Mazhomba Amalia

BINDURA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE EDUCATION FACULTY OF SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY

THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE VARIABILITY AND CHANGE: A CASE OF MASEMBURA WARD 10 IN BINDURA RURAL DISTRICT

MAZHOMBA AMALIA

B1231645

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE BACHELOUR OF SCIENCE HONOURS DEGREE IN DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

MAY 2016

APPROVAL FORM The undersigned certifies that he has read this dissertation and has approved its submission to the department for marking after confirming that it conforms to the department’s requirements.

Mr. A Manyani (Thesis Supervisor)

Signature Date

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DECLARATION

I declare that this research study is my own work. It has not been presented elsewhere for the purpose of degree assessment. This dissertation strictly follows the proper citation for sources taken from other sources.

Signed Date

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DEDICATIONS

I dedicate this dissertation to my husband Mr. Luke Mazhomba and my children, Noreetor, Munashe, Tadiwanashe, Nokutenda and Nokunatswa who were deprived of their time with me during the period of research study. Let them be inspired to become future researchers of note.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to show my acknowledgement to my honorary supervisor Mr. Manyani, under his supervision the study has been conducted successfully. His guidance and intellectual comments and corrections on my research study helped me to set my research focus and finally complete this study. I also thank other members of staff in the Geography Department for their recommendations at the proposal stage. My foremost gratitude goes to my friend Akiel Chimusoro, Environmental Sciences part 4.2 student who helped me in accessing SPSS version 16 data.I am very much indebted to the women of Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District who provided me with the information I needed for this study. I would like to acknowledge the authority of the District Administrator Mr. Mazai, the Agricultural extension officer, Mr. Chifamba, Manhenga Rural District Council official, Mr. Mudodo and Chief Masembura for providing information and granting their valuable time during the study.

I owe profound homage to my husband Mr. Luke Mazhomba, my sons (Munashe and Tadiwanashe) and daughters (Noreetor, Nokutenda and Nokunatswa) for being a constant source of inspiration and for giving moral support in the course of the study. My sincere appreciation for the support and encouragement I received from my parents, Mr. Sarudzai O. Sengurai and Mrs. Winnet G. Sengurai during the course of my study.

My special thanks go to Mrs. Mercy Kawonza and Mr. Charles Kawonza of Hillview ECD for their kind help in taking care of my baby Nokunatswa while I was attending lecture classes. My foremost gratitude goes to the registrar of Bindura University, Mrs. Rumhuma for giving me continuous support and inspiration to complete my Honours Degree Programme in Development Studies.

ABSTRACT The main objective of this study was to investigate the sustainability of adaptation strategies to climate variability and change put in place by women in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District. The study area was selected due to drought proneness and women’s vulnerability in agriculture since it is mainly rain fed. Eighty three women were randomly selected and four of them said they adhered to their ancestors’ way of livelihoods since they did not believe in climate variability and change. A self-administered 17 itemed questionnaire was therefore used with the remaining seventy nine women. Eighteen key informants’ interviews and direct observations were also used to answer the research questions. The main impacts to climate variability and change were frequent poor yield, reduced livestock herd and food insecurity. Adaptation strategies used by the majority of women included increased use of fertilizers and pesticides, increased market gardening, and food preservation. Increased market gardening was sustainable because the study area is bounded by Pote, Nyauri and Sarwe rivers. Food preservation was mainly on indigenous vegetables and plants so nothing much was needed for them to grow hence sustainable. The least common adaptation options were late planting and rain water harvesting. Women in Masembura Ward 10 were resilient considering the availability of high levels of sustainable social, human and natural capital in the study area. Major recommendations that emanated from the study included increased government support in establishment of irrigation schemes, secure property rights and improved access to credit.

TABLE OF CONTENTS APPROVAL FORM ...... i DECLARATION ...... ii DEDICATIONS ...... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iv ABSTRACT ...... v TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... vi CHAPTER 1 ...... 1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Introduction ...... 1 1.2 Background of the study ...... 1 1.3 Problem statement ...... 2 1.4 Scope ...... 2 1.5 Aim and Objectives of the study ...... 3 1.5.1 Aim ...... 3 1.5.2 Specific Objectives ...... 3 1.6 Research questions ...... 3 1.7 Limitations of the study ...... 3 1.8 Significance of the study ...... 3 1.9 Definitions of terms ...... 4 1.10 Organisation ...... 6 CHAPTER 2 ...... 7 LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………………………………………...……….7 2.1 Introduction ...... 7 2.2 Rural women perceptions on the impact of climate variability and change ...... 7 2.3 Adaptation strategies to climate variability and change used by rural women ...... 10 2.4 Sustainability of adaptation strategies to climate variability and change used by women ...... 16 2.5 Theoretical framework ...... 20

2.6 Conclusion ...... 22 CHAPTER 3 ...... 23 RESEARCH METHODS AND DATA ANALYSIS ...... 23 3.1 Introduction ...... 23 3.2 Description of the study area ...... 23 3.3 Delimitation of the study ...... 24 3.4 The research design ...... 25 3.4.1Questionnaire schedules to women ...... 25 3.4.2 Key informant interview guides...... 26 3.4.3 Observation guides...... 26 3.4.4 Geographical Information Systems tools...... 26 3.4.5 Secondary data sources ...... 27 3.4.6 Data collection procedure ...... 27 3.5 Sampling procedures ...... 27 3.6 Data analysis ...... 28 3.7 Frequency distributions and graphical displays ...... 28 3.8 Ethical consideration ...... 28 3.9 Informed consent and voluntary participation ...... 28 3.9.1Confidentiality ...... 29 3.9.2 Physical harm ...... 29 3.10 Limitations ...... 29 3.11 Conclusion ...... 29 CHAPTER 4 ...... 30 DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION…………………………....…….30 4.1 Introduction ...... 30 4.2 Demographic and socio-economic characteristics ...... 30 4.2.1 Age analysis of women in Masembura Ward 10 in Bindura Rural District ...... 30 4.1.2 Marital status of respondents ...... 31 4.1.3 Household characteristics ...... 33 4.1.4 Levels of Literacy of respondents ...... 34

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4.1.5 Access to land ...... 35 4.1.6 Household incomes of respondents ...... 36 4.1.7 Sources of incomes ...... 37 4.2 Perceived impact of climate variability and change by women in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District ...... 39 4.3 Adaptation strategies to climate variability and change used by women in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District ...... 40 4.4 Sustainability of Adaptation Strategies to Climate Variability and Change used by women in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District ...... 48 4.5 Recommendations by women to achieve sustainable adaptation strategies in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District ...... 55 4. 6 Conclusion ...... 57 CHAPTER 5 ...... 58 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS……………………………………………….58 5.1 Introduction ...... 58 5.2 Conclusion ...... 58 5.4 Recommendations ...... 59 REFERRENCES ...... 60 APPENDIX ONE...... 68 APPENDIX TWO ...... 75 APPENDIX THREE ...... 77

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction The chapter gives the introduction, background of the study, problem statement, scope, aim, specific objectives, research questions, significance of the study, definitions of terms and organisation. Sustainable adaptation is important to reduce the impacts of climate variability on food security and to protect livelihoods of the poor rural women to achieve most of the targets specified in the Sustainable Development Goals (World Bank, 2013).

1.2 Background of the study Women make up for 70% of the world poor (World Bank, 2012). They have less access to financial resources, land, education, health and other basic rights than men and are seldom involved in decision making processes. Women are therefore less able to adapt (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 2007).Although agriculture is facing lots of climate hazards, women still depend on it to earn their livelihoods. The researcher is of the opinion that international climate change agreements and national policies are more likely to succeed in the long run if they take into account population dynamics, the relations between sexes, and women’s well-being and access to services and opportunities (Cooke, 2015).

Climate variability and change is one of the principle threats to food justice, traditional means of subsistence and ways of life. The impacts of climate variability and change have been felt at global level and the resultant is giving stress to humans as well as the environment. According to Guinness (2012) the impacts of climate variability and change in developing countries like Zimbabwe are becoming increasingly worrisome, particularly the impacts on the agricultural and forestry sectors, given their dependence on weather conditions. This creates a situation that is economically, socially, politically vulnerable, putting food security, human security and the basic conditions necessary for poverty reduction at risk in developing countries. Virtually every country in Less Economically Developed Countries (LEDCs) has suffered the consequences of extreme weather events over the past few years.

According to Fon (2011) analysis of the developing countries’ vulnerability to climate shows that period of droughts and flooding are intensifying. The natural disasters are and will not only be more extreme but also more recurrent. High degree of rainfall variability is the norm in Zimbabwe because it lies within the tropics and subtropics (Manatsa et al., 2010). Soil continues to steadily erode and degrade. This is affecting agriculture of many rural economies of the developing nations including Zimbabwe. Among communal women, land is of major importance since it is a livelihood strategy to them. According to Food Agricultural Organisation Statistics (FAOSTAT) (2013), agriculture is the most important activity compromising a large number of women in participation in Sub Saharan Africa. In Zimbabwe, rural women constitute 60-70% (ZIMSTAT, 2012) of the farmers in communal lands and compromises of at least 70% of labour force in the area (Todaro and Smith, 2009).It is for this reason that this study investigates the role of women in adaptation to climate variability and change in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District.

1.3 Problem statement Women’s unequal position in rural society means they have less access to resources. This is further accelerated by them being more dependent on natural resources for their subsistence. There are many ways in which women are affected by climate variability and change. They are more exposed to climate shocks and have fewer resources to protect their own lives, assets and livelihoods while looking after their families. Thus special attention should be given to women. Again climate variability and change is taking a lead on the expansion of marginal lands (IPCC, 2007). Drought is expected to increase declining outputs, further compromising economic growth, stability and food insecurity (FAO, 2012). The economies of the poor in Zimbabwe are also highly vulnerable to climate variability and change due to their heavy reliance on rain-fed agriculture. Women must adapt to changes in climate in order to provide food security hence the importance of investigating the sustainability of adaptation strategies to climate variability and change put in place by women in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District.

1.4 Scope The research was carried out in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District. It is a study to investigate the role of women in adaptation to climate variability and change.

1.5 Aim and Objectives of the study

1.5.1 Aim To investigate the sustainability of adaptation strategies to climate variability and change put in place by women in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District.

1.5.2Specific Objectives • To identify women perceptions on the impact of climate variability and change in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District.

• To establish the adaptation strategies to climate variability and change used by women in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District.

• To determine the sustainability of adaptation strategies to climate variability and change used by women in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District.

1.6 Research questions • What are rural women’s perceptions on the impact of climate variability and change in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District?

• What are the adaptation strategies to climate variability and change used by women in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District?

• How sustainable are the adaptation strategies to climate variability and change used by women in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District?

1.7 Limitations of the study • This research is not conducted with all specific villages in the study area.

• Only drought is considered, wind erosion and other man made hazards are not identified.

• The research is focused on both agricultural and off-farming livelihood options.

1.8 Significance of the study The study is a basis for contribution to the understanding of the situation and level of women development of Masembura Ward 10 and Zimbabwe at large. The study of women perceptions

on the impact of climate variability and change in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District is also important as this can influence decisions on adoption of new technologies such as fertilizer use and adoption of new seed varieties. Results of the study will be valuable to development practitioners and other stakeholders taking part in rural development in Bindura Rural District. The results of Masembura Ward 10 will also form a baseline for further studies in the area. Improvement of livelihood strategies by the policy makers will be efficient and hence contribute to the attainment of sustainable livelihoods in drought prone areas. This study also contributes to the current debate on the role of women in adaptation to climate variability and change (World Bank, 2013).

More so the study is also useful to the academia. Government institutions such as AGRITEX are empowered on developing coping strategies that can be fused with the knowledge that the rural women possess. Interactions by the rural women increase the adaptation options rates of the national adaptation policies. The research is important to the Agriculturalists in developing improved adaptation measures with the potential to be sustainable. The study is also useful to the students as it adds literature on the issues of adaptation to climate variability and change.

1.9 Definitions of terms Adaptation is to cope or respond to the harsh or unfavourable conditions like climate variability and change that are already happening while at the same time prepare for future impacts (Adger, et al., 2005). Adaptation to climate variability and change in the context of this study is therefore the process through which people reduce the negative effects of climate variability and change on their livelihoods.

Climate Variability is the deviations in the mean state of climate and inconsistencies(for example in occurrence of wind, temperature and precipitation extremes) on all temporal and spatial scales beyond those of individual weather events, including short term fluctuations that happen from year to year (IPCC, 2012). Variability in this context is a central part of climate change in which a change in mean climatic conditions is experienced through changes in the nature and frequency of particularly yearly conditions including extremes. Climate variability is therefore a short term change in weather conditions.

