Sport and Disability Across the Lifespan: Introduction to the Special Issue

Home , Demonstration sport, Multiple disabilities

Barbara Wilhite, Carol Adams Mushett, and Jimmy Calloway, Guest Editors

In 1996 the world's greatest athletes will come to the United States twice—once for the Olympic Games and once for the Paralympic Games. The 1996 Summer Paralympic Games will be the first ever to be held in conjunction with the Olympic Games in the United States. In recognition and celebration of this extraordinary occasion, this issue of the Therapeutic Recreation Journal is devoted to the topic of "Sport and Disability Across the Lifespan." In the following paper, the Guest Editors provide an expanded introduction to the Special Issue, and to the general topic of sport and disability across the lifespan.

For nearly a century, individuals with Therapeutic Recreation Journal (TRJ) is de- physical disabilities have been pursuing ex- voted to the topic of "Sport and Disability cellence through sport. With momentum Across the Lifespan." Examples of the growing and the quality of athletic perfor- growth of disability sport, the evolving chal- mance increasing, sport for athletes with dis- lenges, and the implications for therapeutic abilities has taken on new dimensions. Sport recreation (TR) research and practice are fea- opportunities for and including individuals tured. In the following sections, these areas with disabilities, such as the Paralympic and issues, and the authors who write about Games, have increased tremendously. With them in this Special Issue, will be intro- the growth of disability sport, however, have duced. come new challenges. Thus, this issue of the The Paralympic Games serve as the pin-

Barbara Wilhite is with the Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies at the University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602. Carol Adams Mushett is with the School of Health and Human Performance, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303. Jimmy Calloway is with the Atlanta Paralympic Organizing Committee, Atlanta, GA 30309. After the 1996 Summer Paralympic Games, Calloway will join the Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602.

106 Therapeutic Recreation Journal nacle of physical expression for athletes with Games also reflect how society views the disabilities. Borne out of the medical rehabil- millions of its members who have physical itation movement following World War n, disabilities, and how these individuals view they are considered the equivalent of the themselves and their own life opportunities. Olympics for elite athletes with physical and The theme of the 1996 Summer Paralym- visual disabilities. The term Paralympic de- pic Games, "triumph of the human spirit," notes that the Games occur with or next to encompasses the dual theme of sport and the Olympics. life. According to officials with the Atlanta The first summer Paralympic Games Paralympic Organizing Committee (APOC), were conducted in 1960. At that time, 400 triumph suggests achieved equality through athletes, coaches, and staff from 23 countries the excellence of athletic performance, and converged in Rome, Italy to compete in a human spirit suggests the potential and variety of wheelchair events following the achievement inherent in inner strength. Olympic Games. Between August 15-25, George Hirthler, author of the theme, stated: 1996, the Xth Summer Paralympic Games will be held in Atlanta, Georgia. To date, The triumph of the human spirit links more than 3,500 athletes from 121 countries the Paralympic Games and all athletes are slotted to attend. These athletes will be who participate to the broader strug- competing in 17 medal sports and two dem- gles of humanity. It suggests equality onstration sports. Fourteen of these sports between the disabled and the able- are also included in the Olympic Games pro- bodied. These Games are a triumph gram. Athletes' primary disabilities will in- for everyone who is inspired by the clude blindness or visual impairment, spinal undeniable excitement of human cord injury, cerebral palsy, and amputation. achievement (Hirthler, 1992, p. 2). Athletes will be housed in the Olympic Vil- lage and share the same practice and competition venues as the Olympics. More than 1000 coaches and team staff will be present Movement Toward a Sport to assist the athletes throughout competition. versus a Medical Model A Paralympic Congress on Disability and an Historically, the physical, psychological, Exposition will be held in conjunction with and socio-cultural benefits of sport resulted the Paralympic Games. An estimated 12,000 in its inclusion in therapeutic/rehabilitation volunteers have been recruited and trained programs. Indeed, the vision for the Para- to staff the games. Comprehensive television lympic Games is often attributed to Sir Lud- coverage of this largest ever sporting event wig Guttman, a physician in England who for athletes with disabilities has been suc- worked with many veterans of World War cessfully negotiated. Unprecedented corpo- II who had spinal cord injuries. In response rate sponsorship has been obtained to fund to the recent demands of athletes and nations, the event. In addition, plans are well under sport for athletes with disabilities has way for the 1998 Winter Paralympic Games adopted a new and dramatically different in Nagano, Japan. Sydney, Australia has orientation. The original "rehabilitation been awarded the bid for the Summer Para- through sport" purpose (i.e., the medical lympic Games in 2000. model) has given way to sport and competi- The Paralympic Games have become a tion for their own sake (i.e., the sport model) symbol of achievement and recognition. (DePauw & Gavron, 1995). During the Inau- They are one of the most visible demonstra- gural General Assembly of the International tions of the abilities of people with physical Paralympic Committee (IPC) in Dusseldorf, disabilities in the world. The Paralympic Germany in 1989, this emphasis on sport

