Communist Women’s Resistance in Occupied Paris: Engagement, Activism and Continuities from the 1930s to 1945 Amy Victoria Morrison Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Discipline of History School of Humanities University of Adelaide March 2018 i CONTENTS Abstract ii Thesis declaration iii Acknowledgements iv Abbreviations v Introduction and Review of the Historiography 1 Chapter One The Growth of the Parti Communiste Français and the Increasing Political Engagement of Women in the 1930s 42 Chapter Two The Transition from Legal Party to Illégale Organisation to Resistance Network, 1939-1941 79 Chapter Three The Consequences of Activism, 1942: police investigations and the treatment of women resisters 116 Chapter Four Underground Newspapers, 1942-1943: a platform for women’s mass resistance 150 Chapter Five The Resilience of Female Resisters Inside the ‘Fortress of Fascism’, 1944 193 Conclusion 233 Bibliography 240 ii Abstract The French communist resistance movement has been recognised as one of the most active networks of the French Resistance during World War II. This thesis addresses a gap in the scholarly literature concerning both the structure of the movement and the contribution of women to the communist resistance. While women are now included in the majority of general histories, the historiography has tended to understate the participation of female resisters. Women, however, were extensively involved as members of the communist resistance movement. This thesis allows us to gain an understanding of women as key contributors to the functioning of resistance networks. This study argues that women were integral to the success of the communist resistance movement. Detailed investigation of female communist resisters enables us to develop a deeper understanding of the emergence of resistance and how it was sustained. A resistance network was dependent upon the contribution of all its members. This thesis illustrates how the complementary roles adopted by women shaped resistance in France. The goal of the communist movement was popular resistance. Women were essential for this objective to succeed. Gender played a key role in determining how women resisted, particularly as members of the communist resistance. Women were able to develop their own initiatives and organise all-female parallel, but connected, sub- networks as part of the communist resistance movement. Women performed a range of roles as communist resisters. Over the course of the war they adapted their resistance activities to suit the changing circumstances in which they found themselves. In addition, this study explains how the attitude of the communists towards women’s informal participation in politics affected women’s involvement in resistance activities. Through an examination of the activities of the Parti Communiste Français and the inclusion of women in communist groups during the 1930s, this thesis demonstrates how the pre-war political engagement of communist women prepared them to perceive opportunities to resist. The anti-fascist struggle of the 1930s informed women’s choices to commit to resistance. The fact that communist women were politically active affected their choices as resisters, made them aware of the consequences of resistance, and enabled them to understand the importance of their contribution to resistance. iii Thesis Declaration I certify that this work contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in my name, in any university or other tertiary institution and, to the best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. In addition, I certify that no part of this work will, in the future, be used in a submission in my name, for any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution without the prior approval of the University of Adelaide and where applicable, any partner institution responsible for the joint award of this degree. I give consent to this copy of my thesis, when deposited in the University Library, being made available for loan and photocopying, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. I also give permission for the digital version of my thesis to be made available on the web, via the University’s digital research repository, the Library Search and also through web search engines, unless permission has been granted by the University to restrict access for a period of time. I acknowledge the support I have received for my research through the provision of an Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship. Signature …………………………. Date ………………………….. iv Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisor, Vesna Drapac. Her patience, expertise and understanding helped to guide me through the process of creating a thesis. I never would have got started without her encouragement, support and positive attitude. My thanks also go to Gareth Pritchard for his invaluable feedback and advice during the editing process. I am very grateful to staff at the Musée de la Résistance Nationale who not only helped guide me through their archives, but made me feel welcome in their research community. Thanks also to Paul le Bourgeois who made his research available to me. The advice of Professor Robert Gildea regarding archival work was also much appreciated. I would like to thank the staff at the Musée de la Préfecture de Police who ensured that I had access to the necessary files during digitisation restrictions. I could not have completed my thesis without the moral and material support of my family. Mum and Dad, you nurtured my passion for learning, social justice and all things French. Your advice never steered me wrong and your patience was inexhaustible. Caitlin, you were always prepared to distract me when it was necessary or lend a sympathetic ear. Your formatting know-how was well worth the price of an airfare. Thank you all so much for your encouragement. Lastly, I wish to acknowledge the women resisters whose courage and commitment to their cause made my research so much more than thesis preparation. Their stories should not be forgotten. v Abbreviations BS Brigade Spécial CdF Croix de Feu CMFCGF Comité Mondiale des Femmes Contre la Guerre et le Fascisme CNR Conseil National de la Résistance FN Front National FTP Francs-Tireurs et Partisans JC Jeunesses Communistes MRN Musée de la Résistance Nationale OS Organisation Spéciale PCF Parti Communiste Français PP Préfecture de Police STO Service de Travail Obligatoire UFF Union des Femmes Françaises UJFF Union des Jeunes Filles de France 1 Introduction and Review of the Historiography This thesis presents a detailed analysis of female resisters within communist resistance networks in Paris. My thesis argues that the Parti Communiste Français (PCF) mobilised women to a great extent as essential members of the communist resistance movement. In this thesis, I illustrate the remarkable integration of female resisters in PCF underground activities and the reasons for their extensive participation. To provide evidence for this argument, I consider the range of activities which women performed, and I place their contribution to resistance within the context of the communist network as a whole. I build on previous studies of resistance by including a discussion of the engagement of women within communist networks during the 1930s. My thesis addresses a range of questions concerning communist women’s activism in Paris. What was the nature and extent of communist women’s resistance? How did women’s resistance contribute to the success and longevity of resistance networks? In addressing these questions, my core premise is that our evaluation of the role of women in the resistance should not privilege some kinds of activities over others. Instead, it is essential to acknowledge that resistance was a collective movement in which all the elements were equally important because they were interdependent. I unpack this argument over the course of my thesis through a detailed discussion of women in the communist resistance. I ask: How did the attitude of the communists towards the informal involvement of women in politics affect women’s engagement in the French Resistance? Did it enable and facilitate their resistance? The communists encouraged the widespread inclusion of women in their networks, both before and during the war. When it came to organising resistance, the PCF drew heavily on its experience of the Popular Front, 1936-1938. I argue that this resulted in women being particularly active in communist resistance groups. Further, I suggest that their pre-war political activities affected women’s perception of resistance, its consequences and its importance, as well as the choices they made during the war. 2 In order to understand the crucial role of women in communist networks, it is necessary to examine the variety of their activities in detail. Why did communist networks target women as a specific group of potential resisters? What activities did the communist networks encourage women to perform? What did the communists envision as women’s contribution to resistance? These questions shape the structure and analysis of my study. I consider how the PCF was able to exploit traditional gender roles when organising resistance activities. Women’s resistance activities either complemented those adopted by men, or could not be performed by men. Activities such as collecting