Climate Change as defined by Todaro and Smith (2009) is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. In this study climate change is taken as a long term change in the statistics of weather expressed as a probable change in mean or extreme weather conditions. Climate change is therefore a long term change in weather conditions.

Disaster is an interaction of vulnerability and hazard (IPCC, 2007). It is a human induced or natural catastrophe that causes great damage or loss of life. It is taken as a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society causing widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses which exceed the ability of the affected community to cope using their own resources. It results from a combination of hazards, conditions of vulnerability and insufficient capacity or measures to reduce the potential negative consequences of being at risk. In this study drought is the disaster. It is the actual realisation of risk.

Drought is periods of increased dryness due to precipitation falling far short of expected for a region (IPCC, 2007). Meteorologists define drought solely on the basis of the degree of dryness and the duration of the dry period whilst agriculturalists link drought to agricultural impacts focusing on precipitation shortages. There are basically four classifications of drought which are meteorological drought, agricultural drought, hydrological drought and socio-economic drought. This study mainly focuses on meteorological drought . Meteorological drought is often defined by a period of substantially diminished precipitation duration. It originates from a deficiency of precipitation over an extended period of time, usually a season or more. This deficiency results in a water shortage for crops and animals.

Food security World Bank, (2013) defined food security as existing "when all people at all times have access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life". Food security encompasses the availability, access, use and stability of nutritious food (FAO, 2012). In this study food security is a condition related to the ongoing availability of food. It is defined as the availability of food and one's access to it. Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee indicated that a household is considered food secure when its occupants do not live in hunger or fear of starvation (ZIMVAC, 2015).

Vulnerability is defined as a high exposure to risk, shocks and stress and difficulty in coping with them (ZIMVAC, 2015). Shocks can destroy assets or force people to dispose of them in order to cope. A shock can be positive or negative (IPCC, 2007). Shocks may undermine rural livelihoods in ways that increase vulnerability and result in impoverishment and powerlessness (IPCC, 2007). In this study vulnerability is the risk of a climate disaster, which is drought in the context of this study.

1.10 Organisation of the study The research is divided into five chapters. Chapter one is an introductory part stating the background, problem, study area, scope, objectives, research questions, delimitation, limitations, significance and definitions of terms. The research also seeks to identify adaptation strategies used by women in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District and sustainability of these strategies. Chapter two presents the review of related literature on climate variability and change, rural women perceptions on climate variability and change impact and adaptation strategies used by rural women, their sustainability and theoretical framework. Chapter three presents a detailed research methodology of the research area and the socioeconomic backgrounds of the respondents are discussed. Chapter four gives data presentation, analysis and discussion on perceptions of rural women on the impact of climate variability and change, the adaptation strategies used by women and their sustainability taking into account age, level of education and marital status. Finally chapter five provides the conclusion and recommendations.

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction This chapter covered empirical works that related to the study. The chapter further highlighted the sustainable livelihood framework which was the model used in the study to expose the knowledge gaps pertaining to the aim and objectives of this study.

2.2 Rural women perceptions on the impact of climate variability and change

Slegers (2008) in his study in semi-arid central Tanzania on perceptions on the impacts of climate variability and change as an important aspect in adaptation determined decisions in agricultural planning and management by the farmers where he used self-administered questionnaires. Kalungu (2013) agreed with this idea in his study in semi-arid and sub-humid regions of Kenya where he used data from household interviews at four sites in Kenya. (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2014) stated that cultural characteristics including age, gender, and sense of place influenced risk perception, entitlements to resources, and choices about adaptation. This revealed that emerging of new traits and varieties of crops offered women farmers’ greater flexibility in adapting to climate variability and change. This clearly shows that rural women perceptions on the impacts of climate variability and change have great impact on adaptation strategies hence the importance to study the women perceptions on the impacts of climate variability and change in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District.

OXFAM (2015) indicated that women from rural Zimbabwe perceived that a delay to the coming rainy season means late planting, reduced hectarage, poor crop condition, deteriorating livestock conditions and prices, high cereal prices and worsening acute malnutrition in some areas. (ZIMVAC, 2015) further highlighted that rural livelihoods assessment estimated that approximately four hundred and sixty two thousand people (five percent of the rural population) were in food insecure through September 2015 and the figure was expected to double to nine hundred and twenty four thousand people (ten percent of the rural population) between October and December 2015, before peaking at one million five hundred thousand people (sixteen percent of the rural population) at the peak of the lean season between January and March

2016(OXFAM, 2015). This explicitly shows that climate variability and change is a threat to communities therefore the researcher sees it necessary to investigate women perceptions on the impacts of climate variability and change for better strategies to adapt to increase resilience.

Boko et al., (2007) in a study on Africa climate change, impacts, adaptation and vulnerability in the moist tropics indicated that during the next decade millions of people would be affected by changes in rainfall patterns and temperature variability regimes. This was also supported by earlier studies on adaptation where a case study of European regions was used revealed that women smallholder farmers in Austria, Italy, Poland, Russia and Serbia found that the risk of plant diseases, pest and weed damage to agricultural crops had increased significantly due to direct consequence of climate variability and change (Jevric et al., 2009). The agricultural extension officers for the study area noted that soil for the same land was very poor for crop production (Jevric et al., 2012). A research carried out by Moyo et al., (2012) where key informants interviews were used showed that rural women in semi-arid Zimbabwe perceived that climate variability and change caused production instability and poor incomes in developing world especially in Africa (Food Agricultural Organisation, 2012).

From the above research studies it is evident that climate variability and change has increased socio-economic problems at all levels hence increase on global debates like the Fifth International Conference to be held in Toronto in Canada in 2016(Climate Change Adaptation 2016). This will give climate researchers an opportunity to upgrade important findings before a global audience. It may also help the researcher find results on women perceptions on the impacts of climate variability and change in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District.

Ozor (2009) highlighted on the side of livestock production noted that livestock production systems in Nigeria would be vulnerable to climate variability and change in respect of anticipated decrease in rainfall in the Sudan-Sahelian zone and consequent reduction in the available pastureland. A study on Kenya’s climate change preparedness and vulnerability done in 2010 agreed with this finding noting that most pastoralists lost more than half of their heads to droughts in 2009 (Mutimba et.al.,2010)

This clearly shows that climate variability and change will decrease the asset base for the women hence decreasing the adaptive capacity socially and economically. It further blurs social boundaries between wealthy and poor in terms of livestock ownership thus affecting the traditional social safety net of livestock loaning system hence the importance of women perceptions on the impact of climate variability and change in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District.

IPCC, (2007) stated that women farmers in Kenya perceived that increased temperatures reduced crop yields and increased levels of food insecurity even in the moist tropics with predictions that during the next decade millions of people particularly in developing countries would face major changes in rainfall patterns and temperature variability regimes. A study in Northern Kenya by Obando et al., (2009) on climate effects further agreed with the above findings and blamed climate variability and change for increased general poverty in the region (Obando et al., (2009). This also agreed with the findings of Action aid (2009) which stated that agriculture contributed to the suffering of negative effects of climate variability and change. The same idea was further supported by ZIMVAC (2015) on Rural Livelihoods Assessment (RLA) carried out in May 2015 which estimated that one million four hundred and ninety thousand and twenty four (two hundred and fifty thousand households) Zimbabweans in rural areas, will be food insecure and in need of humanitarian assistance at the peak of the lean season (January – March 2016).

This is clear evident that climate variability and change is a hindrance to developmental goals at all levels. The Sustainable Development Goal number two which emphasises on zero hunger and other sustainable developing goals on the same context, are directly challenged as evidenced by these research studies done in Kenya and Zimbabwe respectively. The researcher is therefore of the opinion that women perceptions on the impact of climate variability and change will help in the investigation of the sustainability of adaptation strategies put in place by women in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District hence promoting all sustainable development goals put in place by the United Nations.

Tunde (2011) in a study in Nigeria on the perception of climate variability on agriculture and food security by men and women farmers in Idanre, where cocoa was a major crop in the study area, noted that when they started growing it about forty years ago, they were practicing crop 9

rotation at an interval of five years to allow the land to rest. They abandoned it due to inadequate land and increased population. The idea was supported by focus group discussion in a study on smallholder farmers’ perception of the impacts of climate variability and change on rain-fed agricultural practices in semi arid and sub-humid regions of Kenya (Kalungu et al., 2013). They echoed that in Kenya women perceived that despite sorghum and millet being one of the recommended drought resistant crops, women farmers insisted on not planting such crops. Their children did not enjoy eating them and insisted on maize related meals. However, despite efforts to reduce the impacts of climate variability and change women have increased vulnerability due to ignorance. Surely small grain crops have gained reputation globally due to their resistance to droughts and high nutrition content. Furthermore there are also benefits in practicing crop rotation since nutrients are produced and maintained in the soil and water content is kept at a maximum level.

2.3 Adaptation strategies to climate variability and change used by rural women Heltberg (2010) supported the issue on adaptation by stating that unless community and societies adapt, risks associated with climate could cause large financial losses, increased vulnerability and more frequent humanitarian disasters. In a study by Masendeke and Shoko, (2014) on drought coping strategies and their effectiveness in Mberengwa district, through use of case study and key informants’ interviews it was revealed that people in Southern Africa have developed effective responses to alleviate the ravages of climate variability and change on their communities.

According to OXFAM (2015), Ethiopia is facing a major emergency of four million five hundred thousand people who are in need of food aid because of successive poor rains in 2015. Further floods, followed by droughts, have cut Malawi’s maize production by more than a quarter resulting in fear of between two and three million people facing a food security crisis by February 2016. Rural women are therefore vulnerable to climate disaster risks since most of them are poor. This clearly shows that considerable attention has to be devoted to the characteristics that influence communities, countries and regions to their vulnerability to risks associated with climate variability and change, hence a study on the role of women in adaptation to climate variability and change in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District. In addition

all nations are now focusing on adaptation since climate variability and change has resulted in much suffering to their citizens. In Zimbabwe, governance structure for climate change exists and is responsible for all climate issues. As an example, the National Climate Change Steering Committee has a wider range of participants from government and civil society and is placed to guide the production of the National Climate Change Response Strategy.

In a study by Chazovachii et al., (2012) on the impact of small scale irrigation schemes on rural livelihoods in Bikita district of Zimbabwe where a case of Panganai Irrigation scheme was used, it was argued that small grain crops were not only drought tolerant but also tended to be drought resistant to pests and diseases that may threaten them. The use of the short maturing varieties was a common factor in women. These crops are important to women in rural areas of Zimbabwe since they are used also to brew traditional beer known as seven days (chikokiyana). Gukurume (2014) further supported this in his study on climate change, variability and sustainable agriculture in Zimbabwe rural communities where he observed that traditional beer provided an alternative source of income for rural women who brew it commercially. This clearly shows that drought resistant crops have thus become extremely important to the local community given the fact that they double as both food and cash crops which enables rural women to adapt to climate variability and change and achieve sustainable livelihoods.

Chazovachii et al., (2012) argued that women in Bikita contemplated changing their planting and harvesting periods. This allowed accessibility to climate variability and change information and timely weather forecasts became critical to assist farmers in timing the planting period to coincide with the onset of the rains. This idea was further supported by a number of non-state organisations like Care International, Concern Worldwide and Action Faim operating in most rural areas of Zimbabwe. They had been introducing new crop varieties that were able to withstand the long and protracted hot spells that had become a daily reality countrywide due to climate variability and change (FAO, 2012). This idea concurred with (Shoko, 2012) when he lamented that non-farm rural activities were a way out for the rural women in drought prone areas. He argued that during the 1982-84 droughts many rural households in Southern Zimbabwe generated income by harvesting, shelling and selling marula nuts, a species found in several countries in the region (Shoko, 2012). The role of women in adaptation through agriculture and

off farm activities has been selected to establish the adaptation measures being undertaken by rural women in support of ZimAsset (2013-2018) objective to increase food security in the country.

Mutekwa (2009) in a study on climate change impacts and adaptation in the agricultural sector observed that Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) had been highly useful in adaptation and mitigation strategies devised by rural women in Zimbabwe. He argued that through meticulous study of plant and animal behavior such as bird species like white stocks (Mafudzamombe) people could easily predict the likelihood of severe drought or low rainfall and thus would be able to adequately prepare in advance for the impeding climatic catastrophe.

