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Environmental Effects of Ozone Depletion and Its Interactions with Climate Change: 2006 Assessment

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UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME UNEP ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF OZONE DEPLETION AND ITS INTERACTIONS WITH CLIMATE CHANGE: 2006 ASSESSMENT Pursuant to Article 6 of the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer under the Auspices of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Copies of the report are available from United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) P. O. Box 30552 Nairobi , Kenya Published December 2006 by the Secretariat for The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), P. O. Box 30552, Nairobi, Kenya UNEP, Environmental Effects of Ozone Depletion: 2006 Assessment, United Nations Environment Programme ISBN: 978-92-807-2821-7 Job No: OZO/0947/NA Cover photograph © Luo Hong. The Environmental Effects Assessment Panel Report for 2006 iii ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF OZONE DEPLETION AND ITS INTERACTIONS WITH CLIMATE CHANGE: 2006 ASSESSMENT Introduction This assessment was prepared by the Environmental Effects Assessment Panel for the Parties to the Montreal Protocol. The assessment reports on some of the new findings since the last full assessment of 2002, again paying attention to the interactions between ozone depletion and climate change and their consequences for environmental and health issues. Simultaneous publication of the assessment in the scientific literature aims to show the scientific community how their data, modeling, and interpretations are playing a role in information dissemination to the Parties to the Montreal Protocol and other policy makers. It is also hoped that the publication will stimulate the scientific community to continue working on the gaps in knowledge that still exist. The 2006 assessment will be published in the Journal Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences, 2007. Jan van der Leun Janet F. Bornman Xiaoyan Tang Co-Chairs of the Environmental Effects Assessment Panel United Nations Environment Programme PO Box 30552 Nairobi, Kenya http://www.unep.org/ozone UNEP http://www.unep.ch/ozone The Environmental Effects Assessment Panel Report for 2006 v TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................................................................ xv CHAPTER 1. CHANGES IN BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION REACHING THE EARTH’S SURFACE................................................. 1 CHAPTER 2. THE EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH FROM STRATOSPHERIC OZONE DEPLETION AND ITS INTERACTIONS WITH CLIMATE CHANGE .. 25 CHAPTER 3. TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS, INCREASED SOLAR ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION, AND INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER CLIMATE CHANGE FACTORS ................................................................................... 65 CHAPTER 4. EFFECTS OF SOLAR UV RADIATION ON AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS AND INTERACTIONS WITH CLIMATE CHANGE. .................... 95 CHAPTER 5. INTERACTIVE EFFECTS OF SOLAR UV RADIATION AND CLIMATE CHANGE ON BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLING................................... 133 CHAPTER 6. CHANGES IN TROPOSPHERIC COMPOSITION AND AIR QUALITY DUE TO STRATOSPHERIC OZONE DEPLETION AND CLIMATE CHANGE. .................................................................................................... 165 CHAPTER 7. EFFECTS OF STRATOSPHERIC OZONE DEPLETION AND CLIMATE CHANGE ON MATERIALS DAMAGE.................................................. 185 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS PANEL MEMBERS AND UNEP REPRESENTATIVES 2006 ........................................................................................... 201 REVIEWERS OF THE 2006 UNEP EFFECTS ASSESSMENT PANEL .......................... 205 vi The Environmental Effects Assessment Panel Report for 2006 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 1,25(OH)2D 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin d 25(OH)D 25-hydroxyvitamin d AK Actinic keratosis AO Arctic Oscillation. A large-scale variation in Arctic wind patterns APase Alkaline phosphatase APC Antigen presenting cell ASL Above sea level BCC Basal cell carcinoma (s) Br Bromine (an ozone depleting chemical) BrO Bromine monoxide BSWF Biological spectral weighting functions BWF Biological weighting function CAS Chemical Abstracts Service CC Cortical cataract(s) CDFA Chlorodifluoroacetic acid CDK Climatic droplet keratopathy CDOC Colored dissolved organic carbon CDOM Colored (or chromophoric) dissolved organic matter CPD Cyclobutane pyrimidine dimmer CFC Chlorofluorocarbon. Ozone-damaging chemical (e.g., CFC12: dichlorodifluoromethane. CCl2F2), now controlled under the Montreal Protocol CH Contact hypersensitivity CH4 Methane (a greenhouse gas) CIE Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (International