (260),

«Пламед: Бежим, бежим отсюда!» (264).

In the examples above repetition iconizes emotional anguish, the opposite of peace and duration.

Repetition is a customary device in Sentimentalist literature. Its frequent occurrence is based on the magnitude of emotive expressiveness. Repetition surfaces in the direct speech of the characters or in the narrator’s monologue, thus revealing their emotional state. The concepts of stability and duration mentioned above do not simply exist independently in the reader’s perception of them, but are transmitted to the reader through the narrator’s perception and are rooted in the time and space of Sentimentalism.

Similarly, such emotions as despair, excitement, and sadness are conveyed to the reader

28 through the characters. The reader is not expected simply to exercise compassion or sympathy towards the characters, but to establish an emotional connection with them, to feel how they feel. In that sense iconicity is a powerful device which, although set in a particular time and space, is intended to generate a concrete impact beyond its temporal and spatial boundaries.

Nature, as it is depicted in Sentimentalism, is shown through the eyes and feelings of

the narrator or the characters more overtly than in any other literary movement discussed

in this research. The voice of the narrator is very conspicuous in a Sentimentalist novel

not only because of the common first person narration but also because of the

advancement of the narrator’s experience. It is quite common to see passages that break

into the storyline as well as injections of direct narrator’s speech showing that he

identifies and is tightly connected with the events and characters he depicts. In the middle

of the повесть «Модест и София» the author inserts a monologue in which the narrator

addresses nature.

«К вам обращаюсь, леса, рощи и сады П-ие! Примите искреннюю, сердечную благодарность мою! Сколько раз приходил я искать в тенях ваших утешения! Сколько раз, гонимый роком и людьми, я уединялся во мраки ваши и находил в них спокойствие! Сколько раз, истерзанный в нежнейших чувствах своего сердца, -- когда я скучал жизнию, когда свет казался мне адом, вы проливали во грудь мою сладкую надежду!».14

This passage shows the strong bond between people and nature particular to the

Sentimentalist period. Double anaphora is at work here together with progressive

sentence expansion mirroring the narrator’s increasing enthusiasm.

14 Мамышев Н. «Модест и София». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 294.

29 Similarly, the narrator’s emotional connection to the story he tells is visible in the introduction to Kamenev’s novel «Софья». Introductions depicting the landscape where the events took place long before the narrator visits or first sees them are frequent in

Sentimentalist prose. Novels often start with the narrator describing the beautiful and melancholic power that the landscape exerts on him. It is usually an abandoned place where nature is taking over the remains of human dwellings or, more frequently, the depiction of a character’s tomb, which is always set in a meaningful landscape. The pictorial approach is strongly linked to the emotive perception of the narrator. The frame tale structure allows the author to show the meaningful nature of the events he describes, their importance for the storyteller long after they ended and, thus, the author's intent to affect the reader and make him share this emotional connectedness of the narrator.

«Немного подалее, при спуске к Волге, на одном мысу, увенчанном кустарником, и поныне еще стоит ветхая хижина. Кровля ее разломана, окна без ставней, без стекол, ворота заперты длинным рычагом... Сова, свив себе здесь гнездо, пускает томные вздохи по открытому пространству. Часто, часто слушал я во время глухой полночи эхом повторяемый ее голос! Часто, гуляя без цели, без намерения приходил я к тому плачевному месту. Слезы согревали сердце. Я начинал плакать неутешно, не зная совсем причины.»15

The repetition of the word часто serves two iconic purposes in this passage. The epizeuxes can possibly iconize the echo of the owl's voice mentioned here; but as an anaphora, or the recurrence of the word at the beginning of the next sentence mirrors the narrator’s heightened emotions. In addition to repetition, another iconic device works in the second sentence of this passage: the zero copula. While the Russian syntax does not permit an expressed copula in the present tense, the present is likely to be chosen because

15 Каменев Г. П. «Софья». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 176.

30 of this constraint. It is even more likely because the main narration takes place in the past and the present tense used to describe this scene is in contrast with the main narration.

Verbless sentences allow reinforcing of the visual aspect of a landscape or character depiction. Russian yields itself quite easily to the omission of the verb through the use of adverbial modifiers, which allows the reader to visualize the depicted scene as a landscape painting.

A similar introduction opens the novel «Парамон и Варенька» by an unknown author.

«Тени, сердцу моему любезные! Тени, коих нежности ничто теперь не препядствует! Десять крат уже посещала весна высокую могилу, где тела ваши навеки соединились; десять крат произращала она над гробом вашим полынь, сколько раз видел, как стебли его друг на друга склонялись, но еще до селе не бросил цветка на прах ваш.»16

Set in a повесть with a very simple plot, this introduction is particularly remarkable as it shows the importance of emotional receptiveness rather than that of concrete events which are intentionally deprived of eventfulness. Two young peasant lovers are ready to enter into a happy marriage. Their parents and all the village people

are joyous for them and anticipate a happy union when suddenly both lovers get struck by

a lightning during a thunderstorm and perish. The повесть ends again with an outpour of

the narrator’s grief and deep personal affectedness by the lives of two people long gone,

thus making a frame to the story of two lovers.

16 «Парамон и Варенька». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 172.

31 In the three former passages iconicity emerges through repetitions of time expressions: сколько раз, часто and десять крат. The repetition of time expressions particularly signifies the importance of duration and continuity of events in nature.

2.4 The Sentimentalist Hero. Triviality of Individual Characteristics.

2.4.1 Delayed Introduction or Parenthesis as a Mode of Character Presentation.

The pictorial aspect visible in the depictions of nature can also be noted in the description of the Sentimentalist heroes and heroines. In fact Sentimentalist characters are tightly linked to nature and are deeply affected by it. In the novel «Парамон и

Варенька» repetition occurs to mirror this relatedness.

«На другой день солнце поднимается выше, выше, и не знающие себя симпатические сердца становятся друг к другу ближе, ближе.»17

In this sentence repetition works together with parallelism to iconize this

connectedness. The importance of people’s connection with nature is believed to be one

of the key characteristics of a Sentimentalist hero or heroine. Due to this parallelism one

can expect to encounter similar devices in the depictions of landscape and in the portrayal

of people, namely those devices that allow advancing the visual and emotive aspects of

these descriptions.

But the realization of the strong bond between nature and people is not sufficient for

an analysis of character portrayals. In order to understand the specifics of character

description in Sentimentalist literature, one needs to understand another message that

17 Ibid. P.173.

32 Sentimentalist authors frequently tried to convey through their characters. It has been

noted that one of the merits of Sentimentalist literature was democratization of its

characters and faith in the primary goodness of human beings. Indeed, Sentimentalism

returns to the foundation of Christianity. For a Sentimentalist author the expression of one’s feelings is tantamount to implementing compassion, empathy and support for your close and not close ones. M. V. Ivanov notes the humane side of this movement.

«Сентиментальное представление о человеке опиралось на просветительскую идею «естественности» и доброй природы людей. Такое принятие сути человека предполагало господство позитивных, конъюктивных чувств в отношениях между людьми доброты, дружелюбия, любви, эмпатии. Зло воспринималось как привнесенность, а слабость – как проникновение зла или недостаточное раскрытие добра».18

Sentimentalist authors strived to render this idea through the actions and, more importantly, the feelings of their characters. The didactic, moralizing aspect is vividly present in the Sentimentalist literature, revealing its link with the ideas of the

Enlightenment. Sentimentalist novels are strongly addressed to the reader; the primary

goal of a Sentimentalist author is to exert an influence on both the mind and the feelings

of the reader, to make him or her feel the same way the author feels, rather than to force the reader to analyze their works and to come up with their own conclusions. Such an approach resulted in the appearance of a typical Sentimentalist hero, who is endowed

with supreme sensitivity and excellent moral characteristics. However, he encounters

hindrances and is required to overcome obstacles in order to obtain happiness. In the

18 Иванов М.В. Судьба русского сентимантализма. Санкт-Петербург, «Эйдос», 1996. С. 326.

33 Sentimentalist context, being happy means being able to get in return the same love, understanding and compassion that the characters emanate themselves. Therefore, authors urge their readers to acquire the virtues that they commend.

The authors’ intense concentration on the readers and their desire to induce emotions rather than some particular ideas resulted in conventional and predictable plots and typically static characters. Sentimentalist heroes and heroines rarely undergo internal transformations. It is hard to attribute the lack of character development to the relatively limited physical length of the genre of a повесть because one can view the evolution of character in tales representative of other literary movements and even a few works of the

Sentimentalist period itself, such as Karamzin’s «Юлия» or the anonymous «Mодест и

София».

In the syntactic structure of passages that describe the characters, it is possible to see

the reflection of the authors’ lack of concern with their individuality. It can be seen in the

depictions of appearance and in the sentences and passages describing their inner

characteristics.

But even before looking closely at the syntactic patterns of these passages it

becomes apparent that authors are not particularly concerned about their characters’

individuality. That is why Sentimentalist tales exhibit frequent delays introducing their

names or instances when characters’ names are mentioned parenthetically. The

presentation of information in achronological or illogical order can be noticed fairly

frequently in a Sentimentalist tale.

34 In the tale «Пламед и Линна» the major characteristics of the main character’s personality are introduced in a separate clause prior to the introduction of his name, which is mentioned in passing in the second clause.

«Некогда находился в сем монастыре инок, отличный богоугодной жизнию и праведными делами, человек, любезный душою и сердцем, благодетель и заступник неимущих, друг природы, любимец мирян и монахов; недавно еще в храме сей обители воссылал юный Пламед молитвы свои ко Всевышнему, обливался теплыми слезами веры и надежды, приносил в жертвуему любовь нелицемерную и благодарил за утешение, обретенное у алтаря предвечного».19

The name of the second character Linna is even more delayed; and this name is not a grammatical subject or the focal point of a sentence but a modifier in the genitive case.

We find out about the adverse destiny of the heroine and her impact on Plamed in two

paragraphs preceding the sentence in which her name is mentioned for the first time.

«Поздно, локон белокурых волос упал с чела Линны, и злополучный инок повергся без чувств на помост храма».20

In Izmailov’s novel «Прекрасная Татьяна, живущая у подошвы Воробьевых гор», the heroine participates in a conversation; the reader finds out about her life, her appearance, her personal characteristics and even her moral beliefs prior to the introduction of her name.

Prolepsis in character introduction can be combined with parenthesis – the interruption of syntax to include information indirectly related to the main theme of the sentence.

19 «Пламед и Линна». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 255.

20 Ibid. P. 258.

35 In the tale «Ростовское озеро» the name of the heroine is mentioned only after the reader finds out that there is a secret in her life (she is a peasant girl who speaks French, reads Rousseau’s “Nouvelle Eloise” and deeply affects the main character, who almost immediately falls in love with her).

«Но тут отварилась дверь, и сама Анюта (я узнал уже имя моей героини) вошла с чистой кринкой молока».21

It appears as if the author just remembered that he forgot to name his heroine and he

is quickly fixing his oversight.

In Kamenev’s «Софья» a young peasant leaves a strong impression on the

protagonist’s daughter. His name is introduced with the help of parenthesis as well, and

only after he reappears in the story.

«Пообедав, рассказал мне Иван (так звали его), что он ходил из соседней деревни в Казань с письмом от своего барина».22

Again the name of the character is as unimportant to the author as his personal characteristics. He is simply a secondary character who allows the author to develop the plot.

The author of the tale «Бедная Маша» intentionally undermines the importance of one character’s name.

«Милов (так можно его назвать) был лет двадцати пяти, статен, ловок, боек, учтив и щеголь.»23

21 Измайлов В. В. «Ростовское Озеро». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 153.

22 Измайлов В. В. «Прекрасная Татьяна, живущая у подошвы воробьевых гор.». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 159.

23 Измайлов А. Е. «Бедная Маша». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 223.

36

Parenthesis occurs even more frequently when it pertains to minor characters.

In «Прекрасная Татьяна...» the name of Tat’jana’s father is mentioned in passing.

«Семен – имя отца ее – раскрыв кошелек и увидя кучу империалов, едва не выронил его из дрожащих рук своих».24

In Karamzin’s «Юлия» the name of the heroine’s son is mentioned without any introduction in the main text.

«Между тем маленький Эраст* расцветал, как розан; он мог уже бегать по лугу; мог говорить Юлии «Люблю тебя, маменька!», мог ласкать ее с чувством и нежными ручками отирать приятные слезы, которые часто лились из глаз ее».25

The clarification *«Имя сына ее» is given by Karamzin in a footnote. Footnotes

were commonly used by Sentimentalist authors for the clarification of some events

described in the text. The fact that footnotes mention the events that the authors deemed

not important enough to interrupt sentences that are intended to exert some emotional

influence emphasizes the insignificance of action vis-à-vis the authors’ attempts to affect

the feelings of the readers.

Of course one occurrence of delayed introduction of a name or its introduction

through parenthesis may simply reveal the particular intentions of a particular author, but

such a frequent occurrence of these devices forces one to seek an explanation that is

rooted in a trait common to a literary period rather than to a particular author.

24 Измайлов В. В. «Прекрасная Татьяна, живущая у подошвы воробьевых гор.». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 161.

25 Карамзин Н. М. «Юлия». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 117.

37 2.4.2 The Use of Series and Parallelism as a Means of Ascertaining the Link

between Appearance and Character Traits.

Sentimentalist literature has a particular style of character description which, like nature depictions, is comprised by long sentences with long sequences of various personal characteristics. These characteristics pertain to both character appearance and personality traits, and are relatively sketchy. They are usually presented when a character is introduced; once they are enumerated the authors normally do not return to them.

Character portrayals result in clichéd presentations of typical characteristics which become signs of certain inner traits such as sentimentality, sensitivity, compassionate nature and emotional receptiveness.

The following is a typical appearance of a Sentimentalist heroine.

«На сей раз не лицо, цветущее молодостью и красотою, не темно-русые волосы, развеваемые тихим зефиром, не стройный и легкий стан грации могли пленить в ней взоры и сердце чувствительного человека, но сладкий образ невинности, напечатленный во всех чертах ее, но милое выражение взора, полного любви и чувствительности; но счастливая улыбка на устах, которая показыжала сердце спокойное, ясное и не знакомое с бурями жизни человеческой».26

The typically complex syntax of this extensive sentence is loaded with the

appearance and internal characteristics of a heroine, arranged in two homogeneous series

of subjects with the repetition of нe before the appearance characteristics and the repetition of но before the internal characteristic. These parallel series make up a symmetrical syntactic structure, where appearance features become emblems for features

of character. This correspondence is reinforced by the numerical correlation: three

26 Измайлов В. В. «Прекрасная Татьяна, живущая у подошвы воробьевых гор.». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 158.

38 appearance characteristics and three characteristics of the heroine’s soul. In addition, the

sentence displays only one predicate, могли пленить which is an adjunct to six subjects.

As will be demonstrated further, lack or scarcity of verbs is a syntactic characteristic

typical of sentences portraying characters. As with nature depiction, lack of verbs creates

a visual representation of painting similar to that of portraits or landscapes.

Such is the following sentence, which introduces Sof’ja, the heroine of Kamenev’s

novel.

«Легкое платье, обтянутое около стройного стана, венок из цветов, извивающийся на темно-русых, распущенных волосах, под плечом соломенная корзинка, посох с розовою лентою – вот ее всегдашние уборы, когда ходила поливать в саду деревья или пaсла наше стадо по горам».27

The main clause lacks a verb; the predicate is substituted by a hyphen. In fact the

series of subjects are not even the girl’s physical characteristics but merely her

possessions. However, for the author these possessions are obviously powerful symbols

revealing her personality, and he expects that the reader will unmistakably conclude that

she possesses such personal characteristics as innocence and effortless beauty. It is

important to note that the author reveals that his heroine is attuned to nature by

mentioning the flowers in her wreath and the wind flowing through her hair. The mere

mentioning of the heroine’s connectedness with nature is sufficient for the understanding

of her character, as in the minds of Sentimentalist authors and readers this connectedness

is a powerful symbol of all those characteristics considered valuable and significant in

their time.

27 Каменев Г. П. «Софья». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 178.

39 The heroine of Klušin’s novel «Несчастный М-в» displays similar attributes.

«Софья, одетая в простое белое платье, с розою на груди, с лиловым бантиком на темно-русых волосах, развевающихся от дуновения зефира, которые он перебирал бережно, с арфою в руках, садится в кресло».28

Despite the fact that Kamenev’s Sof’ja is a peasant girl and Klušin’s Sof’ja belongs

to a noble and wealthy family, they appear to look identical. The latter Sof’ja’s garments

are also presented as a series of homogeneous modifiers that are meant to give sufficient

information about her.

Series of syntactically homogeneous characteristics result in the impression of a

swift pace, a hasty enumeration of characteristics necessary for a character introduction

but something the author does not wish dwell on. This effect is reinforced by the

omission of the conjunction и before the last member of a series, which deprives the

series of its completeness as a distinct unit but shifts the readers attention away from the

character depiction in anticipation of what is about to happen to these characters.

Such is the introduction of Èmilija, the heroine of Brusilov’s tale «Легковерие и

хитрость». In the sentence «Прекрасный стан, огненные черные глаза, а более всего

любезность Эмилии пленили Эрастa»29 the focus is on the impression that the heroine

makes on the protagonist. Again, the characteristics of the heroine are mentioned as a series of subjects. In fact the order in which they are presented is in itself a preferential

icon where the author proceeds from a superficial characteristic (прекрасный стан), to a

more significant one (огненные черные глаза), to the most important one (любезность

28 Клушин А. И. «Несчастный М-в.». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 130.

29 Брусилов Н. П. «Легковерие и хитрость». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 244.

40 Эмилии) (244). The order represents the importance of these characteristics for the protagonist’s assessment of the heroine, not as characteristics necessary for the evaluation of her personality. Later the author seеms to become slightly aware of his oversight and

mentions her more personal traits.

«Будучи нежна и чувствительна, мнимый поступок мужа не истребил в ней любви, но сделал ее задумчивою и рассеял природную ее веселость».30

Èmilija’s traits of character are mentioned here in a doublet of short adjectives,

another iconic device that mirrors brevity of character portrayals. Brusilov’s work appears to be one of the most unsuccessful representations of the Sentimentalist

movement. It depicts typical sentimental characters, sensitive and righteous; however, the

author fails to promote the ideals that his characters represent due to his preoccupation

with constructing an intricate plot.

While female Sentimentalist portraits display prized qualities characteristic of the

time period – free flowing hair, a slender build, a simple fluid dress; male portraits have

their own characteristics, which are also presented in series. The following is the

introduction of the protagonist in Klušin’s «Несчастный М-в».

«Хороший рост, стройный стан, приятный орган голоса, взор открытый и проницательный, большие свeтло-голубые глаза, розовый румянец на щеках – его физические дарования; чувствительное и нежное сердце, кроткий нрав – душевные его свойства».31

Again, physical characteristics are presented in the first series and personality traits

appear as a second sequence. Additionally, the author resorts to the present instead of the

30 Ibid. P.247.

31 Клушин А. И. «Несчастный М-в». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 119.

41 , which allows him to use hyphens instead of overt verbs. In Sentimentalist character portrayals physical characteristics often precede the enumeration of character traits, thus representing a separate preferential icon where character perception proceeds from appearance to the inner nature of characters, thus developing the external features into symbols of the internal characteristics.

The portrait of Izmailov’s character Milov («Бедная Маша), mentioned above, is presented through a series of non-uniform modifiers.

«Милов ... был лет двадцати пяти, статен, ловок, боек, учтив и щеголь».32

The non-uniformity of modifiers – a numeral in the genitive case (был лет

двадцати пяти), three short adjectives (статен, ловок, боек) and a noun (щеголь) –

represents distention, an icon comprised by an overloading of a syntagm with

heterogeneous modifiers (Anderson). The overloading of the sentence with non-uniform

modifiers reveals the author’s desire to complete the introduction of his character as

quickly as possible. And once more a series of short adjectives reinforces the impression

of brevity.

Sentimentalist character portrayals reveal that, while striving to describe deep

emotions and the significance of emotional responsiveness, the intensity of these

emotions acquires higher value than their actual essence. A Sentimentalist author is more

preoccupied with the rendering of his ideas and, more importantly, feelings than in

analyzing the reasons behind these emotions.

32 Измайлов А. Е. «Бедная Маша». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 223.

42 Sentimentalist characters are mere vehicles which allow the authors to advance their ideas; they lack complexity and individuality. Milonov’s comment «Сердце

человеческое неизъяснимо, есть такие минуты, в которые сердце чувствует тоску,

томную грусть без всякой причины...»33 epitomizes the Sentimentalist belief that

depiction of human feelings by authors is pivotal for the understanding of people, rather

than focusing on events and circumstances that instigate emotional responses.

2.4.3 Emphasizing Importance through the Use of Doublets.

Another striking feature that permeates most texts from the Sentimentalist period is

the extensive use of doublets. The use of doublets is an iconic device that allows the

author to emphasize what he deems important by loading a syntagm with uniform

elements. Thus, increasing the number of uniform words conveying an important idea allows the author to draw the reader’s attention to it. It is noteworthy that the words that

appear in iconically significant doublets in Sentimentalist texts are nouns and adjectives.

It is not difficult to account for such use of adjectives and nouns. Due to the strong

pictorial aspect of Sentimentalist literature, adjectives bear a strong burden in depictions

of a Sentimentalist portrait, landscape and, finally, the personal traits of characters. The

nouns that appear in doublets are mainly those that indicate virtues in the Sentimentalist

context, such as innocence, love, passion, mercy, etc.

Doublets can be externally or internally iconic. External doublets are those that draw

attention to an idea or characteristic by increasing the number of words in an important

33 Милонов Н. П. «История бедной Марьи». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 241.

43 segment. Internal doublets are those where the words in them carry a relation to each other, such as through order where the hierarchy is conveyed by placing the more significant element first (e.g. king and queen) or where the temporal relations are

reflected (e.g. crime and punishment). Obviously a relation bears significance in a

particular context and the awareness of iconicity of doublets in Sentimentalist texts is

only attainable through the analysis of the Sentimentalist context.

The first type of doublets is represented mainly by adjectives and occurs in depictions of characters, both in portraits and inner traits, as in the Sentimentalist

tradition they are closely linked. Order is sometimes important in doublets of this type.

Authors frequently place characteristics of lesser value first and more complex second. In

that context more complex and valuable characteristics are those that render the

emotional side of characters. The young man who becomes the of affection for the

heroine of «Даша, деревенская девушка» is described by the narrator in a sentence

containing two doublets.

«Из речей девушек я догадался, что дело шло о сыне соседки моей, богатой московской барыни. И действительно, сын ее – молодец прекрасный и любезный, с умом, с чувствиями, а к тому же и девятнадцати лет, время самых пылких страстей.»34

In the first doublet прекрасный и любезный the adjective that pertains to just the

character’s appearance occurs first but the one that denotes an important trait of

personality is placed second. Thus the character is revealed to the reader from the surface

to in depth. In the second doublet the attribute more distinctive of individual

34 Львов П. Ю. «Даша, деревенская девушка». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 67.

44 characteristics (с умом) is placed before the attribute с чувствиями as in the

Sentimentalist context the ability to feel is superior to mental assets. Again the presentation of the character reflects the way one normally gets to know a person from

the outer to the inner, less obvious but more important characteristics.

In Karamzin’s «Евгений и Юлия» Evgenij is indirectly introduced before his appearance in the novel when Julija becomes reacquainted with him by reading his letters.

«Иногда при чтении сих писем глаза Юлины наполнялись слезами любви и почтения к благоразумному и добросердечному юноше».35

Once again the order in the doublet may reflect how Julija gets to know Evgenij,

from appreciation of his intelligence to the realization of the virtue of his soul. And the

latter feature is ranked higher in the Sentimentalist system of values.

Similarly, in another of Karamzin’s повесть, «Юлия», the father of the virtuous

protagonist is mentioned as a «благоразумный и нежный отец»36; this forecasts that his father’s нежность will have a fundamental affect on Evgenij’s development into an ideal Sentimentalist hero, whose compassion and kindness are his pivotal features.

Indeed, Evgenij places his love above caution when he pursues capricious Julija, and, in the end, Julija realizes the goodness of her husband and becomes a devoted wife and mother.

Doublets that depict personal characteristics and that contain more important or complex notions as the second element may reflect the way in which the reader and/or

35 Карамзин Н. М. «Евгений и Юлия». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 90. 36 Карамзин Н. М. «Юлия». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 107.

45 the other characters get to know a character: from external to internal features; it may

also reflect the author’s attempt to render escalating emotions. In fact, doublets and

repetition are the simplest way to describe something that carries a particular significance by the mounting of synonyms or partial synonyms. For example saying“X is big, huge,

enormous” is less complex than using a comparison “X is bigger than Y” or an elaborate

modifier “X is strikingly big”. Moreover, a doublet or a repetition is more emotively

charged, as it shows the speaker’s inability or intentional desire to avoid a more

sophisticated construction which would appear a result of composed assessment rather

than that of excitement or agitation.

Therefore, when Klušin describes his heroine by the metaphor «сия невинная,

божественная душа»37, he tries to affect the reader’s emotions by instilling in him an

admiration and excitement for his heroine rather than to present her unique characteristics.

The most common component of doublets in Sentimentalist literature is the

adjective чувствительный (or the noun чувствительность). Obviously the notion

indicated by these words is the focal point of Sentimentalism, and its emphasis can be

noted in many texts of that period. Its coupling with another element into a doublet

results from the authors’ intent to draw the reader’s attention to it. Most frequently this

word can be observed in externally iconic elements where the mere size of a sentential

37 Клушин А. И. «Несчастный М-в». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 141.

46 segment catches the eye of a reader. While the amount of doublets with the word

чувствительный is strikingly frequent in many texts of that time, its placement within doublets does not appear fixed or even predictable.

Klušin addresses an ideal reader in the epitaph to his hero.

«Чувствительное, непорочное сердце! Пролей слезы сожаления о несчастном влюбленном самоубийце...»38

The other element of a doublet with the word чувствительный often amends the

meaning of this notion and elucidates the significance of чувствительный for that

particular period. In the latter instance Klušin emphasizes that чувствительность for

him amounts to the ultimate innocence: readiness to expose one’s feeling despite the

possibility of getting hurt.

This idea is echoed in many other novels of that time. In «Ростовское озеро»

Izmajlov portrays his heroine, who is rejected by society and is forced to live as a

peasant, as someone who has а «чувствительнaя, возвышенная душа»39. In this case

Izmajlov clarifies that чувствительность is a virtue that makes one who possesses it more worthy than those who are deprived of emotional sensitivity. Once again the use of the word чувствительный alone does not realize the author’s intent to demonstrate how he perceives this notion.

Of course another concept that frequently accompanies this word is любовь. While

love is a common focus for authors of any period, it has a particular tenor in a particular

38 Ibid. P.141.

39 Измайлов В. В. «Ростовское озеро». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 156.

