Country Risk and

Vulnerability Assessment

GHANA

NOVEMBER 2017

ECOWAS COMMISSION COMMISSION DE LA CEDEAO COMMISSÃO DA CEDEAO

Country Risk and Vulnerability Assessment: Ghana | 1

DISCLAIMER: The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Agency for International Development or the United States Government.

Cover photo by Hannah Blyth. Reproduced with permission.

Table of Contents

Acronyms and Abbreviations ...... 5 Message from the President of the ECOWAS Commission ...... 7 Statement from the Vice President of the ECOWAS Commission ...... 8 Preface ...... 9 Executive Summary ...... 10 Introduction ...... 11 Research Process ...... 11 Terminology and Conceptual Definitions ...... 13 Literature Review ...... 14 Research Questions ...... 15 Description of the Sample ...... 16 Data Analysis ...... 18 Scope and Limitations of the Study ...... 18 National-Level Vulnerabilities, Risks and Resiliencies ...... 23 Politics and Governance (Most Vulnerable Pillar) ...... 27 Population and Demographics (Second Most Vulnerable Pillar) ...... 33 Security (Third Most Vulnerable Pillar) ...... 37 Economics and Resources (Least Vulnerable Pillar) ...... 40 Rule of Law (Least Vulnerable Pillar) ...... 45 External Factors ...... 49 Gender Considerations ...... 50 Sub-National Level Vulnerabilities, Risks and Resilience Factors: Observations by Region ...... 54 Ashanti Region ...... 54 Brong-Ahafo Region ...... 60 Central Region ...... 65 Eastern Region ...... 71 Greater Accra Region ...... 75 Northern Region ...... 80 Upper East Region ...... 86 Upper West Region ...... 94 Volta Region ...... 100 Western Region ...... 107 Conclusion and Recommendations ...... 112

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Appendix A: Data Sample ...... 115 Appendix B: Vulnerability Index ...... 119 Appendix C: Additional References ...... 121 Appendix D: Glossary ...... 122 Appendix E: Matrix of Vulnerabilities, Risks, Resilience Factors, and Recommendations by Human Security Pillar ...... 124

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Acronyms and Abbreviations

ACLED Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project AfDB African Development Bank AU African Union CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women CHRAJ Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice CID Criminal Investigation Department CODEO Coalition of Domestic Election Observers CPIA Country Policy and Institutional Assessment CRA Conflict Risk Assessment CRVA Country Risk and Vulnerability Assessment CSO Civil Society Organization DOVVSU Domestic Violence and Victim Support Unit DPA ECOWAS Directorate of Political Affairs DPKRS ECOWAS Directorate of Peacekeeping & Regional Security DVLA Driver and Vehicle Licensing Authority ECOWARN ECOWAS Early Warning and Response Network ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States ECPF ECOWAS Conflict Prevention Framework EWD ECOWAS Directorate of Early Warning FAO UN Food and Agriculture Organization FDI Foreign Direct Investment FGD Focus Group Discussion FGM/C Female genital mutilation/cutting GBV Gender-based violence GDP Gross Domestic Product GIS Geographic Information System GPI Gender Parity Index GSDRC Governance and Social Development Resource Centre ICAF Interagency Conflict Assessment Framework IDP Internally Displaced Persons IFIs International financial institutions IGP Inspector General of Police ILO International Labor Organization IMF International Monetary Fund IncReps ECOWARN’s Incident Reports IOF International Organisation de la Francophonie JTF Joint Task Force KII Key Informant Interview LGBTI Lesbian, Gay, Bi-Sexual, Transgender and Intersex MINUSMA UN Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali MMDCE Metropolitan, Municipal and District Chief Executives MMIP Multilateral Mining Integrated Project

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MONUSCO UN Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo NACAP National Anti-Corruption Action Plan NAM Non-Aligned Movement NDC National Democratic Congress NGO Non-Governmental Organization NPP New Patriotic Party OAS Organization of American States OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PNDC Provisional National Defense Council RDPP Real Democratic Patriots Party REWARD Reacting to Early Warning and Response Data in West Africa SALW Small Arms and Light Weapons SAP Structural Adjustment Programme SD Standard Deviation SitReps ECOWARN Situation Reports SNA Stakeholder Network Analysis TDC Tema Development Corporation UN United Nations UNIFIL UN Interim Force in Lebanon UNMISS UN Mission in South Sudan USAID United States Agency for International Development VRA Volta River Authority VVF Vesico Vagina Fistula WAJU Women and Juvenile Unit WTO World Trade Organization

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Message from the President of the ECOWAS Commission

The 15 Member-States of the ECOWAS Community represent a thriving region of the world, with a population of approximately 366 million and a rich human and topographical diversity. From the coastline to the mountain peaks of Fouta Djallon, across the Sahara and the mangroves of the Niger Delta, ECOWAS is home to diverse families, communities, and nations.

Over the last decade, the region has witnessed significant progress in lifting the standard of living for millions. However, along with the richness of natural resources, human capital and great opportunity, there are also challenges to contend with such as natural disasters, pandemics, ethno-sectarian tensions, and security threats caused by extremism and terrorism.

Global developments and changes such as advances in technology, human migration and climate change, have added new levels of complexity, presenting new challenges for strategic planning and preparedness as we look ahead to the future.

This is where Early Warning plays a critical role in helping ECOWAS to understand the changing dynamics so as to strengthen decision making and early response at the regional and national levels. The Country Risk and Vulnerability Assessments (CRVAs) serve as an important resource in this regard. These reports are useful for strengthening the ECOWAS Conflict Prevention Framework action plans as well as to serve as reference materials for an in-depth understanding of the human security dynamics in our Member States, and for our partners across the region.

I therefore invite national stakeholders, all ECOWAS institutions and our partners to make use of these reports for the entrenchment of peace and progress for the benefit of the Citizens of ECOWAS.