This was further supported by Shoko (2012) and Shoko (2013) in studies of the indigenous weather forecasting methods in Wards 12 and 15 of Mberengwa where self administered questionnaires, key informant interviews and direct observations were used. The study revealed that the residents of these wards relied heavily on weather forecasting indicators such as bird behavior and celestial bodies to make adept decisions to reduce the severity of drought impacts. Zivanemoyo (2015) in his study in Zimbabwe on adaptation option in arid regions through self administered questionnaires supported that these Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) adaptation strategies were largely based on experience that had been accumulated over the years and transmitted from one generation to the other. This shows that lessons learnt from previous climatic stresses provided important entry points for social learning and enhanced adaptive capacity to both wetter and drier periods. The researcher therefore seeks to investigate the sustainability of these Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District.

In a study by Mutekwa (2009) on climate change impacts and adaptation in the agricultural sector in Zimbabwe where he used a case of smallholder farmers, it was indicated that there were also traditional inbuilt mechanisms of adapting to livelihood shocks in Zimbabwe. In times of agricultural crisis the Chief’s granary System (Zunde raMambo)acted as a local society safety net for the poor and vulnerable members of the community (Mutekwa, 2009). The primary aim of the Zunde was to ensure that a community had food reserves which could be used in times of food shortage (Mutekwa, 2009). FAO (2012) highlighted the idea of community storage for food

security in Burkina Faso. The government assisted the community to create cereal banks at village level. The Zunde raMambo in Zimbabwe was based on the same concept (Masendeke and Shoko, 2014). A study of adaptation option in arid regions of Zimbabwe by Zivanomoyo (2015) supported that social networks constituted a ‘productive adaptation resource’ to the peasant farmers in Bikita since being embedded in webs of social relationships, to rural women gained access to riches of sustainable livelihoods. This explicitly shows that social capital in rural setting fostered women community cohesion within many villages which enabled the communities to withstand the effects of successive droughts. The researcher therefore seeks to identify the use of social capital strategy in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District.

According to Manyeruke et al (2013) in their study in Mberengwa district of Zimbabwe on drought coping strategies and their effectiveness, conservation farming (Dhiga Udye) enhances food security in drought prone regions like Rushinga in Zimbabwe. They further noted that due to climate variability and change in most drought prone areas in Zimbabwe, conservation farming was ranked as of high importance to the agricultural production challenges in Masvingo province. This was further supported by Gukurume (2014) in his study in Zimbabwe on climate change, variability and sustainable agriculture with the case of rural communities. He argued that conservation farming practices held the promise of providing both strategy for mitigating climate variability and also working as an adaptive mechanism to cope with climate variability and change. It is therefore evident that conservation tillage is a useful option for improving the storage of rain water in the soil and can help mitigate agricultural drought. Surely there is need to investigate the adaptation options taken by women of Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District to improve women resilience.

Kinyanjui, (2004) noted that consumption of plants such as mazhanje (Uapaca kickiana or wild loquat) was particularly vital at times of food shortage because they enhanced livelihoods, survival strategies and supported household economies. Franzel et al., (2007) in a study on setting priorities for multipurpose tree improvement in developing countries further supported that women in rural areas of Zimbabwe used plants to supplement their diets which were based on a narrow range of rain-fed staples. This concurred with market and financial analysis in Southern Africa which showed that indigenous fruits contributed to household income (FAO,

2014). Women were the major beneficiaries. Community Technology Development Trust (CTDT) further noted that about one hundred and nineteen different indigenous vegetable types and thirty six mushrooms were identified as important food resources during drought years in Uzumba-Maramba-Pfungwe, Murewa, Chiredzi, Tsholotsho and Nyanga (FAO, 2014). This is clearly evident that rural women have developed their own ways of food preservation in order to store food long enough to bridge the dry season deficit. The researcher therefore seeks to identify the use of this strategy in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District.

UNEP, (2002) stated that under drought conditions households resorted to selling livestock in order to buy grain. Masendeke and Shoko (2014) noted that assets played a greater role in coping with drought as they can be converted to cash in order to buy food during drought years. In Zimbabwe, drought has reduced the maize harvest by thirty five percent, and it is estimated that one million five hundred thousand people will need food assistance in early 2016(ZIMVAC, 2015). It is quite evident that disruption to maize production in Southern Africa is driving a surge in the price of maize on local markets, making it increasingly hard for people living in poverty to afford sufficient food (OXFAM, 2015) hence the study of Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District.

Bird et al. (2002) in a study on coping strategies of poor households in semi- arid districts of Chivi, Gutu, Matopo and Guruve in Zimbabwe found that women diversified within farm enterprises and off-farm sector was the key strategy for most poor households in semi-arid areas seeking to improve livelihoods. This idea of diversifying survival strategies was supported by Manyani (2011) in his study on the peasantry at Ntalale village in Gwanda south where he explored that during the past decade or so prior to 2009, peasant households had to grab at any different income strategy in order to maintain their livelihoods. Bryan et al.,(2010), for example, identified changing crop type, planting time, diversified income and conservation measures as key form of households’ adaptation in a study on adaptation done in thirteen arid and semi-arid divisions ( Bryan et al.,2010).

This was further supported by Gebru and Buyene (2012) on their study on rural household livelihood strategies in drought-prone areas in the district of Gulomekeda, of the eastern zone of Tigray National State, Ethiopia. The research study found that apart from agriculture, rural

women households engaged in off-farm livelihood activities to cope with diverse challenges and risks such as drought. It is therefore evident that rural non-farm economy is adopted by the poor subsistence farmers in Zimbabwe’s rural areas in response to various trends and shocks. The study of Masembura Ward 10 therefore seeks to encourage development stakeholders to work towards implementation of target based interventions that help women households to improve their livelihoods in line with Sustainable Development Goals (2015-2030).

According to a study of types and determination of participation in Ghana, Dary and Kuine (2012), noted that economic activities were gaining prominence in most developing economies as a result of the farm sector to sustain rural livelihoods. The study also noted that in off-farm activities the economic activities were temporary and had low return in women. This was also supported by Mushonga and Scoones (2012) in a livelihood change study carried out in Mazvihwa small holder communal farming where women participants revealed that they combined agriculture with off-farm activities but livelihoods had remained marginal. This explicitly shows that off-farm activities are a key strategy for most poor households and they should find more ways to improve livelihoods. Through the study of Masembura Ward 10 the researcher therefore seeks to call for government intervention to promote sustainable livelihood security in off-farm activities.

In a study by Gwimbi (2009) on Cotton farmers’ vulnerability to climate change in Gokwe district it was noted that in Zimbabwe the preferred adaptation strategies included soil and water conservation techniques, weather forecast and increased use of irrigation. The idea was further supported by (Ofuoku, 2010) in his study on rural farmers’ perception of climate change in cultural agricultural zone of Delta State in Nigeria by noting that adaptation by many included carrying out soil conservation practice, weather forecast and irrigation. Surely the study of the role of women in adaptation to climate change at micro level is important. This is the reason why the SADC Regional Early Warning Unit, the Regional Remote Sensing Project, the Drought Monitoring Centre and the Famine Early Warning System Project all advice governments on drought preparedness (Masendeke and Shoko, 2014) hence the study of Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District.

2.4 Sustainability of adaptation strategies to climate variability and change used by women Adger et al., (2005) in their study on adaptation to climate change in developing world indicated that adaptive capacity was influenced by factors such as knowledge about climate change, assets, access to appropriate technology, institutions, policies and perceptions. In a study on impacts, adaptation and vulnerability in the context of climate change (IPCC, 2007) also found that the extent of sustainable adaptation depended on the adaptive capacity, knowledge, skills, robustness of livelihoods and alternatives, resources and institutions accessible to enable undertaking effective adaptation. This is clear evident that successful adaptation requires recognition of the necessity to adapt, knowledge about options, the capacity to assess them and the ability to implement the most suitable ones. The study of Masembura Ward 10 is therefore important as the researcher sort to investigate the sustainability of adaptation strategies put in place by women in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District in support of Environmental Management Act chapter 20:27.

Chitonga (2013) in a study on climate change and social vulnerability at a global scale found that estimates of adaptive capacity tended to be based on premises such as the position that highly managed systems such as agriculture, given sufficient resources, were likely to be more adaptable than less managed ecosystems. The National and Local Politics of Climate Change Adaptation in Zimbabwe (2014) further argued that the broader political implications of work related to climate change in low income countries must be engaged with if climate change is to generate sustainable long term improvements in livelihoods and well-being for citizens in these contexts (IPCC, 2015). Surely sustainable adaptive capacity is influenced by a multiple of factors. It is therefore evident that enhancement of adaptive capacity is a necessary condition for reducing vulnerability, particularly for the most vulnerable regions, nations, and socio-economic groups like women, hence the study of Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District.

Carney (1998) posited that many of the adaptive strategies identified as possible in the management of climate variability and change directly or indirectly involved technology (for example warning systems and protective structures). CCDA (2015) also noted that climate change is still poorly understood at the local level and that the main victims of climate change have little knowledge and poor technology capacity to cope with its effects and that IPCC reports

should be made widely available. It is therefore evident that regions with the ability to develop technology have enhanced adaptive capacity. The study of Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District helps the researcher to bring new ideas and openness to development and utilisation of new technologies for sustainable use and development of natural resources since its key to strengthening adaptive capacity. The Rio Summit of 1992 encouraged the use of green technologies and everyone in the meeting including Zimbabwe promised to do good to the environment in their countries hence the importance of this study.

In a study by Adger et al., (2003) findings conclude that it was important to ensure that systems were in place for the dissemination of climate change variability and adaptation information nationally and regionally and that there were forums for discussion and innovation of adaptation strategies at various levels. In a study on adapting to climate variations in developing regions it was concluded that literacy along with poverty was a key determinant of low adaptive capacity in northeast Brazil (IPCC, 2007). It is therefore safe to conclude that lack of trained and skilled personnel can limit a nation’s ability to implement adaptation options. The researcher therefore seeks to find systems to put in place for the dissemination of climate change and adaptation information, at all levels and place forums for the discussion of adaptation strategies from grass roots level hence the importance of this study.

Mutekwa (2009) in his study on climate change impacts and adaptation in the agricultural sector where he used a case study of smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe suggested that improving the adaptive capacity requires strengthening of indigenous land and water management practices. Ofuoko (2011) in his study in Nigeria on rural farmers’ perception of climate change in cultural agricultural zone of Delta State further suggested that major barriers to adaptation to climate change included lack of information, lack of money, inadequate land, inadequate labour supply and potential for irrigation. It is therefore evident that development of irrigation infrastructure and knowledge should be adopted to cope with the climate variability for smallholder farmers in dry land Zimbabwe. The literature guided the researcher on sustainable adaptation strategies to climate variability and change put in place by women in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District.

Mary and Majule (2009) in their study on impacts of climate change, variability and adaptation strategies on agriculture in semi-arid areas of Tanzania in Manyoni district noted the significance of wealth stratification in adaptation. They noted that wealth stratification resulted in varying levels of vulnerability. In a study by Ruijs et al., (2010) on adaptation to climate variability in Yeman and Ethiopia it was also noted that wealth level was an important variable for applying adaptation strategies. They further noted that wealthy households adopted capital-intensive strategies like irrigation pumps especially in Yemen whereas in Ethiopia wealthier households adopted communal strategies like soil erosion control, communal irrigation or reforestation for which external assistance was necessary. They further observed that communal water harvesting and range land management had also been adopted by pastoralists in Ethiopia since individual households could not finance the projects. Ruijs et al., (2010) further identified that institutions were important factors influencing the adaptive capacity as well as any prospects for future development. Surely wealth level and institutional assistance are major factors influencing adaptive capacity. The researcher having this in mind would like to identify the importance of wealth in climate variability and change adaptation in Masembura Ward 10.

De Beers, (2006) in his study on vulnerability of the agricultural sector of Latin America to climate change discussed the example in which the presence of inconsistence and unstable agricultural policies had increased the vulnerability of the food production sector in Latin America. Heltberg et al., (2010) in their study on vulnerability and adaptation to climate change in Bangladesh further demonstrated that Bangladesh was particularly vulnerable to climate variability and change reflecting serious constraints on adaptive capacity in the existing institutional arrangements that it was not conducive to ease the hardship of the people. It is therefore clear that institutions hold society together, giving it sense and purpose and enabling it to adapt. Literature on past successes and failures indicated that comprehensive sustainable adaptation strategies were needed to increase regional and societal capacity to face present and future climate variability.