47 literary movement. In Sentimentalism the side of love that arouses most interest and veneration is its vulnerability. An ideal character is not only capable of experiencing

selfless and deep love, but he or she is also expected to be ready to fully expose his or her

emotions; and the ultimate achievement is enduring suffering due to such an exposure.

«Любовь и чувствительность» is an iconic doublet which couples the dominant

topic of a Sentimentalist text with its central idea. It reflects the significance of love, the

topic commonly explored by authors, in the particular context of the Sentimentalist

period. The pairing of these two nouns in a syntagm emphasizes the importance of these

two notions as mutually inclusive.

In «Прекрасная Татьяна, живущая у подошвы Воробьевых гор» the heroine’s

«милое выражение взора, полного любви и чувствительности»40 reveals the essence

of her character: she can express her love only through open expression of all emotions

that accompany it.

The heroine of «Даша, деревенская девушка» becomes a victim of «любви и

чувствительности»41 when she expires after the untimely death of her loved one.

According to the author, her death is caused by her emotional vulnerability as much as it

is caused by the demise of her love. Once more both notions carry significance in this

text and their appearance in a doublet mirrors this significance.

40 Измайлов В. В. «Прекрасная Татьяна, живущая у подошвы воробьевых гор.». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 158.

41 Львов Ю. П. «Даша, деревенская девушка». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 68.

48 In Sentimentalist literature the words нежный / нежность are also often coupled with the words чувствительный / чувствительность. Both depict the manifestation of love marveled at in Sentimentalism. Below are a few examples of such use.

The protagonist of Klušin’s «Несчастный М-в» is introduced in a sentence quoted above: «чувствительное и нежное сердце, кроткий нрав – душевные его свойства».

Later in the novel, when the despotic father attempts to conceal the suicide of his daughter’s lover, she senses his death

«Скрытно приказывает провезти тело несчастного к себе в деревню, трепещет, чтобы не узнала Софья, но ее нежное, чувствительное сердце предвещало – не знает от чего, но проливает слезы.»42

Brusilov uses the same doublet to describe his heroine in «Легковерие и

хитрость».

«Будучи нежна и чувствительна, мнимый проступок мужа не истребил в ней любви...».43

The notion нежность carries a particular significance in Sentimentalism; it conveys

an expression of love highly valued by Sentimentalism which reveals the gentleness and

fragility as virtues. This word frequently occurs in doublets, as the one in «Прекрасная

Татьяна…». Tat’jana makes an impact on the stranger whom she encounters on the river

bank; he remains «плененным ее красотою, невинностью и душою, сотворенною для

любви и нежности»44. Later, when Tatjana’s father doubts his daughter’s righteousness,

the same doublet is used by the author to point up his character traits.

42 Клушин А. И. «Несчастный М-в». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 123.

43 Брусилов Н. П. «Легковерие и хитрость». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 247.

49 «...Татьяна с ужасом увидела в первый раз в жизни, что лицо родительское выражало не чувство любви и нежности, но чувство негодования».45

The use of this word in combination with the word любовь in a doublet draws

attention to the significance of love as an expression of emotions. It also refines the

understanding of love in the Sentimentalist context, which can be experienced in full only

by the selfless and the tender. The tenderness often results in characters, which are

defenseless against trials and evil, but it stands as supreme expression of righteousness.

The employment of doublets as a means of refinement of love, which is often a central

notion in the literature of any period, is a particular Sentimentalist device which does not

dwell on revealing the reasons behind people’s emotions. A doublet allows the authors to

draw attention to the complexity of love without exploring its complexity. The

appearance of the word love in doublets shows that it can have various emotional

expressions; however, a Sentimentalist author is never concerned with why love arises in

the first place. In fact the combination любовь и нежность occurs so often in

Sentimentalist texts that it wears out and becomes a cliché.

In addition to doublets that are used to depict features of characters, one encounters

doublets in passages that depict a character’s emotional expression of love. Such doublets

are internally iconic where the sequencing of the elements in a doublet reflects the

intensification of emotions experienced by the character.

In «Несчастный М-в» the heroine's love quickly intensifies as reflected in the

following doublet.

44 Измайлов В. В. «Прекрасная Татьяна, живущая у подошвы воробьевых гор.». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 160.

45 Ibid. P.161.

50 «Это были вздохи невольные и томные, сопутствующие любви, – любви нежной и пылкой; это была искра в пепле; надобно быть легкому ветерку, чтобы возродить пламя.»46

The second adjective пылкий implies an escalated emotion in relation to the first

adjective нежный. The intensification of emotions is compared in this sentence to the growth of a flame. Sof’ja’s feelings are described in a similar fashion later on.

«Отдаление от предмета любимого, обожаемого есть единое средство погашать пламень любви…»47

The above sentence is emotively charged due to the use of a doublet which mirrors the heroines growing attachment to the object of her affection, when love rapidly intensifies turning into worship (обожаемого).

The author of «Темная роща, или памятник нежности», Šalikov, resorts to the same device to demonstrate his heroine’s growing love for the character Èrast.

«Каждый день, каждое внимание к Эрасту подавали ей новую причину для оправдания нежной и сильной страсти ее к нему; Нина гордилась в душе своей дружбою, любовию его».48

Her gentle love develops into passion as reflected in the order of the adjectives

нежный and сильный in the doublet above.

Similarly, in the tale «Модест и София», the character Lidija gradually reveals her

attitude to Modest.

«День ото дня страсть моя увеличивалась и возрастала; день ото дня Лидия становилась ко мне нежнее и пламеннее».49

46 Клушин А. И. «Несчастный М-в». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 123.

47 Ibid.

48 Шаликов П. И. «Темная роща или памятник нежности». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 191.

51

While doublets are a pervasive device in Sentimentalist literature, where ornate style often compensates for the lack of the analytical perspective, the effectiveness of their use quickly wears out. It particularly occurs due to the fact that these doublets are extremely repetitive. The notions нежность, чувствительность, любовь, невинность,

добродетель appear in copious combinations and gradually lose their significance. The authors’ fascination with complicating their style and the intensity of their feelings

sometimes resulted in failure to render a new idea. In fact, many doublets appear to be an

unnecessary ornamentation as they develop into pleonasm, as when the unknown author

of «Модест и София» mentions that his character’s passion увеличивалась и

возрастала. In attempt to render the escalation of Modest’s passion through the employment of a doublet the author overlooks the fact that the verbs увеличиваться and

возрастать have very close meanings.

The author of «Пламед и Линна» tries so hard to put emotions into the dialogue

between his characters that he employs pleonasms four times within half a page:

«Пламед: […] Ты под покровом бога: под защитою его невинность и добродетель не терпят несчастий. Линна: Невинность и добродетель! Но преступление и порок?[…] Линна: […] устремилась я к богу, посвятила себя на служение ему, нашла в нем отраду, счастие. Теперь все исчезло. Обитель кажется мне ужасною темницею; сестры мои существами безжалостными, холодными...».50

49 «Модест и София». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 286. 50 «Пламед и Линна». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 260.

52 The series of doublets employed in the paragraphs above represent unnecessary complexities of style. Such repetitiveness can bear only one task: to reflect the emotional intensity of the dialogue.

Brusilov, the author of «Легковерие и хитрость» employs the same doublet to

express his views «[…] но что может коварство против невинности и

добродетели?»51

In the Sentimentalist context the notions comprising these doublets merely enhance

each other and do not carry additional features. The wearing of doublets into pleonasms

confirms their iconic aspect: the loading of a syntagm reflects the highly emotional state

of characters, narrators, and authors themselves similarly to the use of repetition

discussed earlier in this chapter.

2.5 Concluding remarks.

Several conclusions can be drawn from the analysis of iconic elements that occur

widely in Sentimentalist texts. The ornate style dominant in Sentimentalist literature

reflects the complexity and the importance of feelings that are the quintessential notion of

Sentimentalism. The pictorial aspect is the most distinctive feature of Sentimentalist

prose. It is achieved through elaborate syntax in passages depicting the emotional states

of characters, as well as in the Sentimentalist portrait and landscape.

51 Брусилов Н. П. «Легковерие и хитрость». Русская сентиментальная повесть. Москва: Изд-во московского университета, 1979. С. 252.

53 Syntactic complexity is achieved through elaborate clausal structures and repetitions. In depictions of nature, syntactic complexity reflects the duration and vastness of space as well as the importance of nature for the Sentimentalist experience.

In depictions of characters’ appearances the most striking feature is the authors’ lack of concern with uniquely personal traits but rather their fascination with the emotional persuasiveness of their characters. This attitude results in sketchy portrayals, with personal characteristics mentioned in passing or in parentheses, and description of appearance and inner traits appearing in series or sequences of uniform syntagms. It is further confirmed by the frequent delayed introduction of the characters’ names, which are also very unvarying.

Finally, two important devices that convey emotional intensity are repetitions and doublets, which mainly appear in dialogues and in the narrator’s voice. They allow the authors to render emotional agitation, feelings of excitement, sorrow, joy, despair, etc.

The uniformity of iconic devices and the style of Sentimentalist prose in general stems not only from the ideals dominant in the society of that period but also from the relative novelty of fiction prose and a still strong influence of verse, where pictorial and emotional aspects are much more pronounced than any efforts to investigate reasons that condition people’s emotional responses or human behavior in general.

The uniformity of style also results in the public’s relatively quick satiation with

Sentimentalist ideas, which give way to the development of a more complex and diverse literary movement, Romanticism.

54

CHAPTER 3

ROMANTICISM

3.1 Romantic Opposition as the Characteristic Trait of the Movement.

Nearly every textbook or monograph that has Russian Romantic literature as its

topic notes that it is hard to find uniformity in the literary texts of that period. In order to

pinpoint characteristic features of Russian Romanticism, scholars have used different approaches. In order to understand Romanticis one has to see its connection with some aspects of the Enlightenment and the Sentimentalism. The former did not rely on reason

alone to challenge the tyranny of despotism and religious intolerance. It also appealed to

people’s emotions attempting to arouse a passionate response to its proclaimed ideals.

While the Enlightenment liberated the mind and the Sentimentalism addressed the senses,

the Romaniticism sought to liberate the human spirit and emphasize the uniqueness of an

individual. While investigating the relationship between art and life in a particular

environment, Lotman notes that their influence is mutual. He examines the interaction

between them in the contexts of three major literary trends: Classicism, Romanticism and

Realism. While Classicism devises norms of ideal behavior and Realism depicts what is

perceived by authors as “real-life” behavior, Romanticism simply creates models of

behavior, which its follows actually seek to immitate. In his view, while art during

55 Classicism seeks to assign certain models of behavior, art during Romanticism actually has an effect on life. The Neoclassical movement only attempted to influence life,

Realism sought to mirror life without distortions, but the Romantic epoch is unique in the sense that it was life that imitated art, and not only did “heroes of our time” imitated virtues exhibited by popular literary characters, but they copied their vices as well.1

Still, Romanticism should not be viewed as the complete opposite of the

Enlightenment; it is rather its continuation, which picked up on the former’s preoccupation with the value of a human life, its appeal to one’s conscience and compassion.

So, in spite of Lotman’s profound observation about the powerful influential property of Romanticism, Romantic authors do observe life around them and do capture reality as they perceive it, i. e. in the context of Romanticism. This fact explains the diversity in the literary texts from this period, even in works produced by one author.

The novels of Marlinskij, the epitome of a Romantic writer, produced admiration and attempts to copy his characters. Marlinskij himself modeled his life after his ideals, seeking adventure and danger. His fascination with war and rebellion drew him to participate in the most dangerous military campaigns while in exile in the Caucusus.

Ospovat notes that Marlinskij’s participation in the Decembrist conspiracy was triggered by his fascination with ultra-Romantic behavior rather than by any interest in social issues.

1 Лотман Ю. М. «Декабрист в повседневной жизни»// Избранные статьи. Таллинн, «Александра», 1992. Т.1 С. 308.

56 However, during the time when Marlinskij was still tremendously popular and published his tales of the Caucasus, an entirely different category of writers appeared who focused their attention not on exotic settings and heroes but on the everyday life and everyday people. Such are novels by Polevoj, Pavlov, Gan. While these authors’ novels reveal traces of the emerging Realism they unequivocally belong to the Romantic

Movement.

So while comparing Romanticism with other literary trends permits one to distinguish it as a movement, it is necessary to reveal features that penetrate all works of

that period and define the standards of the movement. This task is enormously complex

and has produced decades of debates, mainly due to two main factors. First, Romanticism emerges later in Russia than in Europe, only in the second decade of the 19th century,

although there is no unanimity about its periodization. Thus, it is not a purist movement

but it is closely connected with Sentimentalism on the one hand (which some scholars

believe to be pre-Romanticism) and with Realist trends, which mark later Romantic

works. On the other hand, within the Romantic period there exist texts of notably

different types, such as historical tales («Роман и Ольга» by Marlinskij), novels with

traces of Realism depicting everyday life («Барон Рейслих» by Gan, «Идеал» by

Žukova), and fantasy tales (Gogol’s Вечера на хуторе близ Диканьки). This account of

trends internal to Romanticism is not an attempt at a classification, but rather a mere

observation of the non-uniform nature of Romantic prose.

It is hardly possible to investigate the stylistic properties of Romanticism in the

same way that one can approach Sentimentalism. One would encounter immediate

57 problems from the start because of diverse styles implemented by different authors.

However, one still can and has to reveal features that unite these different texts as parts constituting one literary movement. Literary scholars have noted themes, ideas and moods that recur in texts of that period.

The goal of this chapter is to reveal how these themes and ideas are reflected iconically through style. It is hardly possible, however, to propose stylistic uniformity in

Romanticism in the same way it was discussed in the chapter dealing with

Sentimentalism. It is maintained here that the style of any text is linked to ideas dominant in society during the time of their creation. But most movements exist long enough to evolve, and their canons may not be very stable, particularly in such a movement as

Romanticism, which emerged largely from the struggle with what it considered to be obsolete canons.

The magnificence and complexity of several literary figures of that time, such as

Puškin, Lermontov or Gogol’, also impedes the development of a homogeneous style during that period.

So while investigating the iconic properties of the Romantic , one must

take into account the fact that an idea that is Romantic in nature can manifest itself

differently depending on the personality and talent of a particular author.

Mann proposes the notion of a Romantic conflict or a Romantic collision as the defining feature of the movement. In his view one can analyze various aspects of a literary work through the prism of this notion of conflict. That is, such traditional categories of literary study as character depictions, the position of the author, the

58 development of the plot, and the motivations behind characters’ actions can be studied with the notion of a Romantic collision in mind. Mann also suggests that conflict motivates stylistic distinctiveness of a Romantic text.

«За только что упомянутыми будто бы чисто пространственными и «геометрическими» свойствами конфликта скрывается очень важное методологическое свойство: художественный конфликт соотносит и координирует разнообразные элементы в различных плоскостях художественной структуры. И он создает ту повторяемость сочетаний, ту вариантность форм и приемов, которую одно время было принято называть доминантой художественного явления и которая на языке более простого, повседневного эстетического обихода определяется как своеобразие художественного явления.»2

It appears that Mann’s idea of conflict as the underlying characteristic of

Romanticism accounts for many basic Romantic beliefs as well as their rise and decline.

His suggestion that the stylistic aspects of a given work may be analyzed through the

notion of a Romantic collision appears to be very valuable, as an ideological conflict can

be mirrored in style, and particularly in syntax, through contrast in forms.

But before adopting Mann’s conception for this investigation of Romanticism, it is

important to take into account the following considerations. Mann uses the notions of

conflict and collision interchangeably. While he in no way designates the notion of conflict as being exclusive to Romanticism, he does not account for the fact that a conflict in a broader sense than a Romantic collision is arguably present in any literary

work and drives any author.

It does not appear necessary to slice layers too thin in distinguishing the notions of

collision and conflict from that of contrast or oppositions. While conflict is undoubtedly a

significant principle for the understanding of Romanticism, it often entails an open

2 Манн Ю.В. Динамика русского романтизма. Москва: «Аспект пресс», 1995. С.14.

59 struggle or at least a confrontation. On the other hand a contrast does not necessarily result in a clash. For example, Gogol’ contrasts the world of Dikan’ka to that of St.

Petersburg without colliding them. So it would be plausible to account for instances of contrast in form as icons of Romantic collisions or oppositions. Instead of Mann’s terms

“conflict” or “collision”, the notion “contrast” (or “oppositions”) will be used in this study as the latter appears to be broader and inclusive of the former notions.

With regard to the place of contrast in Romanticism, as opposed to that in other

literary movements, it is necessary to remark that contrast appears to be remarkably

prominent in it. While its influence in Sentimentalism or Realism can be present but

subtle, its significance is accentuated in Romanticism. Romantic contrast is not simply a

driving force behind characters’ actions or the progression of depicted events, but it is in

itself an object of scrutiny for a Romantic thinker. Under this condition contrast often

escalates to a conflict that deserves attention and does not necessarily require a

resolution, as, for instance, the unresolved opposition between God and the Demon in

Lermontov’s “Demon”.

In this chapter every author will be approached separately, and an attempt will be

made to distinguish iconic mechanisms that may be specific to this author yet reflect the

general preoccupation of Romanticism with contrast, and possibly conflict.

60 3.2 The Prominence of a Romantic Setting in Marlinskij’s Tales. The Harbinger of

a Conflict between Man and His Surroundings.

Aleksandr Bestužev-Marlinskij was extremely popular in the 1830s. His name was

surrounded by legends, and he was worshiped by the younger generation. This author’s

popularity supports Lotman’s idea about the power of Romanticism to form behavioral

models. Not only did Marlinskij’s tales produce numerous imitators of his heroes, but the

author himself subordinated his life to his belief that life must be full of adventure and

danger – in other words, a worthy life had to be out of the ordinary. Marlinskij employed an ornate and complex style to describe such exceptional lives. Despite criticism of such contemporaneous writers as Dal’, Belinskii and Puškin, Marlinskij himself believed that his elaborate style was one of his strongest literary merits.

«Да, я хочу обновить, разнообразить русский язык, и для того беру мое золото обеими руками из горы и из грязи, отовсюду, где встречу, где поймаю его... Я с умыслом, а не по ошибке гну язык на разные лады... Я убежден, что никто до меня не давал столько многоличностей русским фразам, -- и лучшее доказательство, что они усваиваются, есть их употребление даже в разговоре.»3

Marlinskij searched for any expressions of life that made it colorful, striking and anything but mundane. Apart from historical tales and tales with exotic settings, he wrote novels that described life in St. Petersburg, but he always needed to adorn any expressions of life, be it one of numerous balls, scenes of a market place, or a gathering of officers spending their free time at banquets and card games.

This opposition between the ordinary and the extraordinary, and the desire to affirm the superiority of the extraordinary was the driving force for Marlinskij and his readers.

3 Бестужев (Марлинский) А.А. Собрание сочинений. Москва: «Госиздат», 1958. Т.2. С. 665-666.

61 The distinctiveness of Marlinskij’s style is best seen in his descriptions of the environment and sketches of everyday life. These sketches often depict life in motion rather than static scenes. He is interested in rendering the influence that life exerts on his characters or on himself and tries to pass it to the reader.

Marlinskij’s tale «Испытание» contains several such scenes. He opens it with the description of a celebration held by military officers. Marlinskij devotes a whole page to rendering of the atmosphere of the banquet without introducing any real shift of the plot.

He employs series of uniform clauses and phrases to create the impression of a happening by stringing together deverbal nouns or nouns depicting actions in elaborate sentences.

«Запас уездных новостей истощился; лестные мечты о будущих вакансиях к производству, любопытные споры о построениях, похвальба конями и даже всевозможные тосты, в изобретении коих воображение гусара, конечно, может поспорить с любым калейдоскопом, -- все наскучило своей чередою.»4

The enumeration of actions creates an impression that the atmosphere of the party

evolves on its own. It seems to determine the mood and reactions of its participants,

turning them into passive receivers rather than the initiators of the event.

In the following sentence as well, the author sets deverbial nouns in a series.

«...восклицания, вздохи и табачные пуфы становились реже и реже, по мере того, как величественные зевки, подобно электрической искре перелетали с уст на уста»5.

The mood of an occurrence is more important for the author than people who are involved in it. It becomes evident later as none of the characters mentioned in the scene

appear to be significant for the story.

4 Бестужев (Марлинский) А.А. «Испытание»// Ночь на корабле. Повести и рассказы. Москва. «Художественная литература», 1998. С. 22.

5 Ibid.

62 It is also significant that these series of deverbal nouns and nouns depicting actions

are the subjects of the sentence, corroborating the idea that they are the true generators of the atmosphere of the party and that they condition the disposition of characters.

Further in this scene Marlinskij once more employs a series of deverbal nouns.

«...я разрешаю моих читателей от волнования табачного дыма, от бряканья стаканов и шпор, от гомеровского описания дверей, исстрелянных пистолетными пулями, и стен, исчерченных заветными стихами и вензелями...»6.

The use of deverbal nouns allows the author to capture a moment in time, similar to

a painting, which seeks to seize the mood of an event by freezing it in time. The use of

deverbal nouns is remarkable as they shed such verbal categories as tense and aspect,

which are associated with the temporal aspect of the verb.

It is remarkable that the writer’s efforts are directed at creating a visual representation of the event; his goal is to allow the reader to feel the event the way he feels it. Even though Marlinskij refers to the above details as trivial, he depicts them with painstaking accuracy. At the same time the participants of the scene are ordinary officers who are of no particular interest to the author.

Although not very obviously, a short scene of a banquet subtly reveals one of the features of Romanticism: people are frequently shaped by their surroundings. The settings in which characters find themselves are pivotal for the understanding of their behavior. They are guided by circumstances and emotions rather than by their will.

Events and surroundings in Marlinskij’s tales are colorful and remarkable because the

6 Ibid. P. 22-23.

63 author brings his own perception of their appeal and excitement. His characters, however, appear to be anemic, and what happens to them seems to matter to the author much more than what happens inside them.

Marlinskij’s tales are filled with digressions which frequently appear to be unnecessary for the development of the story. In the tale «Испытание» he devotes a whole chapter to the description of pre-Christmas Petersburg – a chapter that does not bear any significance for the plot, except that it shifts the action from the military camp to the capital. Nevertheless Marlinskij defends his extensive digression. Once again it seems that the author needs to place his characters and his actions in a particular setting even though he fails to establish a direct connection between this setting and the further actions of his characters. The scene also contains two examples of the iconicity discussed above

– the use of deverbal nouns in series creating a visual of the depicted scene.

«В улицах толкотня, на тротуарах возня по разбитому в песок снегу; сани снуют взад и вперед...»7

Marlinskij creates the vibrant atmosphere of pre-holiday Petersburg by using

parallel constructions with deverbal nouns. He creates the same effect by employing this

device further on when he talks about the celebration of the holiday:

«Со второго дня начинаются настоящие святки, то есть колядования, гаданья, литье воску и олова в воду – где красавицы мнят видеть или венец или гроб, то сани, то цветы с серебряными листьями, -- наконец, подблюдные песни, беганье за ворота и все старинные обряды язычества».8

7 Ibid. P.32.

8 Ibid.P. 33-34.

64 It is remarkable that Marlinskij defines a holiday as a chain of proceedings rather than describing its characteristics by adjectives.

Marlinskij uses deverbal nouns to express different sorts of environment. In the tale

«Будочник-оратор», he employs it to render the feel of a rainy night in Saint Petersburg:

«Где-где усталый звон шпор и бряканье палаша по тротуару доказывали, что идет кирасир с приказною книгою, или шарканье калош какого-нибудь штатного бостонщика биргерклуба возвещало возврат его домой»9.

In this tale the author expresses his adoration of war and a fighter’s courage through

the monologue of a philosophical night guard in Petersburg. While the depiction of the

setting in the introduction appears to bear no particular significance for the story, it is important to the author because it expresses the way he senses the atmosphere and ultimately the story expresses the author’s sentiments about the subject as much as the those of his character.

In one of his tales of the Caucasus, «Красное покрывало», Marlinskij uses deverbal nouns to paint a picture of a mountain village:

«Крик погонщиков, гремение ослиных позвонков, ленивое мычание буйволов, нетерпеливое ржание боевых коней – сливались в шум, подобный спору моря с утесами»10.

The two latter examples contain deverbal nouns that indicate sounds; this device

helps the author to render non-static, interactive scenes as they awake the reader’s sense

of hearing.

9 Бестужев (Марлинский) А.А. «Будочник-оратор»// Ночь на корабле. Повести и рассказы. Москва. «Художественная литература», 1998. С.168. 10 Бестужев (Марлинский) А.А. «Красное покрывало»// Ночь на корабле. Повести и рассказы. Москва. «Художественная литература», 1998. С. 174.

65 Marlinskij depicts people in the context of their environment. He is very aware and perceptive toward different settings; it is likely that those accurate and sensitive depictions gained him as much popularity as his captivating and intricate plots. The foregrounding of deverbal nouns (a tenseless category) through placing them in a series permits the author to capture the chaotic nature of the scene, mentioning several various actions happening at once. The author creates settings that have the capability to change, develop, and exert influence more so than people do in Marlinskij’s tales. This perception of the environment is a characteristic feature of Romanticism. Unlike the static settings of

Sentimentalism, in which people were just extensions of those settings, unable to undergo internal and independent development or change, a Romantic setting is filled with motion.

The determining nature of the environment can further be observed in instances where he employs another iconic device that also allows him to reveal the itinerant nature of the environment. It is the use of gerundial constructions in highly structured sentences where inanimate objects serve as subjects.

In the tale «Красное покрывало», he embellishes a sentence with gerundial constructions which modify the subjects of two clauses which have inanimate nouns denoting sounds as their subjects.

«Грохот заревых барабанов, во всех концах города перевторивающих друг другу стройными перебоями, извлек меня из глубокой думы... гул его доходил до меня, теряя отдалением суровость свою, -- и звук флейт, оканчивая каждое колено, лился, подобен милому голосу женщины вслед за грозным кликом воина...».11

11 Ibid. P.175.

66

The inanimate notions are subjectivized, modified by gerunds and linked with verbs, all of which attributes to them the ability of living beings to perform a conscious action. Moreover, these notions produce a concrete emotional response in the narrator, animating the scene even more.

The same device is also used in the introduction to the tale «Мореход Никитин»,

which depicts adventure of four sailors traveling in the Russian north.

«...старушка Северная Двина выливала огромный столб вод своих прямо в Северный океан, споря дважды в день с приливом, который самым бессовестным образом вторгался в ее заветные омуты и превращал ее сладкие, благородные струйки в простонародный рассол, годный разве для трески»12.

