Esport Expertise Benefits Perceptual-Cognitive Journal of Expertise 2020. Vol. 3(4) Skill in (Traditional) Sport © 2020. The authors 1 1 2 1 license this article Colm P. Murphy , Andy Wakefield , Phil D. J. Birch , Jamie S. North under the terms of the 1 Expert Performance and Skill Acquisition Research Group, Faculty of Sport, Allied Creative Commons Health, and Performance Science, St Mary’s University, UK Attribution 3.0 License. 2Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Chichester, UK ISSN 2573-2773

Correspondence, Colm P. Murphy: [email protected]

Abstract The ability to recognize patterns in developing sequences of play is a characteristic of experts that consistently distinguishes them from less-skilled performers. In addition to in situ training, researchers and practitioners seek alternative, simulated practice activities that may assist in the development of such perceptual-cognitive skills, while limiting physical load. In this study, we investigated whether pattern recognition skills of esport experts transferred to traditional sport. Expert esport (FIFA) players, skilled soccer players and a control group of novices in both FIFA and soccer completed two pattern recognition tasks, one that involved viewing and identifying previously seen footage of structured sequences from competitive FIFA 19 matches and another displaying sequences from soccer matches. Both skilled groups recognized previously viewed sequences significantly more accurately than the control group irrespective of viewing condition. Moreover, although expert FIFA players were more accurate than skilled soccer players in the FIFA 19 condition, no difference was observed between the two groups in the soccer condition. Positive transfer of pattern recognition skill was therefore stronger from FIFA to soccer than in the other direction. The findings suggest that engagement in esport may aid the development of perceptual-cognitive skills required for expert performance in traditional sport.

Keywords , , transfer, soccer, esports

Introduction In dynamic and temporally constrained tasks to identify methods and interventions that may such as soccer, aviation, and esports, the ability support the development of these skills to anticipate future events is a distinguishing (Hoffman et al., 2014). While in situ practice characteristic of expert performers (Triolet et activities are important (Ford et al., 2009; al., 2013). One perceptual-cognitive skill Hendry & Hodges, 2018), there are nevertheless underpinning this advantage is the ability to concerns over injury risk and burnout (Baker et perceive and recognize patterns within displays al., 2009). Increasingly, efforts are being made (North & Williams, 2019). Retrospective data to develop virtual environments that provide from expert performers indicates that extensive engaging and varied opportunities for domain- practice over many years is necessary to specific practice while minimizing injury risk develop such perceptual-cognitive skills (see (Stone et al., 2018). An alternative, but currently Ericsson et al., 1993; Roca et al., 2012). As a more accessible and affordable activity that may result, researchers and practitioners have sought contribute to the development of perceptual-