Jean-Claude Brou President of the ECOWAS Commission

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Statement from the Vice President of the ECOWAS Commission

ECOWAS takes pride in finalizing this CRVA report which aims to identify structural vulnerabilities, event driven risks and existing resilience factors in each Member State of the Community. Indeed, this is a remarkable feat towards boosting the African Peace and Security Architecture of the African Union, with ECOWAS setting the pace for the development of an African-owned data set that can be tapped into to enhance human security analysis and accurate forecasting to assist policymakers to make informed decisions on pressing issues in the region. This information can be used as a baseline for ECOWAS and its partners to inform early warning and response efforts, particularly in this time when Early Warning and Response Mechanism is being deployed at the National level.

The CRVA research leverages ECOWARN data—gathered by Field Monitors—to establish a country baseline for monitoring patterns and trends across human security pillars. By comparing ECOWARN data to other data sets, and complementing quantitative data with qualitative findings, the assessments also help the Early Warning Directorate of ECOWAS to gather more robust data that is rich, reliable and empirical. The resulting findings are more representative in terms of geography, time, and theme for each country and needs to be updated periodically.

ECOWAS will consolidate this achievement by applying the knowledge and skills embodied in the CRVA Manual. My conviction for this emanates from the fact that the training of all EWD staff in the development of the CRVA Index, which marks the climax of transfer of knowledge and skills from the USAID REWARD technical staff to ECOWAS, will allow ECOWAS to independently conduct future CRVAs. Already, the EWD has initiated a process to put to practice the defined methodological framework to conduct Regional Risk and Resilience Assessment in the Lake Chad Basin, thereby serving as the first pillar in implementing the decision of the joint ECOWAS and Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS) to engage communities in peacebuilding processes.

We hope the Member States of our Community take ownership of this report and anchor development and peace initiatives upon it, in addressing the risks and vulnerabilities in their communities. As we decentralize Early Warning and Response to the ECOWAS countries, the Commission stands ready to accompany each Member States in the implementation of the actionable recommendations embodied in the CRVA report.

Finda Koroma Vice President, ECOWAS Commission

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Preface

The ECOWAS Early Warning Directorate has made giant strides in the practice of data driven early warning, through the qualitative and quantitative analysis of incidents and situations from multiple sources, with the added benefit of original data generated through the ECOWARN system. Indeed, the Center’s state-of-the-art technological tools places it at a vantage position to monitor and analyze risks and vulnerabilities in the ECOWAS region, cutting across the key areas of human security.

ECOWAS has played, and continues to play, a critical role in the monitoring of threats to human security across the region including the Sahelo-Saharan, Mano River, Gulf of Guinea, Lake Chad and Senegambia conflict systems to improve response for the prevention and management of conflict escalation.

Beyond a narrow focus on violent conflict alone, and consistent with its mandate to promote the socioeconomic and political integration of the sub-region, ECOWAS applies a human security lens with a view towards enhancing the well-being of the population in accordance with the ECOWAS Vision 2020. Thus, this report highlights risks, structural vulnerabilities and resilience factors across five dimensions (demographic, economic, security, governance and rule of law) at the national and sub-national levels.

Each CRVA report represents a myriad of perspectives and experiences from affected stakeholders including community leaders, civil society, administrative officials, security agents, traditional and religious leaders, just to mention a few. In this way, the CRVA report serves as a strategic document to provide an overview of the human security challenges in each ECOWAS member state as well as the social and institutional resilience factors that can help manage those challenges.

We hope that this report will be useful for strategic planning in addressing issues of human security as well as to provide insights to a multitude of stakeholders including policy and decision makers in the public and private sectors for conflict-sensitive engagement within the region.

Dr. Abdou Lat Gueye Director, ECOWAS Early Warning

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Executive Summary

From 2016 to 2019, ECOWAS collected However, challenges noted included land- and quantitative and qualitative data in Ghana to better resource-based conflicts, chieftaincy disputes, understand the structural vulnerabilities that exist criminality, and tensions around government and how those vulnerabilities affect the everyday efforts to curb galamsey (illegal small-scale lives of individuals and communities. This research artisanal mining). Perceptions of corruption, was done in collaboration with the United States political polarization, rural-urban and regional Agency for International Development (USAID)’s disparities in development, and a growing youth Reacting to Early Warning and Response Data in population also posed pressure on human security. West Africa (REWARD) project, as part of a broader assessment of the entire West African region. As Despite these challenges, there were strong social part of this process, a series of focus group and institutional resilience factors for effective discussions and interviews were conducted in dispute resolution and peacebuilding in Ghana. October 2017 in Ghana to contextualize the NGOs, civil society organizations and the media findings and to learn more about resilience factors played an important role in awareness-raising, that mitigate risk and promote human security. good governance and peacebuilding initiatives. The purpose of this report is to summarize these Building on a strong constitution and legal insights and perspectives, so that national framework that enshrines key rights and stakeholders can build on their successes, and protections, government-mandated bodies such as also to serve as a baseline for ECOWAS’s the National Peace Council and Commission on monitoring of patterns and trends. The report Human Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ), provides an overview of national and subnational among others, play an important role in vulnerabilities, risks, and resilience factors, as well peacebuilding and offer services to marginalized as conclusions and recommendations. populations. Ghana’s culture and history of inter- group coexistence is also viewed as a vital The CRVA was conducted by ECOWAS to update foundation for peace and a key source of and expand upon the Conflict Risk Assessment resilience. (CRA) 2013-2014 country reports. To better understand the sub-national patterns and trends, The following report aims to provide an overview so the research design began with a desktop study that regional and national stakeholders can have a involving a social network analysis based on a clear picture of the challenges faced by the country, survey of peace and security actors in the country as well as the capacities that can be leveraged and and a scoping of experts to be consulted during the built upon for the promotion of sustainable human fieldwork. This was followed by a Geographic security in Ghana. Information System (GIS) analysis of patterns and trends in escalation dynamics and a quantitative Though risk/incident data naturally fluctuates and may analysis of relative structural vulnerabilities by therefore have changed since the publication of this country and human security pillar. report, the structural vulnerabilities are reflective of medium- and long-term trends. These reports focus on the identification of structural vulnerabilities and In Ghana, relatively low levels of vulnerability were resiliencies, and how they may impact upon events and found in all five pillars (Economics/Resources, developments as they occur. Politics/Governance, Population/Demographics, Rule of Law, and Security).