In this passage the author directly attributes human characteristics to the river and the ocean: they display human emotions and actions. It is reflected in the syntax where one serves as the subject and is modified by a gerundial construction, and both are linked

with predicates. Here we see a treatment of nature similar to that of Sentimentalism,

where its state is closely linked to the state of humans; but instead of a pensive and

meditative state which nature imposed on Sentimentalist heroes, nature in the

Romanticism appears to be attuned to people’s experiences and emotions, which is visible in the jovial tenor of the above depiction. The tale later depicts the sailors at the mercy of forces of nature when they become lost in the ocean. Marlinskij again advances a Romantic belief that people depend on their environment and are often powerless

against it.

12 Бестужев (Марлинский) А.А. «Мореход Никитин»// Ночь на корабле. Повести и рассказы. Москва. «Художественная литература», 1998. С.306.

67 He shows the power of nature further in the tale when he describes the sailors’ journey through the ocean.

«Только вольный ветер да рыскучие волны напевают (судну) в лад свою вечную, непонятную песню, возбуждая думы неясные о том, что было и что будет, о том, чего никогда не было и никогда не будет». «(Сердце) яснеет, хрусталеет, -- как будто лучи cолнца, отразясь о поверкность океана и пронзая чувства во всех направлениях, передают сердцу свою прозрачность и блеск, обращают его в звезду утреннюю.»13

Both examples contain subjectivized inanimate nouns that exert an influence on the characters evoking emotional responses in them.

Marlinskij is a distinctive representative of Romanticism who captures the

Romantic belief that humans are subject to the influence of their environment. However,

he does not yet fully develop the Romantic conflict between people and their

environment. While his settings are important for the understanding of his characters and

of Marlinskij’s messages to the reader, the environment in his stories is not hostile to the

characters, which is why most of his tales ended happily and appealed to the general

public during his time.

3.3 Negation Series as Icons of Contrast between the Romantic and the Mundane

in Pavlov’s Prose.

This discord between a Romantic hero and the surrounding world sharpens in the

tales of Nikolai Pavlov. His characters were Russian people often shown in their homes,

at their jobs, in their everyday environment. Pavlov approached Realism in his depiction

13 Бестужев (Марлинский) А.А. «Мореход Никитин». Ночь на корабле. Повести и рассказы. Москва. «Художественная литература», 1998. С.316

68 of the prosaic unexciting world that surrounded his characters. Yet, Pavlov is an undoubted representative of Romanticism due to the fact the focal point of his tales is the

discord between remarkable characters and the prosaic environment. He shows his characters in opposition to their environment, and their internal world and the world that they function in constitute a sharp opposition.

This idea is particularly noticeable in Pavlov’s syntax. Two iconic devices are

particularly pervasive in his prose: negation and opposition. While describing characters,

their actions, emotions or something that comprises their world, Pavlov frequently uses

complex constructions with negations used as series or as parallel constructions. The

frequency of its use, particularly in combination with other series, repetitions, or parallelism, reveals that it is important for Pavlov to show his characters in contrast with

their world, against something that is either normal or is expected to be the norm.

Such are the characters of his novel «Маскарад», where the action takes place

during a masquerade, an event favored by many Romantic authors. The novel opens with the introduction of a character who will later turn out to be insignificant for the story line,

the old uncle of the heroine. However, Pavlov depicts the atmosphere of the ball through

the perception of the old man, suggesting the view of the ball as a dull and meaningless

environment that cannot accommodate an outstanding character.

«Он не вслушивался в пискливые, искаженные голоса, не ловил этих дивных, заманчивых слов, брошенных на воздух, прошептанных на ухо, не разгаданных никем, но зароненных в чье-нибудь сердце.»14

14 Павлов Н. Ф. «Маскарад». Сочинения. Москва. «Советская Россия», 1985. С. 80.

69 The pair of negations with verbs in the sentence is contrasted with the parallelism of the two phrases, each containing a verb plus two adjectives plus an object. The second phrase is further expanded by a series of participial constructions. The connection between complexity and importance has already been discussed in the first chapter.

Anderson notes the link between a semantic overloading of a syntagm and the complexity

of the subject.

“A common form of iconism is the expression of relatively simple ideas or situations in short, simple sentences, and of complex ideas or situations in complex sentences”.15

Thus, in one sentence Pavlov simultaneously depicts the masquerade as an

important and intricate event and denies its importance and complexity. The environment

of the ball is depicted through the eyes of those participants who assimilate to it and those

who do not fit in.

The same approach is utilized later by the author to portray the heroine. Pavlov

chooses a masquerade as a setting because of its presupposed complexity. Indeed a

masquerade is not simply a ball which is a stage for dramatic relations, interactions and

intrigues, but it is further convoluted by the presence of the masks, which can create the sense of mystery and confusion but deprive people of their true personalities. In the meantime the main characters do not wear masks, which again creates a contrast between them and the surroundings.

«В то время, когда рвали на части ее внимание, когда язык и улыбка ее поспевали во все стороны, в то время ни хаос слов, ни мельканье лиц, ни ослепительная пестрота не могли вполне овладеть ею.»16

15 Anderson, Earl R. A Grammar of Iconism. London: Associated University Presses. 1998. 288.

70

A series of negations is countered with anaphora (в то время) which iconizes diversity within uniformity17. The commonality of the heroine and the other participants

of the ball is reflected by the anaphora, which emphasizes that they are placed in one time

and place. But the first clause also contains an anaphora (когда) at the beginning of two internal affirmative clauses, while the second clause contains a series of three negations

(ни хаос слов, ни мелькание лиц, ни ослепительная красота).

When the central character, Levin, is introduced into the story, the author chooses

to describe him initially against the background of the masquerade. Only the second part of the novel unveils his full story. Once more this allows Pavlov to emphasize the

exceptional side of the hero, contrasting it against the background that is presented as

conventional and uninspiring.

«Он не приютился посторонним зрителем к ее кадрили, он не выжидал в отдалении, молчаливый, остолбенелый ее скользкого взора.»18

The negations express the character’s rejection of the expected conventions and set

him apart from others. This effect of negations is further intensified by anaphora (он),

which results in a complication of the whole sentence by creating two clauses with the

same subject denoting the same agent. The uneconomical construction allows for a

stronger prominence of the character.

16 Павлов Н. Ф. «Маскарад». Сочинения. Москва. «Советская Россия», 1985. С. 83.

17 Anderson, Earl R. A Grammar of Iconism. London: Associated University Presses. 1998. 302. 18 Павлов Н. Ф. «Маскарад». Сочинения. Москва. «Советская Россия», 1985. С. 93.

71 Negation, a recurrent iconic device in Pavlov’s prose, is used in combination with

other usages of iconicity, which supports the idea that it is a meaningful and important

vehicle for carrying out the author’s intentions.

Levin’s past is conveyed in the novel through another character, not unpredictably a

German doctor, who becomes the narrator in the second half of the novel. It is

remarkable that one can rarely see stylistic or other distinctions among parts of the texts that are rendered through different narrators. Even when the narrator comes from a different social background than the author, the reader cannot always expect to see any traces of that background in his personal style. Thus, the street guard in Marlinskij’s tale

«Будочник-оратор» gives a very articulate and ornate speech in a manner which is hardly distinct from that of the author, and in Pavlov’s novel the style of the second half of the story is in no way different from the first one. So, quite expectedly, the devices that occur in the doctor’s depictions of characters are the same ones that are used in the part

of the novel, which does not have a separate narrator. The doctor’s description of Levin is

almost exclusively built upon negation. The doctor portrays a character that in the course

of his life has been distinct from his environment. Even though Levin is a partially a

dynamic character, his apathy and indifference to the surrounding world arises from a

personal tragedy. His exclusiveness is inherent in his nature and remains intact.

«Он не имел случая прилоснуться к жизни с той ее стороны, которая пятнает человека, не имел надобности выучиться житейской изворотливости, выгнать из головы всякое собственное мнение, чтоб вежливо уступать место мнениям других и у других спрашивать беспрестанно то покровительства, то советов, то позволения существовать. На нем не лежало ярмо светского подданства. Он не протягивал руки, чтоб задобрить, и не улыбался, чтоб угодить.»19

19 Павлов Н. Ф. «Маскарад». Сочинения. Москва. «Советская Россия», 1985. С. 101.

72

In the first sentence anaphora enhances the use of negation (не имел). The anaphora with negation is also contrasted with the anaphoric use of то in a series of nouns describing the world that is objectionable for Levin. Thus the opposition of a positive and a negative anaphora reflects an opposition between the character and his environment. In the last sentence negation is supplemented with parallelism where the two negated verbs

(не протягивал руки, не улыбался) are countered by two affirmative verbs (задобрить,

угодить). The use of positive and negative verb in parallel constructions allows for the

juxtaposition of the unconventional (hence, negation) behavior of the character and the predictable behavior of the people around him.

«Ни прелестный наряд, ни милое слово не могли оживить несчастного взгляда, который повсюду искал смысла, значения, симпатии.»20

This sentence presents a double negation. The negated series (ни прелестный

наряд, ни милое слово) is juxtaposed against the positive series (смысла, значения,

симпатии). The series denoting the meaningful and worthy values of the character are

presented through a positive series, while the objectionable values of the society are

presented by a series with negations.

The tale «Аукцион» is a sketch of high society. In this story Pavlov presents the

story of T., a socialite who is struck out of balance by the return of his former mistress.

The re-emerged sense of insult prompts T. to seek revenge. It also disturbs his usual state

of confidence, so that he is no longer his usual self. This opposition between T.’s normal

state of mind and his anxiety is depicted by an elaborate sentence containing negations.

20 Павлов Н. Ф. «Маскарад». Сочинения. Москва. «Советская Россия», 1985. С. 103.

73 «Человек принес чай, Т. не видал; человек предложил халат, он не слыхал; то шевелил губами, как будто разговаривая с кем-то; то кусал их как будто досадуя на что-то.»21

The inner turmoil is rendered by a double compar, two parallel constructions of

equal length, which also contains anaphora (человек) and (то, ... как будто). The negated verbs in the first compar (не слыхал, не видал) are juxtaposed with positive verbs in the second compar (шевелил, кусал). This sentence represents a highly balanced structure of two levels of parallel constructions. In addition, each compar contains anaphora. The orderly structure brings a stronger emphasis on the negation which conveys the protagonist’s divergence from order into a state of turbulence. The iconicity of this passage is particularly characteristic of Romanticism because of its highly presentational nature. The multiplied parallelism renders the Romantic belief that human nature encompasses opposing traits, and the conflict between oppositions is often projected on different levels of people’s existence. It is unusual for Romanticism to go beyond the presentation of these oppositions in attempts to comprehend what triggers them. With respect to the depiction of people in Romanticism and Realism, Gukovskij writes:

«Основная проблема реализма – это изображение человека. Романтизм поставил эту проблему как проблему изображения характера. Основной метод реализма – это объяснение человека объективными условиями его бытия. Романтизм не мог подойти к этому методу, но он дал материал для объяснения, и его противоречия потребовали этого объяснения. Романтизм углубился в характер, реализм претворил его в тип.»22

21 Павлов Н. Ф. «Аукцион». Сочинения. Москва. «Советская Россия», 1985. С. 29. 22 Гуковский Г. А. Пушкин и русские романтики. Москва. «Художественная литература», 1965. С. 133-134.

74 The hyperbolical parallelism in Pavlov’s sentence compensates for the investigation of reasons behind this opposition. The elaborate form compensates for the lack of content.

The progression from Romanticism to Realism in Gukovskii’s connotation can be reinforced by the analysis of Pavlov’s tale «Демон». Its obvious association with Gogol’s

«Шинель» highlights the fact that Pavlov stated the social opposition between the “little man” and the domination of the unsympathetic powerful elite. Gogol’s ill-fated Akakii

Bašmačkin is reminiscent of Pavlov’s petty clerk Andrei Ivanovič. Pavlov reveals the story of Andrei Ivanovič’s realization of his insignificance in the face of the world when he realized that his young and beautiful wife is having an affair with a powerful aristocrat. However, Pavlov does not yet account for this realization by analysis of the unjust structure of the rank-conscious society. The conflict is still very personal, and the author merely outlines the opposition between his character and his environment.

This opposition is depicted through series of negations that are used in an intricate fashion. In the beginning of the tale, negations represent the conformist and unadventurous nature of Andrei Ivanovič’s character. But towards the end of the tale negations are applied in passages describing the surrounding world, which becomes an intolerable environment for the protagonist. He is first introduced in his office working at his desk late at night.

«Андрей Иванович не бегал по комнате, не тер себе лба, не раскидывался на спинке кресел, не ломал рук, а все сидел, не разгибался и писал, – сонный, терпеливый, полезный, добродетельный!..»23

23 Павлов Н. Ф. «Демон». Сочинения. Москва. «Советская Россия», 1985. С. 124.

75

The series of negated verbs is equalized by an adjectival series. Negations are used to introduce a contrast between an expected “typical” extraordinary Romantic character and the actual commonplace and even mundane clerk. This disparity is asserted here through the postposition of a series of adjectives that describe anti-Romantic qualities.

Later his everyday routine is depicted in sentences that involve a string of negated

imperatives.

«А ты, Андрей Иванович, с своим портфелем под мышкой отправляйся сидеть, сидеть да писать, и смотри дорогой не толкай никого, не заглядывайся по сторонам, гляди все себе под ноги и вперед... Не заглядывайся по сторонам, не то зайдешь в кондитерскую, съешь слоеный пирожок, выпьешь чашку кофе; хорошо еще, что ты не читаешь журналов, нет тебе и предлога зайти; хорошо, что ты не охотник до устриц, что тебя не потянет на биржу.»24

The emphasis on negations is achieved through replication of the syntagm with the

second negation (не заглядывайся по сторонам) and through the contrast between the

series of negated verbs and the series of verbs in the future form. The latter depict actions

that are forbidden to the protagonist. Thus, negations represent Andrei Ivanovič’s way of

life while the opposing philosophy is represented by affirmative verbs.

Finally, wide-ranging types of negations are employed at the end of the second

sentence. Here the protagonist is first expressed in a subject indicating that he is an active

person who chooses his actions (ты не читаешь). Then he becomes the receiver, or

rather a non-receiver, of a negated possibility and is expressed in a dative pronoun (нет

тебе и предлога). Third, he becomes a bearer of a negated characteristic (ты не

охотник). And fourth, he becomes an object of a subjectless clause and becomes the

24 Ibid. P. 127-128.

76 patient of a negated action (тебя не потянет). The use of the pronoun that denotes the protagonist in these different ways places the accent on negated constructions and represents his diminishing power, a gradual revelation that someone, who appears to be in control of his life and make rational decisions is, in fact, a slave of his environment, who simply adjusts his life to the existing circumstances.

So far negated constructions represent Andrei Ivanovič’s lifestyle and contrast the opposing affirmative way of life associated with Romantic values such as affirmation of individuality and personal freedom. To render this idea the author creates oppositions between negated and affirmative series.

The story culminates after Andrei Ivanovič realizes his wife’s unfaithfulness and along with it his pitiful and contemptible place in society.

«Ему негде было постоять, некуда прислониться, все здания отталкивали его, прелестное утро гнало отовсюду, потому что он не оставил ничего у себя дома, ничего не спрятал в своем кабинете, а вынес на площадь все имущество своей души, все ее заботы, замыслы, надежды, вынес целую ночь свою.»25

The growing assertion of his personality is rendered by the opposition between a series of negated verb (не оставил, не спрятал) with the repetition of an affirmative verb (вынес). Both the negated and the affirmative series refer to the actions of the protagonist and not to two contrasting essentials. The newly acquired affirmative side of the protagonist’s personality is further reinforced by a series of nouns appearing in the affirmative syntagm (заботы, замыслы, надежды).

25 Ibid. P.135

77 Finally, repetitions of negations are used to describe the surrounding environment

of Petersburg, which becomes unreceptive and hostile when Andrei Ivanovic temporarily

changes from an ordinary clerk into an individual with a manifest personality.

«И Петербург отказывался от него, люди не признавали его за брата, он каким-то отверженным колесил по городу и нигде не встречал второго себя, нигде не осталось унылых следов ночи, ни одного предмета, истерзанного ее привиденьями, ни одного лица, измятого бессоницей.»26

The significance of negations is reinforced by their repetitions (нигде and ни

одного) and by parallel participial constructions following the anaphora ни одного.

It is significant that the opposition between negated and affirmative series never achieves a complete reversal, where negated series referring to the environment would become opposed to the affirmative series depicting the world of the protagonist. This reflects the protagonist’s failure to complete the internal change. He never becomes a truly exceptional Romantic character. Pavlov’s tale is the story of an unattained possibility. Instead the character’s revelation is only temporary, and circumstances prove to be stronger, forcing him to revert to his existence as an ordinary person. Andrei

Ivanovic’s failure to stand up to his adversary becomes apparent when he leaves the home of his wife’s lover. Then a series of negations is used again to depict the protagonist’s failure to assert himself.

«В комнате стало весело по-прежнему, не было ни лица, ни чувства в раздоре с прекрасными лучами солнца; никто не роптал на судьбу, не плакался на людей, никто несносными жалобами не отравлял благоуханного воздуха роскоши».27

26 Ibid.

27 Ibid. P. 148.

78 The latter sentence contains two different series of negations: nouns (ни лица, ни

чувства) and verbs (не роптал, не отравлял, не плакался) and the repetition of the negative pronoun никто. All sets of negations refer to the protagonist, who returns to his ordinary state unable to alter himself into a non-typical person.

Negations are a frequent iconic device in Pavlov’s prose. He uses negations not only profusely but also in combination with other iconic devices. Contrasting negative and affirmative series reflects the opposition between the extraordinary Romantic side of existence and its mundane and often dreary side. This is a contrast that is distinctive of

Romanticism which envisions life as a series of contrasts and conflicts. It is expectedly iconically mirrored in his syntax.

3.4 The Struggle against the Environment in Odoevskij’s Tales.

The opposition between an individual and his environment is manifest in the works of Odoevskij, another accomplished Romantic writer who enjoyed popularity and recognition among readers, fellow writers and critics during his lifetime. Odoevskij was preoccupied by the question of an artist’s purpose in life and his interaction with the world around him. In his tales he often arrived at the conclusion that a genius is misunderstood and rejected by contemporaries, an idea representative of Romanticism.

Odoevskij complicates this picture by the widening and thickening of the space in which he depicts his characters. He strives to create an environment that is vast, and saturated with characteristics in such a way that it appears powerful and oppressive. But while these characteristics are numerous, they are also on a par. None of them depicts the

79 environment as unique or distinctive. Odoevskij constructs a world that is multileveled but not multifaceted. The homogeny of artistic space contrasts with the complexity of his protagonists.

In order to reflect this opposition, Odoevskij resorts to elaborate sentences with

multiple clauses, or series of parallel constructions depicting the environment. The

mounding of parallel constructions allows him to create a saturated but unexciting world

that is unreceptive of an outstanding individual.

Such is Odoevskij’s tale «Импровизатор», which describes a poet’s rejection of the

pains of creation in favor of money.

«В те дни, -- редко тусклая мысль, как едва приметная звездочка, зарождалась в его фантазии; но когда и зарождалась, то яснела медленно и долго терялась в тумане; уже после трудов неимоверных достигала она какого-то неясного образа; здесь начиналась новая работа: выражение отлетало от поэта за мириады миров; он не находил слов, а если и находил, то они не клеились; метр не гнулся, привязчивое местоимение хваталось за каждое слово; долговязый глагол путался между словами.»28*

The above passage depicts the torment of the poet Kiprijano striving to find

expression to his poetic propensity. This complex sentence contains two verbal series:

one with the notion мысль as a subject (зарождалась, зарождалась, яснела,

терялась), the other with the poet as the subject (находил) occurring twice. Thus, the

power of external circumstances, the poet’s inability to create, is contrasted with the

powerlessness of the poet, with the former sequence containing four verbs and the latter

containing only two. The opposition is further reinforced by two parallel constructions

28 Одоевский В.Ф. «Импровизатор». Русская романтическая повесть. Сост. В.И. Сахаров. Москва: «Советская Россия», 1980. С. 187.

* The subjects of clauses have been put in cursive and the verbs have been underlined. The clause containing the protagonist as its subject has been set apart in bold print.

80 with repetition: зарождалась; но когда и зарождалась and не находил, а если и

находил. The use of the notion мысль parallel to the use of the character as a subject sets it as a notion that exists as an independent entity which is capable of yielding itself to or evading a human character.

The quoted passage contains six clauses, with seven subjects that are inanimate objects. They surround only one clause with the protagonist as the subject. The sentence, thus, can be perceived as a graphic representation where clauses with inanimate notions as subjects surround the clause with the character as the subject, akin to various attributes of the poet’s world surrounding and suppressing him. In Odoevskij’s tale inanimate notions acquire intrinsic power over his protagonist.

The desire to obtain supremacy over his world prompts Kiprijano to sell his soul.

Instead of relief from creative torments, the poet receives a curse “to see and understand everything”. Life ceases to be a mystery and the poet discerns all objects, people, actions and emotions in their tiniest and most repellent details.

«В торжестве, с полным кошельком, но несколько усталый, он возвратился в свою комнату; хочет освежить запекшиеся уста, смотрит: в стакане не вода, а что- то странное: там два газа борются между собою, и мирияды инфузорий плавают между ними; он наливает другой стакан, все то же; бежит к источнику – издали серебром льются студеные волны, -- приближается – опять[ Ø ]то же, что и в стакане; кровь поднялась в голову бедного импровизатора, и он в отчаянии бросился на траву, думая во сне забыть свою жажду и горе; но едва он прилег, как вдруг под ушами его раздается шум, стук, визг: как будто тысячи молотов бьют об наковальни, как будто шероховатые поршни протираются сквозь груду каменьев, как будто железные грабли цепляются и скользят по гладкой поверхности.»29

The arrangement of clauses in the quoted sentence mirrors the struggle between the protagonist and the surrounding world. That world comprises copious entities that

29 Ibid. P.192.

81 become visible and audible to Kiprijano after he obtains the ability to create. Those clauses that have the protagonist as their subject are continuously interjected by clauses

containing the surrounding entities as their subjects (вода, два газа, мирияды, всё,

волны, Ø). These clauses containing inanimate objects as subjects also break in between

series of verbs referring to the subject denoting the character. The struggle between

Kiprijano and his world ends with his defeat and at the end of the sentence four

consecutive clauses with six subjects (шум, стук, визг, тысячи молотов, поршни,

грабли) reflect the dominance of the external powers over him.

Similarly, Odoevskij’s tale “Opere del cavaliere Giambattista Piranese” describes

the tragedy of an architect whose creative ideas meet rejection among his contemporaries.

As a result his unrealized projects become his tormentors that suppress his personality.

«С той минуты я не знаю покоя; духи, мною порожденные, преследуют меня: там огромный свод охватывает меня в свои объятия, здесь башни гонятся за мною, шагая верстами; здесь окно дребезжит передо мною своими огромными рамами.»30

Once more the first clause, where the protagonist is the subject, is followed by

series of clauses which contain the objects of Piranesi’s creation as their subjects. The

character himself is demoted from the subject in the first clause to the object of the

second, third and fourth clauses.

«Город без имени» is an anti-utopian tale that depicts the history of a people who

built their state on entirely practical principles, neglecting ethical and spiritual values.

Ultimately they turn out to be doomed to self-destruction.

30 Одоевский В.Ф. “Opere del cavaliere Giambattista Piranese”. Русская романтическая повесть. Сост. В.И. Сахаров. Москва: «Советская Россия», 1980. С. 204.

82 «Между тем никто не хотел пожертвовать частью своих выгод ради общих, когда эти последние не доставляли ему непосредственной пользы; и каналы засорялись; дороги не оканчивались по недостатку общего содействия; фабрики, заводы упадали; библиотеки были распроданы, театры закрылись.»31

The first clause that contains an animate subject is followed by a series of clauses where the objects created by people become subjects. The implication of the reversal of power is further enhanced by the presence of reflexives (засорялись, не оканчивались,

закрылись), frequently used in Russian to shift the emphasis away from the agent to the action or to indicate the agent’s unimportance, as well as by the passive (были

распроданы).

The undermined human influence is depicted in a series of subjectless and passive clauses amassed in one sentence.

«Она [нужда] раздражала сердца; от упреков доходили до распрей; обнажались мечи, кровь лилась, восставала страна на страну, одно поселение на другое; земля оставалась незасеянною; богатая жатва истреблялась врагом; отец семейства, ремесленник, купец отрывались от мирных занятий; с тем вместе общие страдания увеличивались.»32

The multitude of clauses with inanimate subjects, particularly in opposition to only

one clause with an animate subject, iconizes the multitude and the power of the

environment over a human being. The ordering of clauses is also significant: it mirrors

the progression in which power shifts from a human subject to the mass of objects

surrounding him.

Odoevskij follows the Romantic tradition by showing human beings who are dependent on the environment and who are influenced and often shaped by it. For

31 Одоевский В.Ф. «Город без имени». Русская романтическая повесть. Сост. В.И. Сахаров. Москва. «Советская Россия», 1980. С. 214. 32 Ibid. P 214.

83 Odoevskij this state of affairs results in a sad existence. While his characters strive for power and control, their struggle ends with their defeat and often demise.

3.5 Evil Forces against Man. Who is in Charge? «Уединенный домик на

Васильевском»

The theme of the relationship between a Romantic character and the power of the environment appears in Puškin’s and Titov’s collaborative tale «Уединенный домик на

* Васильевском». However, Puškin adopts a humorous outlook. His protagonist Pavel

finds himself under the influence of evil forces due to his spiritual languor, hardly a

Romantic characteristic.

While the circumstances and events appear to be results of people’s actions and

decisions, it becomes evident that these actions are hardly intended. They trigger one

another quite randomly, and the end state of affairs is never the result of the characters’

conscious will. The circumstances appear to be caused by each other rather than by

people’s actions and decisions. As a result the protagonist never finds himself in control

but is vulnerable to external influences, whether they are positive or negative. Thus, even

when he appears to resist the power of temptation, he never finds himself truly on top.

The randomness of the unfolding events is iconized by the multitude of different

subjects in clauses comprising an elaborate sentence or in sentences that make up a

* Puškin first told the story at a soiree. Titov later recorded what he had heard and brought the manuscript to Puškin, who offered corrections and suggestions. Puškin’s tale was published under Titov’s authorship in 1829.

84 paragraph. The end of each such sentence or paragraph results in the demotion of the protagonist from the position of an agent (as one of the several subjects) to the position of the patient (as a direct or indirect object).

The following passage depicts the progression of events in the “lonely house” after

Varfolomei is introduced into it.