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Murphy et al. (2020) Transfer from Esport to Traditional Sport cognitive skills is competitive electronic sports share similar characteristics (see Causer & Ford, (esports; Boot, 2015). Although it is intuitively 2014; Roca & Williams, 2017; Rosalie & appealing to suggest that engagement in esports Müller, 2014). For example, Smeeton et al. may facilitate transfer of perceptual-cognitive (2004) investigated the transfer of perceptual- skills to the traditional sports they simulate (e.g., cognitive skill between sports that were thought EA Sports FIFA and soccer), research to share similar perceptual features and investigating this notion is scarce. processing strategies (soccer and field hockey) Pattern perception has been shown to and another sport thought to be dissimilar on distinguish skilled from lesser-skilled these factors (volleyball). Using a recognition performers in multiple domains (e.g., basketball: task, the researchers reported that soccer and Allard et al., 1980; map reading: Gilhooly et al., field hockey players each recognized previously 1988; medical diagnosis: Sowden et al., 2000). seen soccer and field hockey sequences more At a practical level, the ability to perceive quickly than volleyball players, demonstrating emerging sequences early in their development positive transfer between structurally similar affords expert performers additional time and sports. Similarly, Abernethy et al. (2005) used a enables them to demonstrate their anticipation pattern recall task to demonstrate that expertise advantage (North & Williams, 2019). This in one sport enabled positive transfer to related domain-specific expertise is thought to arise sports. Experts demonstrated superior levels of through extended engagement in domain- recall accuracy for domain-specific sequences specific practice that results in the development but nevertheless recalled patterns from other of specialized cognitive knowledge structures similar sports more effectively than non-experts. which support processes of encoding, storage, Collectively, the findings suggest that and retrieval that ultimately enable quicker and perceptual-cognitive skills may transfer between more accurate judgments (see Ericsson & similar domains. Kintsch, 1995). An early study by Allard and In their Identical Elements theory, Starkes (1992) investigated pattern perception in Thorndike and Woodworth (1901) suggested expert basketball and ice hockey players when that transfer of is dependent on the viewing sequences from both sports, revealing number of similar elements between the tasks, that basketball players recalled sequences more these elements being perceptual, motor, or accurately when viewing basketball stimuli, strategic in nature. For example, soccer and while ice hockey players were more accurate on field hockey may share similar perceptual and ice hockey trials, highlighting the domain- strategic elements due to the number of players specific nature of pattern perception. involved, the pitch size, and the formations Despite the proposed domain-specificity of employed. In contrast, Lee’s (1988) Transfer- perceptual-cognitive expertise and the sport Appropriate Processing theory suggests that expertise × recognition task interaction reported transfer occurs when tasks share similar by Allard and Starkes (1992), the authors perceptual and cognitive processing demands. nevertheless noted that recall accuracy of both For example, comparable visual search groups in the non-domain-specific task was strategies in sports like soccer and field hockey significantly above chance, suggesting that are likely to facilitate the type of encoding and experts were able to perceive and encode retrieval processes that lead to positive transfer meaning from such displays. If perceptual- (Helsen & Starkes, 1999; Smeeton et al., 2004; cognitive skills did transfer between domains, Williams et al., 1999). Therefore, time spent there may be scope to develop such skills away engaging in secondary activities that involve from one’s primary sport, potentially in a less similar perceptual and strategic elements and/or physically demanding way, thus reducing the processing demands could facilitate the risk of injury and burnout (Stone et al., 2018). development of perceptual-cognitive skills in an Positive transfer of perceptual-cognitive skills is athlete’s primary sport. most likely to be observed between tasks that Esports involve individuals or teams