Second Quarter 1996 107 for sport's sake versus rehabilitation from charismatic, elite sport is, by definition, only disability emerged. Consequently, a Para- a fraction of the total. For most of us, our lympic Sport Assembly was created for each goals in sport will be realized at something of the 23 sports in the Paralympic program. less than the elite level. Individuals with dis- Guided by the theme of "Development, abilities, however, continue to be excluded Communication, and Solidarity," delegates from active participation in sport despite the attending the 5th General Assembly of the passage and implementation of equal access IPC in 1995 in Tokyo, Japan initiated a stra- legislation such as the Americans with Disa- tegic planning process to identify and clarify bilities Act (Block, 1995). With the recent the mission of the IPC, and, in reality, the decreases in funding for community recre- future of disability sport. The acceptance of ation and parks programs (A. L. Simonsen, the philosophical ideal of the Paralympics as personal communication, March 15, 1996), a sport versus a disability movement contin- opportunities for people with disabilities to ued to evolve. develop skills and compete in sports con- The evolution of a sport versus disability tinue to vanish. In addition, youth and adults model has not been without its downside. with disabilities are finding fewer opportuni- For example, increased emphasis on the ties to participate in recreational sport, sport model has brought with it pressure to sought primarily for fun and fitness (Block, enhance the image of athletes with disabili- 1995; Kozub & Porretta, 1996). ties, and of disability sport itself. Some con- Trends in therapeutic recreation (TR) cern exists within the Paralympic movement may also negatively affect the development that the image of athletes with disabilities, of sports for athletes with disabilities. Unlike and of disability sport, does not resemble our European counterparts in the develop- closely enough able-bodied athletes and ment of sports for athletes with disabilities, able-bodied sport. This desire to more development in America was not led by phy- closely resemble able-bodied athletes and sicians and physiotherapists following a sports has created an image of the elite or medical model. The development of sport "true" sports person with a disability that opportunities in the United States was deeply tends to be exclusive of athletes with severe influenced and largely driven by the philoso- or multiple disabilities. Pictorial images of phy, leadership, and services of TR special- athletes with severe/multiple disabilities are ists, leisure professionals, and physical edu- notably absent in the various marketing and cators. media campaigns surrounding the 1992 and During the last two decades, TR and lei- 1996 Paralympic Games. The results of this sure professionals have played an integral attitude are also evident in the dramatic re- part in the development of disability sports. duction of events, sports, and disciplines The initial exposure to sports through leisure (e.g., variations of a given sport such as education, the development and application standing and sitting volleyball) for athletes of adaptive equipment and techniques, the with severe disabilities at the elite level. As organization of competitions, the develop- higher levels of athletic excellence and stan- ment of sports technical rules, the training dards of performance for athletes with disa- of officials and classifiers, fundraising, team bilities are stressed, fewer opportunities for management, and sports administration rep- those with severe physical limitations are resent only a fraction of the contributions available. TR and leisure professionals have made to Sport is, in reality, a continuum. The Par- the development of sport for athletes with alympic Games represent only a small por- disabilities. tion of all that is encompassed by the term Disability sport, however, is distancing "sport." Although exciting and powerfully itself from the medical model at the same