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Introduction

Research Process understood for effective early warning, planning 2 and response. The CRVA assesses structural vulnerabilities, event-driven risks, and social and institutional As shown in the graphic below, the research was resilience factors according to five human security conducted in three main phases: Desktop Study, pillars as identified by ECOWAS in a 2016 scoping Field Research, and Analysis and Validation. paper.1 The pillars are: 1) Economics and Resources, 2) Politics and Governance, 3) Phase 1: Desktop Study Population and Demographics, 4) Rule of Law, and 5) Security. Findings in this report describe how The Desktop Study included a preliminary risks flow from vulnerabilities in the context of assessment of structural vulnerabilities, event- Ghana both within and across the five pillars. In driven risks, and social and institutional resilience recognition of the fact that violent conflict has factors. underlying social, economic, political, and security drivers but expresses itself differently depending For the assessment of structural vulnerabilities, on the context, a holistic human security the research used data from dozens of sources, framework was used in this assessment, and will including ECOWARN Situation Reports (SitReps). be used for the CRVAs in all ECOWAS member Drawing on these pre-existing data sets,3 a CRVA states. Furthermore, the analysis also breaks out Index was created to measure the relative levels of gender considerations and external factors as vulnerability across five human security cross-cutting issues that need to be dimensions in Ghana.

1 The EWD Scoping Paper was developed by ECOWAS to help International Institute for Democracy and Electoral inform the CRVA process, with the human security pillars Assistance, Transparency International, Freedom House, Mo identified based on best practice approaches such as Ibrahim Foundation, the Armed Conflict Location and Event ECOWARN guidelines and the New Zealand Agency for Database, World Bank, the Center for Security Studies ETH International Development (NZAID) framework. Zurich, Bertelsmann Stiftung Transformation Index, Political 2 EWD Scoping Paper on “Risk Assessment of Five ECOWAS Terror Scale, United Nations Refugee Agency, Uppsala Pilot Countries: Côte d’Ivoire, Mali, Liberia, Guinea-Bissau, University, UN Statistics, and Institute for Economics and and Burkina Faso” Peace. 3 Data sources used in the development of the CRVA Index include Global Integrity, the Economist Intelligence Unit, the

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For the assessment of event-driven risks, event phase informed the research questions that data, including from ECOWARN’s Incident Reports needed further context and validation in the field, (IncReps), was triangulated against data from the as well as the sample of respondents to be Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project engaged (what was asked, where, and to whom). (ACLED) to estimate the locations and type of conflict issues at the sub-national level over time. A team of experts and researchers then conducted Using multiple sources allowed for cross-validation, an in-country assessment between October 16 and the filling of gaps, and the ability to identify trends October 25, 2017 with participants from the in indicators and sub-indicators using queries and regions of Accra, Ashanti, Brong-Ahafo, Central, key word searches. Eastern, Northern, Upper East, Upper West, Volta, and Western. The team traveled to the various For the assessment of social and institutional hotspots identified in the desktop study and resilience factors, a survey was deployed to all of validated in the Scoping Workshop to interview key ECOWAS’s in-country contacts to learn more about stakeholders affected by violence and with the peace and security actors working to manage knowledge of local context and capacities. This and reduce risks and vulnerabilities in the country. team included representatives from the ECOWAS Respondents (including representatives of Directorates of Early Warning (EWD) and Political religious institutions, public sector actors, civil Affairs (DPA), as well as participants from USAID society, youth groups, and development actors, and affiliated experts. The KIIs and FGDs among others) were also asked to name conducted during this in-country assessment organizations that they have partnered with in the collected qualitative data and information last two years on issues of peace and security. Data regarding various perspectives on structural was then uploaded to a Stakeholder Network Map vulnerabilities, event-driven risk factors, and social for quantitative analysis and to identify leverage and institutional resilience factors relating to the points, spheres of influence, and social capital. different conflict issues across the country. These Based on this analysis, key technical experts were transcripts have been collated, streamlined to identified and were contacted for the next phase of reduce repetition and vagueness, and categorized the research. for analysis and prioritization during Phase 3.

Phase 2: Field Research Phase 3: Analysis and Validation

The Field Research began with a scoping workshop After the quantitative, GIS, and survey data was in Accra. Using the Stakeholder Network Map, validated and contextualized in the field, and the highly-networked technical experts were convened qualitative data was collected, organized and in a workshop to validate the initial desktop summarized, this report was drafted and was then findings and suggest a way forward for the validated by ECOWAS and USAID. This report will qualitative analysis in the field. The Scoping serve as a baseline and resource for more targeted Workshop was also used to tailor and sensitize the early warning products and analysis/planning broader research questions and the Key Informant towards strategic and operational prevention of Interview (KII) and Focus Group Discussion (FGD) human insecurity within the country of Ghana as instruments and questionnaires based on local well as associated conflict systems more broadly. context. Additionally, the Scoping Workshop also served to attain references and contacts for key actors and stakeholders in the field who would be consulted over the course of the next two weeks during the KIIs and FGDs. Thus, the desktop study

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Terminology and Conceptual Definitions For ECOWAS, this framework is useful in that it is aligned with the existing ECOWAS Conflict In this CRVA report: Prevention Framework (ECPF), which is a strategic tool to strengthen the human security architecture “Vulnerability” is defined as any structural factor in West Africa. Key to the ECPF are the categories that has the potential to be a conflict driver. These of “Operational Prevention,” or measures can include such things as youth unemployment, applicable in the face of crisis, and “Structural poverty, inequality, climate, patronage, Prevention,” or measures that ensure that crises demographic factors, etc. do not arise or re-occur. The CRVA framework is aligned with the ECPF such that identified “Risk” is defined as any event-driven factor that Vulnerability Factors are to be mitigated by has the potential to be a conflict trigger. Risk Structural Prevention measures, and Risk Factors factors can include specific controversies or events are to be mitigated by Operational Prevention such as disasters or elections that may occur. measures. This alignment is important for the utility and actionability of this report by users in West “Resilience” is defined as any social or institutional Africa. factor that has the potential to help mitigate or manage risks and vulnerabilities. These include political, cultural, and community leadership with significant social capital to influence conflict dynamics in a constructive way, including public sector, private sector, religious institutions, civil society, opinion leaders, development workers, etc. Resilience factors can include institutions that play a stabilizing role in the short, medium, or longer term.

