Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2017) 6(7): 1476-1485

International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences ISSN: 2319-7706 Volume 6 Number 7 (2017) pp. 1476-1485 Journal homepage: http://www.ijcmas.com

Review Article https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2017.607.176

Ecological Engineering for Pest Management in Agro Ecosystem-A Review

Muneer Ahmad* and S.S. Pathania

Division of Entomology, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology Shalimar Srinagar, Kashmir, J&K, India *Corresponding author

ABSTRACT

Plants are not capable of running away from their enemies, i.e., the herbivores that may eat them. However, under certain circumstances, plants can rely on the natural enemies of

insect herbivores for protection. These natural enemies include other insects that are predators and parasitoids. Habitat manipulation, which is also referred to as “Ecological

K e yw or ds Engineering”, focuses on reducing mortality of natural enemies, providing the supplementary resources and manipulating host plant attributes for the benefit of natural Ecological, bio-agents. This can be achieved by enhancing the plant diversity and by providing Pest, adequate refugia in the agro-ecosystem. In this article we review the use of natural enemies Management in crop pest management and describe m research needed to better meet information needs and H abitat. for practical applications. Endemic natural enemies (predators and parasites) offer a

Article Info potential but understudied approach to controlling insect pests in agricultural systems. With the current high interest in environmental stewardship, such an approach has special Accepted: appeal as a method to reduce the need for pesticides while maintaining agricultural 19 June 2017 profitability. Habitat for sustaining populations of natural enemies occurs primarily at field Available Online: edges where crops and edge vegetation meet. Conservation and enhancement of natural 10 July 2017 enemies might include manipulation of plant species and plant arrangement, particularly at

these edges; and consideration of optimum field sizes, number of edges, and management practices in and near edges. Blending the benefits of agricultural and forestry (windbreak) systems is one promising approach to field edge management that has additional benefits

of wind protection.

Introduction

The management of nature is ecological the dominant paradigm. Each of the specific engineering (ODUM 1971) methodological approaches used in IPM (mechanical, physical and cultural control; This review is essentially about the host plant resistance; biological control etc; management of arthropod pests, though at Figure 1) has tended to become a specialised least some of the principles described will area of research with sometimes only limited have relevance to other pests, weeds and communication between researchers across pathogens. Over recent decades, integrated areas. Even sub-areas, such as the four forms pest management (IPM) – the combined use of biological control (conservation, classical, of multiple pest-control methods, informed by inoculation and inundation) recognized by monitoring of pest densities – has emerged as Eilenberg et al., (2001) (Figure 1), have

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Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2017) 6(7): 1476-1485 tended to become the domain of specialists. growing crop and prevent pest aphid This has led to calls for greater cooperation outbreaks (Thomas et al., 1991).When and exchange of ideas between different sub- herbivores (the second trophic level) are disciplines. In the case of biological control, suppressed by natural enemies (third trophic for example, Gurr and Wratten (1999) level) in this manner, control is said to be proposed the concept of „integrated biological „top-down‟. Root (1973) referred to pest control‟, which uses conservation biological suppression resulting from this effect as control techniques to support classical, supporting the „enemies‟ hypotheses. inoculation and inundation biological control. Importantly, however, within-crop habitat manipulation strategies such as cover crops Conservation biological control (CBC) has and green mulches (components of the first been defined as „modification of the trophic level, as is the crop) can also act on environment or existing practices to protect pests directly, providing „bottom-up‟ control. and enhance specific natural enemies of other Root (1973) termed pest suppression resulting organisms to reduce the effect of pests‟ from such non-natural enemy effects as the (Eilenberg et al., 2001). In practice, CBC is „resource concentration hypothesis‟, affected by either (1) reducing the pesticide- reflecting the fact that the resource (crop) was induced mortality of natural enemies through effectively „diluted‟ by cues from other plant better targeting in time and space, reducing species. These mechanisms are explored in rates of application or using compounds with detail in chapter 3, „The agro ecological bases a narrower spectrum efficacy, or (2) by of ecological engineering for pest habitat manipulation to improve natural management‟, by Nicholls and Altieri. enemy fitness and effectiveness. Though considerable attention has been devoted to testing the relative importance of The second approach often involves bottom-up and top-down effects, they are not increasing the species diversity and structural mutually exclusive and in many systems both complexity of agro ecosystems. In the context are likely to operate (Gurr et al., 1998). Thus of CBC, habitat manipulation aims to provide habitat manipulation, though it makes a major natural enemies with resources such as nectar contribution to CBC, includes a wider series (Baggen and Gurr, 1998), pollen (Hickman of approaches that may operate independently and Wratten ,1996), physical refugia (Halaji of natural enemies (Figure 1) and, as et al., 2000), alternative prey (Abou-Awad, discussed below, constitute a form of 1998), alternative hosts (Viggiani, 2003) and ecological engineering. Examples of lekking sites (Sutherland et al., 2001). Habitat ecological engineering for pest management manipulation approaches, such as those that operate largely by top-down effects are pictured in figure 1, provide these resources detailed by Pfiffner and Wyss in chapter 11, and operate to reduce pest densities via an „Use of sown wildflower strips‟. Natural enhancement of natural enemies. For enemies use such strips for resources such as example, „beetle banks‟ (Figure 1) are raised nectar and pollen in ways explored by Jervis earth ridges that typically run through the et al., (Ch. 5, „Use of behavioural and life- centre of arable fields and are sown to history studies‟). The push–pull and perennial tussock-forming grasses. During the intercropping approaches described in the two winter, far higher densities of predatory chapters by Khan and Pickett (ch. 10) and arthropods shelter on the well-drained, Mensah and Sequeira (ch. 12) employ top- insulated sites than in the open field. In the down effects, but the operation of bottom-up spring, beetles and other natural enemies effects is also clearly evident. emerge from the beetle bank to colonise the 1477

