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Cognitive Science Concepts and Technology Teacher Education 33 Dan Brown Cognitive Science Concepts and Technology Teacher Education 33 Dan Brown The Journal of Technology Studies In the early 1990s, Johnson (1992a) stated interaction and personal experience into the that technology educators had shown little process of transforming information to interest in cognitive science-based research knowledge (Johnson, 1992a). After which he observed was unfortunate because of examination of accessible cognitive science the close alignment between many concepts literature, I found the literature highlighted the in cognitive science and technology education. following learning theory-based concepts that That may be less true today, but the disconnect seemed to relate directly or indirectly to between being aware of these concepts and/or experiential learning. terms and teaching students to be able to Metacognition. consciously use these constructs to enhance Metacognition collectively consists of the learning is still apparent. It also appears that becoming aware of personally preferred cognitive there is very little research on these cognitive strategies as well as acquiring, employing, and science theories within the context of monitoring new strategies for learning (Johnson, technology teacher education or technical 1992b; West et al., 1991). Also called strategic education in general. thinking, metacognition involves planning, This article explores technology teacher regulating, and evaluating thinking activities. It educators’ perceptions about and use of the includes such strategies as monitoring, questioning, following cognitive science theories: schemata, summarizing, predicting, generating, and mental and graphic visualization, reflection and evaluating alternatives. Knowledge is obtained debriefing, situated learning or cognition, cognitive through identification of relationships and apprenticeship and its component parts modeling, connections. Experiential learning is necessarily coaching and scaffolding, and metacognition. personal and idiosyncratic (Burnard, 1988). These theories are followed by a discussion of a Metacognitive strategies are useful to the learner survey of a selected group of teacher educators. as he or she attempts to translate personal The survey focused on three questions: experience to transferable learning. 1. How important do technology Schema Theory. education teacher educators believe each People engage in information simpli- of the identified cognitive science fication to effectively manage their information concepts are for inclusion in the processing requirements. Schema theory preparation of preservice technology suggests that schemata are unconscious mental education teachers? structures or models that underlie and control 2. To what level do preservice teachers the simplifying process that is essential to learn about or develop skills in each of human learning, skill acquisition, and problem these cognitive science concepts in solving (Johnson, 1992a; Phillips & Lord, preservice technology education teachers 1982; Satchwell, 1996; West et al., 1991). It programs? has been suggested that schemata: 3. To what extent are these cognitive • reflect the individual’s basic ideas about science concepts modeled and integrated reality and relative importance; intoclassroom instruction for preservice • provide a framework for memory within teachers? which decisions can be made, operations performed, and new information retained; The Theories • define understanding of how the world is Cognition has been defined as coming to organized and new information fits with know. It includes the internal mental processes previously acquired knowledge; of learning, perception, comprehension, • provide structure to ambiguous or thinking, memory, and attention and is incomplete information; grounded in an evolutionary shift in the • allow the individual to fill in missing data psychology of learning from behaviorist to and edit information as it is retrieved cognitive focus (West, Farmer, & Wolff, 1991). from memory; and Cognitive science developed a social con- • guide the information retrieval process structivist view of learning because it was (Brewer & Nakamura, 1984; Kelley, 1972). learned that students actively incorporate social Schemata are developed and information 34 Table 1. Metacognition Related Responses. The Journal of Technology Studies is encoded and organized based upon the examining causal relationships and comparing individual’s first-hand experience as the these relationships against their preexisting individual retains and processes implicit and notions about technology and the world. explicit teachings about the causal nature of Visualization and Graphic Organizers. the world, thus enabling persons to perform The term chunking has been used to describe with limited information (Kelley, 1972). a broad array of organizing and simplifying Preconceived causal beliefs influence not only strategies that aid in learning and analysis (West interpretation of events and information, but et al., 1991). Memory organization tools and also what information will be sought and how aids to supplement limited working memory it will be used (Kelley & Michela, 1980; Wyer, capacity such as those included under the 1981). These complex schema-based images umbrella of chunking have been shown to enable exist in memory as perceptions of particular experts to recall enhanced volumes of information individuals, events, etc., or as prototypic when needed to solve problems and transfer perceptions (Wyer, 1981). knowledge to new situations (Johnson, 1992a; It is believed that people possess schemata Johnson & Thomas, 1992). Chunking includes of connected facts, skills, and strategies that use of both graphic organizers and visual imagery. help the individual explain and perform Graphic organizers such as concept efficiently within his or her world. New mapping and functional flow diagrams could information and/or experiences are interpreted be of particular interest to technology through mental analysis based on comparison educators. Concept maps graphically simplify against existing relevant schemata. These the display of concepts and the relationships schemata or mental models become the basis between those concepts as a means of for interpretation of what actions are communicating, comprehending, and appropriate and which information may be analyzing relationships of a physical system or assumed as well as learning and recall body of knowledge. They have been shown to (Satchwell, 1996; West et al., 1991). effectively act as mnemonic devices to help Acknowledging preexisting schema changes the learners remember as well as aiding in analysis role of the technology teacher who wants to and understanding, troubleshooting, and help students learn effectively through personal problem solving. Providing or teaching experience. Students must be encouraged to learners to create simple conceptual diagrams actively engage in activities that focus on helps students gain conceptual, holistic Table 2. Schema theory related findings. 35 The Journal of Technology Studies understanding more quickly (Johnson, 1992a; 1985, p. 18). Few people can convert personal Johnson & Thomas, 1992; Satchwell, 1996; experience to transferable learning, principles, West et al., 1991). Use of simplified conceptual or models through the experience alone. diagrams may improve overall system However, the probability of the student making understanding, enhance ability to understand that transition is enhanced if the student is function and behavior of systems, enhance encouraged to focus, share, and reflect on the understanding of causal relationships, and meaning of the experience, the connections improve learner ability to reconstruct between the experience and past experiences, conceptual models (deKleer & Brown, 1981; theories, and/or generalizable models. Satchwell, 1996), or visual, coherent pictures Opportunities to reflect on and observe the that are less easily forgotten. meaning of experiences, then integrating those Visual imagery has long been used to teach reflections and critical observations into drafting concepts as students were challenged to personal theories, enhance the probability of visualize objects mentally cultivating the ability to transfer of learning to new contexts and rotate and section parts and assemblies as well as situations (Burnard, 1988; Kolb, 1984). providing essential skills in invention and Experiential learning has been described innovation based on design activities. More as having six distinct phases: planning, recently, visual practice has also been proposed as introduction, activity, debriefing, summary, a method to provide low cost practice and and evaluation. In this model, the reflection enhancement of tasks requiring fine motor skills, or debriefing phase involves sharing and high levels of eye-hand coordination, and with discussing the experience: its details, order, and significant cognitive elements. This cognitive meaning. This is the opportunity for technique essentially consists of repeatedly thinking participants to begin to make generalizable through a problem or process in a highly structured connections to prior learning and experiences and disciplined manner (Whetstone, 1995). (Walter & Marks, 1981). Reflection. Reflection has been defined as the mental Reflection has been described as “those process of looking back over the completed intellectual and affective activities in which experience and performance to assess and individuals engage to explore their experiences
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