The CRVA analysis was conducted according to the framework depicted in the figure below, whereby event-driven risk factors flow out of the structural vulnerabilities (per the red downward arrow) while social and institutional resilience factors mitigate and prevent those risks and vulnerabilities (per the green upward arrow).

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Literature Review institutional factors play in preventing conflict. Thus, the human security framework provides a A Human-Centric Approach to Early Warning holistic approach to understanding different threats that affect individuals’ lives, whether this is

through conflict, health, food, environment, or In academic literature, the human security lens to other social, political or economic factors. conflict early warning is a change from the more state-centric approaches that were in vogue The United Nations Trust Fund for Human Security throughout the 1980s and 1990s. Historically, outlines a human-centric approach to security in early warning was focused on prevention and five principles: 1) People-centered, with a focus on mitigation of conflict between states. In the post- protecting basic human freedoms; 2) Multi- Cold War period with a surge in intra-state conflict, sectoral, encompassing a broad understanding of early warning was focused on identifying the threats and causes of insecurity; 3) drivers and impacts of civil conflict on states. At Comprehensive, taking into account different types that time, analysis focused on terminology of state of individuals’ security from economic to social; 4) “collapse” and “failure,” emphasizing impacts to Context-specific, emphasizing the need to analyze neighboring countries or regions, and perpetuating specific conflict contexts and root causes of a comparative paradigm of poverty and limited insecurity; and 5) Prevention-oriented, highlighting economic growth and conflict in contrast to more locally tailored risk prevention and mitigation developed countries.4 measures through early warning mechanisms.6

This focus on cross-cutting issues and situation- However, as a more interconnected human and specific analysis and response are central to the global security approach emerged in the 2000s, CRVA process and broader objectives of integrated conceptions of state fragility and conflict analysis conflict early warning and response by ECOWAS evolved in both development aid and policy and its partners. For the CRVAs, this involves approaches. As the Governance and Social identifying conflict risks, vulnerabilities and Development Resource Centre (GSDRC) describes, resiliencies across the human security pillars of “At a very broad level, fragility is the result of a Population and Demographics, Politics and dynamic interplay between internal factors Governance, Security, Economics and Resources, (including violent conflict, poverty, economic and and Rule of Law. structural conditions, weak formal institutions), and external factors (including international Many indices and development frameworks have political economy, regional and global insecurity).”5 emerged for measuring resilience and fragility, While not discounting the role of the state as a key from the Fund For Peace’s Fragile States Index7 to vehicle for managing and preventing conflict, the the African Development Bank (AfDB) and World human-centric approach looks first and foremost at Bank’s Country Policy and Institutional the impact of demographic, economic, political, Assessment (CPIA)8 and Mo Ibrahim Foundation’s and security conflict drivers on individuals and Index of African Governance.9 Today, leading communities as well as the role that a wide variety international development actors and multilateral of social and

4 “Defining and measuring state fragility: a new proposal”, 6 “Human Security in Theory and Practice”, Human Security Ferreira, I., The Annual Bank Conference on Africa, June Unit, Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs 2015 (OCHA), United Nations, January 2009 5 “Topic Guide on Fragile States”, Mcloughlin, C., Governance 7 Fragile States Index, The Fund for Peace and Social Development Resource Centre (GSDRC), August 8 Country Policy and Institutional Assessment (CPIA), World 2009 Bank and African Development Bank (AfDB) 9 Ibrahim Index of African Governance, Mo Ibrahim Foundation

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agencies such as the United Nations, the World pressures within a society with a view to identifying Bank, and the AfDB have also produced strategies, structural vulnerabilities, resiliencies and risks practice areas, and tools, which seek to address across key human security pillars. As defined by the the drivers of fragility. The AfDB, for example, has a United Nations General Assembly, “human security 2014-2019 Strategy for Addressing Fragility and is an approach to assist Member States in Building Resilience in Africa, with a focus on identifying and addressing widespread and cross- building member state capacities and focusing on cutting challenges to the survival, livelihood, and “fragile situations rather than fragile states dignity of their people.”13 This approach is also in alone.”10 line with the ECOWAS Vison 2020 which seeks to promote peace, prosperity, and cohesion across As the AfDB Strategy notes, however, “there is no the region,14 and includes a focus on strengthening single solution and no predefined ‘toolbox’ for many human security aspects within member addressing fragility.”11 Older academic and policy states. conceptions of “state failure” used analysis centered on “traditional, state-centric conceptions Research Questions of security that focused primarily on the safety of states from military aggression,” as outlined in a Based on the initial desktop findings, the team 2009 paper by the United Nations Human Security developed a set of framing questions broken out by Unit. Newer models of analysis have taken on a the five human security pillars. These framing broader human security lens, which was in questions were not asked verbatim in the field, but “response to the complexity and the rather informed the design of the KII and FGD interrelatedness of both old and new security instruments. These instruments included simple, threats – from chronic and persistent poverty to open-ended questions intended to prompt a ethnic violence, human trafficking, climate change, discussion during which respondents could health pandemics, international terrorism, and express their opinions, experiences, and sudden economic and financial downturns. Such perceptions about the ways in which they had been threats tend to acquire transnational dimensions impacted by vulnerabilities, risks, and resilience and move beyond traditional notions of security factors in Ghana. that focus on external military aggressions alone.”12 Politics and Governance: To what extent do perceptions of corruption and nepotism in Thus, a human-centric approach, as opposed to a government erode the legitimacy of state state-centric approach, is important for analyzing institutions and electoral process? What role do risks and vulnerabilities to society for robust early women play in politics and decision-making? What warning and response mechanisms. Human role do youth play in politics and decision-making? security provides a holistic approach to What role do civil society groups, the media and understanding different threats which affect social movements play in politics? To what extent individuals’ lives, whether through conflict, health, is there a polarization of politics along food, environment, or other social, political, or ethnic/regional lines? economic factors. As such, the CRVAs seek to draw upon the more dynamic and interrelated aspects of risk and vulnerability, which look at capacities and