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Murphy et al. (2020) Transfer from Esport to Traditional Sport competing in video games—either in person or demonstrating positive transfer. However, based online—for trophies, ranking points, or prize on previous research highlighting the expert money (Ruvalcaba et al., 2018). Like traditional advantage in pattern perception on domain- sport, expert esports performance requires specific tasks (Abernethy et al., 2005), we highly developed perceptual-cognitive skills hypothesized that the two skilled groups would that, depending on the game, underpin quick nevertheless outperform one another when and effective anticipation and decision making responding to footage from their own domain. under time constraints (Latham et al., 2013; Pedraza-Ramirez et al., 2020). Once merely a Method popular pastime, the prevalence of professional Participants esports has increased drastically in recent years Sample size was calculated using G*Power 3.1 (Pluss et al., 2020). While early video games (Faul et al., 2007). A total of 42 participants were limited in their realism (Boot, 2015), were calculated as being sufficient to detect a current versions are increasingly realistic, both medium effect size (f = .25) with power set at in gameplay and graphics, creating a highly 0.80 for the within-between interaction. In total, engaging environment (Towne et al., 2014). 58 participants completed the experiment, 22 of Esports therefore provide an ideal domain whom were expert FIFA players (Mage = 22.8, within which to study expertise (Pluss et al., standard deviation [SD] = 3.5), 17 were skilled 2019) and may also be suitable to supplement soccer players (Mage = 21.2, SD = 6.1), and 19 the development of perceptual-cognitive skills participants who had limited experience in both in other domains, without adding extra physical soccer and FIFA acted as a control group (Mage demand. Engagement with video simulations of = 25.7, SD = 10.2). Expert FIFA players real-world actions has been shown to aid the reported having achieved a FIFA 19 (EA Sports, development of perceptual-cognitive skills that 2019) ranking of Elite 2 or higher (rankings are are transferrable to in situ performance on a twelve-tier system with Elite 2 being the (Broadbent et al., 2015; Müller & Abernethy, second highest tier outside the top 100 World 2014; Smeeton et al., 2005). However, creation rankings). At the time of the study, they of test stimuli for such methods is time reported playing a mean of 26.8 (SD = 12.0) consuming and can lack variation; therefore, hours FIFA 19 per week. Skilled soccer players participation in esports that simulate an athlete’s played semi-professionally and competitively in sport may provide a readily available, cost- the 8th tier of English soccer or above. They effective alternative. reported currently playing a mean of 3.4 (SD = The aim of the current study was to 4.6) hours soccer per week. Expert FIFA players investigate whether pattern recognition skills who reported playing soccer regularly were can be transferred between esport (FIFA) and excluded from the study, as were skilled soccer traditional sport (soccer). We compared the players who reported regular engagement in performance of expert FIFA players, skilled FIFA video games. The control group played soccer players, and a control group of novices both soccer and FIFA irregularly and did not on two pattern recognition tasks, one in which take part in either activity competitively. Written sequences from competitive FIFA 19 matches informed consent was provided by each participant were presented and another presenting with ethical approval granted from each of the sequences from competitive soccer matches. As institutions at which data collection took place. expert performers have been shown to transfer perceptual skills between similar tasks (Lee, Test Stimuli 1988; Smeeton et al., 2004; Thorndike & Woodworth, 1901), we hypothesized that the Four sets of test stimuli were created: two for use as viewing and recognition phases in the two skilled groups would recognize sequences more accurately than the control group FIFA 19 condition and two for use in the soccer regardless of the viewing condition, thus condition. Each set of stimuli consisted of 30 trials, edited to be five seconds in duration. In https://www.journalofexpertise.org 229 Journal of Expertise / December 2020 / vol. 3, no.4

Murphy et al. (2020) Transfer from Esport to Traditional Sport both conditions, sequences were originally scale of 0 to 10 (based on the extent to which the selected for use if they included a key pass, e.g., sequences represented what would occur in a a through ball or a cross. For the FIFA 19 competitive setting; 0 being not at all structured, 10 condition, test stimuli were generated from live being highly structured). Similarly, a semi- streams of competitive FIFA 19 events (EA professional soccer player rated the level of Sports FIFA 19 Ultimate Team, 2019). structure in the selected soccer sequences. This Originally, 96 sequences of play were generated process of ensuring structure within sequences has and edited to remove recognizable superficial been used by other researchers studying expert features such as the score line, face camera shots, pattern perception (Gorman et al., 2012; North et and energy bars. For the soccer condition, 92 al., 2009). In both tasks, the 45 sequences receiving sequences of play were originally generated from the highest structure rating were used as internationally broadcast footage. To avoid experimental test stimuli. From this base of 45 presenting footage that had previously been viewed sequences, 30 were randomly selected for by participants, none of the selected footage were presentation in the viewing phase. The remaining of matches played by English teams. As in the 15 sequences formed the “new” trials to be FIFA 19 condition, score lines were removed from presented in the recognition phase. These were this condition. All footage was of a side-on, birds- presented along with 15 randomly selected trials eye view perspective (see Figure 1). from the viewing phase that acted as ‘previously A professional FIFA player with a higher seen’ trials. The “new” and “previously seen” trials ranking than any of the participants rated the level were randomly ordered within the recognition of structure in each of the FIFA 19 clips on a Likert phases.