Magadza (2000) in his study on climate change impacts and human settlements in Africa showed that adaptation options in Southern Africa were produced by political and institutional inefficiencies and resulting in resource inequalities. This was further supported in a study in Mali

and Ethiopia where institutions influenced access to resources which affected adaptive capacity of local communities (Naess et al., 2010). The study of Masembura Ward 10 in Bindura Rural District therefore provides institutional capacities that help the researcher to deal with risks associated with future climate variability and change.

Boru and Koske, (2014) in their study on climate variation, vulnerability and sustainable development in the semi-arid tropics echoed that adaptive capacity would be greater if social institutions and arrangements governing the allocation of power and access to resources within a community, nation or globe assured that access to resources was equitably distributed. The extent to which nations or communities were entitled to draw resources greatly influenced their adaptive capacity (IPCC, 2015). An associated lack of financial resources and infrastructure restricted the availability of adaptation options. ZIMVAC, (2015) drew parallel conclusions about the marginalisation of minority groups. Zivanemoyo, (2015) documented variable vulnerability to climatic variations of groups in Zimbabwe band its association with poverty, the macro-political economy and inequitable land distribution. The study of Masembura Ward 10 in Bindura Rural District helps the researcher to find ways to consult the Ministry of Lands so that access to resources is equitably distributed at all levels as the presence of power differentials can contribute to reduced capacity.

Enhancement of adaptive capacity to climate variability and change can therefore be regarded as one component of broader sustainable development initiatives (IPCC, 2007). Adaptive capacity to deal with climate is closely related to sustainable development and equity (World Bank, 2013). In Malawi, as in many other developing countries, the UNFCCC objectives to ensure food production was not threatened and to enable economic sustainable indicators to proceed in a sustainable manner also were central to the nation’s development policies (Boru and Koske, 2014). Inclusion of climatic risks in the design and implementation of development initiatives was necessary to reduce vulnerability and enhanced sustainability (Chitonga, 2013). The researcher therefore seeks to investigate ways of enhancement of adaptive capacity to reduce vulnerabilities and promote climate variability and change adaptation sustainability at all levels.

2.5 Theoretical framework

The Sustainable Rural Livelihoods Framework by Carney (1998) is the model for this study. Rural livelihoods comprises of all capabilities and assets at the disposal of humankind for survival in the countryside (Carney 1998; Scoones 2009). According to Goredema et al. (2011) livelihoods are the weapons to salvage rural people from the extremes of poverty ensuring their food security and self-sustenance. In Masembura Ward 10, the issue of livelihoods which are sustainable is critical as people depend on the natural capital which is insufficient (Unganai, 2000). The sustainability of the adaptation strategies which is the aim of this study depends entirely on the nature of the interaction between the women in the local community and the natural resources base available in rural areas. Through this study the researcher needs to identify the current livelihood activities in the face of climate variability and change in the study area. Ruij et al., (2010) observed that at global level costs on climate variability and change adaptation had been estimated. He further pointed that in such literature, there is limited information on adaptation practices at household level.

Below et al., (2011) on another note observed limited knowledge and information at local level on how the different wellbeing clusters responded to the climate issues. Focus should be directed towards many challenges faced by the women as they try to adapt. These shortfalls should be explored in an attempt to solve the problem. According to Ruij et al., (2010) the call is for institutional support structures to be put in place. The women in developing countries like Zimbabwe base their sustainable livelihoods on the natural capital (land, water and forest). Little is supported by the social capital (remittances) and economic capital (livestock sales) (Carney, 1998; Scoones, 2012).

The Sustainable Rural Livelihood Framework was used in the analysis of data collected. Apart from assessing the sustainability of the rural livelihoods practiced in the area, the study of Masembura Ward 10 sought to identify the challenges faced by the women in an attempt to adapt to climate variability and change using the livelihoods assets as indicated in figure 2.5.1 below. The researcher sought to identify the viability of economic activities like gathering of wild fruit and sale of livestock as per the economic indicator for sustainability analysis in the research. The

researcher needs to establish the role of institutions such as the Social Welfare, Agritex, and Rural District Council as per the Sustainable Rural Livelihoods Framework.

Below et al., (2011) cited that small-scale women farmers’ adaptive capacity and local level adaptation are selected and analysed due to their impact relevance. These are the physical assets such as ox drawn ploughs, natural resources endowment and their accessibility to the populace, the human capital(education level and skills), social capital(property rights), information availability and awareness of climate variability and change scenario. Manyani, (2011) observed the undisputable role of livelihood diversification to sustainable practices, a situation assessed in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District. Through the study of Masembura Ward 10 the researcher needs to provide recommendations on best adaptation strategies to climate variability and change in this era. According to Moyo (2012) stakeholders are misinformed and make wrong decision on natural hazard. Figure 2.5.1 below shows Sustainable Rural Livelihood Framework by Carney, (1998).

HUMAN CAPITAL TRANSFORMING VUNERABILITY STRUCTURES & CONTEXT PROCESSES

Shocks and Trends STRUCTURES Politics, history, NATURAL • Levels of Gov’t SOCIAL macro-economic CAPITAL • Private Sector CAPITALS CAPITAL conditions, terms (ASSETS) of trade, climate , Laws demography, agro Policies ecological, social Power relation differentiation Institutions FINANCIAL PROCESSES CAPITAL PHYSICAL CAPITAL

LIVELIHOOD OUTCOMES

More agricultural activities and diversified LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES activities enhanced. Increased numbers of working days created Agricultural intensification and Economic and financial gains intensification Reduced vulnerability and poverty Well-being and capabilities improved Livelihood diversification Sustainability Mining Natural resource base sustainability ensured Livelihood adaptation, vulnerability and resilience enhanced

Figure 2.5.1: Sustainable Rural Livelihoods Framework (adapted from Carney 1998: 20)

2.6 Conclusion Climate variability and change adaptation and women participation have been the focus of current development programmes. The literature on rural women perceptions on impact of climate variability and change, climate variability and change adaptation strategies used by rural women and sustainability of climate variability and change adaptation strategies has remained at the marginal level. This chapter looked at the empirical works at international, national and local level. The chapter further highlighted the knowledge gap on the sustainability of adaptation strategies used by women. The chapter closes by introducing the Sustainable Livelihood Framework which is the model of this study.

CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODS AND DATA ANALYSIS

3.1 Introduction This chapter outlines the research designs and methodologies utilised to satisfy this broad aim. Various types of data collection instruments were used to gather data and establish the matter at hand. This helps to explain the phenomena and fulfills objectives of the study. The guiding principle was to collect data which are relevant, reliable, valid and current. The methods were also based on applicability, budgeting and time considerations. The research employed both qualitative and quantitative research approaches. The qualitative approach captured opinions, statements and perceptions from the respondents while the quantitative approach catered for the numerical observations or trends and both approaches complement each other (ZIMSTAT, 2012).

3.2 Description of the study area Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District is located in Agro-ecological Region (2b). The region is expected to receive rainfall which ranges from 700mm-1050mm per year and relatively high temperatures. It is also subject to seasonal droughts. The area falls under the main crop farming area of Zimbabwe. Rains fed crops include maize, groundnuts, cowpeas and beans. The soils in the area are sandy textured making them easily removable by wind and fluvial erosion. These have low nitrogen, phosphorus and other organic content as pointed by Todaro and Smith (2009).

As in the case for most of the country, rains fed crops are grown during one district cropping season from November to April across the district. Rainfall distribution is very poor, mid-season dry spells are a common feature of the district’s climate and frequent short seasons making it difficult for rural women in the area to secure food and decent livelihoods. Temperatures are high in summer, more or less than 35 degrees Celsius per day (Guiness and Nagle, 2012). The warm temperature regime creates opportunities for growing a range of crops throughout the year for as long as water is available. Given the varied nature of Zimbabwe’s biophysical setting, the impacts of climate variability and change will vary from region to region, with the lowveld likely to be more adversely affected by climate variability and change than other regions. The 23

investigation of Bindura Rural District’s biophysical setting is evidence that climate variability and change is there and a basis upon climate variability adaptation strategies can be adopted. Figure 3.2.1 below shows a map for location of Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District.

Figure 3.2.1 Location of Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District

Source: Google Maps (2015) and adapted by Musodza P (GIS technician, BUSE).

3.3 Delimitation of the study The research aims to investigate the sustainability of adaptation strategies to climate variability and change put in place by women in Masembura Ward 10 in Bindura Rural District. The research is only focused on ten villages.

3.4 The research design Qualitative and quantitative research methods were used in data collection on the strategies used and challenges faced by rural women in adaptation to climate change in Masembura Ward 10. Self-administered 17 itemed questionnaire, key informant interviews, observation guides and document reviews were also used in data collection. Village heads provided the researcher with the household lists for the villages under consideration. It was a way of organising social data for the purpose of viewing social reality. A case study approach was used. The case study probes deeply and analyses interactions between the factors that influence change and growth. It also involves the use of multiple sources. Since climate variability and change is a contemporary system to appraise rural livelihoods, it has to be studied under real life context using a number of sources. In this study, a self-administered 17 itemed questionnaire, observation guides and key informant interviews to AGRITEX, Manhenga Rural District Council, Social Welfare officials, the Chief and the village heads were used in data collection as well as secondary data from relevant offices.

3.4.1Questionnaireschedules to women A total of eighty three (83) randomly sampled women respondents aged twenty and above were interviewed and four (4) of the women respondents said they were adhering to their ancestors’ livelihoods and did not believe in climate variability and change. Therefore the researcher worked with the remaining seventy nine women respondents (79) throughout. The basic approach that suited the magnitude of the research problem was the use of a self-administered 17 itemed questionnaire. These were structured and in four sections. Section A covered basic demographic information, Section B worked on household economics, and Section C covered environmental issues and finallysection D on adaptation strategies and their sustainability. They helped to provide quantitative information such as family size, land ownership and percentage of women farmers adopting a particular technique as a coping mechanism. This was a time consuming task that involved translation of some questionnaires into simple language for some respondents to understand. A self-administered 17 itemed questionnaire helped the researcher to get information that suited the demands of the objectives of this study. This also increased objectivity because when people give information in a group they are more subject to bias.

3.4.2 Key informant interview guides The Key Informants who totaled eighteen were formally interviewed in the Ward. These included three Extension Officers, two Social Welfare officials, two Manhenga Rural District Council officials, the Chief and ten village heads. The selection was purposive targeting influential people in the Ward. An interview is a purposeful conversation in which one person asks prepared questions and another answers them (ZIMSTAT, 2012). An interview guide was used to ensure that interviewees respond to a similar series of questions. Time for the interviews was guided not to exceed thirty minutes. Agricultural Extension officers provided information on the traditional crop varieties found in the area and information on how through the AREX Department, they would encourage women to react to dry spells. The Council officials provided information on the number of women participating in the off-farming projects. The Chief provided information on the importance of forests, especially Muonwe forest and the indigenous vegetables and plants found in the area. The interviews were carried out on one to one basis allowing an in-depth analysis of the subject.

3.4.3 Observation guides Observation guides were used by the researcher to identify some of the issues that did not come out clearly during interviews and questionnaires such as the general outlook of the environment around the farming areas in Masembura Ward 10. The researcher made personal observations throughout the study period. (Newing, 2011) argues that direct personal observation plays a vital role in social research as the researcher watches what is happening. Conditions of the farm, state of the environment and climate variability and change adaptation strategies used were observed. Data was collected through watching and listening to people as well as image capturing. Carried out were both participant and non-participant observations. The study was carried out during the planting season to allow identification of planting times, crops grown and diversification.

3.4.4 Geographical Information Systems tools. Masembura Ward 10 map was produced and use of photographs in this research made communication easier and effectively than non-use of such tools. Symbols, colours, shades and

words on maps help us communicate with more impact, they make what we want to say attractive, compelling, convincing and clear (Longley, 2011).

3.4.5 Secondary data sources

Secondary data sources were also used to elicit information. Effective use of the library to obtain background information, climatic characteristics, information on the study area and also for literature review was employed. Use of journals, articles, newspapers and magazines through internet also supplied current information. Records kept by community leaders, extension officers and council officials were also used.