10 “Addressing Fragility and Building Resilience in Africa, 13 General Assembly resolution 66/290, October 2012 2014 – 2019”, AfDB 14 ECOWAS Vision 2020: Towards a Democratic and 11 Ibid. Prosperous Community, ECOWAS, June 2010 12 “Human Security in Theory and Practice”, Human Security Unit, OCHA, United Nations, January 2009

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Population and Demographics: What role do galamsey issue (small scale informal mining) women play in social, economic, and political life? impacted communities? What has the response What role do youth play in social, economic and been to the new Ghana Government anti-galamsey political life? How prevalent is the phenomenon of campaign, such as the deployment of Operation child labor (such as in the small-scale mining Vanguard to cease all small-scale mining? Are sector)? Is a disproportionately large population of resources and benefits from the large-scale disenfranchised youth putting a strain on urban mining, oil/gas sectors distributed equitably? What resources or public services? To what extent are role do women play in the economy? What role do adverse climatic conditions affecting food security youth play in the economy? To what extent have the and security in general? How effective is family effects of climate change impacted the economy planning in terms of access and policy? How and food security? prevalent is early marriage? What role has migration (both internal and emigration) played in Rule of Law: To what extent is the judiciary social and economic life? To what extent does the independent of the executive? What role does the North-South divide affect social cohesion? judiciary play as regards questions of justice and impunity? Is there access to justice and legal Security: What role do the security forces play in services throughout the country? Is there reliance managing or worsening political unrest and on alternative/traditional dispute resolution criminality? Are the public security forces seen as mechanisms? To what extent do communities rely legitimate, representative, and professional? Are on police and security forces to provide justice? To there other conflict drivers such as land disputes, what extent are women’s rights protected in succession or inheritance, or resource practice? competition? How have Western, Eastern and Ashanti Region communities responded to the Description of the Sample presence of Operation Vanguard troops stationed in their areas? What role do communities or non- Data collected and analyzed for this research state actors play in security provision? Are there included hundreds of ECOWARN SitReps, political, communal or sectarian tensions that ECOWARN IncReps, ACLED event data, and a could pose a threat to security? To what extent scoping survey, as well as transcripts and notes have illicit markets (e.g. drug trafficking) from FGDs and KIIs in the field. Other sources, contributed to issues of criminality and violence? integrated to form a vulnerability index (the CRVA Are there cross-border, maritime, or transnational Index), included Global Integrity, the Economist threats? To what extent is the Ghanaian state able Intelligence Unit, the International Institute for to meet the needs of refugees and IDPs in Ghana? Democracy and Electoral Assistance, Transparency International, Freedom House, Mo Ibrahim Economics and Resources: To what extent has Foundation, the Armed Conflict Location and Event volatility in commodity prices negatively impacted Database, World Bank, Bertelsmann Stiftung the most vulnerable groups? Has this been a driver Transformation Index, Political Terror Scale, United of food insecurity or conflict? Are there disparities Nations Refugee Agency, Uppsala University, UN between urban and rural areas in terms of service Statistics, and Institute for Economics and Peace. provision? What role does natural resource A complete breakdown is included in Appendix A. management and land tenure play in social cohesion? What role do illicit economic activities play in the local and national economy? What role do the extractive industries (particularly oil and mining) play in the economy? How has the

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The heatmap of event data above shows hot spots of human security incidents between 2015 and 2017.

Risk and Fatalities (2010-2018) CRVA Index: Relative Vulnerability by 80 300 Human Security Pillar 250 10 60 200 8 40 150 6 100 20 4 50 2 0 0

0

Jul 2013 Jul

Apr 2015 Apr

Oct 2011 Oct 2018 Oct

Jan 2010 Jan 2017 Jan

Jun 2016 Jun

Feb 2014 Feb

Aug 2010 Aug 2017 Aug

Sep 2014 Sep

Nov Nov 2015

Dec 2012 Dec

Mar 2011 Mar 2018 Mar May 2012 May

Vulnerability (ECOWARN SitReps) Human Security Fatalities (ECOWARN IncReps/ACLED)

The graph above shows the trends in risk layered against In the graph above, the lower the score in the y vulnerability. The y axis on the left (0-80) shows the level of axis (0-10), the more vulnerable the Human vulnerability with a score of over 60 reflecting higher levels of Security Pillar. vulnerability. The y axis on the right (0-300) shows the number of conflict fatalities by month.

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Data Analysis whom use criminality as a means of livelihood. Field research was undertaken to qualify and ECOWARN data shows relatively low levels of contextualize these findings through Key Informant structural vulnerability (as measured by taking an Interviews (KIIs) and Focus Group Discussions average of each months’ SitReps scores) from (FGDs). 2010 to 2017, as well as low levels of escalation dynamics. It also shows low levels of Scope and Limitations of the Study risk/escalation dynamics as measured by monthly fatalities. This report seeks to layer, triangulate, and juxtapose quantitative, GIS, and qualitative data in In January of 2016 there was an increase in a way that is accurate, meaningful, and fatalities associated with a meningitis outbreak. In representative. However, limitations to this June-July 2017 there were a few fatalities analysis include the two- year date range for the associated with political tensions in Brong-Ahafo, event/GIS data and the seven-year date range for farmer/herder tensions in Eastern Region, a the ECOWARN SitReps. If there are conflict cycles protest in Upper East Region, and criminality in that fall outside those parameters, there will be Ashanti Region. constraints on the ability to analyze those patterns in this report. Furthermore, this research sought to Corroborating the structural vulnerability score in ensure representativeness of the sample of the graph on the previous page, the CRVA Index stakeholders engaged through KIIs (12 prominent indicates that in Ghana, none of the human individuals) and FGDs (23 focus group security pillars show elevated levels of discussions). To the extent that these stakeholders vulnerability. The human security pillar that exhibits were representative, they added vital the highest levels of vulnerability, however, is contextualization and validation of the desktop Politics and Governance. Data suggests that Rule research. of Law and Economics and Resources are the least structurally vulnerable. In the CRVA Index graph Scope and limitations also apply to the use and above, the lower the score on the y axis (0-10), the purpose of the study. The CRVA reports support the more vulnerable the human security pillar. objectives of ECOWAS Conflict Prevention Framework (ECPF). In particular, the CRVA reports Event data shows hotspots, patterns, and trends at identify vulnerabilities across the human security the sub-national level. These include issues related pillars in order to inform structural prevention. to communal conflict related to chieftaincy and Structural prevention, as defined in the ECPF, land disputes in the north (Upper East, Upper West comprises “political, institutional (governance) and and Northern Regions); and pastoralist conflict, developmental reforms, capacity enhancement clashes between political groups, intra-communal and advocacy on the culture of peace.” While this land disputes and vigilantism in the south (Brong- report can also be used to inform operational Ahafo, Ashanti, Western, Greater Accra, Central prevention, which includes “early warning, and Eastern Regions). Across the country, Ghana mediation, conciliation, preventive disarmament saw national themes of armed robbery and and preventive deployment using interactive criminality, mob justice, illicit trade of weapons, means such as good offices and the ECOWAS drugs and human trafficking. Much of this has Standby Force,” it seeks primarily to identify the been compounded by recent developments by the key areas of structural vulnerability at the national government to crack down on small scale illegal and sub-national levels for strategic planning by mining (galamsey), which has increased flows of ECOWAS and other partners in the peace and unemployed youth to other regions – many of security space. However, inasmuch that