«Для вас довольно знать, что в течение всего времени Варфоломей все более и более вкрадывался в доверенность вдовы; добродушная Вера, которая привыкла согласовываться слепо с чувствами своей матери, забыла понемногу неприятное впечатление, сперва произведенное незнакомцем; но Павел оставался для нее предметом предпочтения нескрытного, и, если сказать правду, так было за что: частые свидания с молодою родственницей возымели на юношу преблаготворное действие; он начал прилежнее заниматься службою, бросил многие беспутные знакомства, словом, захотел быть порядочным человеком; с другой стороны, беспечный его нрав покорялся влиянию привычки, и ему изредка казалось, что он может быть счастлив такою супругою, как Вера.»33

The above sentence unites three main characters as subjects of interacting clauses.

Along with animate subjects the nouns depicting events and emotions also assume the

roles of subjects here, thus, endowing them with the same seeming power to influence the

course of events as that of the animate characters. Yet none of the interchanging subjects

represent the real driving force behind the events. Circumstances affect people as much

as people affect circumstances. In the end, while Pavel seems to be on route to

straightening up his life, he is not really in charge. The end of the above passages depicts

the character’s demotion from agent (as a clause subject он начал прилежнее

заниматься) to patient (as the object of a subjectless clause ему изредка казалось).

33 Пушкин А.С., Титов В. П. «Уединенный домик на Васильевском ». Русская романтическая повесть. Сост. В.И. Сахаров. Москва. «Советская Россия», 1980. С. 164.

85 A similar shift from subject to object appears in the following sentence. Here,

despite Pavel’s seemingly firm decision to improve his lifestyle, he is suddenly easily

seduced by Varfolomei’s suggestion to experience life in high society.

«Сии слова, подобно яду, имеющему силу переворотить внутренности, превратили все прежние замыслы и желания юноши; никогда не бывалый в большом свете, он решился пуститься в этот вихрь, и в условленный вечер его увидели в гостиной графини.»34

The two passages demonstrate that the protagonist’s ability to make decisions is

deceptive. Circumstances easily take control over him whether their influence is positive

or negative. Both sentences end in a subjectless clause depicting the protagonist as a patient.

In the new environment Pavel becomes affected by circumstances even further.

«Но случилась неприятность, которая разрушила все его отважные воздушные замки. Однажды, будучи в довольно многолюдном обществе у графини, он увидел, что она в стороне говорит тихо с одним мужчиною; надобно заметить, что этот молодец щеголял непомерным образом и, несмотря на все старания, не мог, однако, скрыть телесного недостатка, за который Павел с Варфоломеем заочно ему дали прозвание косоногого; любопытство, ревность заставили Павла подойти ближе, и ему послышалось, что мужчина произносит его имя, шутит над его дурным французским выговором, а графиня изволит отвечать на это усмешками.»35

In addition to the demotion of the character from a subject to an object of a subjectless clause («ему послышалось...»), the above sentence contains a parenthesis. In the second sentence the syntax is interrupted and the information about the countess’ conversation partner is included, which is related to the theme of the sentence indirectly.

The syntactic interval iconizes the randomness of circumstances and the effect of this

34 Ibid. P.165 35 Ibid. P.166.

86 randomness on the protagonist. Chance enters Pavel’s life and upsets its balance.

Information that is not directly relevant interferes in the syntax and disrupts its flow.

Puškin’s and Titov’s tale replays the Romantic conflict between the power of destiny and that of human will. The casual tone that gives the tale the flavor of urban folklore also ridicules the Romantic hero. Puškin pokes fun at his character and the

Romantic preoccupation with the power of evil by diminishing the conflict between Pavel and the demon. Pavel turns out to be too easy a prey for Varfolomei, due to such ordinary traits as idleness and greed. The erratic syntax of passages depicting Pavel and the circumstances surrounding him as well as the use of subjectless clauses show the dominance of circumstances over the weak character.

3.6 The Opposition between Reality and Fantasy in «Вечера на хуторе близ

Диканьки».

Gogol’s depiction of space has been extensively investigated by critics. In his prose artistic space is not just a background against which the events are unwrapping, but it is promoted to the foreground, and its structure is at least as significant as the actual plot or character depictions. Lotman notes that artistic space should be regarded as the model of the author’s world and should be differentiated from real space. This is particularly apparent in Gogol’s prose, which depicts characters and events strictly attached to their space. In «Вечера на хуторе близ Диканьки», the characters can be perceived only as part of their environment. The reader cannot appreciate and comprehend the significance of the fantastic or rational elements without consideration of the space in which they are

87 set. Likewise, the behavior of many characters cannot be adequately understood without taking into account that their personalities and actions are shaped and conditioned by

their environment.

«...художественное пространство не есть пассивное вместилище героев и сюжетных эпизодов. Соотнесение его с действующими лицами и общей моделью мира, создаваемой художественным текстом, убеждает в том, что язык художественного пространства -- не пустотелый сосуд, а один из компонентов общего языка, на котором говорит художественное произведение.»36

Of course, such an understanding of the artistic space should not be limited to

Romanticism. But in Gogol’s prose the interplay of artistic spaces is Romantic in nature

due to the prominence of the oppositional nature of the structure of environments. The

dominating contrasts in «Вечера...» are the Ukrainian village ↔ St. Petersburg and the fantastic world ↔ the rational world. In the former case the space of Dikan’ka is expanded to fit the scale on which it can be opposed to the outside world.

«У Гоголя... сохраняется тенденция расширения предмета изображения до целого региона, мира. Тенденция эта даже предельно усилилась. Диканька поставлена в центр всего... Происходящее в Диканьке естественно распространяется на всю подлунную...»37

The contrast between the space of Dikan’ka and that of St. Peterburg is noticeable

in syntax.

The panorama of Dikan’ka is unhurried and complete. The pictorial aspect is manifest in the depictions of its landscape. These scenes are predominantly rendered by

sentences with a one-to-one subject to verb correspondence, or even simpler one-clause sentences.

36 Лотман Ю. М. «Проблема художественного пространства в прозе Гоголя.». Избранные статьи. Таллинн, «Александра», 1992. Т.1 С. 419. 37 Ibid. P.326.

88 «Последний день перед рождеством прошел. Зимняя ночь наступила. Глянули звезды. Месяц величаво поднялся на небо посветить добрым людям и всему миру, чтобы всем было весело колядовать и славить Христа.»38

The short and complete sentences reflect the comprehensibility of the world of

Dikan’ka. It is remarkable that these depictions are revealed through the eyes of the

narrator who is a Dikan’ka native and can portray his world most accurately and

completely.

It is worth mentioning that in the last sentence of this passage the world of Dikan’ka

is equalized to the entire world becoming the object («всему миру») and the subordinate

clause («чтобы всем было весло колядовать и славить Христа»). The sentence is also framed with two concepts that are significant on the grand scale: the moon and

Christ. The former is the subject of the dominant clause, and Dikan’ka lies under the moon as an entire world. The significance of the theme of Christ is recurring in the

«Вечера...». It represents goodness for the inhabitants of Dikan’ka and it is opposed to the demonic forces exhibited by demons and witches. Thus, the ethically and culturally significant values of Dikan’ka expand in the narrator’s view into the system that measures up to the entire world. This effect is reinforced by the repetition of the word

весь as part of the object and in the subordinate clause.

A similar technique is used to depict the world after the moon reappears in the sky and ends the snowstorm.

«Все осветилось. Метели как не бывало. Снег загорелся широким серебряным полем и весь обсыпался хрустальными звездами.»39

38 Гоголь Н. В. «Ночь перед рождеством». Вечера на хуторе близ Диканьки. Москва: «Детгиз», 1958. С. 95. 39 Ibid. P.109.

89

In addition to the relation between the completeness of the sentences and the completeness of the world, there is an icon of tempo at play in these passages. As the reader is likely to pause between short sentences, he may perceive the measured, unhurried pace of life in Dikan’ka.

The slowing tempo of these passages is conspicuous because it contrasts not only the passages describing the opposing environment, which will be discussed later, but also the general syntactic structure of Gogol’s prose. The unmarked syntax is comprised by an array of variously structured sentences that depict one theme, scene or event. In other words, there is no one-to-one connection between a particular syntactic structure and an

event, scene or theme. In the analysis of the nature scenes in Sentimental prose, where

they formed and occupied an important place, it was noted in the first chapter that such

passages are comprised of extremely complex and elaborate sentences. So it is quite

plausible that the Gogol’s particular approach to the depiction of nature scenes in simple

sentences may have been generally innovative or at least striking against the examples of

the earlier canon.

The following famous passage depicting the Ukrainian night is dominated by one-

* clause short sentences.

«Знаете ли вы украинскую ночь? О, вы не знаете украинской ночи. Всмотритесь в нее. С середины неба глядит месяц. Необъятный небесный свод раздался, раздвинулся еще необъятнее. Горит и дышит он. Земля вся в серебряном свете; и чудный воздух и прохладно-душен, и полон неги, и движет океан благоуханий. Божественная ночь! Очаровательная ночь! Недвижно, вдохновенно стали леса, полные мрака, и кинули огромную тень от себя. Тихи и покойны эти

* Such sentences are italicized to show their predominance in the passage.

90 пруды; холод и мрак их угрюмо заключен в темно-зеленые стены садов. Девственные чащи черемух и черешен пугливо протянули свои корни в ключевой холод и изредка лепечут листьями, будто сердясь и негодуя, когда прекрасный ветреник – ночной ветер, подкравшись мгновенно целует их. Весь ландшафт спит. А вверху все дышит, все дивно, все торжественно. А на душе и необъятно, и чудно, и толпы серебряных видений стройно возникают в ее глубине. Божественная ночь! Очаровательная ночь! И вдруг все ожило: и леса, и пруды, и степи. Сыплется величественный гром украинского соловья, и чудится, что и месяц заслушался его посереди неба... Как очарованное, дремлет на возвышении село. Еще более, еще лучше блестят при месяце толпы хат; еще ослепительнее вырезываются из мрака низкие их стены. Песни умолкли. Все тихо. Благочестивые люди уже спят. Где-где только светятся узенькие окна.»40

The abundance of one-clause short sentences allows for multiple pauses, thus

slowing down the rhythm of the passage, and thus, iconizing the expanse and

completeness of the scene.

On the contrary, the passages that depict the urban space of St. Petersburg are

comprised by sentences with multiple clauses. Such is the city depicted through the eyes

of Vakula, who travels there to see the czarina.

«Боже мой! Стук, гром, блеск; по обеим сторонам громоздятся четырехэтажные стены; стук копыт коня, звук колеса отзывались громом и отдавались с четырех сторон; домы росли и будто подымались из земли на каждом шагу; мосты дрожали; кареты летали; извозчики, форейторы кричали; снег свистел под тысячью летящих со всех сторон саней; пешеходы жались и теснились под домами, унизанными плошками, и огромные тени мелькали по стенам, достигая головой труб и крыш.»41

The above passage contains eleven clauses compressed in one sentence. Moreover, the italicized clauses contain either more than one verb or more than one subject. The

40 Гоголь Н. В. «Майская ночь, или утопленница». Вечера на хуторе близ Диканьки. Москва: «Детгиз», 1958. С. 58. 41 Гоголь Н. В. «Ночь перед рождеством». Вечера на хуторе близ Диканьки. Москва: «Детгиз», 1958. С. 127.

91 condensed structure of these sentences represents the compressed nature of the city which contrasts sharply with the openness of the Ukrainian village. The world of St. Petersburg is saturated with motion and people.

The compression of several clauses into one sentence also forces a speeding up of the tempo, as the above sentence is perceived or enunciated. This also puts it in contrast

with the unhurried pace of passages depicting the scenery of Dikan’ka.

Unlike the village scenes of Dikan’ka, which are always depicted from the point of

the narrator, the space of St. Petersburg is pictured through the eyes of the character. This

allows the author to present St. Petersburg as an alien space. The space of St. Petersburg

is not just compressed, but it is specifically compressed for Vakula, who is overwhelmed

by the new scene. It is important to keep in mind that the motion of St. Petersburg here

meets the motion of the character, who flies through the city on the back of a demon. The

clause structure of the above passage represents the perception of Vakula. It starts with an

exclamation «Боже мой!» clearly shifting the viewpoint from that of the narrator to that

of the character. Then follows a series of deverbal nouns comprising a verbless clause:

стук, гром, блеск. The verbless clause iconizes Vakula’s perception of the surroundings with his senses rather than mentally. He is overpowered by everything he sees, and at

first he loses the ability to observe details. The curtailed clause mirrors the sensation

aroused in Vakula by the overwhelming scene. As he travels further, he gradually

becomes more adjusted and re-acquires the ability to notice detail. Thus, a clause follows

that still contains deverbial nouns стук and звук as its subjects but this clause is now

complete with two verbs: отзывались and отдавались. Next follow two parallel clauses

92 with one subject and one object each: мосты дрожали; кареты летали, thus complicating the structure of the passage even further by parallelism. Then the subject doubles: извозчики, форейторы кричали. After that follows a full clause which is extended by an object with an embedded modifier: под тысячью летящих со всех

сторон саней. And finally the sentence is completed by two clauses enhanced by participial and gerundial modifiers: пешеходы жались и теснились под домами,

унизанными плошками and огромные тени их мелькали дотигая головою труб и

крыш, exceeding the previous clauses not only in complexity but also in length.

The increasing complexity of the clauses comprising the above sentence iconizes

Vakula’s gradual adjustment to the new environment. As Vakula overcomes the initial

astonishment, he regains the ability to observe his surroundings involving a rational

evaluation, and not only its perception with his senses.

In addition to progressive clause expansion, repetition is the other iconic device at

play «по обеим сторонам громоздятся четырехэтажные стены; стук копыт

коня, звук колеса отзывались громом и отдавались с четырех сторон». The first

set of repetitions provides limitations to the space of Vakula, which is constrained

within two sides, thus representing it as two-directional in nature because he appears in

St. Petersburg only as a traveler. But he is able to perceive the space from all four sides

which makes him the focal point of the scene placed in the center of the space. While

Vakula is able to fully experience the environment of St. Petersburg, he never

completely enters it, and his space remains separate from the space of the city. The

93 world of Vakula and the world of St. Petersburg never penetrate one another. The replication of the set per se establishes parallelism between the two worlds.

This perspective differs in principle from the mode in which the world of

Dikan’ka is presented. The world of St. Petersburg unwraps in a linear way. It evolves through the eyes of the visitor and exhibits directionality. In the above passage it is iconized through progressive clause expansion as well as the establishment of its linear nature with regard to the newcomer’s perspective. This linear nature of the space of St.

Petersburg iconizes its incompleteness and constant unrest. In the meantime the space of Dikan’ka is still, constant and complete. That stillness implies tranquility and harmony and allows for its expansion to the magnitude of the universe. This idea is also present in Mann’s analysis of Gogol’s treatment of space.

«В литературе ХIX века народное (как часть оппозиции) имело тенденцию возрастать до масштаба целого историко-географического региона, мира... Украина... выделилась в такой регион в числе первых. В плане предромантических оппозиций этот регион мыслился под знаком патриархальной идилличности, безыскусности и цельности.»42

In the tale «Пропавшая грамота» St. Petersburg is briefly shown through the eyes of the protagonist.

«Там нагляделся дед таких див, чтo стало ему надолго после того рассказывать: как повeли его в палаты, такие высокие, что если бы хат десять поставить одну на другую, и тогда, может быть, не достало бы. Как заглянул он в одну комнату – нет; в другую – нет; в третью – еще нет; в четвертой даже нет; да в пятой уже, глядь, – сидит сама , в золотой короне, в серой новехонькой свитке, в красных сапогах, и золотые галушки ест. Как велела ему насыпать целую шапку синицами, как... – всего и вспомнить нельзя.»43

42 Манн Ю.В. Динамика русского романтизма. Москва: «Аспект пресс», 1995. С. 325. 43 Гоголь Н. В. «Пропавшая грамота.». Вечера на хуторе близ Диканьки. Москва: «Детгиз», 1958. С. 91.

94 Here the space of the palace unwraps before the eyes of the character. The clauses following the ordinal numerals progressively expand in size: нет, нет, еще нет, даже

нет, сидит сама..., the latter being complicated by a series of parallel postpositional

* modifiers and two verbs for one subject.

In order to establish the opposition fantasy ↔ reality Gogol’ resorts to a peculiar type of repetition. «Ночь перед рождеством» contains several such examples. Below is his introduction of the demon who steals the moon on Christmas Eve:

«Вдруг, с другой стороны, показалось другое пятнышко, увеличилось, стало растягиваться, и уже было не пятнышко. Близорукий, хотя бы надел на нос вместо очков колеса с комисаровой брички, и тогда бы не распознал, что это такое. Спереди совершенно немец: узенькая, беспрестанно вертевшаяся и нюхавшая все, что ни попадалось, мордочка оканчивалась, как и у наших свиней, кругленьким пятачком, ноги были так тонки, что если бы такие имел яресковский голова, то он переломал бы их в первом козачке. Но зато сзади он был настоящий губернский стряпчий в мундире, потому, что у него висел хвост, такой острый и длинный, как теперешние мундирные фалды; только разве по козлиной бороде под мордой, по небольшим рожкам, торчавшим на голове, и что весь был не белее трубочиста, можно было догадаться, что он не немец и не губернский стряпчий, а просто черт, которому последняя ночь осталась шататься по белому свету и выучивать грехам добрых людей.»44

The above passage contains three sets of repetition. Each one is a noun or a noun phrase in the nominative case. The first element of each set appears to ascertain a reality: пятнышко, немец, губернский стряпчий. The use of the nominative case allows for seemingly definitive identifications of the three visible objects. However, later these elements are repeated precisely (with the same constituents to the noun

* It is worth noting that as Vakula walks through the palace halls with the delegation of Cossacks, the halls also open up one after another, creating linear movement along the space of the palace.

44 Гоголь Н. В. «Ночь перед рождеством». Вечера на хуторе близ Диканьки. Москва: «Детгиз», 1958. С. 96.

95 phrase and in the same grammatical form) but with a negation before them. As a result reality suddenly ceases to be such and is refuted with the same intensity as it was stated before.

The presence of two elements in the same form, where the first one is asserted and the second one is negated, iconizes the interplay between fantasy and reality. The use of each element in the same form mirrors the fact that both, reality and fantasy, exhibit the same level of presence and exist with equal substance and significance in Gogol’s world.

At the same time, while fantasy and reality constantly interweave, they remain separate. This separation between them is as important as the fact that fantasy and reality appear as equal constituents in «Вечера...», because it allows for the preservation of two opposing components. These in turn expands Dikan’ka to the level of a distinct world with its own opposing constituents, which correspond to the opposition of good and evil in the actual world.

This idea is also stated by Mann in his investigation of the composition of space in

«Вечера...».

«Гоголевский мир имеет свое прошлое и настоящее, свои коллизии между персонажами и рассказчиками, свои конфликты романтического отчуждения... Словом, это не «сокращенный Эдем», а сокращенная Вселенная, имеющая и свой рай, и свой ад.»45

Gogol’ resorts to the same device in the tale «Заколдованное место».

Throughout the tale the protagonist strives to uncover an enchanted spot in a vegetable field that appears to conceal a buried treasure. The enchanted spot resembles the real

45 Манн Ю.В. Динамика русского романтизма. Москва: «Аспект пресс», 1995. С. 327.

96 world, but fantasy repeatedly intervenes. Thus, objects that appeared to be visible from the magic spot suddenly reappear in a different place or disappear altogether, and the treasure that the protagonist finally seems to obtain turns into trash.

«Что ж бы, вы думали, такое там было? Ну, по малой мере, подумавши хорошенько, а? золото? Вот то-то, что не золото: сор, дрязг, стыдно сказать, что такое.»46

The interplay between fantasy and reality is replayed once more when Gogol depicts the lands near the village:

«Земля славная! и урожай всегда бывал на диво; но на заколдованном месте никогда не бывало ничего доброго. Засеют, как следует, а взойдет такое, что и разобрать нельзя: арбуз – не арбуз, тыква – не тыква, огурец – не огурец... черт знает что такое!»47

The correlation between positive and negative assertions is use again to reflect the relationship between fantasy and reality.

Finally, the device discussed is used in the description of the landscape in Gogol’s

«Страшная месть».

«Любо взглянуть с середины Днепра на высокие горы, на широкие луга, на зеленые леса. Горы те – не горы: подошвы у них нет, внизу их, как и вверху, острая вершина, и под ними и над ними высокое небо. Те леса, что стоят на холмах, не леса: то волосы, поросшие на косматой голове лесного деда. Под нею в воде моется борода, и под бородою и над волосами высокое небо. Те луга – не луга: то зеленый пояс, перепоясавший посередине круглое небо, и в верхней половине и в нижней половине прогуливается месяц.»

The above passage establishes a correspondence between the surface world of reality and the obscured world of fantasy, which reveals itself with close observation.

The two seemingly merging worlds in fact remain separate. The mystical appearance

46 Гоголь Н. В. «Заколдованное место». Вечера на хуторе близ Диканьки. Москва: «Детгиз», 1958. С. 211.

47 Ibid. P. 211-212.

97 emerges only when both components fuse: the world above the water and the world reflected in the water. Thus, both worlds exist simultaneously and are only visible from different perspectives.

The dual nature of this scenery is also mirrored by several dual parallel constructions which are icons of space: внизу, как и вверху; и под ними и над ними; и

под бородoю и над волосами; и в верхней половине и в нижней половине.

The environment depicted by Gogol’ in «Вечера...» appears to be a two-fold world. It can be properly understood and appreciated only when it is viewed in its entirety. While details are crafted masterfully and they intricately pervade Gogol’s environment, it is the composition of this environment that elevates it to the level of a distinct and a diverse world. The Romantic nature of this world exhibits itself in its duality. Yet the continuous interplay and mutual interaction of the opposing elements create a new level that exceeds a simple contention of a two-fold opposition. In that regard, it elevates Gogol’s prose beyond the boundaries of the Romantic Movement and, perhaps, explains the possibility of his forthcoming brilliant prose created after

Romanticism faded.

Despite the apparent differences of themes and styles used by the authors that are discussed in this chapter, all the works contain an underlying feature that unites them as parts of one movement. Their construction reveals the presence of a Romantic collision. The traits that separate a Romantic collision from any other is not simply a

Romantic theme such as will ↔ fate, hero ↔ environment, fantastic ↔ rational, but also the preeminence of a conflict and its parallel in the structure of a Romantic tale.

98

3.7 Concluding Remarks.

The tales discussed in this chapter exhibit various themes, ranging from

Marlinskij’s exoticism and sometimes affectation, to Pavlov’s pessimism about the power of aristocracy to demean a human being, to Odoevskij’s bitterness about the supremacy of mediocrity over talent, to Puškin’s observation that a person should be capable of withstanding the corrupting influence of his environment, and, finally, to

Gogol’s depiction of the unadulterated beauty of his homeland and its people. However, the topic of a Romantic author’s attention is always depicted in light of an opposition. It is the relationship between people and their environment that takes the central place in a

Romantic tale. People are formed and governed by their surroundings while characters’ individuality is somewhat undermined.

This chapter investigated the parallels between thematic collisions and oppositions revealed in the syntactic structure of passages dealing with them. Syntactic structure can and should be regarded as a part of the overall construction that unifies various tales of that period under the notion of Romanticism.

99

CHAPTER 4

THE “NATURAL SCHOOL”

4.1 Seeking Material in “Life as It is”.

In the early 1840s a new trend evolved in Russian literature that turned to the lower classes of contemporary society as the source of its themes and characters. Unlike previous literary movements, this trend developed a set of conventions and demands as it was emerging and also labeled itself with the title the “Natural School”. While originally the term was used in a derogatory sense by the conservative writer and journalist

Bulgarin, the term was embraced by Vissarion Belinskii, the theoretician of the movement and an influential critic.

The new school sought themes and characters among the lower classes of society by implementing Belinskii’s principle to depict “life as it is”. Writers like Dal’ and

Grigorovič admitted that they intentionally studied the low classes, such as peasants, low- rank clerks, and workers, by recording their conversations and details about their lifestyles and behavior. The goal of the school was to raise awareness of the lower layers of Russian society and to reflect reality as it existed, without embellishing or amending it.

The draftsmen of the ideology behind the Natural School were the Westernizers

Belinskii and Gercen (Herzen), who shared a rationalist view of the world and believed

100 that future happiness and harmony for Russia could be achieved in concordance with the success of the entire civilization through the education of the populace and the triumph of science.

The opposing wing of the movement also strived after the ideals of a harmony and happiness. However, they believed that these ideals could be attained by turning to the patriarchal Orthodox values. Among those writers who assumed this Slavophile view were notably Dostoevskij and Gogol’, who created the artistic mode of the Natural

School.

Despite the dramatic ideological differences between them, both wings deemed that

Russia would assume a unique historic vocation; this particular role would be achieved by the awakening of the Russian nation, which would attain accord and project it on the rest of the world. The conflict between the Westernizers and the Slavophiles resulted in a schism within the Natural School and ultimately in its demise.

In its initial stages representatives of the School regarded the human being as the product of its environment. In the early 1840s the School was often perceived as a negative trend which vilified reality by refusing to see its bright sides. Bogdanova explains this disconsolate tendency of the early School by noting that it sought to detect the reasons behind the dismal condition of the lower strata of the contemporary society.

«В самом деле, писатели “натуральной школы”, в силу своих убеждений, не могли и не желали видеть положительных сторон современности, ибо их вдохновляли не отдельные усовершенствования действительности, а полное ее преображение.»1

1 Богданова О. А. «Философские и эстетические основы “натуральной школы”». “Натуральная школа” и ее роль в становлении русского реализма. Москва: «Наследие», 1997. С. 16.

101

As a result of this view, the early Natural School investigated types, rather than characters, which were produced by an environment. This tendency to classify people was further supported by Belinskii who proclaimed:

«Бедна литература, не блистающая именами гениальными; но не богата литература, в которой все – или произведения гениальные, или произведения бездарные и пошлые. Обыкновенные таланты необходимы для богатства литературы, и чем больше их, тем лучше для литературы.»2

Of course, Belinskii’s position is based on his conviction that literature and art in

general should serve to conduct thought and the principles necessary for the achievement

of the proclaimed ideal. Nevertheless, Belinskii encouraged such “ordinary talents”.

Belinskii demanded that writers learn to study and classify people, which would allow the

reader to better understand them and to make the connection between types and

environments.

These demands alone, without even taking ideological discords into account, could

have not satisfied writers whose visions and creativities exceeded the boundaries of the

“ordinary talents”. In the early 1840s naturalism was a drastically novel approach in

literature; its themes and characters were fresh and presented compelling objects for

investigation. It is ironic that Belinskii praises Turgenev’s Записки охотника by

declaring that «у Турегенева нет таланта чистого творчества, он может только

изображать виденное и изученное в жизни».3 At the height of his literary career,

2 Белинский В. Г. Собрание сочинений. Москва: 1982. Т. 7, с. 131.

3 Ibid.

102 Turgenev became one of the most perceptive investigators of human nature; however,

Belinskii sees the author’s merit in what he perceives as a denial of imagination.