108 Therapeutic Recreation Journal time TR is giving this model, and the clinical crease opportunities may have inadvertently skills necessary to function within it, re- reduced access to the full range of life expe- newed importance. Consequently, TR's im- riences available in sport. pact on disability sport, in fact, the signifi- Abu Yilla, an athlete in the Paralympic cance of disability sport as a part of TR ser- Games in Korea, pointed out the complexity vices, is being reduced. of the inclusion debate in his description of the continuum of least restrictive environ- Challenges of Inclusion ments (LRE) he employs in his life: Historically, sport for athletes with disabilities was developed in diagnostic catego- I study and work in a fully integrated ries that reflected service delivery systems environment. When I compete I am of the medical model. Athletes with spinal in the realistically, segregated envi- injury competed with other athletes with spi- ronment of wheelchair basketball. nal injury. Likewise, amputee athletes com- When I recreate I can be at almost any peted with other amputee athletes, athletes point in the LRE continuum (Yilla, with cerebral palsy competed with athletes 1994, p. 18). with similar types of cerebral palsy, and so on. Separate competitions for athletes with disabilities, rather than competition with While Yilla's words demonstrate a resis- able-bodied persons, was the norm. Compe- tance to a "one-size-fits-all" approach, cur- titions were also segregated according to the rent downsizing efforts in community recre- perceived primary purpose of the sporting ation and park programs may be using an event; for example, the participation focus of inclusion philosophy as justification for fail- the Special Olympics versus the competition ing to provide an array of participation alter- focus of the Paralympics. natives for everyone, including individuals with disabilities. As in the conceptualization and practice Whatever the future of disability sport, of TR, a trend toward inclusion is emerging it is expected that, despite some objections, in disability sport. This trend includes inte- cross-disability competitions, as well as grating athletes with disabilities in able-bod- competitions with able-bodied persons, will ied sport, and integrating athletes with all increase. In addition, greater inclusion of types of disabilities in single- and multi-sport persons with disabilities within the structure competitions such as the Paralympic Games. of disability sport as coaches, officials, and Although contained in the 23 original resolu- administrators is expected. TR professionals tions accepted by the nations at the 1988 can play an active role in promoting appro- Paralympic Games in Seoul, Korea, inclu- priate and successful inclusion efforts. sion remains an issue in sport for athletes with disabilities. For example, at the 1995 IPC meeting in Tokyo, Japan, the Athletes' Issues in Athlete Classification Committee and many Sport Assemblies re- Despite the similarity in disabled and able- mained strongly against integration of Para- bodied competitive events and locale, the pro- lympic sports into the Olympic Games. cess of athlete classification by functional While a politically unpopular notion, nu- ability remains unique to disability sport. The merous anecdotal reports from athletes, intent of classification is to create an equal coaches and team staff, and related profes- point of beginning for competition (Richter, sionals link the increase in inclusion efforts Adams Mushett, Ferrara, & McCann, 1992). with a decrease in actual opportunities to Traditionally, two systems of classifica- participate in sport. It is ironic to consider tion, medical (disability) and functional (in- that a philosophical approach designed to integrated), have been used. Medical classi-