3.4.6 Data collection procedure

A pilot study was conducted in the area under study. Focus was on climate variability and change adaptation strategies and their sustainability used by women in Masembura Ward 10 in Bindura Rural District. Questions about location, demographic and socio-economic characteristics were directed to the women farmers. Key informants provided information about women perception on the impact of climate variability and change, adaptation strategies used, their sustainability in the face of climate variability and change. The researcher resorted to seeking authority from the District Administrator (D.A), the local authority and the traditional leaders. There was no permission letter issued by any one of them since the researcher was known in the area under study. Questionnaires were not distributed since the researcher used a self-administered approach and in the process same process interviews were carried out with the key informants. During the tour of the area under study, the researcher made some observations too.

3.5 Sampling procedures

The researcher employed stratified random sampling method. According to Egera (2011), stratified random sampling is the best way to select a large sample and it provides a more representative sample by dividing the given population into a number of subgroups called strata. This method was used in the selection of households in Masembura Ward 10.

In Masembura Ward 10 there are sixteen Wards. The study was carried out in Ward 10, it consisted of fourteen villages and ten were selected. The researcher interviewed two households then jumps onehousehold and continues in a disorderly manner since these were not linear. The villages chosen were Kuswatuka, Kandemiri, Denhere, Mhizha, Gunyere, Chingwaru, Diza, Nyauri, Mhandu and Dengu.

3.6 Data analysis

Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 16 was used to analyse data from the questionnaire survey. An SPSS version 16 data base capturing all elements of the questionnaire was created. All questionnaires were numbered to eliminate errors before entry. This ensures that subsequent analysis would not be affected. Responses were coded and arranged thematically using SPSS. Descriptive statistics were also used and tables and figures developed for graphical representation and visual comparison. Frequencies and percentages were used to characterise the demographic data, women farmer perceptions on the impact of climate variability and change and the adaptation strategies being used by women farmers. Cross examinations of the women perceptions, adaptation strategies and the ages, marital status of respondents and the education levels of household heads were done to determine if they were correlated.

3.7 Frequency distributions and graphical displays

Frequency distributions and graphical displays were used such that data could be analysed. The data was presented in tables or graphs. According to Reardon et al., (2000) this is a quicker and easier way to understand by a number of audiences.

3.8 Ethical consideration

The purpose of intruding into people’s lives was explained by the researcher and permission was granted to continue with the interviews in line with the following ethical considerations.

3.9 Informed consent and voluntary participation

Respondents were made aware by the researcher that in the process of giving information they were at liberty to stop if they felt uncomfortable. Since the study depended on their responses, it was ensured that the questions asked were well planned and that they were treated with respect.

3.9.1Confidentiality The researcher assured the respondents of confidentiality and anonymity. The respondents were not asked to give out their names. 3.9.2 Physical harm

The researcher guarded against choosing risky areas as interviewing sites. She tried to keep up to basic safety concerns by ensuring that the information given by respondents did not jeopardise any friendships and working relations that were there before the study was conducted rather it improved.

3.10 Limitations The researcher was constrained by poor road networks in some of the villages although she managed to reach everyone targeted. Some of the women respondents were perceived to be expecting that this research was for non-governmental organisations to give them food aid since there was none working in the area. The researcher expected good attitude towards the study since she was well known in the area.

3.11 Conclusion Research instruments and design were discussed including the sampling technique. The data was presented using pie charts, tables and graphs. To allow validity of the data, different instruments were used that included a self-administered 17 itemed questionnaire, key informant interviews and observation guides as they complement each other.

CHAPTER 4

DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction The results of the study showed that women perceptions on the impacts of climate variability and change had a very close link to their adaptation options in Masembura Ward 10 in Bindura Rural District. The results present an analysis and discussion of the demographic and socio-economic characteristics, rural women perceptions on the impact of climate variability and change, climate variability and change adaptation strategies and sustainability of climate variability and change adaptation strategies in line with objectives and research questions. Out of eighty three (83) women respondents, seventy nine (79) women respondents reported using adaptation measures whilst four (4) respondents reported that they were adhering to their ancestor’s livelihoods in the study area and did not believe that climate variability and change existed. They denied further questions. The researcher therefore worked with seventy-nine (79) women respondents in the research study.

4.2 Demographic and socio-economic characteristics

4.2.1 Age analysis of women in Masembura Ward 10 in Bindura Rural District This research is based on an investigation of women in adaptation to climate variability and change in Masembura Ward 10. The respondents in the study were therefore adult female persons only. The researcher considered all female persons aged twenty and above as adults. Anyone aged below twenty whether in the marriage institution or not was not considered. The age group twenty to thirty (20-30) years had nearly six percent (6. 3%) (5 out of 79) followed by age group thirty one to forty (31-40) years with nearly thirty nine percent (39. 2%) (31 out of 79). The results of age analysis in the study area revealed that ages in the forty one to fifty (41- 50) years categories had the highest count with close to forty four percent (44. 3%) (35 out of 79 women respondents) The age group fifty one to sixty(51-60) years was nearly eight percent (7.6%)(6 out of 79) and finally those above sixty one (61) were almost three percent (2. 5%) (2 out of 79). Age has a high influence on adaptation. The age group forty one to fifty years had the highest count because agriculture is their main survival strategy. The results also showed that the

young age group engaged mostly in off-farm activities especially petty trading. The results also revealed that respondents in this age group were very few in the Ward. Key informants indicated that most of them migrated to Bindura urban. (IPCC, 2014) stated that cultural characteristics including age, gender, and sense of place influenced risk perception, entitlements to resources, and choices about adaptation. Figure 4.1.1.1 below shows age analysis of women respondents in Masembura Ward 10.

Figure 4.1.1.1: age analysis of women respondents in Masembura Ward 10

4.1.2 Marital status of respondents

Masembura Ward 10 in Bindura Rural District revealed that 63. 2 %(50 out of 79) of the respondents were married, 17. 8% (14 out of 79) were widowed, 11. 3% (9 out of 79) were single and 7. 6 %(6 out of 79) were divorced. A large proportion of the respondents reported that they 31

were married. These results supported that the society of Bindura Rural District still placed great importance to the marriage institution. Marital status had a great influence in climate variability and adaptation strategies and their sustainability. The researcher observed that those adaptation strategies which were financially demanding were adopted mostly by married women since they were supported by their husbands. The married women group was also the one mostly affected by African ideologies since their husbands did not allow them to borrow technology from Agritex officials (Zivanemoyo, 2015). The distribution of the marital status is shown on figure 4.1.2.1 below.

Figure 4.1.2.1: distribution of the women marital status in Masembura Ward 10

4.1.3 Household characteristics The number of households with 5 or less people had 38 % (30 out of 79) people, 57 % (45 out of 79) of the households had 6-10 people and 5 % (4 out of 79) of the households had above 10 people. The results of the household size are shown in figure 4.1.3.1 below:

Figure 4.1.3.1: Household size

According to the village heads interviewed in the study area, polygamy is quiet common in Masembura Ward 10. This could be the reason why large family sizes were recorded with 57% (6-10 people). Some religious and cultural beliefs also shun family planning methods. Family size plays a crucial role in the life of a household. Many rural poor people follow the strategy of

a larger family as insurance against deaths, to provide for parents in old age and labourforce in various areas in the home. However, large family size may increase poverty levels when resources are not enough.

4.1.4 Levels of Literacy of respondents The results from Masembura Ward 10 showed that most women attended school up to secondary level as evidenced by the 62 % ( 49 out of 79) score. Nineteen percent (19%) (15 out of 79) of the respondents attended primary school, 11. 4 % (9 out of 79) had tertiary education and 7. 6 % (6 out of 79) never attended formal school.

Figure 4.1.4.1: Levels of women literacy in Masembura Ward 10

These findings revealed that level of literacy in the study area was recommendable for climate variability and change adaptation since a high percentage of women (62%) had achieved secondary education. These findings supported studies which concluded that literacy along with poverty was a key determinant of low adaptive capacity in northeast Brazil (IPCC, 2007).

4.1.5 Access to land Results from respondents indicated that most women did not own land in Masembura Ward 10. Studies had shown that women in Zimbabwe disproportionately suffer the impacts of severe weather events and climate change because of cultural norms and the inequitable distribution of roles, resources, and power (Rojas and Cumani, 2015).Table 4.1.5.1 below shows land holding size for women in Masembura Ward 10.

Table 4.1.5.1:land holding size for women in Masembura Ward 10 Holding size/Ha) Frequency Percentage Landless 27 34. 1 Below 0.5 16 20. 2 0. 5-1 13 16. 5 1.0-1. 5 11 13. 9 1. 6-2.0 7 8. 9 2. 1-2. 5 3 3. 8 Above 2. 6 2 2. 5 Source: Research Survey 2015

Almost thirty-four percent (34. 1%) did not own land and most of these respondents were married women in the age group fifty one to sixty (51-60) years old whose husbands were owners of land. This revealed that the issue of property rights in Zimbabwe was gendered and there was still room for it to be readdressed to reduce vulnerabilities to climate hazards in women and initiate effective adaptive measures. Close to thirty seven percent (36. 7%) owned one hectare (1ha) of land. Almost fourteen percent (13.9%) owned close to two hectares (1. 6 ha) of land and most of these inherited the land from their fathers after they were divorced by their husbands. Nearly four percent (3. 8%) owned slightly above two (2. 1 ha) to about three (2. 5 ha)

hectares of land. Most of these inherited the land after the deaths of their husbands who had written a will and most of them were between the age of forty one and fifty (41-50) years. Another important factor on the land is its fertility which greatly impacts on agricultural production. The agricultural extension officers for the study area noted that soil for the same land was very poor for crop production. The findings supported earlier studies on adaptation where a case study of European regions was used, the agricultural extension officers for the study area noted that soil for the same land was very poor for crop production (Jevric et al., 2012).

4.1.6 Household incomes of respondents The researcher noted that the women in Masembura Ward 10 were poor since household annual incomes were very low. The household annual incomes are shown in figure 4.1.6.1

Figure 4.1.6.1: level of incomes for women in Masembura Ward 10

Results showed that thirty four respondents (43.0%) had annual incomes below $350, 00. Seventeen respondents (21. 5%) of the respondents had annual incomes ranging between $351, 00-$700, 00. Twelve respondents (15. 2%) indicated that their annual incomes fell in the $701, 00-$ 1000, 00 ranges. Ten of the respondents had their annual income ranging between $1001, 00-$1 300, 00. A small number of six respondents (7.6%) had annual incomes above $1 300, 00. Key respondents revealed that those with high incomes mostly engaged in market gardening as an adaptation strategy. In climate variability and change adaptation strategies wealth stratification is an important variable since households with high annual incomes copied better. Findings reveal that wealthy households adopted capital intensive strategies like irrigation pumps. In a study by Ruijs et al., (2010) on adaptation to climate variability in Yeman and Ethiopia it was also noted that wealth level was an important variable for applying adaptation strategies.

4.1.7 Sources of incomes

The sources of income for women in Masembura Ward 10 were identified and some of the respondents had more than one source of income. Table 4.1.7.1 shows the sources of income and their distribution for women in Masembura Ward 10 in Bindura Rural District.

Table 4.1.7.1: sources of income and their distribution for women in Masembura Ward 10

Source of income Frequency Percentage (%) Livestock Sales 40 13. 3 Cash Crop Sales 33 11. 0 Business 5 1. 7 Formal Employment 4 1. 3 Market Gardening 95 31. 7 Remittances 20 6. 7 Casual Labour 35 11. 6 Off-farm Projects 56 18. 7 Source: Research Survey 2015

From the results, it was revealed that livestock sales generated about thirteen percent (13. 3%) of the income. This related to women in the thirty one to forty age groups with secondary education. The livestock sold included cattle, goats, pigs and chickens. In some cases livestock were exchanged with food stuffs. Eleven percent (11%) of the respondents said they got their income from cash crops. Maize, soya beans, beans and groundnuts were the main cash crops sold by the women across all ages regardless of level of education and marital status. Almost two percent (1. 7%) of the respondents said they got their income from business. Sale of second hand clothing and grocery shops were identified as the main businesses by women between the age of twenty and forty years especially those who were not in the marriage institution. Slightly more than one percent (1. 3%) of the respondents said they got their income from formal employment at the growth point, nearby schools and hospitals. These were mostly those with secondary and tertiary education between the ages twenty and forty and marital status was not influential. Nearly thirty two percent (31. 7%) of the respondents said they got their income from market gardening and age and level of education had no much influence. Most married women practiced this strategy since they got financial resources from their husbands to by inputs like fertilizers and pesticides. Their main encashment were the neighbouring schools, hospitals, growth points, Bindura urban and City of Harare.