The unique characteristic of the Natural School in comparison with prior literary movements is the presence of well-defined principles that were developed by the representatives of the school itself. A literary movement can be investigated and fully evaluated only after it has achieved its demise. Only then can readers and critics compare it to other movements. The gradual rejection of an old ideology also allows for its demarcation and crystallization in the minds of its assessors. The rejection of old principles can take place fully only when these principles are well understood and formulated. However, the “Natural School” differs from many preceding movements, including those studied in this work, in that it also forms its ideology as it develops.

Devising of principles a priori presents a certain problem. On the one hand the doctrinaires of the School drew the public’s attention to new subject matters and ideas, but on the other hand they sought to limit authors to the exploration of these particular themes and to limit literature to a subservient function as an ideological intermediary.

Obviously such an approach imposes strict demands on both “the ordinary” and “the extraordinary” talents. While the former thrive within the borders, they cannot sustain the test of time which selects the best. The latter rapidly outgrow the imposed constraints and develop individual styles. Thus, it is only to be expected that such a phenomenon as the

Natural School could not exist for a long time. Already by the mid-forties the movement

103 started showing signs of disintegration. The evolution of the personal talents of Turgenev,

Dostoevskij, and the arrival of Tolstoi only contributed to the shortness of the School’s

life span.

However, for anyone who examines typology in literature, the Natural School

presents certain advantages. The demands that were advanced by the theorists of this

trend inevitably resulted in a certain degree of the uniformity of style. For instance,

writers in search of classifications adopted a particular manner of presentation, which closely resembled journalistic sketches. In his monograph «Натуральная школа в

русской литературе» Kulešov notes the link between this style and the tendency to typify characters:

«Стремление к типам было несколько ригористичным. Их изображение нередко ограничивалось описанием черт, привычек. В физиологических очерках мало действия, и оно как бы противопоказано им, так как может разрушить тип, его жанровость. Герой прочно прирос к среде, как черепаха к панцирю.»4

Another factor that contributes to the relative stylistic uniformity of the School’s

representatives is their attention to a particular aspect of reality, namely, their gravitation

toward the lives of the lower classes and mainly those of its members whose lives were

particularly bleak and troubling. This interest was inspired by the humanistic aspiration

of writers to compel society to notice its sores and to improve lives. The writers’

concentration on similar themes and characters together with their efforts to depict the

observed environments, behaviors, language in their works resulted in the development of features characteristic of the School.

4 Кулешов В. И. Натуральная школа в русской литературе ХIХ века. Москва: «Просвещение», 1965. С. 115.

104 Among the literature-related characteristics of a typical text of that period are the static natures of characters, the precedence of observation over consideration, and frequent concealment of the author’s emotional response in the text. Among the trends related to poetics are the use of dialects, , argot and violations of syntax with the

intention of reflecting the social characteristics of narrators and characters.

Distinctive stylistic features are of interest to this investigation insofar as they

contain examples of iconic representations of reality. It is less difficult to define what

constituted reality for the Natural School, as its members proclaimed it the purpose of

their literary endeavors and consciously defined it. Those rigid conventions set by the

theoreticians of the School and their demand that authors turn to certain spheres of life

for inspiration, themes and characters allows for the use of those principles. The sole task

of this chapter is to detect iconic syntactic devices which refelect life with veracity,

which was relentlessly pursued by the authors of that time period.

4.2 Classifications of Character Types and the Use of Parallel Constructions.

An important task that all representatives of the School set for themselves preceded the actual writing process. Prior to that writers strived to study the material that they were interested in. For instance, Dal’ consciously studied the lifestyles, behavior and language

of various social strata that he portrayed in his works. Grigorovič recalled how he studied

matters that interested him.

105 «Я, прежде всего, занялся собиранием материала. Около двух недель бродил я по целым дням в трех Подьяческих улицах, где преимущественно селились тогда шарманщики, вступал с ними в разговор, заходил в невозможные трущобы, записывал потом до мелочи все, что видел и о чем слышал»5.

This approach resulted from the writers’ desire to educate the public about real life

conditions at the bottom levels of society; that is why many examples of the Natural

School’s writings have a strong informational content. Authors strived to give full accounts of what categories of people populated cities or villages, their occupations, their ethnic backgrounds, their everyday routines and habits. This approach manifested itself in frequent taxonomic characteristics appearing in the School’s prose writings. On the syntactic level taxonomic characteristics exhibited themselves in numerous parallel constructions with frequent anaphora.

Such a construction opens Dal’’s story «Хмель, сон и явь».

«Жизнь простолюдина кажется нам чрезвычайно однообразною, незанимательною:всем помышлениям указан тесный круг; вечные заботы о насущном хлебе; нет потребностей, кроме сна и пищи; нет доблести, кроме случайной; есть добродетель покуда нет искушения, а нет искушения, где нет кабака.»6

Here parallel constructions are used along with anadiplosis (нет искушения). The

ordered structure of the above examples iconizes the systematic and predictable existence

of a commoner preoccupied mainly by daily necessities.

In his physiological sketch «Денщик» Dal’ itemizes personal characteristics of his

character by comparing him with different animals. This approach is illustrative of the

5 Григиорович Д.В. Полное собрание сочинений. Санкт Петербург, 1896. Т. 12, с. 7. 6 Даль В.И. «Денщик». Повести, рассказы, очерки, сказки. Ленинград: 1961. С. 226.

106 School; even though a specific character is seemingly introduced, it is not this particular carriage driver that is the object of Dal’’s study but rather those various typical characteristics that he exhibits.

«Верблюдом был он на походе, когда, запустив шаровары в сапоги и навьючившись разным скарбом, месил грязь мерною поступью; волком – как и где случалось: в нужде, за недосугом купить или выпросить то, что ему было нужно; верным псом был он всегда, и вся забота его, все назначение состояли в том , чтобы хранить и оберегать, по крайнему разумению господское добро; хомяком был он на зимних квартирах, на стоянках, когда несколько месяцев постою на месте казались ему веком, и он обзаводился в то время всякою дрянью, будто век с ней жить, для того только, чтобы после долгих вздохов и соболезнований кинуть все это, когда приходилось вступить в поход; наконец, бобром-строителем Яков делался, если не на каждом привале, то по крайней мере на каждом ночлеге; вилы, два шеста или хворостина, рядно да охапка соломы – и дворец готов...»7

In this passage parallel constructions are combined with ellipsis (the omission of

был он in constituents two and five. All types of behavior depicted here are conditioned

by various essential needs of everyday life. That is why the focus of the sketch are not

individual features of the character but rather his dependence on his environment. The

carriage driver’s actions are not conditioned by conscious choices that are driven by

intellect or emotions, but by a purely biological urge to survive. Hence, the comparison with the animals. Parallelism of the above segment reflects the expectedness of the character’s life. Such dehumanizes the character, turning him into a case of typical behavior study rather than a self-valuable object of interest.

Ščedrin assumes a similar approach portraying a young peasant whose routine life is suddenly disrupted when he is drafted in the army.

7 Ibid. С. 267-268.

107 «Я вижу его за сохой, бодрого и сильного, несмотря на капли пота струящиеся с его загорелого лица; вижу его дома, безропотно исполняющего всякую домашнюю нужду; вижу в церкви божией, стоящего скромно и истово знаменующегося крестным знамением; вижу его поздним вечером, засыпающего сном невинных после тяжкой дневной работы, для него никогда не кончающейся.»8

Similarly, individual characteristics of the character are undermined here. In fact,

the narrator never meets him but rather envisions him when he overhears a regretful remark of an old peasant about the unfortunate fate of the recruit. Thus, the young peasant typifies in the narrator’s view those positive characteristics that he encountered in

peasants. Unlike Dal’’s carriage driver, Ščedrin’s young peasant epitomizes positive

characteristics; still he is only a representative of his kind, his individuality is

considerably undermined.

Parallel constructions were also employed by authors to compare categories of people or places. These categories displayed various attributes which were presented through parallelism. This is how S. Pobedonoscev depicts two categories of clerks in the

first chapter of his novel «Милочка» which opens with a chapter having a title highly

characteristic of the School, “Physiology of a Clerk”.

«Есть видите ли два разряда чиновников: счастливые и несчастные. Одним служба и жизнь [...] улыбаются; другим делают самую глупую гримасу. В департаментском мире одни пользуются уважением и вниманием, -- другие, как парии, остаются никем незамеченными […] Одни – цветущие здоровьем и силою, другие – усталые, истомленные жаждой и голодом путники. Лицо одних кругло, как полнолуние, свежо и здорово, как лесное зрелое яблоко, тогда как лицо других бледно и вытянуто, как та же луна только в первой четверти... Глаза одних живы и быстры, других – тусклы и мертвенны.»*9

8 Щедрин Н. (Салтыков М. Е.) «Общая картина». Губернские очерки. Ленинград: 1933. Т.3, с. 134. *Parallelism is not strict in the above examples as it is disturbed by ellipsis or varying number of corresponding members. However, this does not affect the overall appearance of analogous syntactic patterns in corresponding members. Descriptive attributes distinguished by the author are presented in a mutually relative fashion.

108

Such comparison by categories brings in an instructive tone to the discourse. The passage introduces information about the two classes of clerks designated by the author in a fashion similar to a reference source familiarizing the reader with classes of objects or notion and presenting their relative sets of categories. It represents the authors’ structured and classifying approach to objects of their study.

The young Turgenev evidently experienced the influence of this approach. The opening short story of his cycle Записки охотника, «Хорь и Калиныч», displays the same manner of comparing the two main characters. Turgenev’s profundity, however, already emerges in this work, defying Belinskii’s remark about the ordinariness of his talent. Instead of limiting the comparison of the two peasants to purely external or behavioral characteristics, Turgenev paints two deep psychological portraits showing insights into human nature rather than a simple social study.

«Хорь был человек положительный, практический, административная голова, рационалист; Калиныч, напротив, принадлежал к числу идеалистов, романтиков, людей восторженных и мечтательных. Хорь понимал действительность, то есть: обстроился, накопил деньжонку, ладил с барином и с прочими властями; Калиныч ходил в лаптях и перебивался кое-как. Хорь расплодил большое семейство, покорное и единодушное; у Калиныча была когда-то жена, которой он боялся, а детей и не бывало вовсе. Хорь насквозь видел господина Полутыкина; Калиныч благоговел перед своим господином. Хорь любил Калиныча и оказывал ему покровительство; Калиныч любил и уважал Хоря. Хорь говорил мало, посмеивался и разумел про себя; Калиныч объяснялся с жаром, хотя и не пел соловьем, как бойкий фабричный человек […] Калиныч стоял ближе к природе; Хорь же – к людям, к обществу; Калиныч не любил рассуждать и всему верил слепо; Хорь возвышался даже до иронической точки зрения на жизнь.»10

9 Победоносцев С. П. «Милочка»// Живые картины. Повести и рассказы писателей «Натуральной школы». Москва: «Московский рабочий», 1988. С. 105. 10 Тургенев И. С. «Хорь и Калиныч». Записки охотника. Москва: «Художественная литература», 1949. С. 14-15.

109 Similarly to works of other representatives of the School, Turgenev’s story is primarily a study of a social class. He categorizes people by distinguishing their typological characteristics, such as Kalinyč’s idealism and Xor’’s practicality. While

Turgenev’s characters display considerably more defined individuality than those of previously discussed authors, they are nevertheless products of their caste* and interest

Turgenev as such. As in examples previously discussed in this chapter, parallelism

iconizes diversity within uniformity. Parallel members of the structure are mutually

relative; they are compared to one another as manifestations of the observable reality at

issue, namely, the peasant class.

4.3 The Use of Parallel Constructions in Depictions of Social Groups.

The classifying approach that was adopted by the “Natural School” was applied to

depict various strata of contemporary society. Writers sought to detect and elicit those

typical features that characterized the lives of social groups. Society was perceived as a

fairly orderly hierarchy where individuals constituted families, families made up social or

professional groups, which in their turn made up classes.

The writers’ interest in groups of people stemmed from their interest in the

environment which produced their characters. Such is the description of the two types of

villages of two different Russian provinces which opens «Хорь и Калиныч».

«Кому случалось из Болховского уезда перебираться в Жиздринский, того, вероятно, поражала резкая разница между породой людей в Орловской губернии и калужской породой*. Орловский мужик невелик ростом, сутуловат, угрюм, глядит

The word “breed” is particularly characteristic of the School that strove to categorize its objects of study.

110 исподлобья, живет в дрянных осиновых избенках, ходит на барщину; торговлей не занимается, ест плохо, носит лапти; -- калужский оброчный мужик обитает в просторных сосновых избах, высок ростом, глядит смело и весело, лицом чист и бел; торгует маслом и дегтем и по праздникам ходит в сапогах. Орловская деревня […] обыкновенно расположена среди распаханных полей, близ оврага, кое-как превращенного в грязный пруд. […] Калужская деревня, напротив, большей частью окружена лесом; избы стоят вольней и прямей, крыты тесом; ворота плотно запираются, плетень на задворке не разметан и не вывалился наружу […].»11

The discussion of the contrast between two lifestyles at the beginning of the story serves as a foreshadowing to the comparison of the two contrasting characters who share a bond. Ultimately, Turgenev’s work is a study of life of the Russian village of his time in all of its forms.

People’s behavior was often determined by their surroundings. The Natural School

writers asserted that the root of evil lay in the corrupted and immoral lifestyles practiced

by some social groups, be it a social class or a family, and an individual’s inability to

withstand them. Such are the characteristics of a petty provinicial society seen through

the eyes of an impoverished and aging princess in Ščedrin’s sketch «Княжна Анна

Львовна»:

«В этом миниятюрном мире, где все взаимные отношения определяются в самое короткое время с изумительнейшою точностию, где всякая личность уясняется до малейшей подробности, где нахально выметается в публику весь сор с заднего двора семейного пандемониума – все интересы, все явления делаются до того узенькими, до того пошлыми, что человеку имеющему здоровое обоняние, может сделаться тошно.»12

11 Тургенев И. С. «Хорь и Калиныч». Записки охотника. Москва: «Художественная литература», 1949. С. 7.

12 Щедрин Н. (Салтыков М. Е.) «Княжна Анна Львовна»//Губернские очерки. Ленинград: 1933. Т.3, с.99.

111 The above sentence depicts the expressions of a provincial society’s unattractiveness in interfering parallel passive constructions dividing the main clause.

The main clause states its overall destructive influence, while parallel constructions summarize the ways in which this destructiveness reveals itself. It is noteable that Ščedrin

resorts to a series of passive constructions which iconize the dependence of the town’s

inhabitants on society’s expectations when thoughtless depravity prevails over

independence and honesty.*

A similar structure appears in another satirical sketch constituting Ščedrin’s

Губернские очерки, «Приятное семейство». In the passage below the author lists the

functions of all members of a “pleasant family” which he portrays as a necessary attribute

of a provincial town. In thе last sentence he mentions the activities of the younger children who also perform those functions that contribute to the overall “pleasing” effect of the family:

« В приятном семействе все члены, от мала до велика, наделeны какими- нибудь талантами. Первый и существеннейший талант принадлежит самим хозяину и хозяйке дома и заключается в том, что они издали в свет целый выводок прелестнейших дочерей и немалое количество остроумнейших птенцов, составляющих красу и утешение целого города. […] Даже маленькие члены семьи, и то имеют свою специальность: Маша декламирует басню Крылова, Люба поет 'По улице мостовой', Ваня оденется ямщиком и пропляшет русскую.»13

It is remarkable that Ščedrin employs the same arrangement, parallel subordinate

clauses, while depicting a general picture of the town’s society and its particular

*A special section of this chapter will be dedicated to passive and subjectless constructions. It appears that such constructions iconize the School’s focus on detecting characteristic features of layers of society and their overall lack of concern for human indidviduality.

13 Щедрин Н. (Салтыков М. Е.) «Приятное семейство». Губернские очерки. Ленинград: 1933. Т.3, с. 111.

112 constituent, a family. The family represents a model of the society on a smaller scale. It operates under the same principles when all of its members function according to the conventions that arose in the community.

The above syntactic structure can be applied to depict an individual member of a group of people classified by particular distinctive features. Such is the portrait of a

young aristotcrat in V. Sollogub’s story «Аптекарша»:

«Барон был то, что в полках и учебных заведениях называют добрым малым: не отставал ни от кого, с пьяными готов был пить, с рубаками рубиться, с картежниками играть, с трудолюбивыми углубляться в науку, с лентяями ничего не делать.»14

Here Sollogub depicts behavioral characteristics of a type of person who displays

superficial ties with other groups distinguished by the author in the subordinate clauses.

Like the behavioral patterns of a society and a family in Ščedrin’s works, those of the

baron are also determined by conventions and rituals that evolved in his immediate

milieu. The determination of the character’s behavior by external factors rather than

personal inclinations is confirmed in the story line when he inherits a fortune and leaves to pursue a foreseeable task, a splendid career.

A similar structure frequently occurring in the School’s writing is constituted by

parallel syntagms, units that are lesser than clauses. However, these constructions are

marked by a unifying head similar to the way in which parallel subordinate clauses are

unified by the main one.

Such is the depiction of one of the already mentioned categories of clerks in

Pobedonoscev's tale.

14 Соллогуб В. А. «Аптекарша». Повести и рассказы. Москва: 1962. С. 92.

113 «Николай Иванович не мог дать себе отчета в этих бесчисленных противоположностях, какие представлялись для него в новом поколении чиновников. Соображать покрой жилета фрака и не иметь соображения при наведении справки; знать вкус в каких-нибудь там расстегайчиках Излера и не находить ничего усладительного в смело начертанном докладе; танцевать польку и не восхищаться прелестью отношения по какому-нибудь важному, щекотливому предмету, не находить эстетическим выговора, который можно поглотить, как подслащенную пилюлю, -- все это казалось Николаю Ивановичу несообразным в самой высокой степени.»15

The above sentence lists in uniform syntagms those behavioral characteristics that marked the two contrasting categories. They are depicted through the perspective of the main character who belongs to one of the group. Thus, his personal characteristics are conditioned by his social affiliation.

A societal determination of a character’s behavior is also evident in the description of Sollogub’s character Serioža from the story with the same title. His affinity with the young baron from the story «Аптекарша» is evident. He is also labeled as добрый

малый and shows the same inclinations of interacting with different groups. This superficial fluctuation from one social circle to another contributes to the formation of a shallow personality.

«Он добрый малый, гвардейский щеголь. […] Он не то, чтобы хорош, не то чтобы дурен, не то чтоб умен, не то чтоб глуп, не богат и не беден.»16

Serioža’s temporary infatuation with a woman is also marked by an aimless

fluctuation from one place to another following her.

15 Победоносцев С. П. «Милочка». Живые картины. Повести и рассказы писателей «Натуральной школы». Москва: «Московский рабочий», 1988. С. 107.

16 Соллогуб В. А. «Сережа». Повести и рассказы. Москва: 1962. С. 18.

114 «Сережа не только уверил самого себя, что он влюблен, но даже умел уверить в том и всех знакомых своих. […] Она на бале – и он на бале; она в ложе – и он в партере, она на английских горах – и он ломает себе шею; она гуляет – и он морозит себе пальцы и нос, чтоб пройти молодцом по Невскому в одном сюртучке.»17

When Serioža arrives in his home town he comes to know a provincial family. The

depiction of the family is remarkably similar to that in Ščedrin’s story «Приятное

семейство».

«Не считая мелких девочек и шалунов мальчишек, у четы Карпентовой было налицо три дочери-невесты: Олимпиада, Авдотья и Поликсена. Олимпиада – музыкантша, Авдотья – хозяйка, а Поликсена – плутовка. Олимпиада – высокая, худая, чувствительная, поющая разные романсы и читающая разные романы; Авдотья – плотная, румяная, знающая одну только расходную книгу, имеющая исключительным занятием выдавать весом все домашнии провизии и чрезвычайно много кушать; Поликсена – девочка лет четырнадцати.»18

Like Ščedrin, Sollogub depicts personal characteristics of each daughter through

parallel constructions. While the too elder sisters show polar characteristics, syntactic parallelism unifies them as members of one family which in its turn is a product of its environment. Each sister shows distinctive influences of their surroundings: Olimpiada’s character is shaped by remnants of Romanticism, while Avdot’ia is in accord with mundane aspects of everyday life. Of course, their individualities are not rejected by the

author, but parallelism reveals that they simply are impacted by different aspects of their

reality. The principle of a character’s inseparability from its milieu brings in certain

predictability into the story. Indeed, a reader who is familiar with even few typical

examples of the Natural School’s writing would anticipate the development of the plot in

Sollogub’s story. The researchers studying the School noted many times the author’s

17 Ibid. P.19. 18 Ibid. P.26.

115 attention to the determinism of the environment. This was particularly true about the depiction of the nobility. Here surfaced an antiRomantic attitude to an aristocrat and mockery of the Romantic cult of disillusioned egotism. The Natural School exposes the

true essence of what it viewed as the majority of the aristocracy, particularly in the

provinces.

«Серое провинциальное дворянство выведено в многочисленных повестях и поэмах натуральной школы. Жизнь без всякого ума, примитивные интересы, прихоти, угодничество, чинопочитание, нажива, карьера, чичиковщина, сочетающаяся с жестокостью и самодурством <…> Излюбленным мотивом в изображении пошлости дворян было контрастное сопоставление свежей молодости, мечтаний, благородных порывов в начале произведения с той спячкой, апатией, тупой жестокостью, равнодушием, к которым они приходят в конце.»19

Indeed, Serioža finds himself under the influence of his new acquaintances and

nearly marries dreamy Olimpiada, but as soon as he meets his old friend from St.

Petersburg he falls under the charm of his old lifestyle and quickly abandons leaves the

small town. To further disenchant any traces of Romantic idealism Sollogub later

portrays Olimpiada who is married and preoccupied with petty insults about her

husband’s failures to receive a promotion.

A young nobleman who purposelessly rotates in the upper social circles is a

frequent character portrayed by representatives of the School. He usually lives his life by

mingling in the upper circles. However, such individuals find themselves unable to

function when they find themselves separated from their environment. Such are

Sollogub’s Serioža and Ščedrin’s young baron. Another character of this type is Ivan

19 Кулешов В. И. Натуральная школа в русской литературе ХIХ века. Москва: «Просещение», 1965. С. 235.

116 Vasil’evič who appears in Sollogub’s story «Тарантас». It describes the young man’s journey from Europe to his father’s home in Kazan’. Despite his preconceived idealism about his homeland and his excitement about the possibility “to study” it he quickly becomes disenchanted by the unappealing mundane reality that he encounters on the way.

«Иван Васильевич – молодой человек только что вернувшийся из-за границы. На нем английский макинтош без талии, панталоны его шиты у Шеврёля, палка, на которой он упирается, куплена у Вердье. Волосы его обстрижены по вкусу средних веков, а на подбородке еще видны остатки ужаснейшей бороды.»20

Any indications of the character’s unique characteristicс are intentionally undermined by placing the emphasis on the attributes of his appearance. It is remarkable that Sollogub makes no indication of the character’s physiological features. Parallelism in the enumeration of his attributes, that comprises his entire personality, allows for the emphasis on these external attributes which supersede any internal characteristics. It also establishes the character's typological features which reveal the marks of his group. His idleness and inertia are also emphasized by parallel passive constructions.

The use of parallel constructions appears to come out of the School’s preoccupation with uncovering those social mechanisms that conditioned human behavior. People are shown as either passive victims of their surroundings or as rare atypical individuals who resist falling victim to their environment. However, even rare exceptional features of a particular character illustrate the commonality of those who surround him. Parallelism allows reflecting those mechanisms. Preoccupation with uncovering them resulted in

20 Соллогуб В. А. «Тарантас». Повести и рассказы. Москва: 1962. С.159.

117 frequently predictable developments of plots which, in its turn, conditioned development of syntactic formulae. Parallelism is one reflection of the School’s high structuralism regarding the portrayal of people and their behavior.

4.4 Nominative Series in Character Portraits.

Another iconic device that mirrors these orderly conceptions is the abundance of nominative series along with relative scarcity of verbs in syntactic structures.

Series of nominative or adjectival modifiers can be seen frequently in passages depicting a character’s appearance or character traits. They list features that link a character to their social class or group and iconize orderliness and stability of the social structure.

Such, for instance, is the description of a clerk in Pobedonoscev’s «Милочка».

«Всякий день все тот же вицмундир, тот же черный галстух и форменный жилет с гербовыми пуговицами, та же шляпа, та же шинель, к которой зимой пристраивался меховой воротник, те же резиновые калоши.»21

The series of permanent attributes of the character’s appearance iconize the

constancy of his character and the consistency of his environment on which he relies in

his permanence. The impression of a static nature of the character in a stagnant

environment is reinforced by the absence of a verb.

21 Победоносцев С. П. «Милочка». Живые картины. Повести и рассказы писателей «Натуральной школы». Москва: «Московский рабочий», 1988. С. 106.

118 The usual static nature of characters in the School’s writings was noted by critics.

The expansion of the authors’ interests to character dynamism would become one of the signifiers of the School’s demise.

«Натуралистический образ внутренне статичен: есть лицо, внешность, поступки, «образцы» речи, но нет индивидуального характера, диалектического его самораскрытия в столкновениях с другими характерами, нет системы сюжетного развертывания, движения, герой не растет, не изменяется.»22

Ščedrin describes one of his characters, a provincial bon vivant, in a similar fashion.

He visibly represents a type, and his appearance only makes his social origin more

evident.

«Горехвастову лет около сорока; он, что называется, видный мужчина, в роде тех, которых зрелище поселяет истому в организм сорокалетних капиталисток и убогих вдов ростовщиц. Росту в нем без малого девять вершков, лицо белое, одутловатое, украшенное проличным носом и огромными, тщательно закрученными усами, <…> голос густой и зычный, глаза, как водится, свиные.»23

In the above passage three parallel constructions with postpositional modifiers often appear without a copula, which iconizes the static nature of the character. In addition, the elements of the series gradually decrease from three constituents in the first series to only one member modifiying the third component. The decrease in the number of modifiers in the series iconizes the exterior prominence of the character and reveals the triviality of his essential nature.

Further Ščedrin uses traditionally lists the attributes of the character’s attire that link him to his social group closer than any beliefs or mind set.

22 Кулешов В. И. Натуральная школа в русской литературе ХIХ века. Москва: «Просещение», 1965. С. 103.

23 Щедрин Н. (Салтыков М. Е.) «Горехвастов». Губернские очерки. Ленинград: 1933. Т.3, с. 311.

119 «Он заметно любит щеголять; на нем надето что-то круглое: сюртук не сюртук, пальто не пальто, фрак не фрак, а что-то среднее, <…> сапоги лаковые, перчатки палевые, жилет кашемировый пестроты ослепительной; на рубашке столько складок, что ум теряется.»24

Two sets of parallel constructions in the above sentence iconize expectedness and

orderliness of the character’s place in society.