Figure 1. Example FIFA 19 (top) and soccer (bottom) test stimuli

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Apparatus and Set-up completing the same procedure in the other Test stimuli were edited using Davinci Resolve viewing condition. 15 software (Blackmagic Design, Fremont, CA, USA). Participants viewed footage on a Data Analysis standard laptop or desktop computer. The First, recognition accuracy scores were laptop/computer on which footage was viewed converted to percentages (%). The data were was not consistent between participants but the then screened for outliers using box plots and screen was always of personal computer size. were subsequently tested for normality. No Participants sat approximately 40 cm from the outliers were detected, and the Shapiro-Wilk screen, yielding a viewing angle of test showed the data met the parametric approximately 45 degrees on a standard 15.6” assumption of normality. Moreover, significant screen, similar to previous research (North et al., skewness or kurtosis was not observed in any of 2009; North et al., 2016). the variables for any of the groups. Next, a 3 (Group [Control, Skilled Soccer Players, Expert Procedure FIFA Players]) × 2 (Viewing Condition [Soccer, Data collection was carried out in one of two FIFA 19]) mixed Analysis of Variance ways: either in person with the researcher or (ANOVA) with repeated measures on the latter remotely, via telephone. In those instances of factor was conducted to determine whether remote participation, participants viewed domain-specific expertise affected ability to footage via uploaded videos from Google Drive recognize patterns of play across conditions. (Mountain View, CA, USA). First, participants Percentage recognition accuracy (%) acted as were told that they would be presented with a the dependent variable. In the case of main series of sequences of play from competitive effects or interactions, Bonferroni-corrected FIFA 19 or soccer matches and that they were pairwise comparisons were employed to control 2 required to view the footage. Half of the for family-wise error. Partial eta squared (ηp ) participants in each group viewed the soccer test and Cohen’s d are used to report effect sizes. stimuli first with the other half viewing the 95% confidence intervals are reported on d and FIFA 19 test stimuli first. Having completed the the alpha level was set at .05. initial viewing phase, participants completed a playing history questionnaire to ascertain their Results level of experience and engagement in the Mean (and standard error) recognition accuracy activity corresponding to the viewing condition. scores are presented in Figure 2. ANOVA The questionnaire was completed during a break revealed a main effect of Group, F (2,55) = of approximately 15 minutes. Next, participants 2 24.27, p < .01, ηp = 0.47. Compared to the were informed that they would view a further control group (M = 60.09 %, SD = 10.12), series of sequences, but that on this occasion recognition accuracy was higher for both the some of the sequences had already been shown expert FIFA players (M = 78.41 %, SD = 10.10, in the initial viewing phase, whereas others had p < .01, d = 1.81, 95 % confidence interval [CI] not. Participants were asked to highlight those = [1.29, 2.33]) and the skilled soccer players (M previously seen as “old” and those that had not = 73.53 %, SD = 11.04 p < .01, d = 1.27, 95 % yet been seen as “new.” An inter-trial interval of CI = [0.76, 1.78]). A main effect of Viewing 5 seconds was employed throughout. Participant Condition was also observed, F (1,55) = 7.26, p responses were either written or typed 2 = .01, ηp = 0.12. Recognition accuracy was depending on whether data was collected in higher in the soccer (M = 72.70 %, SD = 12.57) person or remotely, respectively. Upon than the FIFA 19 condition (M = 69.25 %, SD = completion of the first recognition phase, 13.25). participants took a short break prior to

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Figure 2. Mean (SE) recognition accuracy (%) across groups and viewing conditions.