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operational prevention can be informed by the national context. A mapping of sub-national patterns and trends in the event-driven risk factors level risks, vulnerabilities, and resiliencies can also highlighted in this report, the CRVA should serve as help inform strategies for engaging at the local a baseline analysis of dynamics that are closely level for structural prevention. In particular, as monitored over time. Thereby, in addition to defined by the ECPF, taking “measures to ensure informing strategic planning on structural the crises do not arise in the first place or, if they vulnerability issues, the CRVA will also inform early do, that they do no re-occur.” warning products such as weekly, monthly, and quarterly situation reports that inform analysts and Finally, as also noted in the ECPF, conflict in West potential responders as to heightened conflict risk Africa tends to be highly interconnected, which across one or more indicators, and propose often leads to cycles of violence that cross borders recommendations on response. The CRVA reports and can keep countries emmeshed for decades. can also be used as a foundation to inform more The CRVA reports, covering all fifteen member detailed case studies around identified risks, states of ECOWAS, are also useful in helping to vulnerabilities and resiliencies for a country of inform and understand the dynamics of specific interest or concern. regional conflict systems, such as those that occur across the Mano River and Sahel. These regional While many reports that seek to identify structural conflict systems are influenced and interconnected vulnerabilities and resilience factors focus almost not only historically and culturally, but also share exclusively at the national level, ECOWAS seeks to many of the same structural vulnerabilities that support a more decentralized early warning and give rise to risks and the eventual outbreak of response infrastructure across the region. As such, violence, decade after decade. Thus, the CRVA the CRVA reports also take into consideration reports present an opportunity to view not only the dynamics at the sub-national level. These sub- specific national and sub-national factors that lead national factors are critical to consider as they help to structural vulnerability and heightened risk, they analysts and potential responders understand the also help highlight the nature of regional conflict context in which specific events (risks) are systems, and the need for a holistic and systemic occurring, which may be markedly different from lens in both analysis and response.

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Country Background

Formerly known as the Gold Coast, Ghana gained independence from Britain in 1957. The country’s Weeks before the 1979 elections, Flight former independence leader, Kwame Nkrumah, Lieutenant Jerry John Rawlings and a group of was elected president in 1960.15 While Nkrumah junior officers led a coup d’état which successfully initially enjoyed broad support thanks to his overthrew the government, and Akuffo and populist ideologies of socialism and Pan- Acheampong were executed. Rawlings handed Africanism, dissatisfaction quickly grew due to power over to the newly elected president, Hilla Ghana’s rising debt and growing internal Limann, but ousted President Limann two years opposition.16 In 1964, Nkrumah centralized power later in yet another coup.22 and transformed Ghana into a one-party state, deepening resentments among the Ghanaian Rawlings and his Provisional National Defense population.17 In 1966, a group of military officers Council (PNDC) led Ghana for the next twenty overthrew Nkrumah in a coup d’état and placed years. When Rawlings took power, Ghana was Ghana under the authority of the National suffering from years of economic decay, Liberation Council.18 Nkrumah lived in exile in infrastructure deterioration and the loss of human Guinea, where he was given the title of honorary co- capital due to the flight of skilled labor, especially president alongside President Ahmed Sékou Touré. in the education and health sectors.23 To address the economic stagnation in the country, Rawlings The 1966 coup marked the beginning of a period adopted the neoliberal Structural Adjustment of political instability for Ghana, and the 1970s Programmes (SAPs) advocated by the World Bank were characterized by economic decline, rising and the International Monetary Fund.24 The SAPs, inflation and crippling government debt.19 In 1969, which reduced state presence in the economy, power was transferred to a civilian government led eliminated or reduced subsidies, and introduced by Kofi Abrefa Busia, who attempted to implement user fees for education, healthcare, water and austerity measures. Busia’s leadership was short- electricity, are often considered to be a success at lived, and he was overthrown in a coup d’état by the macroeconomic level, yet had negative impacts Lieutenant Colonel Ignatius Kutu Acheampong in on poor and vulnerable populations within 1972.20 In response to growing internal discontent, Ghana.25 Politically, Rawlings also consolidated his Acheampong proposed the creation of a joint power by banning political parties, stifling dissent military-civilian Union Government in 1978. and entrenching political power in his Ewe ethnic Acheampong was replaced by General Frederick group.26 These changes resulted in mounting Akuffo and elections were scheduled for 1979.21 internal (and, to a lesser extent, external) pressure

15 “Ghana profile – Timeline”, BBC 20 “A Brief History of Ghana”, Thompsell, A., ThoughtCo., June 16 “The ‘Rawlings Revolution’ and Rediscovery of the African 2017. Diaspora in Ghana (1983-2015)”, Williams, J., African 21 Ibid. Studies, March 2014. 22 “Ghana – Rawlings Coup”, GlobalSecurity.org 17 “A Brief History of Ghana”, Thompsell, A., ThoughtCo., June 23 “Political Context Study: Ghana”, Abdulai, A., University of 2017. Leeds, January 2009. 18 “The ‘Rawlings Revolution’ and Rediscovery of the African 24 “The ‘Rawlings Revolution’ and Rediscovery of the African Diaspora in Ghana (1983-2015)”, Williams, J., African Diaspora in Ghana (1983-2015)”, Williams, J., African Studies, March 2014. Studies, March 2014. 19 “Identities, Inequalities and Conflicts in Ghana”, Tsikata, D. 25 Ibid. and Seini, W., Centre for Research on Inequality, Human 26 “The Rawlings’ Factor in Ghana Politics: An Appraisal of Security and Ethnicity, November 2004. Some Secondary and Primary Data”, Brenya, E. et al., Journal of Political Sciences & Public Affairs, 2015.