An opposite type of a character’s stability, which reveals itself in the solidness of

virtues, is described by Grigorovič in his novel «Пахарь». Grigorovič presents the merits

of his character as a direct result of his simple life style and his devotion to simple labor:

«Меня особенно поражали в нем всегда необычайная кротость нрава, чистота помыслов и благочестие. Единственная вещь, быть может, которой он не любил, было миткалевое производство; но никогда, однако ж, не относился он с насмешкой, злобой или пренебрежением...»25

The old plowman is a symbol of the compelling positive part of peasantry that

shaped people of simple and solid virtues. This symbolic role is important; it is evident

due to the choice of words in the first series which is clearly influenced by the Christian

view of goodness. The virtues encompassed in his character are countered against the

second series with the same number of elements. The latter series that lists negative

characteristics emphasizes the former. The significance of the first series is affirmed by

the position of its elements as subjects. At the same time the elements of the second

series are designated by indirect objects, and they are linked to a negated verb.

24 Ibid.

25 Григорович Д. В. «Пахарь». Избранное. Москва: «Современник», 1984. С 291.

120 Many of Turgenev’s character descriptions display series of postpositional modifiers, iconizing the significance of a character’s attributes or personal characteristics.

Such is the portrait of a landowner in the story «Два помещика».

«Мардарий Апполоныч старичок низенький, пухленький, лысый, с двойным подбородком, мягкими ручками и порядочным брюшком.»26

This short sentence displays two series of appearance attributes and an absence of а

copula. Both series, the first set of adjectives and the second set of adjective + noun in the

instrumental case preceded by the preposition c, represent features that appear to be

exemplary of the character’s type. This impression is further reinforced by the use of

diminutives which lessen the character as a distinct personality but rather portray him as a

representative of his group.

Series of nouns in the instrumental case governed by the preposition c are fairly

common in passages that describe a character’s appearance. Their frequent usage may be

conditioned by the obviousness of external characteristics of a certain group. Attention to

internal characteristics would have inevitably uncovered personal traits revealing a

possible gap between an individual and his milieu. Of course eventually this discovery

was bound to happen, but in the early 1840s the Romantic absorption with a detached

individual was counteracted by the public’s attention to those characteristics that linked

people with their immediate environment.

These constructions recur in another one of Turgenev’s stories where he describes a

female landowner.

26 Тургенев И. С. «Два помещика». Записки охотника. Москва: «Художественная литература», 1949. С. 170.

121 «Татьяна Борисовна – женщина лет пятидесяти, с большими серыми глазами навыкате, несколько тупым носом, румяными щеками и двойным подбородком.»27

Many character portraits combine series of attributes with an ellipsis. Of course, the

copula is normally absent in the present tense in Russian. However, character portraits

are often introduced in the present in contrast with the main discourse, which normally

appears in the past tense. The choice of the present tense can be viewed as a pretext for

copula omission. The imbalance between the lack of verbs and a series of modifiers can

be regarded as a device that iconizes the static nature of characters and their link with a

still background. It is this background that the Natural School strove to capture, being

preoccupied with current conditions rather than with the past or the future.

In the above passage, the woman’s appearance is intentionally made unremarkable.

Her features are listed in a series which accentuates her ordinariness. However, unlike many other representatives of the School, Turgenev shows genuine interest in his

characters as individuals. Like other writers during that period, he is interested in the

shaping role of the environment; yet he already attempts to see beyond it and to

comprehend how a particular environment affects a particular individual. It becomes

evident to a reader of Turgenev that, while the environment clearly exerts an influence on

people, its outcome is not necessarily determined.

Turgenev’s insightfulness vividly manifests itself in the story «Живые мощи»,

where he describes an encounter with a crippled peasant woman. The narrator witnesses

the woman’s remarkable humility in the face of her destinity. Her state of mind and soul

27 Тургенев И. С. «Татьяна Борисовна и ее племянник». Записки охотника. Москва: «Художественная литература», 1949. С. 188.

122 is not at all typical of the village people, and it is her exceptionality that magnetizes the narrator. Below is the description of the heroine’s appearance as the narrator first sees her.

«Голова совершенно высохшая, одноцветная, бронзовая – ни дать, ни взять – икона старинного письма, нос узкий, как лезвеё ножа, губ почти не видать – только зубы белеют и глаза, да из-под платка выбиваются на лоб жидкие пряди желтых волос. У подбородка, на складке одеяла, движутся, медленно перебирая пальцами, две крошечные руки тоже бронзового цвета. Я вглядываюсь попристальнее: лицо не только не безобразное, даже красивое, -- но страшное, необычайное.»28

It is remarkable that Turgenev employs the School’s common method of using

parallel constructions with series of postpositional adjectives when introducing the

portrait of his heroine. Thus, he depicts this character in connection with those of her

kind; but unlike most representatives of the School who portrayed their characters as

products of their social environment, Turgenev makes a direct reference to iconography.

Postpositioning of adjectival modifiers and their usage in series emphasizes them, while

the absence of verbs accentuates the pictorial nature of this passage. In accord with the

tradition of the Natural School Turgenev depicts his heroine in connection with her

environment; in contrast with this tradition which concentrated on the ordinary social

environment, Turgenev selects the superior plane and affirms that it is capable of having

an effect on a person.

In the story «Певцы» Turgenev describes a character that captures his attention by

his exceptional appearance.

28 Тургенев И. С. «Живые мощи». Записки охотника. Москва: «Художественная литература», 1949. С. 330.

123 «Трудно было решить, к какому сословию принадлежал этот Геркулес; он не походил ни на дворового, ни на мещанина, ни на обедневшего подъячего в отставке, ни на мелкопоместного разорившегося дворянина – псаря и драчуна: он был уж точно сам по себе.»29

In the above passage Turgenev uses a series of negated nominative modifiers. Thus,

while asserting his character’s distinctiveness, he also affirms the conventionality of

many existing social groups which he mentions in the series. So the peculiarity of the

character is due to his distinction from the predictable environment.

4.5 Nominative Series and Depictions of Social Groups.

Along with depictions of typical character features the Natural School was also

interested in those social groups that displayed distinctive features and formed society as

a whole. It is not surprising that authors employed similar mechanisms in descriptions of

personal and group characteristics. Series of uniform constituents were amply utilized to

describe life styles, roles and functions of particular group. The term “physiological

portrait” was widely acknowledged as a valuable method of a character depiction.*

However, it is reasonable to characterize the School’s method of social group depictions as daguerrotypes in their own right. Like individuals, groups of people were ascribed distinctive characteristics. Furthermore, no small group portrayed in the School’s writings displayed any movement. Despite heated arguments between Westerners and Slavophiles

29 Тургенев И. С. «Певцы». Записки охотника. Москва: «Художественная литература», 1949. С. 221. * Along with the term physiology the term daguerrotypism was used to characterize the Natural School’s method of character portrayals. The source of this name was an invention of L.-J.-M. Daguerre who discovered how to capture images on steel miniatures to mass produce them typographically. This approach makes obvious the School’s preoccupation with characters' typicality as well as their static nature.

124 about the role of Russia in the course of universal history, authors failed to show а dialectic of contemporary society on smaller scales. Whether a small town circle of nobility, a village, an army division, a clerk office, their functions are cyclical and they do not show any ways of affecting the entire society, besides having a place in it. The uses of series reflect this cyclical static nature of such society components.

Dal’ employs an array of syntactic series in the following passage where he depicts the cyclical nature of a Russian peasant’s life.

«Известно, что календарь нашего крестьянина отличается по способу выражения от нашего: мужик редко знает месяцы и числа, но знает хорошо посты, заговенья, сочельники, все праздники, святых и, избирая более замечательные в быту его сроки, обозначает их сими названиями. У Якова был свой календарь, довольно понятный в его кругу*: время назначения новых капралов, фельдфебелей, ротных батальонных, полковых, бригадных и, наконец, корпусных командиров; смотры, постройка или пригонка амуниции, лагерь, ученье, перемена стоянки, марши, походы, дневки, привалы – и, наконец, замечательные события в роте, в батальоне, в полку: такой-то солдат бежал, такой-то солдат сломал приклад ружья, потерял штык, тому или другому дана награда, такой-то произведен чином, такой- то умер, переведен, вновь определился и прочее.»30

Even as the main character finds himself in a new environment drawn into a

military routine, he maintains his routine lifestyle and perceives the surrounding

circumstances as a set of predictable norms and practices. The above passage displays six sets of series with some of the smaller ones within larger ones. They iconize typicality and predictability of two groups of people mentioned in it: the peasant class and the

* Underlining not in the original.

30 Даль В.И. «Денщик». Повести, рассказы, очерки, сказки. Ленинград: 1961. С. 266.

125 military. Even the occurrence of verbs is countered by their use in a series, thus, undermining the dynamic aspect of life in the military by emphasizing its monotonous nature.

In the prologue of the story «Хмель, сон и явь» Dal’ describes labor customs of entire peasant strata. Here once more he employs series that indicate both the origin of workers and the types of their occupations:

«...симбирцы, владимирцы, ярославцы, строят дома в Уральске, Оренбурге, Омске и Тобольске. <…> Тысячи плотников, столяров, половщиков, штукатуров, печников, кровельщиков рассыпаются оттуда ежегодно по всей России...»31

The above passage displays lengthy series that iconize orderliness and expectedness. The overview presented here is more representative of a social study rather than a piece of a literary narrative. The groups mentioned above do not show any distinctive traits, they are defined merely by geographical origin and professional attributes.

The same method is used to make a sweeping statement and to achieve a comic effect by Pobedonoscev in his novel «Милочка».

«А родня была все такая знатная: все князья да княгини: Тряпкины, Тяпкины, Ляпкины, Мочалкины, Ветошкины и другие, которых неупомню.»32

Here the author intentionally diminishes the importance of prominent families by

ridiculing their names. Their occurrence in a series iconizes their lack of individuality.

31 Даль В.И. «Хмель, сон и явь». Повести, рассказы, очерки, сказки. Ленинград: 1961. С. 227. 32 Победоносцев С. П. «Милочка». Живые картины. Повести и рассказы писателей «Натуральной школы». Москва: «Московский рабочий», 1988. С. 124.

126 Ščedrin’s character Gorexvastov describes his surrounding circle in the same fashion. He also sees them as a faceless bunch set apart only by their actions concerning their careers.

«Я понимаю, что можно служить, как служат, например, князья Патрикеевы, Щенятевы, Ижеславские, Оболдуи-Таракановы. Они, я вам доложу, посостоят крошечку, а потом и катают внезапно в государственные мужи.»33

Ščedrin’s character views people around him from the perspective that is

comprehensible to him, as forces that either halt or boost his career. The bunch of names

he refers to represents a group that in Gorexvastov’s view constitutes a competition to his

advancement. They are merely a group and Gorexvastov perceives them as such.

Ščedrin uses series as he describes the society of a provincial town. The use of its attributes in a series renders the nondescript nature of life in a small town and unison among its inhabitants, in the sense that their lives are determined by their milieu rather than by personal beliefs and choices.

«Княжна мгновенно <...> была посвящена во все мелочи губернской закулисной жизни. Ей стали известны все скрытые безобразия, все сердечные недуги, все скорби и болячки крутогорского общества.»34

It is remarkable that some of the members of the above series indicate illness

symptoms as if the author describes parts of one body that functions as a whole. Thus, the

use of series iconizes predictability and lack of motion. The author studies laws according

33 Щедрин Н. (Салтыков М. Е.) «Горехвастов». Губернские очерки. Ленинград: 1933. Т.3, с. 315. 34 Щедрин Н. (Салтыков М. Е.) «Княжна Анна Львовна». Губернские очерки. Ленинград: 1933. Т.3, с. 99.

127 to which the society functions. These functions and characteristics are revealed in series, but it is a motionless society. Ščedrin does not wonder about what molded it, whether it can be changed, how and why.

4.6 The Use of Series in Settings Depictions.

Grigorovič uses series to describe the routine life of a peasant whose life is in harmony with his surroundings. The author recognizes a cyclical nature of such a life.

The use of series serves to render this expectedness and constancy.

«Величаво-молчаливая с ними, гордыми мира сего, она [природа] говорит пахарю и распускающимся листом, и восходом солнца, говорит ему мерцанием звезд, течением ветра, полетом птиц и тысячею-тысячею других голосов, которые для нас, гордых мира всего, останутся навсегда языком непонятным.»35

The stability of life is additionally iconized by the repetition of the verb phrase

(говорит ему) which affirms certainty, and by the of the last member

(тысячею) which iconizes multiplicity of manifestations of stability of life.

Noteably, the plowman embodies all those who live lives in such a way; that is his

image is highly symbolic. Thus, once more an author paints a picture of a group which is

defined not only by its relation to a social class (Grigorovič often portrays very unlikable

peasant characters) but by other defining features such as its morality and values. Still,

Grigorovič’s character is important to him principally as a representative of everything

that is admirable and worthy in the peasant class. This interest in a peasant as a

representative of peasantry is what marks Grigorovič’s work as an example of the Natural

School writings.

35 Григорович Д. В. «Пахарь». Избранное. Москва: «Современник», 1984. С. 296.

128 It has been noted that series are used to describe personality and social group traits to convey their constancy, predictability or commonness. It has also been noted that the

Natural School’s characters display a tight link with their environment. It is not unexpected then that modifying series are often used to depict such environments in the

School’s writings.

The parallel is vivid in the comparison of the two following examples. The first one is the portrait of a money lender from Nekrasov’s story «Ростовщик», the secnd one is the description of a jail.

«Что касается до внутренней его жизни, то тут встречается та же картина. Темно, черно, холодно. Душа закалилась, замерзла, зачерствела, ничем невозможно было разбудить ее.»36

«В первый раз попал Степан в такое место – в первый раз, может статься, и заслужил это. И темно, и сыро, и душно, и грязно.»37

In both passages series of short adjectives are used to render stagnation. Absence of

verbs reinforces the impression of the unchanging nature of a person in the first case and

a place in the second. The use of short adjectives adds a categorical tone to the statement

which reflects the authors’ intentions to paint a complete picture.*

It is remarkable that similar series are employed to describe both a person and a

place. Both display permanent characteristics. The series of modifiers reflect the

classifying aspect of characterizations typical of the Natural School.

36 Некрасов Н.А. «Ростовщик». Собрание сочинений. Москва: 1966. Т.5, с. 111.

37 Даль В.И. «Хмель, сон и явь». Повести, рассказы, очерки, сказки. Ленинград: 1961. С. 241. * The of short adjectives is discussed by Rozental’ in his Практическая стилистика русского языка. Москва: 1977. С. 122.

129 Series of nouns often appear in descriptions of dwellings, such as homes, villages or cities. Enumerations of attributes not only contribute into the pictorial quality of such description, but they also are symbolic of a particular lifestyle. For contemporaries such object entailed clear associations. Writers of that period did not seek to describe new and previously unknown modes of existence but rather to bring attention to those that were familiar to the reader but perhaps often passed unnoticed. Thus, series invoked already existing pictures of reality. They showed environments as undeviating and predictable.

These environments were also typical of their kind. Predictable and typical environments allowed authors to establish a firm mutual connection between them and the characters.

Illustrative of that approach is the description of the home of a maintenance man in

Dal’’s sketch «Петербурский дворник»:

«Подле печи три коротенькие полочки – а на них две деревянные чашки и одна глиняная, ложки, зельцерский кувшин, штофчик, полуштовчик, графинчик, какая-то мутная порожняя склянка и фарфоровая золоченая чашка с графской короной. Под лавкой буро-зеленый самовар о трех ножках, две битые бутылки с ворванью и сажей для смазки надолб и, вероятно, ради приятного, сытного запаха, куча обгорелых плошек. <...> В углу образа, вокруг вербочки, в киоте сбереженное от святой яичко и кусочек кулича, чтоб разговеться на тот год; под киотом бутылка с богоявленской водой и пара фарфоровых яичек.»38 The enumeration of material objects in a verbless sentence allows extreme attention to detail and visualization of the scene by the reader. The character’s home does not show any traces of the individual influence of this particular character. It is rather a typical home of a typical maintenance man. The physiological aspect of the character sketch is reinforced by this still life of his home.

38 Даль В.И. «Петербургский дворник». Повести, рассказы, очерки, сказки. Ленинград: 1961. С.250-251.

130 The same principle is used by Sollogub in the depiction of the home of a student.

«Что за жизнь в студенческой комнате! Сколько значения! Сколько прекрасного и смешного! Сколько разгульного и глубокого вместе! Тут череп и человеческие кости, там пестрые шпаги, огромные трубки, рапиры, карикатуры не стене; с другой стороны громады тетрадей и книг; далее – бутылки и стаканы, карты, дубины, плащи, вассерштифели и большой белый пудель, который, важно выставив морду, глядит на все спокойными глазами хозяйского друга.»39

The objects named in the above description represent different aspects of a

student’s life: interests, pursuits, studies, infatuations. It is a lifestyle that is familiar to the intended audience so it generates certain expectations regarding the protagonist and plot development. Once more a series of noun denoting material objects along with the absence of verb iconize expectedness and stability of a character forming environment.

It is notable that different writers of the period resort to the same approach describing settings of different character types. Turgenev employs nominative series to describe the home of a landowner. The author remarks that it is a typical dwelling of an ordinary landowner, thus, he does not expect the reader to conceive of a distinctive character but simply to extract an already familiar picture from his background knowledge in order to recognize the significance of everyday life.

«Живет Мардарий Аполлонович совершенно на старый лад. И дом у него старинной постройки: в передней, как следует, пахнет квасом, сальными свечами и кожей; тут же направо буфет с прусаками и утиральниками; в столовой фамильные портреты, мухи, большой горшок ерани и кислые фортопианы; в гостиной три дивана, три стола, два зеркала и сиплые часы, с почерневшей эмалью и бронзовыми, резными стрелками; в кабинете стол с бумагами, ширмы синеватого цвета с наклеенными картинками, вырезанными из разных сочинений прошедшего столетия, шкапы с вонючими книгами, пауками и черной пылью, пухлое кресло, итальянское окно, да наглухо заколоченная дверь в сад... Словом, все, как водится.»*40

39 Соллогуб В. А. «Аптекарша». Повести и рассказы. Москва: 1962. С. 91. * The underlined segments pertain to the typical nature of the desribed scene.

131

The painstaking enumeration of the finest details of the above picture appeals to the readers’ familiarity with similar scenes. It seeks to evoke a corporeal perception of the painted picture instigating the reader to recognize rather than to imagine the scene and, thus, the character. Such recognition is possible due to the pictorial aspect of the scene iconized by an elaborate nominative series.

Grigorovič depicts the home of a traveling performer and Sollogub gives a picture of a Gypsy clan by mounding extensive series of nouns denoting different notions: from material objects to smells and sounds.

«Посреди комнаты стоят ящики с соломою, и три или четыре обезьяны не перестают в них возиться и пищать самым неприятным дискантом; несколько ширм, коробок с куклами, мешков с мукою и макаронами разбросано по разным углам; кадка с помоями издает из-под печки особенно неприятный запах; дым, виясь из коротеньких деревянных трубок (необходимой принадлежности русских работников), наполняет освобожденное от хлама пространство; говор, хохот, писк, лай собак, визг детей – заглушают храпенье нескольких шарманщиков, сверхъестественно согнувшихся на печке, на лавках и на полу.»41

The above description contains several nominal series and creates a vivid picture.

The combination of nouns denoting diverse notions creates a balance between the internal

commotions and the overall static nature of the scene. The chaos reigning in the room

presents a steady pictorial image that is intended to show an authentic environment of a

particular group.

40 Тургенев И. С. «Два помещика». Записки охотника. Москва: «Художественная литература», 1949. С. 171.

41 Григорович Д. В. «Петербургские шарманщики». Избранное. Москва: «Современник», 1984. С. 30-31.

132 Similarly, Sollogub combines nouns denoting people and inanimate objects in one series to create a picture of a tumultuous Gypsy tribe. Once more a nominal series iconizes the pictorial aspect of the scene.

«У самой опушки леса, около большого поля цыганский табор рисовался в живописном беспорядке. Телеги с протянутыми к деревьям холстами в виде шатров, привязанные лошади, смуглые ребятишки на перинах, дымящиеся костры, безобразные старухи в оборванных мантиях, коричневые лица, всклокоченные волосы – все резко обозначалось в этой странной и дикой картине.»42

Remarkably, the author himself perceives the scene as a picture which is evident

through the use of such characterizations as живописный беспорядок and странная

картина.

Themes and character choices have been examined extensively in studies on the

Natural School. However, various settings depicted in that period’s literature did not

receive the attention it deserved despite many researchers’ frequent assertions of a tight

connection between characters and their environments. It is particularly remarkable that

the writers of the period used similar mechanisms to describe both people and spaces.

The use of elaborate series in depictions of space must be explained by a high symbolic

load of their components. All objects and details constituting a particular scene could

have been envisioned by the reader and generate emotive associations and responces. It is

necessary to reiterate that the School sought the public’s recognition of everyday life and

its significance. The pictures of backgrounds owed their stability to the authors’ desire to

depict life with utmost faithfulness. Nominative series along with the absence or scarcity

of the verbal component iconized this stability, pictorial quality and predictability.

42 Соллогуб В. А. «Тарантас». Повести и рассказы. Москва: 1962. С. 201.

133

4.7 The Use of Merismus in Depictions of Settings.

Another significant iconic device which appears in descriptions of space is the use

of merismus, doublets indicating polar notions or concepts. This can be seen, for

example, in the description of St. Petersburg by Dal’:

«Невский проспект, от Дворцовой площади и до Невского монастыря, -- это не только целый город, целая столица, это целый мир; мир вещественный и мир духовный, мир событий, столкновений, случайностей, мир хитрой и сложной расчетливости, тонких происков и продувного пустозвона; это палата ума и торная колея дурачества; бездна премудрости и шутовской помост фиглярства; кладезь замысловатости и битая мостовая пошлости; картинная галерея скромной модности и позорище модной скромности; выставка щегольства, роскоши и вкуса – базар чванства и суетности, толкучий рынок многих, если не всех, слабостей и глупостей людских; опорная точка, основание действий и целой жизни одного человека – поворотный круг и солнцестояние другого; это ратное поприще и укромная келия – бег взапуски на беспредельное пространство и тесный круг коловращения вокруг наемного очага. <...> Служба, и военная и гражданская, и, словом, всякая, мелькает вправо и влево, впереди и назади – и тут же снуют туда и сюда самые неслужебные лица, озабоченные своими и чужими расчетами, нуждой и горем <...> А загляните в подвалы, ярусы и чердаки: тут в одно и то же время и крестят и отпевают, и сватают и венчают, и хоронят и рожают...»43

The use of oppositional doublets in descriptions of environments iconizes the completeness and all-inclusiveness of these environments for those who dwell in them.

The inhabitants of Nevskii are fully dependent on their environment; all aspects of their

lives are influenced by it and receive a full expression in it.

Unlike Dal’s extensive account of Nevskii Prospekt, Sollogub’s mention of his

character’s home village is brief, but that briefness is compensated by the use of

merismus.

43 Даль В.И. «Жизнь человека или прогулка по Невскому проспекту». Повести, рассказы, очерки, сказки. Ленинград: 1961. С. 116-117.

134 «Василий Иванович родился в Казанской губернии, в деревне Мордасах, в которой родился и жил его отец, в которой ему суждено было и жить и умереть.»44

The appearance of two sets of polar notions relating to the lives of the character and

his father express the completeness and wholeness of this environment and its absolute

character-forming power.

The depiction of the inner circle of a provincial general in Ščedrin’s sketch

iconizes the entirety of that character’s limited world. It limits the character to his

immediate environment and shows his full dependence on it:

«Тут же и величественный директор народного училища <...> и много других еще, высоких и маленьких, пузатеньких и тщедушных, горделивых и смирных.»45

Finally, Grigorovič also employs merismus describing the world of his plowman.

He attaches extreme significance to the intimate bond between the plowman and the

nature surrounding him. Merismus iconizes their mutual dependence and inclusiveness.

«И точно, лучше старика не мог знать о времени жнитва и посева, о свойствах земли и зерен. Сколько забот и попечений они ему стоили, сколько тревог и радостей принесли они ему, сколько пота пролил он в эти шестьдесят лет своей трудовой жизни.»46

The use of a repetition (сколько) and of the doublet забот и попечений, which

contains synonyms, represent additional iconic devices that express iteration, bringing an

emotional undertone to the passage.

44 Соллогуб В. А. «Тарантас». Повести и рассказы. Москва: 1962. С. 241.

45 Щедрин Н. (Салтыков М. Е.) «Общая картина». Губернские очерки. Ленинград: 1933. Т.3, с. 138.

46 Григорович Д. В. «Пахарь». Избранное. Москва: «Современник», 1984. С. 293.

135

4.8 Concluding Remarks.

Along with unquestionable stylistic individualities of the more significant authors of that period, it is possible to distinguish a certain degree of uniformity in the writings of the Natural School. Such persistent iconic devices as parallelism, nominative series and merismus were analyzed in this chapter. The feature that connects all of the above devices is their high structural orderliness. The presence of this orderliness is a direct

consequence of the tasks and objectives pursued by the School, namely, to give an

extensive and faithful account of different levels of contemporaneous society. In order to

reach that goal, authors strove to establish connections between the strata of society and

their immediate environments. It is remarkable that authors rarely depict interactions among people from different social layers. And even if they do, they demonstrate mutual

incompatibility of different classes or groups, a lack of understanding among them. For

instance, the pair of aristocrats in Grigorovič’s long short story «Деревня» fails to

understand the female peasant whom they force into a tragic marriage in an attempt to

arrange her happiness.

The constraints of people by their environments preclude the appearance of

dynamic characters or plots. Instead, both become highly pictorial and static. The authors

strove to draw the readers’ attention to the already existing aspects of life. This approach

resulted in their meticulous dissecting of the society and scrupulous accounts of the finest

details of life. Thus, literature of that period contains syntactic constructions that are

highly ordered and structured.

136

CHAPTER 5

THREE TALES OF THE SILVER AGE

5.1 The Supernatural as an Alternate Reality.

At the end of the 19th century the Russian intelligentsia began to feel an increasing

dissatisfaction with pragmatism and accuracy with which the world was viewed and

depicted during the age of Realism. The truthful portrayal of life, which was based on reason and the desire to comprehend or try to explain all human behavior, left no room for emotive expressiveness or, more importantly, for the exploration of those sides of life, which appeared to be beyond the scope of “true-to-life” experiences. Thus, the end of the century also marked a renewed interest in religion and spirituality. Dissatisfaction with the old forms arose across the borders that divided different forms of art and was inititally directed against classical Realism, which appeared to have exhausted itself both in

Europe and in Russia. This state of affairs was akin to what had occurred almost one century before, when the crumbling of Neoclassicist forms gave way to the Romantic

Movement.