The results of the study revealed that casual labour as a source of income was close to twelve percent (11. 6%) of the respondents. Nearly seven percent (6. 7%) got their income from remittances and these were mostly married women and those above sixty one years. Off-farm projects provided close to nineteen percent (18. 7%) of the income. The survey study noted that women undertook a diversified range of rural off-farm activities. The Masembura Ward 10 women were identified as thriving on locally available resources (traditional activities) and women in the age group forty one to fifty were mostly engaged in this strategy. Traditional activities included brick making, wild fruit selling, pottery and gold panning. Some of the women were engaged on modern activities such as tailoring petty trade (buying and selling) and wage employment. Most women in the young age groups with secondary education were adopting this strategy. Marital status had no much influence.

4.2 Perceived impact of climate variability and change by women in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District Seventy one percent (71% )(56 out of 79) women in Masembura Ward 10 in Bindura Rural District reported being extremely affected on their household income sources by the perceived impacts of climate variability and change. This is evidence of the level of livelihoods dependency on climatic factors in the district. Table 4.2.1 below shows perceived impacts of climate variability and change by women.

Table 4.2.1: Perceived impacts of climate variability and change by women in Masembura Ward 10

Perceived impacts of climate Female count Total Percentage (%) variability and change Reduced yields 75 94. 9 Reduced pastures 55 69. 6 Shortened growing season 64 81. 0 Reduced livestock heads 72 91. 1 Increased Household Poverty 68 86. 1 and Social ills Food insecurity 73 92. 4 Increased water shortage 60 75. 9 Increased incidences of pest 58 73. 4 and diseases Source: Research Survey 2015

Results from Masembura Ward 10 indicated that frequent poor yield from crops (94.9%), reduced livestock head (91. 1%) and food insecurity (92. 4%) were the main impacts of climate variability and change identified by most women during the period under study. The findings were the same with ZIMVAC (2015) on Rural Livelihoods Assessment carried out in May 2015 which estimated that most Zimbabweans in rural areas will be food insecure and in need of humanitarian assistance. Drought was reported to have blurred social boundaries between

wealthy and poor in terms of livestock ownership in the area (86. 1% poverty levels) thereby affecting the traditional safety net of livestock loaning system (Mutimba et.al.,2010).

About seventy percent (69. 6%) of the women in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District noted an acute decrease of forage species, a condition blamed for reduced livestock yield and their vulnerability to effects of drought. Nearly seventy six percent (75. 9%) of the respondents on the other hand believed that climate variability and change had resulted in acute shortage of water and increased household costs (in terms of expenditure and time) in accessing water for both livestock and domestic use in the study area. Moyo et al., (2012) also showed that rural women in semi-arid Zimbabwe perceived that climate variability and change caused production instability and poor incomes in developing world especially in Africa (FAO, 2012).Slightly above seventy three percent (73. 4%) of the respondents noted that there was an increased incident of pests and diseases for both livestock and crops in the area and they blamed climate variability and change. These findings were the same as Ozor (2009) in a study on livestock production systems in Nigeria.

Results from the key informants in the study area revealed that a large part of the adult female respondents stayed in the area for more than thirty years or since birth (more than three decades). Their experience in Masembura Ward 10 was quite detrimental since they helped the researcher in observing the perceived impacts of climate variability and change in the study area. The findings agreed with a study in Northern Kenya by Obando et al., (2009) on climate effects which blamed climate variability and change for increased general poverty in the region (Obando et al., (2009). The study of Masembura Ward 10 also supported the findings of Actionaid (2009) which stated that agriculture contributed to the suffering of negative effects of climate variability and change.

4.3 Adaptation strategies to climate variability and change used by women ward 10 of Bindura Rural District Women respondents were asked on how they adapted to climate variability and change (see table 4.3.1 below). The adaptation strategies to climate variability and change were various. This idea of diversifying survival strategies was also revealed by Manyani (2011) in his study on the peasantry at Ntalale village in Gwanda south where he explored that during the past decade or so

prior to 2009, peasant households had to grab at any different income strategy in order to maintain their livelihoods.

Table 4.3.1: Adaptation strategies used by women in Masembura Ward 10

Adaptation Strategy Respondents Percentage (%) Short maturity varieties 70 88. 6 Use of forests 48 60. 8 Food preservation 70 88. 6 Intercropping/mixed cropping 27 34. 1 Early planting 29 36. 7 Increased use of fertilisers and pesticides 76 96. 2 Use of manure 31 39. 2 Late planting 6 7. 6 Increased market gardening 71 89. 9 Wells around the edges of gardens and fields 55 69. 6 Irrigation 10 12. 7 Soil and water conservation practices 32 40. 5 Planting small grain crops 14 17. 7 Food aid and other external sources 10 12. 7 Rain water harvesting 5 6. 3 Reducing head size 40 50. 6 Diversifying herd composition 19 24. 1 Indigenous Knowledge Systems 66 83. 5 Off-farming activities specified 63 79. 7 Source: Research Survey 2015

From the results conducted in Masembura Ward 10 the researcher observed that adaptation strategies were mostly linked to age, level of education, marital status and level of income. Nearly eighty nine percent (88. 6%) of the women planted short maturity varieties. According to the key informants there was high adoption rate of this strategy by all age groups in the area. The use of the short maturing varieties was a common factor in women (Chazovachii et al., 2012).

The researcher revealed that women from Masembura Ward 10 used forests (60. 8%) as an adaptation strategy to climate variability and change. The results of the survey indicated that the use of forests was common in the medium to old age groups regardless of level of education and marital status. Supplementing the diet appeared to be most widely adopted technique and was effective in coping with climate variability and changes because most of the wild vegetables and fruits were drought tolerant and therefore would be available to bridge the dry season deficit. From the results lunch was usually supplemented with wild fruits and plants taking note that drought period usually coincided with plenty of wild fruits. According to observations conducted by the researcher Mazhanje/Amahobohobo (vapaca kirkiana) was the most common wild fruit in Masembura Ward 10.

The researcher also observed that different indigenous vegetable plant types and mushrooms were also identified as important food resources in the Ward. According to the key informants in the study area there was no technology on how to cultivate these crops because most of them grew wild in the fields. Some sadza and relish were prepared by Mrs. Kuswatuka aged fifty four for the researcher during the study and it was observed that women had a wealth of knowledge of how to cook them with homemade peanut butter. Women respondents from Masembura Ward 10 indicated that they preserved leafy vegetables and mushrooms that appeared in the rainy season and stored for future use especially in drought years when exotic varieties like rape and cabbages did not do well to provide food and income. The findings supported market and financial analysis in Southern Africa which showed that indigenous plants and vegetables contributed to household income and women were the major beneficiaries (FAO, 2007). Nearly eighty nine percent (88, 6%) of women preserved vegetables as an adaptation strategy to climate variability

and change. The researcher observed that these vegetables and mushrooms were kept in sacks which provided favourable condition.

Intercropping/mixed cropping was lowly practiced in Masembura Ward 10 with almost thirty four percent (34. 1%) of the households intercropping crops such as maize and cowpeas. There was no significant difference in the adoption of this strategy amongst the different age groups. Almost thirty seven percent (36. 7%) of the women planted their fields early. In Masembura Ward 10 lands were ploughed early as soon as harvesting was complete and kept weed free to conserve moisture. They grew subsistence crops such as maize, beans, groundnuts, cowpeas and soya beans. Very few women grew small grain crops such as finger millet, rapoko and sorghum yet these were such crops mostly recommended in climate variability and change challenged areas. Women of Masembura Ward 10 considered growing small grain crops as time consuming and labour intensive and resorted to increased use of fertilisers and pesticides in maize since they said it fetched more money when sold and their children preferred maize meal to these small grain meal.

The researcher revealed that about ninety six percent (96. 2%) of women respondents used fertilisers and pesticides as an adaptation strategy to climate variability and change. There was high adoption rate of this strategy by all age groups in the area. From the results it was revealed that age and level of education did not influence the use of fertilizer strategy. Most married women adopted this strategy because they got assistance from their husbands and marginalised women got assistance from Social Welfare. The high usage of fertilisers can also be attributed to the declining soil fertility as well as the declining yields due to climate variability and change. The results in table 4.4.1 show that almost thirty nine percent (39. 2%) of women respondents used manure as an adaptation option. The manure is primarily from the composts made from crop residue and from the livestock in some instances. From the results it was indicated that there was a decline in use of manure due to reduced head size (50. 6%). Key informants pointed out that the fact that ownership of large heads of cattle was generally a thing of the past meant that in the study area only a few who remained with a substantial number can afford to apply manure to their fields.

Key informants revealed that early planting as an adaption strategy was usually on early maturity maize varieties such as SC403, commonly known as Chishoko in the area, SC401 and cowpeas. According to the agricultural extension officers there was no significant difference in the adoption of this strategy amongst the different age groups and use was lower in the group with no formal education. Use of the strategy was influenced primarily from education by the agricultural extension officers. They worked well with women of Masembura Ward 10 although some of the women were not given much space by their husbands due to African ideologies. These findings supported a study in Burkina Faso on cultural barriers to climate change which noted that individual behavioral barriers extend to cultural factors and social norms, which can support or impair adaptation (Nielsen and Reenberg, 2010).

Nearly eight percent (7, 6%) of the women respondents planted late as an adaptation strategy. There was low usage of this strategy by the elderly and those with no formal education. In Masembura Ward 10 late planting strategies were mostly done for early maturity varieties. Most women complained adopting this technique because of labour constraints. They practiced intercropping mostly. Results from observations revealed that cowpeas were mostly intercropped with maize and rapoko to boost soil fertility and at the same time provide a good protein supplement.

Almost ninety percent (89. 9%) of the women respondents revealed that they were increasing market gardening as an adaptation mechanism. There was low usage of the strategy by the elderly and education had no influence on the adoption of the strategy. The researcher observed wells around the edges of gardens and fields indicating availability of water to water the vegetables. The results obtained in the study area indicated that close to seventy percent (69. 6%)of the respondents used the wells around the fields and gardens to supply water to the vegetables and plants. There was high use of this strategy among the groups with low annual incomes and those with low education. Marital status had no influence on the adoption of this particular strategy. Plate 4.3.1 below shows the researcher in the field of study observing the adoption of water wells in market gardening strategy.

Plate 4.3.1: the researcher observing market gardening as a sustainable adaptation strategy due to wells around the edges of gardens in Masembura Ward 10.

Source: Research Survey 2015

Plate 4.3.2 : the type of water wells used by women to sustain market gardening in Masembura Ward 10

Source: Research Survey 2015

Again the researcher observed that vegetables were grown on small pieces of land along Pote, Nyauri and Sarwe rivers to ensure the water for irrigation was available. They used water pumps powered by either diesel or petrol to draw water from the rivers into the gardens through long wide pipes. Nearly thirteen percent (12. 7%) of respondents used irrigation as an adaptation strategy to climate variability and change and these were mostly those with high incomes. According to the key informants use was the same across all age groups but lower amongst the group without any formal education. The study found that soil and water conservation measures at farm level were practiced to a low extent by almost forty one percent (40. 5%) of the respondents. This could be due to low level of awareness and low technical know-how on the conservation measures. A small group of women, mostly the old age respondents and a few without any formal education practiced planting small grain crops with a percentage of almost eighteen percent (17. 7%). Women in Masembura Ward 10 had resisted practicing this strategy yet small grain crops are resistant to dry spells, diseases and pests. They are also highly nutritious. The same idea was supported by focus group discussion in a study on smallholder farmers’ perception of the impacts of climate variability and change on rain-fed agricultural practices in semi arid and sub-humid regions of Kenya (Kalungu et al., 2013).

Results from Masembura Ward 10 indicated that nearly eleven percent (10. 7%) of the respondents relied on food aid from the government under Ministry of Social Welfare, remittances to a very great extent and sale of labour to meet household needs. Usage was the same across all ages and education levels. The findings supported the view that vulnerable group food distribution programmes during drought had been inefficient, poorly targeted, and of limited impact in ensuring household food security (Chitongo, 2013). Other responses mentioned included rain water harvesting with almost six percent (6. 3%) to adapt to climate variability and change. Use of this strategy was common in all age groups and all education levels. An average proportion of women mentioned reducing herd size by almost fifty one percent (50. 6%).There were no significant differences in the adoption of this strategy amongst the different age groups. Diversifying herd composition with close to twenty four percent(24.

1%) which involved changing stocks to more drought-resistant stocks such as goats, donkeys and indigenous poultry was revealed by the women respondents as an effective adaptation strategy to climate variability and change. The rate was higher for the old age group as ownership of livelihood resources increased with age.