Country Risk and Vulnerability Assessment: Ghana | 20

to return the country to democracy and civilian rule. opportunities for improved livelihoods.34 In the In 1992, multi-party elections were held, and political sphere, the Kufuor administration Rawlings was elected under the banner of the expanded freedoms enjoyed by the media by National Democratic Congress (the new name for repealing the criminal libel law, which had been the former PNDC).27 When Rawlings and the NDC used by the previous administration to repress the were re-elected in 1996, they became the first media.35 However, like its predecessors, the elected government in the country’s political Kufuor government struggled with corruption and a history to complete its term in office.28 lack of transparency. Although the administration advanced a “zero-tolerance” policy on corruption During the mid-1990s and early 2000s, Ghana saw and introduced anti-corruption measures, a resurgence of latent ethnic tensions that perceptions of political corruption continued to be centered on issues of land ownership, sovereignty widespread.36 and chieftaincy succession. In 1994, a land In the 2008 elections, John Atta Mills of the NDC ownership dispute between the Konkombas and narrowly defeated his NPP opponent, Nana Akufo- Nanumbas of the Northern Region resulted in the Addo, in a runoff vote.37 Mills campaigned on a deaths and displacement of thousands.29 Eight platform of anti-corruption and increased years later, in April 2002, clan violence in the north transparency and carried out several corruption resulted in the declaration a two-year state of investigations against high-ranking officials in the emergency.30 In addition, religious antagonism Kufuor administration, though the NPP opposition between parties such as the Ga traditional criticized this as a political maneuver.38 The Mills authorities and some Christian groups resulted in administration also focused on infrastructure violent clashes in 1998 and 1999.31 development and on stabilizing the Ghanaian economy, particularly in the aftermath of the global In 2000, opposition candidate John Kufuor of the economic crisis. Mills faced increasing New Patriotic Party (NPP) was elected president, factionalization within the NDC and consequently, marking the first peaceful transition of power to an splinter groups like the Real Democratic Patriots opposition party. Kufuor was reelected in 2004.32 Party (RDPP) were created. Nana Konadu Under the Kufuor administration, Ghana witnessed Agyeman-Rawlings, the wife of former President considerable economic growth. From 2002 to Rawlings, attempted to replace him as the party’s 2005, production of cocoa (the country’s primary flagbearer in the 2012 presidential elections.39,40 agricultural export) increased from 350,000 tons a year to 734,000 tons a year, and between 2007 The 2012 elections proved to be an ultimately and 2008, the GDP growth rate reached a record successful test of Ghana’s democratic 8.4 percent.33 In addition, the discovery of development. In July, President Mills passed away commercial quantities of off-shore oil reserves in unexpectedly, just months before his bid for re- 2007 promoted optimism and great expectations election. Within hours, Mills’ vice president, John about the expansion of the economy and potential

27 “Political Context Study: Ghana”, Abdulai, A., University of 34 “Ghana and the Discovery of Oil: From Boom to Gloom”, Leeds, January 2009. Bawumia, M., Natural Resource Governance Institute 28 “The Legacy of J.J. Rawlings in Ghanaian Politics, 1979- 35 “Freedom in the World 2002: Ghana”, Freedom House 2000”, Adedeji, J., African Studies Quarterly, Summer 2001. 36 “Chapter 1: Ghana: A Success Story and a Model for 29 “Ghana profile – Timeline”, BBC Africa?”, Abdulai, A., Contemporary Issues in Management 30 Ibid. Development in Africa, Ed. Osei, K. et al. August 2016. 31 “Identities, Inequalities and Conflicts in Ghana”, Tsikata, D. 37 “Opposition leader wins Ghana poll”, BBC, January 2009. and Seini, W., Centre for Research on Inequality, Human 38 “Freedom in the World 2011: Ghana”, Freedom House Security and Ethnicity, November 2004. 39 Ibid. 32 “Kufuor wins Ghana’s run-off election”, Smith, P., The 40 “Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Ghana”, U.S. Guardian, January 2001. Department of State, 2011 33 “John Agyekum Kufuor”, African Development Bank

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Dramani Mahama, was sworn in as president.41 also placed restrictions on press freedom, Despite the change in leadership, the electoral including regulations that require operators of timetable was respected, and elections were held public electronic communications or broadcasting in December 2012. The NDC candidates, including services to gain authorization from a government John Mahama, won the presidential and media commission before the content is parliamentary elections, and the NPP challenged disseminated.45 the results of the presidential elections at the Supreme Court. In 2013, the Supreme Court Today, Ghana is considered to be a stable and upheld the results of the election and all parties largely peaceful democratic state. Ghana has seen respected the ruling.42 multiple peaceful transfers of power between political parties, most recently to Nana Akufo-Addo, Under the Mahama administration, the Ghanaian who was elected president in December 2016 after government often struggled to manage a closely contested race.46 Despite these positive perceptions of alleged economic mismanagement. factors, the government continues to face The Mahama administration was criticized for the challenges within the politics and governance establishment of foreign oil contracts without sphere, particularly in combatting corruption and authorizing legislation, as well as high inflation, ensuring transparency and accountability, government deficits, credit downgrades and the increasing women’s participation in politics, and inadequate provision of electric services.43 mitigating of political violence. The current Continued concerns around corruption were administration also faces the task of reinvigorating brought to the fore in 2015, when an undercover an economy reliant on primary commodities, while investigation provided evidence of 12 High Court encouraging equitable and sustainable judges, 22 lower court judges, hundreds of court development as well as addressing unemployment clerks, seven attorneys and five police officers among a growing youth population. receiving bribes.44 The Mahama administration

41 “A Sudden Death in Ghana: President John Atta Mills 43 “Freedom in the World 2015: Ghana”, Freedom House (1944-2012)”, Parker, G., Time, July 2012. 44 “Ghana dismisses judges guilty of bribery charges”, BBC, 42 “The Judiciary and Ghana’s 2012 Elections: Analysis of December 2015. 2012 Presidential Elections Petition and its Ramifications for 45 “Freedom in the World 2016: Ghana”, Freedom House Democratic Development in Ghana”, Owusu-Mensah, I. and 46 “The Ghanaian elections: 2016”, Mbaku, J., Brookings, Frempong, A., Developing Country Studies, 2015. December 2016.