Second Quarter 1996 109 fications are implemented by doctors and stagnation in disability sports development therapists in an attempt to analyze and ver- and program offerings, the integration of ath- ify impairment. This style of classification letes with disabilities and disability sports is centered on the type and degree of impair- into able-bodied sports, and sport transitions ment. Functional classification evaluates for athletes with disabilities. each athlete's ability related to strength, Increased political pressure to include range of motion, motor coordination, bal- sports and events for athletes with cognitive/ ance, and other specific skills needed to per- mental impairment in World Championships form the sport. This type of classification is and Paralympic Games has resulted in sev- centered on the sport and thus is structured eral demonstration events at these competi- to have application to several disability tions. About 60 athletes with mental impair- groups. Sport technicians and medical pro- ments will compete in eight demonstration fessionals are used to evaluate athletes' events during the 1996 Paralympic Games functional ability. in Atlanta. Those who have resisted inclu- The classification process is not without sion of athletes with mental impairments in its flaws and areas of concern. For example, these competitions cite practical and sports Weiss and Curtis (1986) suggested that ath- administrative concerns. A major factor, ac- letes could be penalized for improved perfor- cording to these individuals, is the conflict mance when evaluated by a functional sys- between the current mandate to downsize tem. Richter, et al. (1992) pointed out that elite competitions such as the Paralympic functional classification systems lack a sci- Games through reduction of events, classes, entific basis and often advantage athletes and overall number of athletes, and the vast with a static or fixed disability such as ampu- number of athletes who would be added if tation. That is, the length of the remaining events for athletes with mental impairments limb measures the same at the beginning, were included. Many current Paralympic middle, and end of a race. In athletes with athletes fear the probable reduction/elimina- cerebral palsy, however, the degree of spas- tion of opportunities which will occur to ticity (thus, the amount of impairment) var- make room for athletes with mental impair- ies greatly during the race. Steadward (1995 a) argued that the functional goals of ments (Mansell, 1995). Concern has also a classification system should be based on been expressed about the validity and relia- fairness rather than equality. ' 'Therefore, the bility of disability evaluation and verification ultimate functionally integrated classifica- procedures. Examples of elite performances tion system would reward excellence while comparable with those of able-bodied ath- potentially increasing the level of competi- letes, and the absence of necessary adapta- tion by increasing the number of athletes per tions for sport participation have sparked class through the reduction of classes" philosophical debate over the appropriate- (Steadward, 1995a, p. 14). The resolution of ness of segregating elite athletes with mental issues related to classification in disability impairments from able-bodied sports partici- sport is an area in which TR researchers and pation. While the IPC constitution fully sup- practitioners can make unique and meaning- ports the integration of athletes with mental ful contributions. impairments in future Paralympic Games, this represents one ' 'of the most discussed, debated, and contentious issues facing dis- The Next Decade ability sport and the Paralympic movement'' The next decade brings with it other chal- (Steadward, 1995a, p. 3). lenges in sport for athletes with disabilities. The trend toward elitism in disability Issues involve the inclusion of athletes with sport, and the reductionist mandate, may also cognitive impairment in Paralympic sports, serve to stifle inventiveness and limit adapta-