Results from a survey study in Masembura Ward 10 indicated that women used indigenous knowledge systems as an adaptation strategy to climate variability and change with a score of almost eighty four percent (83. 5%) of respondents. This strategy of adapting to climate variability and change was mostly used by the elderly and education had no influence. Indigenous Knowledge Systems(IKS) played a very critical role in predicting weather events for the women of Masembura Ward 10 since it is not financially demanding, resulting in a large group of women in the community to continue believing in them. These findings supported Mutekwa (2009) in a study on climate change impacts and adaptation in the agricultural sector observed that Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) had been highly useful in adaptation and mitigation strategies devised by rural women in Zimbabwe. The researcher got this from Mrs. Mhandu aged sixty-three,

“We still believe on indigenous knowledge for productive farming in our community. Flames on Muonwe Mountain symbolise heavy rains that will put out the fire. Use of plants and herbs to protect animals against diseases is still practiced by many including myself, for example garlic and onion cure stomach problems in cattle.”

Therefore the indigenous knowledge was also an adaptation strategy to climate variability and change used by women in Masembura Ward 10 since women were still relying on them.

The results from Masembura Ward 10 indicated that majority of the women in the young groups were engaged in off-farm activities with a response of nearly eighty percent (79. 7%). Education level had no significance on use of this strategy. Women tended to choose those activities that were less labour intensive such as petty trade, wage employment, and pottery. Most women who indicated using pottery as an adaptation activity were above fifty years. This involved the moulding of vases, traditional pots for cooking and for sale. The findings found that apart from

agriculture, rural women households engaged in off-farm livelihood activities to cope with diverse challenges and risks such as drought (Gebru and Buyene, 2012).

It was highlighted by the respondents that wage employment proved important because of the close proximity of schools such as Waerera and Dengu, Muonwe clinic and Manhenga Rural District Council. Petty trading proved important in the study area because of the availability of the market of the products. Key informants pointed that women cross boarder traders crossed into Mozambique 156km away using Mkumbura boarder post to bring such items as dried fish, second hand clothes to sell to the surrounding communities. The activity proved to be popular and continuous since it was not controlled by season.

Results from the key informants indicated that in Masembura Ward 10 brick making was an activity with a low proportion by women since it was labour intensive. Operation of environmental laws put into action by chief Masembura restricted them from full operation. The presents of perennial Pote, Nyauri and Sarwe rivers could be used to explain the engagement in brick making activities during the winter season. General observations by the researcher revealed that availability of water even during the winter season in Pote, Nyauri and Sarwe rivers encouraged those involved to undertake this activity.

The fact that all sampled households had adopted autonomous adaptation strategies showed some levels of women acceptance of the changing climatic situation hence the struggle to adapt. The results also showed that most of the strategies were not only pursued by women in Masembura Ward 10 but jointly as a menu of options. This is similar to findings from other studies on household level adaptation done in Kenya. Byran et al., (2010), for example, identified changing crop type, planting time, diversified income and conservation measures as key form of households’ adaptation in a study on adaptation done in thirteen arid and semi-arid divisions.

4.4 Sustainability of Adaptation Strategies to Climate Variability and Change used by women in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District Table 4.6.1 below shows the sustainable livelihood indicators and its relevance to the sustainable rural livelihoods approach in the study area as the researcher discusses the sustainability of adaptation strategies to climate variability and change used by women.

Table 4.6.1: sustainable livelihood indicators for Masembura Ward 10

Sustainable dimension Sustainable indicators Level of sustainability Economic Low annual incomes, low Very low livestock possession, low land possession, no custom built financing instruments and lack of financial assistance Social Strong family units, operation of Moderate social welfare providing food handouts,remittances,low property rights, non existence of Chief’s granary( Zunde raMambo) Natural Availability of Pote river, sandy High and alluvial soils, abundance of forests Physical Poor roads, no bridges, possession Low of wheel burrows, scotch carts, hired trucks Human Education level recommended, High social and cultural bias, availability of high level institutions, availability of human labour, knowledge IKS Source: Research Survey 2015

From the survey the majority of the households were poor as results from household incomes showed that majority of women (68. 4%) earned annual incomes less than $700, 00 (see figure 4.1.6.1) and had low livestock possession as they reduced herd size by almost fifty one percent in an effort to adapt (see table 4.3.2).The livestock were highly valued because they provided draft

power, manure as well as milk and meat.Referring to the sustainable livelihoods framework(Carney, 1998) this was a typical low economic indicator as economic condition of nations and groups whether expressed as the economic assets, capital resources, financial means, wealth, or poverty is a determinant of adaptive capacity (Kates, 2000; IPCC, 2007).

Climate change financing instruments for women in Masembura Ward 10 were not custom-built hence different levels of economic development in the area. Chazovachii, (2012) carried out a study on the impact of small scale irrigation in Bikita District and found the same results. The key informants revealed that factors such as gender inequality in access to social and physical goods, gender gaps in education, time use and leisure, and gender differentiated roles and responsibilities in the household and community affected the effective channeling of financing women. The vulnerability of women in Masembura Ward 10 was increased by the lack of financial assistance. The dominant livelihood in the area was agriculture and it was their main source of income hence economic sustainability lacking. The researcher observed that women’s ability to adapt to the demands of climate variability and change depended on the extent of their control over financial resources such as land and livestock. In Masembura Ward 10, a few women owned land with a percentage of slightly above thirty four percent (34.1 %) landless. The findings were similar to a study by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD) which classified women’s access to land as ‘very limited’ in a number of countries (FAO, 2011).

However they possessed strong family units hence the Zunde raMambo concept was not operational in Masembura Ward 10 although it was also a valuable sustainable social indicator (Zivanomoyo, 2015). Shortages of draft power forced them to work in groups, mainly related women farmers and they combined their cattle and cultivated each other’s fields in rotation hence they increased their resilience to climate variability and change. Social capital, as depicted in the sustainable rural livelihoods framework was also important especially when households faced food shortages due to climate variability and change. Respondents acknowledged some remittance from their husbands and children who migrated to Bindura urban and at times Mozambique as migrant laborers whenever food supply became scarce. Social Welfare also

provided food handouts, fertilizers and pesticides to marginalised women hence sustainable social capital in Masembura Ward 10 was recommendable.

The study area was bounded by Pote, Nyauri and Sarwe Rivers which provided water throughout the year (perennial) providing a strong natural indicator. This influenced women across all ages, levels of education and regardless of wealth to engage in market gardening with close to ninety percent (89, 9%) adaptation rate. Wealth stratification was not a factor since women had to choose the best option that suited them to water their gardens. Market gardening has sustained the livelihoods of Masembura Ward 10 by providing them with fresh vegetables of all kinds and had proved to be an effective adaptation strategy in the area. The availability of perennial rivers as depicted by Carney, 1998 as an important livelihood asset provided sustainability of Market gardening in Masembura Ward 10.

The researcher also noted that the soils in Masembura Ward 10 were sandy and alluvial and such soils were derived from granite rock. The soils posed low productivity and the land was also reduced in size by Manhenga Rural District Council for residential stands. This had increased the use of fertilisers and pesticides with total women respondents of slightly above ninety six percent (96. 2%) using the same strategy to boost the harvest. However, the presents of chemicals in the soil had killed the biotic action in soils resulting in eutrofication and land degradation. Use of this strategy was therefore unsustainable to a certain extent as it resulted in negative effects of the environment in the long run.

According to direct observations by the researcher Masembura Ward 10 had abundance of forests. This was an indicator of good natural capital as noted in the sustainable rural livelihood framework (Carney, 1998, Scoones, 2009).Consumption and sale of wild fruit especially Mazhanje provided an additional diet and income to the women. The major markets especially for Mazhanje were Bindura, Mt Darwin and Harare and offered very low prices for the commodities due to transport costs. Mr. Mudodo from Manhenga Rural District Council said during the interview,

“People from Bindura urban and Mt Darwin come to buy Mazhanje at low prices such as $1, 00 per 20 litre bucket indicating scarce availability of transport into Masembura due to poor roads. Women would sell the wild fruit at even $1, 00 for one and half buckets to buy maize grain”.

This also revealed that physical assets in Masembura Ward 10 were a menace in enhancing the sustainability of the livelihood practiced (Below et al., 2011). Houses were mostly farm brick with most roofs made of thatch grass. Transport and communication networks in Masembura Ward 10 were also a challenge.

The women respondents revealed that some drivers with high level suspension trucks came from Bindura urban to provide transport to carry agricultural produce to the nearby markets since most of them owned wheel burrows and scotch carts. Plate 4.6.1 below shows some of the roads in Masembura Ward 10. Some villages in the Ward were inaccessible especially during the rainy season.

Plate 4.6.1: Some of the roads in Masembura Ward 10

Source: Research Survey 2015

Chief Masembura discouraged deforestation in the area. This was a positive move to environmental sustainability chapter 20:27 hence the adaptation sustainable. Chief Masembura had this to say in the interview,

“In my area of jurisdiction dead branches and logs should be used for firewood by the women. No tree should be cut down in the forest. Anyone failing to follow this rule will face a severe punishment. She should find a suitable place to go away from my territory. This is in respect of the country’s environmental laws which traditional leaders should see that their people abide and some of these forests like Muonwe in particular are guided by the ancestors”.

It was clear from this statement that women of Masembura Ward 10 were aware of environmental laws as they respected their chief and ancestors, and this statement from chief Masembura presented a typical sustainable human indicator represented by institutions in the sustainable livelihood framework (Carney, 1998, Scoones, 2009). The importance of cultural ideologies in preserving instinct species was also observed by the researcher in this statement.

Some indicators of human capital were there as represented by the literacy survey indicating a high percentage (62%) of women who attended secondary school although the majority of them were poor. Educated people have important knowledge, skills and experiences for shaping the adaptation processes (IPCC, 2007). Research of Masembura Ward 10 revealed the importance of gender equality and women’s empowerment to environmental sustainability to allow the achievement of international and national development plans like the Sustainable Development goals and ZimAsset policies respectively.

In Masembura Ward 10 the access of women to information and communication technology was constrained by social and cultural bias, inadequate technological infrastructure in the study area and women’s lower education level in the fields of science and technology. From the direct observations by the researcher most women in Masembura Ward 10 lacked interests in technology and those few who were interested feared their husbands to borrow technology such as water pumps from AGRITEX officials thereby depriving human capital as depicted by Carney, 1998.

Availability of institutions in Masembura Ward 10 was a typical sustainable human indicator. AGRITEX proved to be the most effective institution in the study area. It initiated many programmes to improve women livelihoods like educating them on production of new varieties, disseminating information on effective use of fertilizers and pesticides.Institutions influenced access to resources which affected adaptive capacity of local communities (Naess et al., 2010).In Masembura Ward 10 technical and organisational training has been facilitated by AGRITEX , from improving skills at the rural community of Masembura to sustain livelihoods, through to the national level ( to improve policies and incentive measures) to the international level decision making sphere (to assist developing countries negotiating their needs). One long standing example was the Agritex-field school experience that had been recently used as the means to transfer knowledge on adaptation in agriculture for women farmers in Masembura Ward 10. AGRITEX had been in the forefront in Masembura Ward 10 of gathering land resource information and its field project execution in support to land resource planning and management (IPCC, 2015). Plate 4.4.1 shows an Agricultural Extension official Mr Chifamba at a workshop with women assessing sustainability of adaptation strategies to climate variability and change used by women at Manhenga shopping centre in the study area.

Plate 4.4.1: an AGRITEX official conducting a workshop at Manhenga shopping centre organised for women of Masembura Ward 10

Source: Research Survey 2015

Manhenga Rural District Council diversified its duties and mainly assisted those women engaging in off-farm activities such as pottery. Social Welfare provided food handouts, fertilisers and pesticides to the marginalised women. This promoted dependency in women. The findings supported that institutions and regulation could affect the adaptive capacity of local community (Naess et al., 2010). The researcher observed that the institutions informed farm and off-farm decision making in the study area and their presence in the adaptation process was sustainable thereby supporting its importance (Carney, 1998).

Direct observations indicated that almost all institutions included women in adaptation meetings. Such meetings were very important since communication enables the local level communities to have solid adaptation base in order to promote resilience (IPCC, 2011). The researcher is of the opinion that institutions like the Climate Change Office, institutions involved in early warning, such as the National Early Warning Unit, the Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee and the Meteorological Services Department should be given women views at local level by these institutions to assist them in getting what is really taking place on the ground for effective policy formulation involving women and sustainable adaptation. Other vital institutions in need of capacity related support are the Zimbabwe National Water Authority, the Department of Agricultural Research and Extension, and the Department of Civil Protection. All these should be supported by grassroots information to come up with sustainable adaptation strategies as availability of institutions proved sustainable in the study area.