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Ecological engineering title reflects the synonym for ecological engineering, „eco technology‟. Various Odum (1962) was among the first to use the disciplines are allied to ecological term „ecological engineering‟, which was engineering: restoration ecology, sustainable viewed as „environmental manipulation by agro ecology, habitat reconstruction, man using small amounts of supplementary ecosystem rehabilitation, river and wetland energy to control systems in which the main restoration and reclamation ecology (Mitsch, energy drives are still coming from natural 1991). These sub-sets indicate the range of sources‟. In more recent years, Mitsch and areas in which ecological engineering has Jorgensen (1989) have defined ecological been applied, including the restoration of engineering as „the design of human society wetlands, treatment and utilisation of with its natural environment for the benefit of wastewater, integrated fish culture systems both‟. Among, the characteristics of this form and mining technology (Mitsch and of engineering are the use of quantitative Jorgensen, 1989) as well as wildlife approaches and ecological theory as well as conservation (Morris et al., 1994). the view of humans as part of, rather than apart from, nature. Ecological engineering is a Adapting and designing the agricultural conscious human activity and should not be system to the environment of the region (e.g. confused with the more recently developed choice of appropriate crop species and term „ecosystem engineering‟. This refers to cultivars); the way in which other species shape habitats via their intrinsic biology rather than by Optimizing the use of biological resources in conscious design. For example, termites alter the agro ecosystem (e.g. the use of biological the structural characteristic of soils control); (Dangerfield et al., 1998), and such ecosystem engineers thereby moderate the Developing strategies that induce minimal availability of resources to other organisms changes to the natural ecosystem to protect (Thomas et al., 1999). Recently, Parrott the environment and minimise use of non- (2002) has discussed the ecological renewable resources (e.g. appropriate engineering field as having evolved to fertiliser formulations and application incorporate a growing number of practitioners patterns). whose endeavour is the „design, operation management and repair of sustainable living Reflecting the utility of the ecological systems in a manner consistent with engineering paradigm to agriculture, the term ecological principles, for the benefit of both „agro ecological engineering‟ has developed human society and the natural environment‟. currency (e.g. Hengsdijk and van Ittersum, Possibly, however, the most elegant definition 2003) and this has been viewed explicitly as a of ecological engineering comes from way towards sustainable agriculture in China, Chinese approaches where a long history of where it is said to be thriving (Liu and Fu, complex land use systems was, in the closing 2000). These authors hold that agro ecological decades of the 20th century, formalised into a engineering produce agricultural systems with „design with nature‟ philosophy (Ma, 1985). multi-components and multi-storey vegetation The existence of the well-established giving higher vegetative cover than is typical periodical Ecological Engineering: The of monocultures. As explored by many Journal of Eco Technology is evidence of the authors in the present volume, vegetational level of activity in this research field. This diversity plays a central role in habitat

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Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2017) 6(7): 1476-1485 manipulation. It could be argued that all pest Habitat manipulation approaches management approaches (Figure 1) are forms of ecological engineering, irrespective of Top down control whether they act on the physical environment (e.g. via tillage), chemical environment (e.g. Here herbivores (second trophic level) are via pesticide use) or biotic environment (e.g. suppressed by the natural bio-agents (third via the use of novel crop varieties). It is, trophic level) and this type of approach is however, the use of cultural techniques to seen in „Augmentive biological control‟. effect habitat manipulation and enhance biological control (Figure 1) that most readily Bottom up control fit the philosophy of ecological engineering. These cultural techniques typically: In this approach, manipulation within crop, such as green mulches and cover crop (first Involve relatively low inputs of energy or trophic level) will act on pests directly. This materials; type of approach is seen in habitat manipulation of „Conservation biological Rely on natural processes (e.g. natural control. enemies or the response of herbivores to vegetation diversity); Possible ways to enhance natural diversity