110 Therapeutic Recreation Journal tion in sports. Few new sports or events have tem" (Steadward, 1995a, p. 18). Still, the been developed or accepted during the past disability sport community has not accepted four years. Some feel that this reluctance to a unified and committed course of action in embrace new ideas at the Paralympic level relation to this issue. Necessary steps, such is necessary to insure credibility within elite as the process of making sport technical ac- sport. Avenues are available for a well devel- commodations in rules to allow athletes with oped new sport to ascend quickly from the disabilities to compete directly with athletes grass roots to the Paralympic level. This was without disabilities, are being taken slowly, the case with the addition of quad rugby as if at all. a demonstration sport in the 1996 Summer Retirement from, or change in, elite sport Paralympic Games. However, the increase participation is inevitable (Sinclair & Orlick, in formality of application, the strictness of 1993). Unfortunately, a dearth of research sport eligibility criteria, and the neglect of examining sport transitions for athletes with grass roots programs to encourage participa- disabilities exists. This deficiency is espe- tion may have deterred development of new cially troubling considering the suggestion ideas for sports participation by athletes with that individuals who are overly committed disabilities. Creative leadership in adapting to an athletic role may be less likely to ex- conventional sports and in developing new plore other Me options, such as education, sports can help to reduce the potential for career, and personal relationships (Brewer, program stagnation in disability sports. Van Raalte, & Linder, 1993). In addition, Another issue facing sport and disability retirement may occur prematurely for ath- in the next decade is the integration of athletes with disabilities because of the elimina- letes with disabilities, and sports for these tion of their event or classification. athletes, into the international sports move- The voices of TR researchers and prac- ment for able-bodied athletes. This integra- titioners are needed in the continuing debate tion could occur when athletes with disabili- surrounding the aforementioned inclusion ties compete side-by side in classes with efforts. TR specialists also can contribute to able-bodied athletes, and when athletes with grass roots growth in sports for people with disabilities compete in their own sport events disabilities by developing or adapting new in able-bodied competitions. Again, while sports at the recreational and competitive integration has been fully supported by the levels. Finally, TR researchers and prac- IPC and has been occurring for several years titioners may address issues related to suc- in various sports (e.g., road racing), misgiv- cessful sport transitions. ings surround this issue which converge on the question of how to insure the integrity The Special Issue of disability sport. Concern persists that po- The authors of the articles featured in this tential devaluation and diminished status of Special Issue provide examples of how TR the Paralympic Games could result if mar- researchers and practitioners can share their quee events (e.g., wheelchair basketball, 100 expertise and thus contribute to the advance- meter race for athletes with a below knee ment of the disability sports movement, and amputation, 1500 meter wheelchair race) are to the promotion of lifestyles inclusive of removed from the Paralympic Games and physical activity. Brasile and Hedrick dis- placed in World Championships and Olym- cuss the importance of skill development in pic Games (Williams, Craven, & Adams assuring a lifetime of enjoyable participation Mushett, 1994). Conversely, IPC contends in physical activity and sport. Further, they that "disability sport can best be recognized argue that athletes' skills do and should be for its true athleticism with appropriate inte- an important factor in classification. Hedrick gration throughout the entire sport ecosys- and Broadbent challenge the capacity of pre-

Second Quarter 1996 111 scriptive, clinical programs to promote posi- ership in insuring future sport and life oppor- tive, long term lifestyle change. They em- tunities for people with disabilities. phasize the need for research with persons Perhaps the potential relationship be- with disabilities to understand better the an- tween sport, disability, and TR was best ar- tecedents of participation in physical activity ticulated by Stephen Hawking (as cited in and sport, and the potential concomitant so- Giralt, 1993) in his address at the opening cial, physical, psychological, and vocational ceremonies of the 1992 Paralympic Games outcomes. Martin examines factors associ- in Barcelona, Spain: ated with successful sport transitions, and discusses implications for individuals with Each one of us has within us a spark disabilities as they experience transitions of fire, a creative force. . . . Some of throughout the lifespan. us have lost the use of parts of our The recent increase in interest in disabil- bodies, through accident or illness, but ity sport has resulted in several new books that is really of minor significance. It on the subject which are also featured in the is just a mechanical problem. The im- Special Issue. DePauw and Gavron (1995) portant thing is that we have the human provide a comprehensive review of disability spirit, the ability to create. This creativ- and sport in their recent book of the same ity can take many forms, from theoreti- title. Bailey presents a thoughtful critique of cal physics to physical achievement. this work. Richter reviews a new text con- The important thing is that one should cerning exercise and fitness options for indi- be stretched to be outstanding in some viduals with disabilities: Fitness Program- field. These Games provide an opportu- ming and Physical Disability (1995) edited nity for that (p. 119). by Miller. Kaschalk reviews Exercise Pro- gramming for Older Adults (1995) by Nor- The meaning and value of disability sport man, a new publication with a focus on older extends far beyond athletic accomplishments adults with or without disabilities. or what happens on the fieldo f play. Disabil- ity sport has a much larger and greater significance as a celebration of life and human Summary achievement. Events such as the Paralympic The relationship between sport, disabil- Games may help to chip away at the negative ity, and TR across the lifespan is complex. myths and stereotypes that keep people with As will be revealed in the articles featured disabilities from being full participants in, in this Special Issue, the social construction and contributors to, society. The message of of each is influenced by a variety of interre- ability and inclusion emphasized throughout lated factors including political, social, eco- this Special Issue is most important as we nomic, and cultural (Olenik, Matthews, & approach the dawn of the 21st century. Steadward, in press). Disability sport, similar Appreciation is extended to all the au- to TR, has experienced a great amount of thors who submitted manuscripts for this change in recent years, and yet is believed Special Issue of TRJ. Your efforts and desire by many to still be in its infancy. The disabil- to contribute are acknowledged. We hope ity sport movement, including the Paralym- you will continue to develop and share your pic Games, can serve as "a stepping stone ideas in relation to disability sport and TR. for self expression, self realization, and self Our appreciation is also extended to Mike actualization" (Steadward, 1995b, p. 3). Mahon and Mark Searle for their help and Thus, through the continued examination of encouragement. Finally, thanks are extended the relationship between sport, disability, to the reviewers who provided thoughtful and TR, TR professionals can provide lead- critique and feedback regarding the manu-