Commission on Illumination) Cl Chlorine (an ozone depleting chemical) CM Cutaneous melanoma CO Carbon monoxide The Environmental Effects Assessment Panel Report for 2006 vii CO2 Carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas) COS carbonyl sulfide CPD Cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer Cu Copper (Cu(I) and Cu(II) being different oxidation states) DIC Dissolved inorganic carbon DMS Dimethylsulfide DMSP Dimethylsulfoniopropionate DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid DOC Dissolved organic carbon DOM Dissolved organic matter DON Dissolved organic nitrogen DSB Double strand break DTH Delayed type hypersensitivity DU Dobson Unit (used for the measurement of total column ozone (1 DU=2.69 × 1016 molecule cm-2) EAE Experimental allergic encephalitis EDUCE European Database for Ultraviolet Radiation Climatology and Evaluation EESC Equivalent Effective Stratospheric Chlorine ENSO El Niño Southern Oscillation. A large-scale climate variability in the Pacific region EP Earth Probe (a NASA satellite) EPA Environmental Protection Agency EV Epidermodysplasia verruciformis Fe Iron (Fe(II) and Fe(III) being different oxidation states) FMI Finnish Meteorological Institute GHG Greenhouse gas Glu I A pathogenesis-related (PR) protein HALS Hindered Amine Light Stabilizer HCFC Hydrochlorofluorocarbon. Interim replacements for CFCs with small ozone depletion potential (e.g., R22: chlorodifluoromethane CHClF2) to be phased out viii The Environmental Effects Assessment Panel Report for 2006 HFC Hydrofluorocarbon. Long-term replacements for CFCs, with zero ozone depletion potential Hg Mercury (Hg0aq and Hg(II) being different oxidation states) HIV Human immunodeficiency virus HPV Human papillomavirus HSV Herpes simplex virus HY5 Transcription factor HY5, which is a key downstream effector of the UVR8 (UV-regulatory protein) pathway IBD Inflammatory bowel disease IL Interleukin Ink4a Murine inhibitor of kinase 4a protein (gene in italics) IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPF Immune protection factor kda Kilodalton KNMI Dutch National Institute for Weather, Climate and Seismology (The Netherlands) L· Lipid radical MAA Mycosporine-like amino acids Mb Megabase, equal to 1 million base pairs MC1R Melanocortin 1 receptor MHC Major histocompatibility complex MS Multiple sclerosis N2O Nitrous oxide (a greenhouse gas that is also a source of NO2) NAO North Atlantic Oscillation. A large-scale variation and redistribution of atmospheric mass in the Atlantic region producing large changes in the NH dynamics NASA National Aeronautic and Space Administration (USA) NaTFA Sodium trifluoroacetate NC Nuclear cataract(s) NCAR National Centre for Atmospheric Research, USA NH Northern Hemisphere. The Environmental Effects Assessment Panel Report for 2006 ix NIMBUS-7 A NASA satellite NIVR Netherlands Agency for Aerospace Programmes NMHCs Non-methane hydrocarbons NMSC Non-melanoma skin cancer NO Nitric oxide (an ozone depleting gas) NO2 Nitrogen dioxide (an ozone depleting gas) NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, USA NOEC No observed effect concentration NOx Nitrogen oxides O3 Ozone OCS Carbonyl sulfide (also COS) ODS Ozone depleting substance(s) ·OH Hydroxyl radical (and important atmospheric cleaning agent) OMI Ozone Monitoring Instrument (on board the Aura satellite) OTR Organ transplant recipients P Phosphorous PAH Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon(s) PAM Pulse amplitude modulated (fluorescence) PAR Photosynthetically active radiation, 400-700 nm waveband PAUR II Photochemical Activity and solar Ultraviolet Radiation campaign 2 pCO2 Partial pressure of carbon dioxide PEC Predicted environmental concentration Pg Peta gram (1x1012 grams) PHR1 The gene encoding CPD photolyase PNEC Predicted no effect concentration POC Particulate organic carbon POM Particulate organic matter PR Pathogenesis-related proteins PSC Posterior subcapsular cataract(s) x The Environmental Effects Assessment Panel Report for 2006 PSC Polar stratospheric cloud (ice crystals which form at high altitudes in Polar regions when the temperature is below a critical threshold) Ptc Murine patch protein (gene in italics) PTCH Human patch protein (gene in italics) QBO Quasi biennial oscillation (a shift in wind patterns - especially over the tropics - with a period of approximately 2.2 years) RA Rheumatoid arthritis RAF Radiation amplification factor (a measure of sensitivity to ozone change) ROS Reactive oxygen species (·OH, for example) RT Radiative transfer SAGE Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment, a satellite-based instrument SCC Squamous cell carcinoma SCC Squamous cell carcinoma SH Southern Hemisphere SZA Solar zenith angle (i.e. the angle between zenith and the centre of the solar disk) TFA Trifluoroacetic acid Th1 T-helper 1 Th2 T-helper 2 TOMS Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer, a satellite-based instrument Treg cell T-regulatory cell Troposphere Lowest part of the earth's atmosphere
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