Have developed to be consistent with Structural and cultural diversity ecological principles; Trees and other tall vegetation can provide the Are refined by applied ecological vertical structure needed by spiders and birds. experimentation; Flowering shrubs, herbs and annual and perennial forbs can provide for parasitic Contribute to knowledge of theoretical and ichneumonids and syrphids that feed on applied ecology (Figure 1). flower, nectar and pollen. The syrphids are predators of aphids (Leius, 1967) and are The development of habitat manipulation more abundant in areas of high floral diversity and abundance (Ruppert and Moltan, 1991). Contemporary habitat manipulation has its Aphids that feed on goldenrod can be used as genesis in practices that have been used to alternative prey for ladybird beetles promote generalist predators in agricultural (Coccinellidae) when population of their systems for centuries (Sweetman, 1958). An primary prey is low (Altieri and Whitcomb, example of an early habitat manipulation 1979). technique, used by Chinese farmers for over 2000 years and still in use today, is the use of Overwintering sites straw shelters to provide temporary spider refugia and overwintering sites during cyclic Windbreaks can be used by arthropod farming disturbances (Dong and Xu, 1984). predators as overwintering sites if appropriate Another technique, developed in Burma in the vegetation is available. In South Carolina, 1770s, used connecting bamboo canes certain species of coccinellids that feed on between citrus trees to enable predatory ants insect pests of field and orchard crops to move between the trees to control overwinter at field edges in herbaceous caterpillar pests (van Emden, 1989). vegetation, grass, and tree litter (Roach and

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Thomas, 1991). Woody field edges can that use the vegetation for shelter. For provide habitat for birds or small mammals‟ example, raking hackberry leaves from lawns that feed on insect pests during the winter removes parasites of the hackberry nipplegall (Black et al., 1970; Johnson and Beck, 1988). maker. Pachypsylla celtidismamma (Fletcher) (Homoptera: Psyllidae) an insect that Cultural practices overwinters in the leaf galls. In rural areas, the leaves are not removed and the parasites Cultural practices such as plowing, cultivating control the psyllids (W. Cranshaw, Colorado and harvesting can radically alter the State University, personal communications). abundance of predators such as spiders, birds, Likewise, crop stubble left in fields might and small mammals. Clean cultivation of a contain overwintering parasitic wasps or may field or around trees may increase crop provide cover for predators such as birds, survival but also can decrease survival of overwintering spiders, or beetles. birds, small mammals, spiders, or carabids

Fig. 1 The effects of agroecosystem management and associated cultural practices on the biodiversity of natural enemies and abundance of insect pests

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Windbreak design Constraints and future prospects

Windbreak design is another method of There is basic need to strengthen the research manipulating natural enemy abundance, and on defining the role of the tritrophic diversity. In North Dakota, carabids and interactions, cultural practices and other staphylinids (Coleoptera) that feed on crop practices in improving the efficiency of the pests were more abundant at the edge of natural enemies for important species of multi-row wind breaks than in the interior of natural enemies used in India. Integration of the windbreak (Katayama, 1980). In single- the conservation and manipulation techniques row elm windbreaks, most of the windbreak is in the IPM modules should be done and be edge; thus, carabid and staphylinid abundance tested for proper pest management practices should be relatively constant across the for different crop pests. A concerted research windbreak (Frye et al., 1988). effort between different disciplines such as Plant Breeders, Agronomist, Soil Scientists, Conversely, insectivorous birds establish and Chemists and Entomologists is necessary large territories and prefer larger, wider to develop viable technologies with windbreaks. Other species may benefit from consideration to the conserving of the natural curved or undulating windbreak designs that enemies or increasing the efficiency of the provide greater amounts of edge and less natural enemies. Removing the extension gap exposure when feeding in fields near the edge between the researcher and the farmer is (PFRA, undated). pivotal for the success of the conservation and manipulation techniques. Some of the farmers Pesticides still believe in „clean cultivation‟ by burning the residual crops, deep ploughing etc. as the Although pesticides are the most frequently right way of control without being aware of used method of controlling pests, most the damage caused to the natural enemies. pesticides kill not only the target pest but Periodical training is necessary to educate the many of its invertebrate natural enemies. extension workers and farmers on biological control incorporating the conservation and They also may adversely affect vertebrate manipulation methods. Most of the natural enemies and other non-target experiments especially on the use of semi organisms and, over time, most insect pests chemicals were conducted in smaller area or can develop resistance to a pesticide. in semi field conditions and thus make Minimizing the use of pesticides, proper difficult to draw any conclusions. Studies selection and application of pesticides when should be conducted in larger areas so as to needed, and use of other integrated pest generate good amount of data on the use of management techniques when possible are the semi chemicals. methods of reducing these adverse effects and conserving natural enemy abundance. In conclusion, Habitat manipulation is another form of augmentation and conservation of Providing refugia natural enemies in which cropping system altered successfully to augment and enhance Plants, which shelter the natural enemies the effectiveness of the natural enemies. Adult during unfavourable periods like winter in parasitoids and predators significantly high altitudes, dry seasons in tropical areas, benefited from source of nectar and the are called so. Artificially created grasses sown protection provided by refuge (hedge rows,

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How to cite this article:

Muneer Ahmad and Pathania, S.S. 2017. Ecological Engineering for Pest Management in Agro Ecosystem-A review. Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci. 6(7): 1476-1485. doi: https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2017.607.176

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