4.5 Recommendations by women to achieve sustainable adaptation strategies in Masembura Ward 10 of Bindura Rural District From the results it was revealed that there were multiple recommendations to improve adaptive capacity. One woman respondent was given a chance to give more than one recommendation to widen the knowledge gap. Results from the respondents indicated that the highest proportion 55

recommended increased government support in establishment of irrigation schemes with slightly above ninety six percent (96. 2%) followed by more access to credit with almost ninety five percent (94. 9%) then securing property rights with close to ninety four percent (93. 7%) as the most effective ways to improve household adaptive capacity. Improving early warning with almost ninety percent (89. 9%) was recommended as an effective way to improve adaptive capacity and sustainability of adaptation strategies by women in Masembura Ward 10.Table 4.5.1 shows recommendations on achieving sustainable adaptive measures by women in Masembura Ward 10.

Table 4.5.1: Recommendations on achieving sustainable adaptive measures by women in Masembura Ward 10

Recommendation Frequency Percentage Increased government support 76 96. 2 in establishment of irrigation schemes Inclusion of non- 50 63. 2 governmental organisation Increased access to extension 54 68. 3 services Improved early warning 71 89.9 systems Capacity building in soil and 20 25. 3 water conservation techniques Increased access to weather 47 59. 4 information Increased access to markets 66 83. 5 Incorporation of Indigenous 61 77. 2 Knowledge Systems(IKS) into planned adaptation Access to licenses 4 5. 1 Implement more education 9 11. 4 programmes on mass media Secure property rights 74 93. 7 Include women in decision 70 88. 6 making Improved access to credit 75 94. 9 Source: Research Survey 2015

About eighty nine percent (88. 6%) said including women in decision making would increase the adaptive capacity. Nearly eighty four percent (83. 5%) recommended increased access to markets and slightly above seventy seven percent (77. 2%) recommended incorporation of Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) into planned adaptation.

Slightly above sixty eight percent (68. 3%) recommended increased access to extension services. Almost sixty three percent (63. 2%) recommended inclusion of non-governmental organisations in the platform. About fifty nine percent (59. 4%) recommended increased access to weather information. Slightly above twenty five percent (25. 3%) said capacity building in soil and water conservation techniques would improve the adaptive capacity. About eleven percent (11. 4%) recommended implementation of more education programmes on mass media and finally about five percent (5. 1%) recommended access to licenses. Access to licenses was mostly recommended by those involved in brick making.

4.6Conclusion The chapter opened by an introduction and demographic and socio-economic characteristics as they were discussed in the research objectives. It further discussed the results on perceived impacts on climate variability and change used by women in the study area. Finally the chapter discussed results on the sustainability of adaptation strategies to climate variability and change used by women in the study with constant reference to Sustainable Rural Livelihoods Approach by Carney,(1998) as it is the model of this study. The chapter closes with the recommendations given by women on achieving sustainable adaptation strategies in Masembura Ward 10 in Bindura Rural District.

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction This chapter gives answers to all research questions in the conclusion. The chapter ends by the recommendations from the researcher on achieving sustainable adaptation strategies.

5.2 Conclusion The main livelihood in Masembura Ward 10 in Bindura Rural District is rain fed agriculture and as a result the households are vulnerable to climate variability and change. Women in the study area perceived that frequent poor yield from crops, reduced livestock heads and food insecurity were the main impacts of climate variability and change in the study area. These had a direct negative impact on their household incomes. Climate variability and change also resulted in acute shortage of water and increased household costs (in terms of expenditure and time) in accessing water for both livestock and domestic use in Masembura Ward 10 in Bindura District. This also resulted in increased incident of pests and diseases for both livestock and crops in the area. However, climate variability and change is not the only cause of the declining crop and livestock yields. The other contributory factors included lack of economic and physical capital.

The adaptation strategies used by women in Masembura Ward 10 were various and included both farm and off-farm activities. It was evident that agricultural adaptation options were on the lead. Adaptation strategies used by the majority of women were increased use of fertilisers and pesticides, increased market gardening, short maturity varieties, food preservation and Indigenous Knowledge Systems. Other common adaptation options were use of forests, wells around the edges of gardens and fields, reducing head size, soil and water conservation practices, use of manure, early planting, intercropping/ mixed cropping, planting small grain crops, food aid and other external sources, diversifying head composition, irrigation, late planting and rain water harvesting. Women also practiced a range of off-farm adaptation strategies for survival. Most of them practiced those activities that were less labour intensive such as wild fruit selling, petty trade, wage employment and pottery on the lead by aged women. Brick moulding and illegal mining was adopted by a few.

The adaptation strategies in Masembura Ward 10 were sustainable considering the availability of high levels of sustainable social, human and natural capital in the study area. Through the use of these livelihoods assets farmers managed to increase food supplies but there was still a need to improve household food security through strengthening sustainable economic and physical capital since these were major threats to sustainable climate variability and change adaptation strategies in Masembura Ward 10 in Bindura Rural District.

5.4 Recommendations

• The government should give more funds to the ministries such as those of the Environment, Water and Climate since climate change disasters are now a major security threat in the country. • The government should aim to improve the inputs of the women farmer resource base through implementation of irrigation schemes, credit facilities to purchase inputs, expansion of crop and livestock extension services and offering of better producer prices so that women produce more. • The government should ensure that weather information is translated into management decisions for example budgeting for relief and through institutional preparedness. Response measures should be combined with monitoring of preventive measures. • Communities should aim to accumulate assets in good years such as livestock. These can be sold in drought years. • Communities should manage their production with risk minimisation principles in mind for example early planting or staggered planting dates. • Research centres should make use of traditional crop varieties found in low rainfall areas to develop hybrid seeds. • Communities should develop effective adaptation strategies based on risk minimisation rather than crisis management. • Women should boost their confidence in the utilisation of Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) and Early Warning Systems (EWS) as climate variability and change coping mechanisms. • Rural infrastructural development should be increased. 59

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APPENDIX ONE

QUESTIONNAIRE TO WOMEN IN MASEMBURA WARD 10 IN BINDURA RURAL DISTRICT

I am Amalia Mazhomba (B1231645), a student at Bindura University of Science Education carrying out a research on “the role of women in adaptation to climate variability and change in Masembura Ward 10 in Bindura Rural District”. The research being carried out is strictly for academic purposes and is only intended to meet partial fulfillment of the Bachelor of Science Honours Degree in Development Studies. I am kindly asking for your cooperation in responding to questions provided below. The information collected will only be used for this study.

SECTION A

Basic demographic information

1. Marital status

Tick where your answer is yes Single Married Divorced

Widowed

2. Age of respondent

20-30 31-40 41-50

51-60 Above 60

3. Household size

5 or below 6-10 above 10

4. Highest level of education

No education at all Primary

Secondary Tertiary

5. You have lived in Masembura ward 10 for how long?

1-10 years 11-20 years 21-30 years above 30 years

6. You are from which village?

State your village in the space

SECTION B

Household Economics

Household farm size (hectares) Optional

7. Do you have access to credit?

Yes No

8. Are you getting any assistance from any organisation in your area?

Yes No

If your answer is yes, name the organisation in the space provided

9. What form of assistance do they offer?

Agricultural inputs technical support

Other Specify

10. What do you use for land preparation?

Draft power machinery

Other Specify

11. What are the main sources of income for the household head?

Sources of income Tick Estimated annual income

Livestock sales

Cash crop sales

Business

Formal employment

Market gardening

Remittances

Pension

Casual labour

Off-farm projects

Are you venturing into livestock production?

Yes No

If your answer is yes, complete the following Table

Animal Total number Poultry Total number

Cattle Chicken

Goats Turkeys

Donkeys Ducks

Sheep Guinea-fowls

Pigs

12. What are your sources of information to help you in management of your farming?

Kindly give your answer by completing the following table

Sources of Daily Weekly Monthly Reliability(low information or high) Indigenous knowledge Systems Early warning Systems Agricultural Extension Officers Rural District Councils

Non- governmental programmes Mass Media

SECTION C

Environmental issues

Have you observed any climate variability and change in Masembura Ward 10? If your answer is yes, kindly complete the following table

Past 05 years Past 15 years Past 10 year Past 20 years Past 25 years Past 30 years

13. In what ways has the climate changed within your area? Assist by putting a tick where your answer is appropriate in the following graph

Decreased precipitation Increased incidence of drought

Increased precipitation variability Increased risk of flooding

Increased temperature Decreased risk of flooding

Decreased ground water recharge Increased ground water recharge

Rainfall starts late and ends early Long dry spells during the rainy season Shorter winter season Increased number of seasons without enough rainfall

If your answer to 13 above is yes give your perceptions on the impacts of climate variability and change in Masembura Ward 10 by ticking in the space provided

Reduced yields Reduced pastures

Shortened growing season Reduced livestock heads

Increased Households Poverty Food insecurity and Social ills Increased water shortage Increased incidences of pests and diseases

SECTION D

Adaptation strategies and their sustainability

14. What adaptation options have you chosen to cope with the prevailing climate variability and change in Masembura Ward 10? Give your answer by putting a tick where appropriate in the following table

Adaptation option Implemented Short maturity varieties Supplement diet with wild food Rain water harvesting Soil and water conservation practices Irrigation Wells around the edges of fields and gardens Intercropping/mixed cropping Crop diversification Use of manure Food Preservation Increased use of fertilisers and pesticides Early planting Late planting Sale of livestock Reducing head size

Indigenous Knowledge Systems Use of forests Increased market gardening Off-farming activities(specify) Planting small grain crops Diversifying herd composition

15. What is the reason for choosing these adaptation strategies you opted?

Availability of capabilities Assistance from institutions

Increased yields and sustainable Ensure household food security

16. What problems have you faced in an attempt to implement the adaptation strategies?

Lack of skills Lack of financial support

Poor service delivery from Institutions

Government irresponsiveness to climate risk management

Lack of market for the produce e.g. market gardening

Poor information on early warning systems

Lack of licences e.g. brick moulding

Unsustainable

17. What are your recommendations on achieving sustainable household capacity?

Give your answer by completing the table below

Increased government support in establishment of irrigation schemes

Increased access to extension services

Improved early warning systems Capacity building in soil and water conservation techniques

Increased access to weather schemes Increased access to markets Incorporation of indigenous knowledge systems into planned adaptation Access to licenses

Implement more education programmes on mass media Secure property rights

Include women in decision making Improved access to credit

The End Thank you.

APPENDIX TWO KEY INFORMANT INTERVIEW (Agricultural Extension Officers, Manhenga Rural District Officials, Social Welfare, the Chief and the village heads) FOR MASEMBURA WARD 10 IN BINDURA RURAL DISTRICT

1. You have lived in Masembura Ward 10 in Bindura Rural District for how long? ------2. What are your perceptions on the impact of climate variability and climate change in Masembura Ward 10 in Bindura Rural District? ------3. What are the impacts of climate variability and change in Masembura Ward 10 in Bindura Rural District? ------4. As a key figure of Masembura Ward 10 in Bindura Rural District what do you think are adaptation strategies to climate variability and change in the area? ------5. In your opinion do you think these adaptation options are sustainable?------6. What do you think is the role of women in sustainable climate variability and change adaptation strategies? ------

------

7. Do you think development institutions have done enough as far as climate variability and change adaptation is concerned? No Yes

If the above answer is no, explain.------

8. What do you think are the challenges faced by the rural women for Masembura Ward 10 to achieve sustainable adaptation strategies?------

APPENDIX THREE Observation Guide for Masembura Ward 10 in Bindura Rural District

Theme Aspect Observations Climate variability and change • Legislation and risk reduction in the area. policies • Structures, roles and responsibilities • Resources allocated for climate variability and change Risk Reduction Perceptions of women on the Their agricultural practices impact of climate variability and change. Adaption strategies put in Adaptation strategies that can place by women in the study be integrated into climate area. variability and change Risk Reduction. The sustainability of Physical outlook of crops, adaptation options. animals and off-farm activities in the field. Check out for sustainable Sustainable Economic, Social, Livelihood Indicators Natural , Physical and Human Indicators

RECOMMENDATIONS

Check out for anything outstanding in the study area that relates to Climate Variability and Change Risk Management or Climate Variability and Change Disaster Risk Reduction.