The trend that emerged in the 1890s with the publication of a few poems by the debutant authors Sologub, Merežkovskii, Gippius and Bal’mont became what is still probably the most multifaceted phenomenon in the history of Russian literature, which

137 encompassed many literary schools, varying philososphical views and even various, sometimes openly conflicting, literary camps. Still, there was a unifying principle that highlighted the overall atmosphere of that time: the yearning for lost spirituality, which revealed itself anew in the quest to acquire unity with the Divine, however it was understood. The new generation became preoccupied with such ideas as cosmology, universal wholeness and universal harmony.

There existed another factor that reinforced and intensified the new movement that

was later unified under the title Silver Age: Russian religious thought was experiencing

a Renaissance with the emergence of such thinkers as Vl. Solov’ev, N. Berdiaev, and

Fr. P. Florenskii. Cosmology became intertwined with religious mysticism, metaphysics

and philososphy; it penetrated various forms of art.

As a result the artist’s mission came to be regarded as a collaboration with the universal creative force in its struggle against chaos. Art was endowed with the capacity to transfigure existence and advance it to the ideal intended by God.

This perception triggered a novel understanding of literary forms and their symbolic

nature. Literary forms were not simply understood as representations of celestial truths,

but as symbols that possessed an empirical capability to exert influence on the

surrounding world. As Vjačeslav Ivanov maintained, «искусство есть одна из форм

действия высших реальностей на низшие»1.

In the art of some poets and writers of that period, the assertion of a bond between

the revealed and the concealed worlds gave way to the desire to capture modes of

1 Иванов В. И. «О границах искусства». Собрание сочинений. Брюссель, 1971. Т.2, с. 646.

138 interaction between those worlds. This pursuit instigated a renewed interest in an individual’s perception of reality. Symbolists believed that clandestine cosmological influence could not be captured through rationality but rather through an array of primal senses unadulterated by intellectual scrutiny. The contention that the Divine influence could not be perceived through reasoning resulted in novel literary forms characterized by extreme impressionism. If these new forms appeared highly original and frequently shocking in poetry, the quintessence of which is the expression of feelings and emotions, their emergence in prose was received as either brilliant or scandalous.

The most apparent characteristics among many examples of this new impressionist prose were their seemingly chaotic and frenzied style and discontinuity of plot. Two writers whose prose conspicuously reveals these qualities are Fedor Sologub and Aleksei

Remizov, whose stories will be discussed in this chapter. Despite prominent differences in their styles, they have one trend in common: at first glance their prose appears inaudible, unclear, saturated with repetitions, omissions, and with abstruse syntactic organization. However, on closer examination, the outward chaos often acquires the orderliness of an extremely detailed ornament which is tinted by a dominant hue.

Both writers force their readers to experience what they depict dynamically.

Remizov and Sologub depict the world in motion as it opens up to them as narrators and to their characters. Then the reader in turn must become a co-experiencer of the world that is revealed to him.

139 5.2 Parallel Constructions as Icons of Correlation between the Natural and the

Mystical Worlds in Brjusov’s «В зеркале».

The style of another prominent symbolist author, Valerij Brjusov, differs dramatically from that of Sologub and Remizov in its apparent orderliness and clarity. A true symbolist, Brjusov strives to capture the clandestine influence of the invisible world on the ordinary world. However, his position is that of an observer. The poet Èllis

(Kobylinskij) notes this characteristic of Brjusov’s prose.

«...Брюсов убежден в “реальности ирреального” и, следовательно, в ирреальности реального. <...> Этим объясняется несравненная сознательность, строгость в форме и главное точность и гармоничность в соблюдении перспективы созерцания всего брюсовского творчества.»2

Èllis notes two central characteristics of Brjusov’s art: dualism and observation

(созерцание). His dualism is in his preoccupation by the interaction between the concealed and the revealed worlds; his observation is in his striving to capture means of that interaction and their mutual influences. It appears that due to these two distinctive features of Brjusov’s conception the theme of the mirror almost had to emerge in his writings.

In his story «В зеркале», a real woman and her mirror reflection struggle for a life in the real world in which they cannot exist together. In order for one to be able to exist in this real world the other has to assume her place in the reflected deficient world of the mirror. The existence in the reflected world is tormenting for its inhabitants, who experience no other sensations besides vision.

2 Эллис. Русские символисты. Томск: «Водолей», 1996. С. 138.

140 At the same time the story is subtitled «Из архива психиатра» which brings in an uninvolved and also dubious perspective. To those who surround her, the heroine appears to have a psychiatric disorder. It remains dubious whether her split personality is a result of a mental illness or if her contact with the opposite world and her temporary imprisonment in the world of the mirror actually happened.

The duality of the woman’s personality is twofold in itself. In the beginning the

worlds of multiple mirrors reflect the opposites in her personality.

«Были миры зеркал, которые я любила; были – которые ненавидела. <...> Были такие, которых я презирала, над бессильной яростью которых любила смеяться, которых дразнила своей самостоятельностью и мучила своей властью над ними. Были, напротив, и такие, которых я боялась, которые были слишком сильны и осмеливались в свой черед смеяться надо мной, приказывали мне.»3

A probable choice of an iconic device that renders contrasts is parallelism. Parallel

or partially parallel constructions with embedded ellipses are extensively employed in

Brjusov’s story. They not only accentuate the oppositions stirred up by the heroine’s split

personality but also the correspondence existing between the two worlds.

Furthermore, the intrinsic orderliness of parallel constructions brings in the element

of detachment and objectivity regardless of whether the heroine’s experience is actual or

imagined.

Long before the woman buys the ill-fated mirror, she perceives her reflections not

only as her contraries but as representations of various sides of her personality. From that

perspective, parallel constructions bear their iconic function of conveying unity in

diversity.

3 Брюсов В. «В зеркале». Повести и рассказы. Москва: «Советская Россия», 1983. С. 52.

141 «В этом мире, где ко всему можно притронуться, где звучат голоса, жила я, действительная; в том отраженном мире, который можно только созерцать, была она, призрачная.»4

The reflection in the new mirror immediately establishes a mysterious connection

with the heroine. Two parallel clauses convey their unity.

«Оставшись в своей комнате одна, я тотчас подступила к новому зеркалу и вперила глаза в свою соперницу, но она сделала то же, и, стоя друг против друга, мы стали пронизывать одна другую взглядом, как змеи. В ее зрачках отражалась я, в моих – она.»5

As the struggle between the woman and her reflection intensifies, parallel

constructions convey their mutual dependence within their opposition. The grammatical

agent and patient of the first clause become reversed in the second clause. While the

woman is the subject and her reflection is the object of the first clause, they switch places

in the following clause so that the two subjects and the two objects of appear in a mirror-

like inverse correlation.

«Глаза наши встретились. Я в ее глазах прочла ненависть ко мне, она в моих – к ней.»6

The intensifying magnetism between the two ultimately draws them together,

forcing them to switch places in the real and the reflected worlds.

«Вдруг она, та, отраженная, – встала с кресла. Я вся задрожала от оскорбления. Но что-то непобедимое, что-то принуждавшее меня извне заставило встать и меня. Женщина в зеркале сделала шаг вперед. Я тоже. Женщина в зеркале простерла руки. Я тоже.»7

4 Ibid 5 Ibid. P.53. 6 Ibid 7 Ibid. P.55.

142 Brjusov’s story is an exceptional example where a dominant iconic device renders its entire conception. The startling between the idea and the form is a vivid example of iconicity’s expressive power.

Unlike Brjusov’s prose, the stories of Sologub and Remizov do not display orderliness and apparent balance. What brings them together is their concern with interactions between the real and the surreal, the means in which the invisible world penetrates in the accustomed world, and ways in which it affects those who live in it.

While Brjusov’s narrator remains a detached observer of these interactions, Sologub and Remizov invite the reader to experience it emotionally.

5.3 An Incursion of Chaos in Sologub’s Story «В толпе».

The zone where the real and the concealed worlds meet is characterized, according to Belyj, by its “intangibility”, and that is why it can only be experienced through meditation. That is why time can often be removed from the narrative of Symbolist writers. The borderline zone is everchanging and elusive, which explains the affinity of their prose with music, which is characterized by motion and capability to impact senses.

Zoja Jur’eva describes Belyj’s treatment of artistic space in his novel Петербург:

«Хаос – часто изнанка космического. Без хаоса не может быть космоса. Хаос подстилает тени, а тени питают его. У них подобная подоплека: неуловимость, зыбкость, вкрадчивость, быстрое и неожиданное появление и исчезновение. Тени появляются как хаос; всюду хаос возникает в виде теней, черных контуров и очертаний, кусков мрака и копоти.»8

8 Юрьева З. Творимый космос у Андрея Белого. С-Петербург: “Studiorum Slavicorum Monumenta”, 2000. С. 54.

143 This passage can be applied to the prose of Sologub and Remizov, including some syntactic characteristics of their works. As it was noted above, each of the authors has distinct and unique stylistic characteristics, but besides the impressionistic nature of their prose, their works are often distinguished by an idiosyncratic or unconventional syntactic structure, which corresponds iconically to the ways in which their created worlds exert their influences on the characters and often the readers.

The characters of Sologub’s story «В толпе» are three children who venture to a festivity organized in celebration of their town’s anniversary. As the celebration turns into a stampede, the children find themselves surrounded by the unruly crowd. Two discernible opposing forces counteract in the story: the serenity of life as it flowed prior to the celebration, and the destructive demonic force awakened by the depersonalized crowd. The changing reality is depicted through the eyes of the children, who perceive the surroundings with their senses rather than their minds as one amorphous death- defying mass.

5.3.1 Verbal Series as Icons of Motion.

Their peaceful life starts crumbling when they contract the madness of the crowd gathering for the celebration. This madness emerges as a distinctive eerie force, which rather than being generated by the people, appears to encroach on them on its own. The distinctive means in which the force reveals itself and affects the crowd is the chaotic motion which it imposes on it. When the children succumb to the moods of the people that gather around their home, they start losing the ability to assess the situation and

144 become vulnerable to emotional chaos. After they decide to leave their home on the evening before the celebration they gradually become absorbed by the violent mass until they perish in it.

The crowd gathers in the field which is located on the outskirts of the city and which bears the ominous name Opalixa, which is semantically linked with the verb

опалить (“to char”). The children’s outing into Opalixa is akin to a descent in the inferno. Their house is located on an elevation above the city, an apparent indication of a safe haven. Still, safety there is just an illusion, as the following passage makes apparent:

«С высоты все очищалось и казалось маленьким, красивым и нарядным. Мелкая, грязная Сафат-река отсюда являлась узкой лентой переменчивой окраски. Дома и торговые ряды стояли игрушечные, экипажи и люди двигались мерно, тихо, бесшумно и бесцельно, пыль вздымалась легкая, еле видная, и тяжкие ломовые грохоты доносились наверх едва слышной музыкой подземелья.»9

In the following paragraph the children perceive the moving crowd as a single mass

of motion and sound. Its facelessness is expressed by the prominence of verbal series conveying motion and sound in subjectless sentences. The absence of subjects iconizes

the obscure quality of the depersonalized mass and its overwhelming potency, due to the

placement of emphasis on the sentence’s verbal component. The third chapter opens with

a depiction of people walking. The anaphoric use of the verb шли, which indicates motion, expresses the most striking characteristic of the faceless crowd. A crowd can

perform an action primarily through movement and not through unified intellectual or

creative forces. Thus, an action of a crowd is more likely to turn out to be destructive.

9 Сологуб Ф. «В толпе». Свет и тени. Избранная проза. Минск: «Мастацкая лiтаратура», 1988. С. 297.

145 The paragraph below is an ominous foreshadowing of the future events. The inversion of the subject and the verb in the first sentence advances the idea of movement as the crowd’s sole mode of existence. The repetition of the verb at the start of each sentence emphasizes the steadfastness and resolve of this motion. The duplication of the verb iconizes the growing power of the mass of people.

«Шли люди, нарядившиеся и видно, что чужие. Шли больше в одну сторону, – к Опалихе. Гул среди толпы наводил на детей смутную тревогу.»

As the children receive news that people are amassing in Opalixa, their impatience

and fear of being late for the festivities mounts. The chapter ends with the repetition of

the verb шли in a subjectless sentence, iconizing the fact that the crowd is now a unified

entity which has its own power over individual people. The concluding sentence contains the duplication of the comparative adjective больше, which iconizes the growing potency of the crowd similarly to the repetitions of the verb шли.

«Мимо дома Удоевых шли. Все больше и больше народа проходило.»10

As the children enter Opalixa, they get sucked up by the chaotically moving mass of people. When darkness falls they lose all sense of direction and wander in circles as the crowd around them swells.

«И стали смотреть, и слушать, и пошли вперед, куда-нибудь. <...> По всему полю ходили, стояли, сидели шумные множества людей. <...> Многих видели. Перекидывались веселыми словами. Сходились и опять расходились в толпе. <...> Шли вперед, а может быть, в сторону, и поле казалось бесконечным.»11

10 Ibid. P. 298 and 299. 11 Ibid. P.305.

146 All of the above sentences lack subjects, which iconizes the fact that the crowd appears to be an undividable entity. The prominence of the verbal series iconizes the randomness of the back and forth motion of the crowd, while the absence of agency iconizes the children’s and the crowd’s diminished or even absent control over their surroundings and even over their own actions.

The surroundings become more ominous as the children continue their aimless circles in the field.

«Не устоять было у стены. Оттолкали, оттерли. Сдавили тесным кольцом. <...> Не то двигались куда-то, не то стояли. И уже стало непонятно, много ли прошло времени.»12

The devastating power of the crowd feeds off the chaos that reigns in it. Ultimately

the frenzy results in self-destruction.

«Свирепо вопя, мужик вырвал руку. Отчаянно заработал локтями. Казалось, что он растет. Его выперли вверх. Упал на чьи-то головы, и злобные под ним загудели голоса. Встал коленями на чьи-то плечи. Опять упал. Падая, вставая, опять падая, становясь на четвереньки, он пробирался вперед, и толпа была под ним сплошной, неровной мостовой, тяжко движущимся глетчером.»13

The interchange of verbs expressing the man’s fight with the suppressing crowd

mirrors the prominence of motion and the suppression of consciousness. The frenetic

fight for survival is iconized in the terseness of disjointed sentences.

As the story progresses, the overall syntactic structure becomes more fragmentary.

Sologub links short, often elliptical sentences with lacking subjects or verbs.

12 Ibid. P.310.

13 Ibid. P.317.

147

«Везде вокруг свирепые грозили отчаянные лица. Тяжелый поток. И все та же злоба... Нож разрезал платье и тело. Завыла. Умерла. Так страшно. Кто-то хохочет. О чем?.. Близок конец. Вот уже стены сараев...»14

The syntactic severance iconizes the impossibility of mental comprehension of everything that is happening with the crowd. The above passage is dominated by elliptical sentences, lacking an agent, a verb or even both (Так страшно.), which iconize the inexplicability and the irrational nature of everything happening. The deeper the children submerge into the crowd, the more deviant and incomprehensible the surroundings become. Their minds simply register everything that is occurring around them but fail to contemplate it.

5.3.2 Repetitions Iconizing the Transmitting of Moods in the Crowd.

The other device which becomes more frequent as the story develops is repetitions of words and phrases. Repetitions iconize the contagiousness of moods and sensations experienced in the crowd. These moods and emotions appear to have independent power to influence and rule the crowd. Their might results from the suppressed mentality of the people, which makes them vulnerable to the influence of the supernatural powerful forces. The loss of human perception by the people in the crowd allows them to become possessed. The author alludes to a demonic influence, when the crowd’s actions become evocative of a demonic sabbat and their surroundings are

14 Ibid. P. 316.

148 suggestive of the invasion of the inferno or possibly their descent in hell. Negative emotions transmit like a virus, infecting everyone on its way. The children begin to experience its effect on the eve of the holiday when their moods inexplicably fluctuate from anxiety to boredom to excitement.

Their neighbors, who express exhilaration about the impending mayhem, bring further disturbance to the Udoev children, eventually provoking them to leave the house in the evening.

«Наконец выбрались из дому. Побежали по крутому съезду к реке. И вдруг, едва спустились, увидели Шуткиных. Пришлось идти вместе. Было досадно. Досадно было и Шуткиным.»15

The above chiasmus (a repetition in the reverse order) iconizes the mutual influences that the two groups of children exert on each other. Chiasmus is a binary opposition, which depicts an exchange of identical actions or influences between two parties. In both sentences the phrase было досадно (or its invertion досадно было) represents the emotional state of the children. Non-agency in both sentences suggests lack of control and the children’s susceptibility to external influences. The mutual dependence of the moods of the two groups is iconized by chiasmus.

On the way to Opalixa, the children experience the serenity of nature for the last time. Repetitions in the depiction of the quiet sunset iconize the existence of powers capable of transmitting various emotional states. The following passage contains repetitions and parallel constructions with inversions.

15 Ibid. P.302.

149 «В монастыре звонили, – отходила всенощная. Светлые и печальные звуки медленно разливались по земле. Слушая их, хотелось петь, и плакать, и идти куда-то. И небо заслушалось, заслушалось медного светлого плача, – нежное умиленное небо. Заслушались, тая, и тихие тучки, заслушались (anaphora) медного гулкого плача, – тихие, легкие тучки. И воздух струился разнеженно-тепел, как от множества радостных дыханий. Приникла и к детям умиленная нежность высокого неба и тихо тающих тучек. И вдруг все окрест, и колокольный плач, и небо, и люди, – на миг все затлелось и стало музыкой. Все стало музыкой на миг, – но отгорел миг, и стали снова предметы и обманы предметного мира.»

The second paragraph contains two constructions with epanalepsis combined with inversion the first and the third ones

(небо заслушалось, заслушалось медного, светлого плача... небо /

заслушались тучки, заслушались медного гулкого плача... тучки /

на миг все... стало музыкой. Все стало музыкой на миг)

The first and the third constructions are internaly iconic as each one contains an inversion, which renders interdependence and mutual influence of all the elements comprising the scene.

The first and the second constructions are also externally iconic; their parallel arrangement evokes unity of all elements. This effect is enhanced by a partial repetition in the second half of each sentence, which is also suggestive of the existing harmony.

As in the passages depicting the actions of the people in the crowd, where repetitions are employed to create an effect of a uniform mass, the repetitions of the above passage suggest a different kind of uniformity, a harmonious kind. The contrast between the two types of uniformity, the facelessness of the mob and the harmony of nature, emphasizes the depravity of the events developing in Opalixa.

150 Repetitions increase in frequency when the narration progresses to describe the children’s ordeal in the overwhelming mass of people. They iconize the spread of negative emotions such as frustration, rage and despair. The crowd is portrayed as a uniform body, every part of which becomes plagued by the spreading demonic force.

«Жестокая надвигалась погибель. Своя погибель. Погибель милых. И чья больнее? <...> И уже не было надежды уйти. Люди были злы. И злы и слабы. Не могли спасти, не могли спастись. Мольбы слышались повсюду, вопли, стоны, – напрасные мольбы. <...> И дьявольский мучительно длился маскарад. И казалось, – не будет ему конца, – не будет конца кипению этого сатанинского котла.»16

What appears to the children to be an aimless rambling in the never-ending field in fact turns out to be a spiral descent akin to Dante’s descent into the Inferno. The downward direction of their motion is revealed by the demotion of the cool night sky, the intensifying heat and thirst experienced by the children and the depiction of the rise of multitudes of people. The intensifying agony brought about by the gradual descent is iconized by increasing repetitions.

In chapters IX, X and XI appears the reccurring theme of the sky moving away.

«А с темного неба темная и странная струилась прохлада. Хотелось глядеть вверх, на бездонное небо, на прохладные звезды.»17 (IX) «А с неба холодная проникала порывами прохлада, и, казалось, что душный земной воздух борется с небесной прохладой.»18 (X) «И прохлада с далекого неба становилась все мгновеннее, зыбкая, неверная, – пахнёт в жадно раскрытые рты и сгорает.»19 (XI)

16 Ibid. P.312.

17 Ibid. P.308.

18 Ibid. P.309.

19 Ibid. P.310.

151

The repetition of the words с неба and прохлада (with an additional derived adjective) iconize the persistence of suffering and the unattainability of relief. Once again the emotive aspect of the children’s experience is emphasized by the repetitions.

It is not they who become the focus of the text, but their suffering.

The reader cannot trust anything that the children see to be real, because they experience everything with their intensified emotions and are unable to comprehend anything that is happening to them. What they see may be just an illusion generated by their delirious minds. So what appears to them to be the rise of masses of people can be perceived as their descent into the agonizing Hell, deeper into the earth.

«Казалось, что встают и встают окрест неведомо откуда взявшиеся люди. <...> Леша почувствовал, что кто-то давит на его плечи. Так тяжело вдавливал в землю. В темную, жестокую землю. <...> И солнце было новое, яркое, величественное и свирепо-равнодушное. Равнодушное навсегда.»20

The above repetition pairs iconize the notion of persistence, which in this case comes out as the inevitability of the gradual approach of death. As the children’s consciousness is fading, they simply take note of what is happening to them, but lose the ability to respond or resist, succumbing to the death-bearing force. Objects and events lose their distinctiveness for the children; once again their dormant minds simply register everything happening around them, which no longer horrifies them because it becomes monotonously persistent.

20 Ibid. P. 308 and 313.

152 The other type of repetition or partial repetition that iconizes the contagiousness of emotional states among people in the crowd are those of impersonal sentences describing those emotional states. It is remarkable that such sentences depict an interchange of extremely different emotions such as joy and fear, excitement and boredom, enjoyment and annoyance. These sensations arise among people and the children without any apparent inducement. They appear to be exuded by some existential and tangible forces. People, on the other hand, appear to be objects which are vulnerable to the influence of those forces.

Chapter III opens and ends with passages containing a partial repetition of an impersonal sentence. Both sentences render emotive fluctuations spreading through the crowd:

«Леша и обе сестры стояли у ворот и смотрели на прохожих. Было шумно и людно. Шли люди нарядившиеся, и, видно, что чужие.» «Все больше и больше народа проходило. В толпе были и плохо одетые. Было много мальчишек. Было шумно, весело и празднично.»21

The above repetition indicates the contagiousness and self-determination of the moods that rule over the crowd. Their spread is not conditioned by any visible causes.

Remarkably, the repetition frames the chapter that depicts the Udoev childrens’ anxiety and fear of being late for the festivities. Yet as soon as they step out of the house, they become vulnerable to the influence of the surrounding moods.

Their feeling of merriment is but an echo that reaches them from the crowd filling up the city. Thus, chapter V contains another variation of the above repetition:

21 Ibid. P. 298 and 299.

153 «А в городе людно было, и шумно, и казалось, что весело.»22

Here the presence of joyfulness becomes doubtful.

Finally, it becomes apparent that the joyfulness is artificial and disquieting.

«Втягиваясь все более в это смутное многолюдство, Удоевы опять заразились веселостью и бодростью толпы, оставившей привычные людские кровы и стены. Стало весело. Слишком весело.»23

The state of excitement and happiness further becomes substituted with a growing sense of dread. While people’s detachment from the protection of their homes inititally inspires in them a feverish excitement, later it becomes a source of trepidation. The children instantly sense the altered state and catch the growing apprehension:

«Еще не долго побыли и стало противно, тошно, страшно. В темноте творилась для чего-то ненужная, неуместная и потому поганая жизнь. Беспокровные люди, далекие от своих уютов, опьянялись диким воздухом кромешной ночи.»24

The new sensation is exacerbated when the children find themselves amidst an orgy, highly suggestive of a demonic presence, further indicating submerging into inferno.

«Они принесли с собой водку и тяжелое пиво, и пили всю ночь, и горланили хрипло-пьяными голосами. Ели вонючие снеди, пели непристойные песни. Плясали бесстыдно. Хохотали. То там, то здесь слышалась нелепая мышиная возня. Гармоника гнусно визжала. Пахло везде скверно, и все было противно, темно и страшно.»25

22 Ibid. P.303.

23 Ibid. P.305.

24 Ibid. P.307.

25 Ibid. P.308.

154 As the crowd condenses its impact becomes overwhelming and suffocating. Again the repetition of an impersonal sentence iconizes the spread of a possessing force.

«Было тесно и душно, хотелось выбраться из толпы, на простор, вздохнуть всей грудью.» «В это время тяжкое по толпе прошло движение, – точно протискивался кто- то к стене, прямо на детей. Их прижали к стене, – и совсем стало душно и тяжело дышать.»26

Finally the feeling of suffocating confinement mixes with recurring fear:

«Опять грубо и тяжко задвигалась толпа. <...> Опять стало страшно в душном многолюдстве.»27

The partial repetitions of impersonal constructions discussed above exhibit reccurrence of at least one previous element with additions of new members. In this manner the adverb шумно appears in the first construction; it is repeated in the second construction with the addition of new elements весело and празднично. In the third instance the adverb людно used in the first construction reappears and links with thе repeated elements of the second reiteration шумно and весело.

Similarly, the adverb страшно appears in two constructions and so does the the adverb душно. Later the former links up with the latter’s derivative in the sentence

«Опять стало страшно в душном многолюдстве».

Reiterations of partial elements serve as links to the chain that iconizes the connections among people who are fused into one mass. Moods, feelings and emotions spread along this chain affecting everyone in the crowd. This device further reinforces the impression of the crowd as a faceless entity subject to external influences.

26 Ibid. P.309.

27 Ibid. P.310.

155 Thus, the mysterious world that gradually penetrates into the real world is

demonic and destructive. People turn out to be unaware of its deadly influence and they

prove to be defenseless in its face.

5.4 Co-existence of Paganism and Orthodoxy in Remizov’s «Неуёмный бубен».

Remizov’s prose is noteable for treating contemporary life in connection with

folkloric traditions, investigating forms of interaction between the secular, the

traditional religious and the pagan manifestations. Remizov’s interest in lexical

expressivity resulted in concoctions of various styles such as the oral tradition of tales,

myths and legends, the literary language and colloquial speech.