A Group × Viewing Condition interaction pattern recognition tasks in which sequences 2 was observed, F (2,55) = 4.05, p = .02, ηp = from competitive FIFA 19 or soccer matches 0.13. In the soccer condition, the control group were presented. Consistent with research (M = 62.98 %, SD = 10.42) were significantly demonstrating positive transfer between similar less accurate than both the skilled soccer players tasks (Abernethy et al., 2005; Lee, 1988; (M = 77.26 %, SD = 10.22, p < .01, d = 1.38, 95 Thorndike & Woodworth, 1901; Smeeton et al., % CI = [0.64, 2.11]) and expert FIFA players 2004), we expected the skilled participants to (M = 77.58 %, SD = 11.37, p < .01, d = 1.33, 95 outperform the control group regardless of the % CI = [0.65, 2.01]), with no difference viewing condition. Moreover, based on previous observed between the two latter groups (p = .93, research demonstrating expertise effects on d = 0.03, CI = [-0.60, 0.66]). In contrast, in the domain-specific pattern perception tasks FIFA 19 condition, while the control group (M (Abernethy et al., 2005), we expected the skilled = 57.19 %, SD = 9.18) was again significantly participants to be more accurate than the other less accurate than the skilled soccer players (M groups when viewing sequences from their = 69.80 %, SD = 10.83, p < .01, d = 1.26, 95 % domain of expertise. CI = [0.54, 1.97]), the soccer players were, in In line with our first hypothesis, both skilled turn, significantly less accurate than the expert groups recognized structured sequences of play FIFA players (M = 79.24 %, SD = 8.84, p = .01, more effectively than the control group d = 0.97, 95 % CI = [0.29, 1.63]). The expert regardless of whether they were viewing footage FIFA players were also significantly more from competitive FIFA 19 or soccer matches. accurate than the control group (p < .01, d = Skilled participants not only made more 2.45, CI = [1.62, 3.26]). accurate recognition judgments than participants in the control group when viewing sequences Discussion from their own domain of expertise (e.g., soccer To determine whether perceptual-cognitive skill players viewing soccer sequences, North et al., transfers between esports and the traditional 2009; North et al., 2011) but they were able to sports they simulate, we compared performance maintain this advantage in the non-domain of expert FIFA players, skilled traditional sports specific viewing condition, highlighting positive (soccer) players and novices (control) on two transfer of pattern recognition skill between

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Murphy et al. (2020) Transfer from Esport to Traditional Sport tasks. While previous research has demonstrated numbers, pitch size, and strategy all differed positive transfer of perceptual-cognitive skills between the sports. As a video-game-based between sports (Moore & Müller, 2014; Rosalie simulation of soccer, FIFA 19 is likely to be & Müller, 2014; Smeeton et al., 2004), this is highly similar to soccer both in terms of the the first study to our knowledge to demonstrate perceptual and strategic elements involved positive transfer between esport and traditional (Thorndike & Woodworth, 1901), and the sport. cognitive processes underpinning effective The similarity between the two tasks is pattern recognition on the task (Lee, 1988). likely to be a driving factor behind the observed Although researchers have previously transfer. Given that FIFA 19 aims to simulate demonstrated that engagement with video soccer through a video game medium, by design games may be associated with enhanced the two tasks share common elements, e.g., the perceptual and cognitive abilities (Bediou et al., number of players, formations, and underlying 2018; Green & Bavelier, 2003; Wu & Spence, strategies (Thorndike & Woodworth, 1901). The 2013), these are the first findings, to our degree of positive transfer between the two knowledge, that demonstrate positive transfer of tasks is therefore not surprising. It is equally perceptual-cognitive skill from esport to unsurprising that differences in superficial traditional sport. In non-sporting contexts, it has features between the viewing conditions (i.e., previously been shown that enhanced perceptual computer graphics vs real players) did not and cognitive processing is associated with prevent positive transfer from being observed. engagement in video games that share common Pattern recognition is underpinned by the demands to the transfer task. For example, effective processing of dynamic relational engagement in first-person shooter games that information between features, as demonstrated require fast and accurate decisions in dynamic, by the maintenance of an expert advantage time-constrained environments has resulted in when surface level features are removed from more efficient visual search strategies on visual displays using point-lights (North et al., laboratory-based tasks that share these demands 2009; Williams et al., 2006; Williams et al., (Green & Bavelier, 2007; Hubert-Wallander et 2012). In the current study, both groups of al., 2011). The findings presented here suggest experts were able to effectively encode and that engagement in esports which simulate retrieve task-relevant information from memory traditional sports may lead to the development when required for both tasks, despite superficial of perceptual-cognitive skills that underpin differences between display conditions. expert performance in the sport. Of course, it is Partially in line with our second hypothesis, possible that rather than positive transfer of while the expert FIFA players were more pattern recognition skills, the superior accurate than skilled soccer players when performance of skilled participants was due to viewing the FIFA 19 footage, the two groups enhanced generic visual recognition. However, achieved comparable accuracy on the soccer as our findings align with a large body of task. The positive transfer of perceptual- research demonstrating the domain-specific cognitive skill from FIFA to soccer was nature of effective pattern perception (Gorman therefore stronger than in the other direction. et al., 2012; North et al., 2011; North et al., These findings contrast with those of Abernethy 2017), we consider this possibility unlikely. et al. (2005) which showed that although pattern The Group × Viewing Condition interaction recall skills transferred positively between revealed that transfer of pattern recognition skill similar sports, the degree of transfer did not was stronger from FIFA to soccer than in the result in performance levels as high as those of other direction. We suggest two possible domain experts. While the sports used by explanations for this. First, while viewing Abernethy et al. (2005) were similar in that they perspective was maintained as consistently as were all team-based invasion sports (basketball, possible between the two tasks for the purpose field hockey, and netball), factors such as player of control, the aerial side-on viewing