112 Therapeutic Recreation Journal scripts considered for inclusion in the Spe- letic benefits for all. Journal of Physical Edu- cation, Recreation, and Dance, 67(3), 19-24. cial Issue. Special thanks are extended to Ron Davis and Michael Ferrara who not only Mansell, M. (1995). General assembly athletes committee report. Brugge, Belgium: Interna- reviewed selected manuscripts, but also pro- tional Paralympic Committee. vided input in the preceding Guest Editors' Olenik, L. M., Matthews, J. M., & Steadward, Comments. Additional reviewers to whom R. D. (in press). Women, disability and sport: we owe appreciation include Howard Bailey, Unheard voices. Canadian Woman Studies Ted Baumgartner, Ellen Broach, John Journal. Bourke, Ladd Colston, Michael Crawford, Richter, K. J., Adams Mushett, C, Ferrara, John Dattilo, Gene Hayes, Michael Horvat, M. S., & McCann, B. C. (1992). Integrated Douglas Kleiber, Michael Paciorek, Ken swimming classification: A faulted system. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 9, 5-13. Richter, Jerome Singleton, Laurie Tis, Barb Trader, and Garry Wheeler. Sinclair, D. A., & Orlick, T. (1993). Positive transitions from high-performance sport. The Sport Psychologist, 7(2), 138-150. Steadward, R. D. (1995a). Integration and sport in the Paralympic movement. Paper presented References at the 5th International Paralympic Committee General Assembly, Tokyo, Japan. Block, M. E. (1995). Americans with Disabilities Steadward, R. D. (1995b). International Paralym- Act: Its impact on youth sports. Journal of pic committee: Where have we come from and Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, where are we going? Brugge, Belgium: Inter- 66(1), 28-32. national Paralympic Committee. Brewer, B. W., Van Raalte, J. L., & Under, D. E. Weiss, M., & Curtis, K. A. (1986). Controversies (1993). Athletic identity: Hercules' muscles or in medical classification of wheelchair athletes. Achilles' heel? International Journal of Sport In C. Sherrill (Ed.), Sport and disabled ath- Psychology, 24(2), 237-254. letes: The 1984 Olympic scientific congress proceedings (Vol. 9) (pp. 93-100). Cham- DePauw, K. P., & Gavron, S. J. (1995). Disability paign, IL: Human Kinetics. and Sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Williams, T., Craven, P., & Mushett, C. (1994). Giralt, J. (Ed.) Paralimpics '92. Barcelona, Spain: Summary and conclusions: Integration. In Enciclopedia Catalana. R. D. Steadward, E. Nelson, & G. D. Wheeler (Eds.), VISTA '93—the outlook: An interna- Hirthler, G. (1992). "StarFire" and "triumph of tional conference on high performance sport the human spirit" set the stage for 1996 At- for athletes with disabilities (pp. 391-393). lanta Paralympic Games. Atlanta, GA: Atlanta Edmonton, Alberta, Canada: Rick Hansen Paralympic Organizing Committee. Centre. Kozub, F. M, & Porretta, D. (1996). Including Yilla, A. B. (1994). Full inclusion—A philosophi- athletes with disabilities: Interscholastic ath- cal statement. Palaestra 10,(4), 18.

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