Remizov’s повесть «Неуемный бубен» is a vivid example of stylization of

folkloric motifs. Here he recounts the life of a provincial clerk, developing the theme

started by Gogol’ and Dostoevskij and cultivated by the “Natural School”. Remizov

transforms this subject matter and endows it with mythological characteristics. The life of

the protagonist Ivan Semenovič Stratilatov, a small town clerk, is rendered through the

voice of a narrator who appears to be a local inhabitant; his narration resembles oral speech. The world of the повесть is organized around Stratilatov and combines sets of oppositions. G. Slobin detects various forms of these oppositions among which are the religious and the secular, the sacred and the pagan, the traditional and the innovative. The important aspect of Stratilatov’s existence is his ability to combine the mundane life, conventional piousness and the profane, which is expressed in his preoccupation with eroticism. Stratilatov’s individuality is obscured underneath his receptiveness to these

156 influences that determine his being; he is completely passive and shows no traces of inclination to evaluate or understand life or himself. He makes no distinction between virtue and profanity; both dwell in him without clashing. That is why Slobin regards

Stratilatov as a “creation” rather than a character. This diminution of Stratilatov’s personality allows the author to depict him as a being where opposing forces find an opportunity to come together. Stratilatov actively participates in the life of the small

town, interacting on various levels of the social structure: with powerful figures of

authority, such as the police chief or the local clergy, as well as with the ambiguous

characters that from time to time appear and disappear from his life, such as a wandering

artist or a church reader whose identity is hazy, and with the common people such as his

house keeper Agapevna. Since he displays no inclination to ponder over life he has the

ability to accept various external influences without subjugating himself to them. Various

manifestations of life can combine in Stratilatov’s existence without any sign of discord.

Moreover, he is capable of gaining control over circumstances and makes them serve his

purposes, due to his amazing ability not to wonder about the essence of things or people

that enter his life.

5.4.1 Dual Repetitions as Icons of the Stability of Life.

The ability to get in touch with layers of life other than its tangible everyday

expressions could be reached, according to Symbolists, through non-intellectual

perceptiveness, mediation, emotional openness. Remizov’s irony is apparent here: his

petty, occasionally vulgar clerk becomes a receptor of these very expressions of covert

157 reality sought by Symbolists. Stratilatov’s life consists of well established routines; his habits are unwavering. His intellectual and emotive deficiency allows him to be in touch with clandestine realities, the mythical, and the otherworldly.

Stratilatov’s ability to take in various and sometime conflicting aspects of the world is due to his ability to subjugate circumstances to his inner sense of rhythm, which reveals itself in his highly systematic everyday existence. The predictable order of his life is mirrored in double repetitions of praseological units or entire sentences. Such repetitions create frames encasing those pieces of texts which describe those situation or circumstances which contain potential problems or tribulations threatening to upset

Stratilatov’s balance. In such instances he gains control over circumstances by fitting them into the rhythm of his life. Stratilatov creates certain rituals around them, which bring in predictability in his life, including any possible troubles. Syntactically frame- making repetitions iconize the power of regularity over chaos in Stratilatov’s life.

Stratilatov begins every day in the same way.

«Поднявшись в шесть под всеxсвятский благовест и помолившись Богу, а Иван Семенович молится долго и усердно*, выбрившись и поворчав на Агапевну, с незапамятных времен прислуживающую у Стратилатова, после утреннего чаю отправляется он по Поперечно-Кошачьей на толкучку, где с час и толчется около старого старья и книжных ларей будто безглазый, в своих темных очках, как-то носом что-ли, высматривая заброшенное добро, сваленное как попало, вперемешку с пустяками.»28

*Due to frequent occurrences of italics in Remizov’s texts which the author used to emphasize those elements which he deemed particularly significant, I will underline the iconic elements of syntax that I discuss here in order to avoid confusion.

28 Ремизов А. М. «Неуемный бубен». Повести и рассказы. Москва: «Художественная литература», 1990. С.140.

158 He manages to conquer any unanticipated events that any new day can bring about by methodically structuring it, by building an established routine around it and fitting

anything new and potentially troubling into this routine. Thus, Stratilatov completes each

day in a similar way, establishing a certain ritual.

«По дороге домой обыкновенно он оканчивал спутникам начатый еще в суде рассказ, по тонкости своей, как всегда, требующий большой выразительности, прерывая свою кудрявую речь, и совсем не в ущерб ей, лишь у церквей, так как считал своим долгом, поравнявшись с церковью, обязательно помолиться, а молился Иван Семенович долго и усердно.»29

Stratilatov’s rituals are akin to a cult ritual that bears a protective function. It is

remarkable that he combines the sanctioned rituals linked with official Orthodox

Christianity with his personal rhythm, which often borders on or penetrates into the

domain of transcendental or magical rites, which conflict with those sanctioned by

Orthodoxy. The attribute of authoritative Orthodoxy are Stratilatov’s prayers and his awakening every morning to the sound of church bells. It is significant that his long and diligent prayers are not due to pious faith and devotion; they are rather ritualistic incantations meant to protect the one who uses them. At the same time, Stratilatov includes other ritualistic practices in his daily starting and ending observances. Every morning he attends a flea market; the rhythmic motion of this practice is accentuated by the reverberation отправляется на толкучку, где с час и толчется. The flea market is

Stratilatov’s domain, which provides him with an opportunity to exercise this motion which is marked by rhythm and indirectness. The name of his street (Поперечно-

кошачья) is also remarkable, invoking associations with the uncanny and the mystical,

29 Ibid. P.144.

159 through its association with the cat, one of the symbols of the shadowy domain and the characteristic of traversing a straight route, which also implies its obscure status.

Stratilatov’s stories which deal with indecorous subjects stemming from his erotic preoccupations are also intercepted by his arduous prayers. This fact explains Remizov’s seemingly needless remark (прерывая свою кудрявую речь, и совсем не в ущерб ей).

Once more Stratilatov’s ability to combine the sacrilegious and the sacred is accentuated.

While at work performing his everyday duties Stratilatov shields himself from possible mishaps by ritualistically organizing his activities.

«До двенадцати лучше не беспокоить Стратилатова: в двенадцать секретарь потребует от него исполнений по предыдущему дню и, хочешь не хочешь, подавай бумаги, а не подашь, Лыков потачку давать не любит, такой столбняк нагонит, своих не узнаешь. И не столько это, сколько само по себе ослушание страшит Ивана Семеновича. Начальству он предан, страх перед ним знает, и чем выше начальство или, как говорится, иное какое усмотрительное лицо, тем страх сильнее <...>. Нет, лучше не беспокоить Ивана Семеновича.»30

Stratilatov’s safeguard against troubles is implemented by his habitualness. The task

that he meticulously performs every day at the same time allows him to establish

expectedness in his life and diverts any troubles. Despite Lykov’s revulsion for his

subordinate, who refers to Stratilatov as a “dirty person”, Stratilatov appears to be

invincible due to his stability and orderly actions.

Stratilatov manages his private life in the same way, by subjugating it to an

unalterable rhythm. He values regularity; even his three recurring nightmares appear in a

predictable fashion, on the eve of the twelve church feasts. The following paragraph

appears twice repeated exactly and framing the depiction of the three horrible dreams.

30 Ibid. P. 142.

160 «Тихо и безмятежно спит Стратилатов. Глубокий крепкий сон непробудно завеял его своими легкими крыльями, и кажется, прекращается в нем все течение жизни, наступало, как выражается всехсвятский дьякон Прокопий, всеобщее естества усыпление.»31

The indication of an interrupted flow of life alludes to Stratilatov’s mental and

emotive unresponsiveness. Curiously, the latter characterization originates from a deacon,

a representative of the sanctioned religion, once more undermining the possibility of a

conflict between the consecrated and the occult.

Stratilatov’s inner life and conduct are conditioned by reflexes and instincts, rather

than by thoughts and emotions. His everyday duties and his compulsive orderliness are

produced by those instincts which, like most instincts, are designed to protect.

Finally, his most personal experience, linked with sexual desires, is handled by

Stratilatov by developing a rhythmic perception. While he wanders the boulevard every

Sunday (Remizov makes a note of regularity once more), his actions are triggered by

music performed by an outdoor orchestra. At that time the instincts which essentially

dominate in his life completely take over. Stratilatov is reminiscent of an animal which

randomly searches for a mate.

«И он бегает как сумасшедший, будто безглазый, в своих темных очках, как- то носом, что ли, высматривая в нарядной примелькавшейся толпе ту, которая полюбит его бескорыстно, выкликая ее и вышептывая. <...> Стратилатов втирается в самую толчею и, окруженный молодежью, балагурит на свою излюбленную тему и, дойдя до крайности в неистовстве своем, ржет. Но и в неистовстве своем под разгонную отчаянную музыку осипших инструментов, под пьяные выкрики из ресторана, под обрывки визгливых куплетов надоедливых, <...> среди всего этого пропащего затмения и искрою пробегающего тут и там самого безобразнейшего скандала Стратилатов и в черной толпе ищет среди гуляющих ту, которая полюбит его бескорыстно, выкликая ее и вышептывая.»32

31 Ibid. P. 155 and 156. 32 Ibid. P. 159-160.

161

Stratilatov blends with the chaos of the commotion surrounding him by preserving his internal rhythm. His silent calls for a woman resemble mystical incantations. He whispers these incantations in the same way he reads his everyday prayers; both are rituals that give Stratilatov the rhythm that governs his existence.

Slobin detects the presence of a shamanistic theme in Remizov’s story. Its signs reveal themselves in the symbolic attributes of shamanism appearing in the narrative, particularly the presence of such attributes as a cymbal and rhythm.

«Шаманство – это особая техника экстаза, и в тех случаях когда ему приходится сосуществовать с церковью, оно входит в конфликт с религиозными властями. <...> Шаман соединяет три плана существования: обыденный, магический и загробный. Сам он может свободно переходить из одного в другой.»33

She examines Stratilatov’s twofoldness – the presence of the two polar forces in

him: the sacred and the profane. For almost all of his life, Stratilatov succeeds in avoiding

this conflict. His duality defines his nature from the very start of his life: his last name is associated with the name of the patron saint of the local church. The circumstances of his

baptism are mysterious; in fact he does not receive а true baptism. The prayers he reads

constantly interchange with recitations from «Гаврилиада», Puškin’s forbidden erotic

poem. Stratilatov maintains his inner equilibrium through rhythm, which allows him to

stay atune to the two different planes that intersect in him. His life is determined by

reflexes until he falls in love, but when this happens he experiences emotions for the first

time. Then Stratilatov finds that he is defenseless. Through his mystical invocations he

33 Слобин, Грета. Проза Ремизова. Перев. Г.А. Крылов. С-Петербург: «Академический проект», 1997. С. 96.

162 unintentionally conjures up a force that turns out to be greater than he can handle, and it

begins his demise. From the instant when he meets the young girl, he finds himself in

turmoil. He attempts to cope with the new force in the only way that he knows, by trying

to subjugate it to his rhythm, but it escapes him. From then on the nature of repetitions

alters; they are no longer binary, which previously iconized their protective function by

setting up protecting borders on the opposite sides. Instead they are reiterated three or

more times losing their symmetric correlation and expressing Stratilatov’s frenzied state

of being and his anxious attempts to acquire control over the circumstances. In his

delirious state Stratilatov repeats again and again the affectionate names that he gives to

his bride: «Голубка моя, гурливая!», «Белая лебедь, не раненая, не кровавленая,

белая лебедь!». On the day when she is supposed to move into Stratilatov’s house, he wanders aimlessly. The sentence « -- Мно-о-о-гая, мно-о-о-гая лета! – бурчал себе

под нос Стратилатов» and the refrain «Голубка моя, гурливая» occur three times each in one chapter. Stratilatov’s incantations represent his anxious attempt to establish a rhythm, which is vanishing from his life due to the impending drastic change. He creates this rhythm through repetitions, similarly to the way in which he had said again and again the prayer of Ephrem the Syrian and Puškin’s «Гаврилиада». The meaning of his invocations are unimportant to Stratilatov, his ritualistic incantations of a prayer, a sacrilegious poem, a celebratory church chant or a expressions of his affection for his beloved all serve the same purpose of preserving an internal rhytm and give Stratilatov a sense of balance, which he is able to maintain only through a ritual regardless of its nature.

163 The arrival of love completely upsets the routine that previously ruled Stratilatov’s life. He throws out his old housekeeper. The illicit affair prompts jokes and ridicule at

work. Soon he is forced to move to a new place and part with many relics that he has

meticulously accumulated and guarded all his life. Later he gets into a confrontation with

the deacon. Finally, when the woman runs off, Stratilatov is unable to move on because

he lost the ability to tune himself into the rhythm of life and he becomes susceptible to all

those oppositions that previously coexisted in him without a conflict.

5.4.2 Binary Repetitions with One Negated Constituent as Icons of Ambiguity.

Another device that iconizes Stratilatov’s ambiguity is binary repetitions where the second constituent appears with a negation.*

« [Иван Семенович] молодцевато вытягивался на своих жилистых тонких ножках, инда утроба вся вздрагивала, стойкий, этак вставал открыто плешью к солнцу, крепко и твердо упираясь на свои огромные тяжелые ступни: вот, мол, я – голова. <...> -- У тебя не голова, ухмылялся безногий, -- у тебя так, брат, головка!»34

The above doublet renders the opposition between the exterior vivacity and internal emptiness.

Stratilatov has several doubles – the patron, his own reflections in the mysterious mirror, and several friends who emerge and disappear from his life. The first double is a

*This device was discussed earlier in relation to Gogol’s stories where its presence iconized the correspondence fantasy ↔ reality.

34 Ibid. P.139.

164 new police investigator who bears the same last name. The second Stratilatov’s appearance forces the protagonist to wonder whether he or the newcomer is real. The following repetition iconizes the illusiveness of Stratilatov’s existence.

«Бывают же такие досадные совпадения: живет человек тихо, никого не трогает, все тебя знают и ничего за тобою не числится, и хвать, в один прекрасный день появляется некто с твоей фамилией и все перевертывается – ты уж тот, да не тот или не совсем тот, потому что есть еще и другой, дели с ним свое имя, дели и всякую пакость.»35

Stratilatov’s illness after the loss of his mistress and his absence from work remain

unnoticed by his colleagues for some time, despite the fact that his entire life was characterized by such extreme regularity that he never missed work.

«Бросили Стратилатова, забыли Стратилатова, оставили в покое всякие его похождения, и жила ли у него Надежда или никакой Надежды никогда и на свете не существовало, все это было так далеко, так неважно и глубоко неинтересно.»36

Finally, prior to his death, Stratilatov attempts to resist his end, which is rendered by the underlined refrain, which had appeared earlier in the повесть when Stratilatov was still well and content.

«А как прийти последнему часу, за минуту до смерти, затихать уж стал и ералаш свой бросил – перестал бредить, да вдруг как вскочит с койки, выпрямился, вытянулся на своих жилистых тонких ногах, инда утроба вся вздрогнула, стойкий, этак стал открыто плешью к солнцу, – сиделка уверяла, что Богородицу читать стал, а фельдшер Жохов хихикал, что вовсе не Богородицу, а будто стихи какие-то, – и как подкошенный повалился <...> и отошел в вечную жизнь.»37

The dubiousness of his life persists till the very last moment, when once more

sacrilege replaces prayer. After Stratilatov’s death the ambiguity of his existence lingers

when the now insane Agapevna senses his presense at night.

35 Ibid. P.148. 36 Ibid. P.189.

37 Ibid. P.193.

165

5.5 Concluding Remarks

In the three works discussed in this chapter, clandestine parallel worlds reveal their

existence by influence on those who are aware of them or sense them intuitively. The

nature of these worlds is different and, perhaps, reveals something about the character

and disposition of each of the authors.

Brjusov appears to affirm the existence of the unrevealed. He does not try to assess

it from an ethical standpoint. It simply exists. Perhaps an explanation of this

dispassionate position can be found in Xodasevič’s analysis of Brjusov’s personality.

Xodasevič believed that Brjusov idolized art, viewing as his sole purpose of existence

while never experiencing love for people or himself.*

Sologub appears to be preoccupied with a possible or even impeding dreadfulness

of the invisible powers that possibly draw its power from a demonic realm.

Remizov is drawn to the interaction of a two-layer existence in the Russian culture: the accustomed Orthodox Christian plane and that of paganism deeply rooted in the

culture.

All three display the distinguishing feature of Symbolism captured by Èllis in his

article «О сущности символизма»:

«Понимание интуитивного познания, как дальнейшего продолжения непосредственного и первично-достоверного опыта за пределы чувственного мира, то есть как мистического** эмпирзма, снова возвращает нас к живому, активному,

*See Xodasevič’s chapter on Brjusov in his memoires Некрополь.

** Emphasis in the original.

166 непосредственному обладанию миром, безгранично раздвигая при этом как пределы последнего, так и познавательные творческие способности, самые органы субъекта. <...> Современный интуитивизм сближает процесс интеллектуального познания с процессом художественно-созерцательного постижения мира, высшей точкой которого является символический метод в искусстве.»38

38 Эллис. Русские символисты. Томск: «Водолей», 1996. С. 31-32.

167

CONCLUSION

The four literary movements that were examined in this work exhibited various

syntactic iconic devices. While Sentimentalism and the “Natural School” displayed types

of iconicity present in prose works encompassing many authors of their respective

periods, Romanticism and the Silver Age did not exhibit such wide-ranging uniformity.

Rather, their authors possessed more pronounced individual styles. However, it was

possible to establish links between instances of syntactic iconicity distinctive of particular

authors and these authors’ adherence to beliefs and principles of their literary movements.

The defining creed of Sentimentalism was the need to perceive the world through intuition and emotions. Such an approach resulted in the admission that the experience of

interacting with the surrounding world is characterized by intangibility and an extreme difficulty of expressiveness. Yet the choice of language as the art of expressiveness

demanded ways of articulating this experience. The struggle to render one’s emotiveness

was further complicated by the fact that the genre of повесть was in its formative stages

in Russia during that time. It resulted in highly elaborate and ornate syntactic

organization, when authors strove to render their perception of those notions that were

eminent and influential for them. Thus, in order to express emotional intensity,

168 Sentimentalist authors resorted to repetitions in both direct and indirect speech. Nature occupied an eminent position in the worldview of the man of the Sentimentalist age. It

was attributed an almost sacred status, and its depictions were rendered in extremely intricate syntactic constructions that were iconic of verbose worship. These also rendered the complexity and elusiveness of experiencing it.

Various types of sentiments and feelings were highly valued. In order to emphasize their importance, they frequently appeared in fixed doublets, in which the constituents often were synonyms. Such doublets constituted icons of importance, where that importance was rendered quantitatively through duplication.

The worldviews and experiences of characters were regarded as something that did not need explanation. Authors, readers and characters were expected to feel alike, so the

reader was invited to empathize with characters rather than to analyze any diverse ways

of experiencing the world. Such an approach resulted in scarce character portrayals;

characters generally remained static, and their individual traits appeared insignificant.

This insignificance was rendered through extensive series of archetypal characteristics.

Parallelism and series also were used to iconize links between characters and their

environments.

The underlying characteristic of the Romantic movement was the notion of

opposition or conflict. Different authors of that period concentrated their attentions on various aspects of possible oppositions. One of the originators of the movement,

Marlinskij, only intuited the opposition between ordinary reality and the extraordinary

world of fantasy, which he not only strove to create in literature but took as an ideal for

169 his own life. The oppositition idealistic ↔ mundane acquired a more pronounced expression in the works of Pavlov and Odoevskij. Both deemed that a sharp and disturbing contrast existed between the strivings to achieve the ideal and the restraining dreariness of everyday reality. In order to render this opposition, Pavlov resorted to negation series iconizing the rejection of idealistic quests by the everyday world.

Odoevskij concentrated on the overpowering control of surroundings and circumstances

over a human being by iconizing his struggle against the environment through extensive verbal series.

The latter conflict man ↔ environment was satirized by Puškin and Titov in their

«Уединенный домик на Васильевском», where he suggests that perhaps the oppressive power of the environment is overrated to the extent that a person bears no personal responsibily for his wrong choices but blames the wicked world. The tale contains sentences with multiple clauses where the presense of several subjects iconizes the protagonist’s inability to be in charge of his actions as well as his erratic nature. His

demotions from the role of a clause subject to that of an object also iconize his

dependence on external influences.

The opposition real ↔ fantastic acquires a pronounced manifestation in Gogol’s

series «Вечера на хуторе близ Диканьки». There he resorts to parallel constructions to

mirror the co-existence and intertwining of the parallel worlds. The interplay of the

elements of fantasy and reality create a unique and complete world that can be

comprehended and appreciated only through the realization of its duality.

170 The new generation of writers focused their awareness on a one-dimensional plane, seeking its subject matter in the down-to-earth ordinary life. This worldview gave rise to the “Natural School”. The goal of writers of that period was, as Belinskii put it, to depict

“life as it is” without embellishing it and searching for explanations behind it in the domain of the visible world. The characteristic approach of the movement became an almost journalistic account of the various layers of life. Attention to details and extreme veracity became conventional, and the literary sketch became the dominating literary genre.

The objects of writers’ investigations were settings and those individuals or social groups that their environments produced. There was a rigid relationship between people and their environments. Parallel constructions were used to render the connection between environments and those people or social groups that they produced. Another iconic device that was widely employed by writers of that period were extensive series, particularly nominative series, which were used to mirror the detailed reality and its comprehensiveness in literary depictions. Nominative series were applied not only to descriptions of settings but also to individual and group portrayals. As in Sentimentalism, the firm association of a man with the setting that produced him resulted in the emerging of conventional and soon predictable characters. Characters displayed archetypal characteristics and were most frequently portrayed as representatives of their milieu rather than unique individuals. The demise of the movement occurred when those writers who possessed “ordinary talents” exhausted their creative abilities and those whose

171 literary gift was developing could no longer be contained by the rigid demand to simply illustrate the world without trying to comprehend its extreme multifaceted nature.

As positivist ideal begin to fade along with the decline of Realism idealistic views resurfaced at the end of the 19th century. The initially neo-Romantic movement once

again focused its attention on various ways of interaction between the apparent and the

unrevealed realms of being. The resurged interest resulted in one of the most intricate

literary movements, which received the title the “Silver Age”. As seen from this title, the

definition of the movement primarily is based on its characteristic as a period in literary

history, which is conveyed by the word Age and its relation to its precursor, the Golden

Age. The time factor is of principal importance exactly because of the extreme

complexity of the movement, which included such aspects as Decadence, Symbolism,

Modernism, Futurism and their various subdivisions. Yet what united the aspirations of

those who belonged to any of the above movements was chiefly their conviction that life

could not be exhausted by what was visible and accustomed to. They searched invisible

domains in different ways and on different plains, but most adherents of the movement

also sought to capture the ways that the supernatural reality penetrated the visible world.

The three stories that are addressed in the fifth chapter of this research have this exact trait in common, while being very diverse in both their styles and approaches to this task.

In Brjusov’s tale «В зеркале», the chosen iconic device is parallelism, which mirrors the parallel existence of the visible and the clandestine. The author left open the question whether the two realities ever interacted. Sologub turned his interest to the mysterious ways that external forces affect people without their knowledge or will. In his

172 story «В толпе», he resorted to verbal series as icons of motion which precludes stillness, and thus the awareness and alertness to the growing danger. Another iconic device operating in the story is repetition. Repetitions serve to render the interconnectedness of members of the crowd to the extent that they form one mass and the spread of emotions and moods through this mass. Sologub’s was interested in folklore and national traditions. He viewed the Russian national element as constantly intertwining pagan and

Christian components, which penetrate so deeply into a person’s consciousness that their root become difficult to discern and the border between them is blurred. He used dual repetitions to iconize the balance and co-existence of the two domains.

This work has tried to investigate how iconicity depends on reality as it is viewed not only by a particular writer, but as it is perceived by a generation. It is likely that any new researcher who approaches this topic will be able to recognize other ways of iconic

expressiveness, as personal interpretation may largely influence one’s perceptions. In addition this thesis has focused only on syntactic iconicity. It is quite likely that such

spheres as text organization and could present material for similar or further

investigations. The issue of connectedness between meaning and form demands attention

in all types of art, and literature and language certainly are not and will not remain

separate from it.

173

APPENDIX

DEFINITIONS OF SELECT SYNTACTIC ICONIC DEVICES*

Anadiplosis. Repetition of a word at the end of one clause or sentence and the beginning of the next. Iconizes a gradual development or comprehension of an idea or a concept.

Anaphora. The use of repetition at the beginning of a clause or a sentence. Iconizes diversity within uniformity.

Anastrophe. An instance of hyperbaton where the syntactic positions of noun and adjective are reversed. Iconizes dubiousness or distortion of truth.

Aposiopesis. A sudden, often midsentence abandoning of its topic. Iconizes confusion or emotional stress.

Asyndeton. A series with omitted conjunctions which iconizes a quick succession of events or a sense of urgency.

Chiasmus. Repetition of two words or phrases in a reverse order. Iconises mutual connectedness.

Compar. An instance of parallelism in which clauses or sequences of equal length are juxtaposed. Iconizes equality or similarity.

* This list is not comprehensive it includes definitions of the terms used in this research. It is based on the compilation of syntactic devices defined by Earl R. Anderson in his volume “A Grammar of Iconism”.

174

Diacope. Repetition of a pair words with several other words between them.

Iconizes rhythmical motion or emotional intensity.

Distention. A semantic overloading of a syntagm. A form of presentational iconism

that emphasizes importance by focusing the reader’s attention on its semantic material.

Ellipsis. The omission of a component needed to make a sentence grammatically complete. Iconizes absence, loss, or inexpressibility.

Epanalepsis. Repetition of a word at the beginning and at the end of a sentence or a

clause. Iconizes the link between the beginning and the end.

Epistrophe. Repetition at the end of a clause or a sentence. Iconizes diversity within uniformity.

Epizeuxis. The immediate repetition of a word or a phrase. Iconizes repetitive

action or emotional intensity.

Hyperbaton. Dislocation of elements in a sentence. Iconizes confusison or

complexity.

Hysteron proteron. An instance of a chronological series that renders the events

in reversed chronological order. Iconizes importance.

Iconic doublets. Collocated word pairs that belong to the same semantic field.

Indicate preference, hierarchy, or chronology. In this research they are also viewed as

icons of importance that are externally (not only internally) iconic.

Number iconism. A structure where several structural components of a sentence

correspond with a significant number. Iconizes directionality or order.

175 Parallelism. A regulation of a sentence’s complexity by balancing out its members through uniform constructions. Iconizes resemblance or analogy.

Parenthesis. A temporary interruption of syntax in order to include semantic

material indirectly related to the main theme of the sentence. Iconized the insignificance

of the idea it expresses.

Parison. An instance of parallelism in which clauses or sentences of equal length

are sequenced. Iconizes stability or expectedness.

Pleonasm. A series with the unnecessary fullness of expression which may iconize a sense of confusion, indirection, or complexity.

Polysyndeton. A series with the unnecessary use of conjunction iconizing a slow pace or a controlled pace. (The opposite of asyndeton.)

Progressive clause expansion. A series of progressively longer phrases iconizing

the concept of expansiveness.

Prolepsis. An instance of hyperbaton where a word appears before it is logically

appropriate in the sentence. An analogy of hysteron proteron in a larger text discourse.

Iconizes importance.

Series and sequences. Iconize chronology, preference, progression, or spatial

relations.

Symploce. Repetition both at the beginning and at the end of a sentence or a

clause. Iconizes commonality in progression from start to finish.

176

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