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Murphy et al. (2020) Transfer from Esport to Traditional Sport perspective was more representative of the may provide a challenging, varied practice performance environment normally experienced environment that yields continued motivation by FIFA players than soccer players. Tasks that over time (Gray, 2019), while contributing to are less representative of the performance the development of perceptual-cognitive environment, e.g., via the viewing perspective expertise. We thereby recommend that future or response employed, have been shown to yield research employ interventions to investigate the smaller expertise effects (see Farrow & effect of engagement in esport on perceptual- Abernethy, 2003; Mann et al., 2010). It follows cognitive skill development and, indeed, the that the visual search and cognitive processing ability to transfer skills to traditional sport and strategies of soccer players in the soccer enhance performance. First, like research which viewing condition may have been different, and has previously investigated the link between in turn less effective, than those normally video games and general perceptual and employed from a pitch level first-person cognitive abilities, intervention-based studies viewing perspective (Mann et al., 2009). We would provide evidence as to whether there is a therefore recommend that future research causal link between engagement in esport and replicate the current findings while perceptual-cognitive skill in traditional sport manipulating the viewing perspective employed. (Blacker et al., 2014; Toril et al., 2014). Second, A second potential explanation, and in turn an research is needed to investigate whether the associated limitation of the study, is that the degree of transfer displayed in this study is still FIFA players were competing at a higher level observed in more ecologically valid tasks, such and spent more time engaging in their domain as in-situ (on field) tests of anticipation and than the soccer players. The FIFA players were decision making. Finally, research that employs therefore likely to have attained a higher level of engagement in esport as a training intervention expertise than the soccer players, thus to determine its effect on traditional sports facilitating more effective transfer of performance (i.e., on field performance) is perceptual-cognitive skill. In line with this required. Such systematic investigation would suggestion, researchers have previously provide valuable information for practitioners observed that the degree of transfer of exploring the possibility of using esport as a perceptual-cognitive skill between domains is training tool for traditional sport. moderated by expertise level of performers In this paper we have reported novel (Abernethy et al., 2005; Rosalie & Müller, findings that show positive transfer of 2014). perceptual-cognitive skill between esport From an applied perspective, of particular (FIFA) and traditional sport (soccer). Moreover, interest is the positive transfer from esport to we have demonstrated positive transfer to be traditional sport because the high level of more pronounced from FIFA to soccer than in physical activity associated with traditional the other direction. Findings suggest there may sports like soccer carries with it an inherent risk be scope to use video-game-based simulations of injury and burnout (Baker et al., 2009). Our to develop perceptual-cognitive skills for findings, therefore, show promise for the use of traditional sport, thus alleviating risk of esports to develop perceptual-cognitive skills in overtraining through increased physical load. traditional sports and may provide a substitute We have recommended several avenues of for physical training when players are injured or further investigation to examine these ideas. resting. It is important to note that our findings Thus, the current findings highlight the ability do not suggest engagement in esport to be more of expert performers to transfer perceptual- beneficial than participating in traditional sport cognitive skill between similar domains and the itself, nor do our findings demonstrate that potential of esports to act as a training tool for engagement in esport actually leads to enhanced these skills in traditional sports. performance in traditional sport. Rather, we suggest that engaging in simulated activities

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