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National-Level Vulnerabilities, Risks and Resiliencies

Based on desktop research using the ECOWARN and ACLED data sets, surveys of peace and security actors in key regions in Ghana, field research that included KIIs and FGDs, and participatory analysis by the CRVA field research team, the following national-level risks, vulnerabilities, and resilience factors were identified:

Structural Vulnerabilities Politics and Governance • Perceptions of mistrust and lack of transparency of government institutions • Perceptions of corruption • Polarized political system along party and regional lines • Perceived ‘winner takes all’ political system • Perceptions of nepotism • Uneven regional distributions of resources and development • Under-representation of women and youth in political decision-making • Lack of clarity around land tenure and ownership • Poor chieftaincy succession planning • Gender-based violence (GBV) and child abuse

Population and Demographics • Population growth and migration • Land- and resource-based tension • Early marriage • Teenage pregnancy • Low rate of family planning • Inadequate access to quality public services, including education and healthcare • Increase in population • Poor infrastructure, including housing, electricity, water, roads, etc. • Drug abuse • Child labor

Security • Galamsey operations • Porous borders • Perceptions of corruption and malpractices among security forces • Illicit activities such as drug trafficking and proliferation of small arms and light weapons (SALW) • Communal tensions

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Economics and Resources • Rural-urban divide and regional disparities in development and infrastructure • High rate of youth unemployment • Reliance on natural resource extraction and primary commodities • Rising cost of living • Barriers to financing, credit and land ownership for women • Environmental degradation, including galamsey operations, and negative effects of climate change on agriculture

Rule of Law • Slow judicial processes • Lack of resources in the judicial system, such as manual file system • Limited police capacity, particularly in rural areas • Perceived lack of independence of the judiciary • Backlog of court cases • Inadequate training for judicial staff • Barriers to justice, including accessibility and affordability • Perceptions of corruption in the judicial system • Culture of silence around gender-based violence (GBV) reporting • Under representation of female lawmakers Event-Driven Risks Politics and Governance • Election violence • Clashes between politically-aligned vigilante groups • Politicized inter-communal conflict • Tension/conflict related to secessionism in Volta Region • Marginalization of people with disabilities • Galamsey operations (illegal mining activities)

Population and Demographics • Natural disasters • Effects of climate change, including changing rainfall patterns, flooding, and drought • Coastal erosion • Disease outbreaks

Security • Tensions with Operation Vanguard • Land- and resource-based conflicts, including herder-farmer violence and clashes with land guards • Chieftaincy disputes • Increase in criminality as a result of galamsey activities (illegal mining activities)

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Economics and Resources • Tensions/clashes between local communities and mining companies • Food insecurity

Rule of Law • Incidents of corruption • Vigilante/mob justice • Impunity around gender-based violence (GBV) crimes Social and Institutional Politics and Governance Resilience Factors • Rights and protections enshrined in the 1992 Constitution • Consolidated democratic gains through peaceful and successful political transitions • Vibrant civil society organizations (CSOs) and media • Government-mandated bodies such as the National Peace Council, Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ), and Domestic Violence & Victim Services Unit (DOVVSU)

Population and Demographics • Culture and history of peaceful relationships between ethnic and religious groups • Initiatives and programs to promote girls’ education • Government funded public secondary education (public senior high schools) • School feeding program for primary schools

Security • Community-based neighborhood watch and vigilante groups • Actions of security and defense forces to maintain law and order and to protect the population • Participation of Ghana Security Agencies (police and the army) in peacekeeping operations

Economics and Resources • Efforts to modernize land tenure and registry systems • Government- and private-sponsored infrastructure and development projects • Government efforts to curb galamsey operations, including Operation Vanguard and local-level initiatives • Economic reform implemented by the government • Investment in women and youth empowerment initiatives • Initiatives to build the capacity of the private sector to invest in local economic development projects

Country Risk and Vulnerability Assessment: Ghana | 25

• Modernization of agriculture and extractive industries

Rule of Law • Role of traditional and religious institutions in conflict mitigation • Capacity building of security forces and judicial staff • Reform of the judicial system

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Politics and Governance (Most Vulnerable Pillar)

Vulnerabilities • Perceptions of mistrust and lack of transparency of government institutions • Perceptions of corruption • Polarized political system along party and regional lines • Perceived ‘winner takes all’ political system • Perceptions of nepotism • Uneven regional distributions of resources and development • Under-representation of women and youth in political decision-making • Lack of clarity around land tenure of ownership • Poor chieftaincy succession planning • Gender-based violence (GBV) and child abuse Risks • Election violence • Clashes between politically-aligned vigilante groups • Politicized inter-communal conflict • Tension/conflict related to secessionism in Volta Region • Marginalization of people with disabilities • Galamsey operations (illegal mining activities)

Vulnerabilities and Risks violence, and nepotism related to distribution of government resources and positions. Within the West African sub-region, Ghana is considered to be a stable and largely peaceful One of the recurring themes throughout the field democratic nation. The country has seen multiple interviews was the perception of the ‘winner takes peaceful transfers of power between political all’ political system in Ghana. The 2016 parties since 1992, most recently to Nana Akufo- Presidential election was a closely contested race, Addo, who was elected president in December which ousted the incumbent President John 47 2016 after a closely contested race. Despite Mahama of the National Democratic Congress these positive factors, Politics and Governance was (NDC), in favor of Nana Akufo-Addo from the New the most vulnerable category for Ghana within the Patriotic Party (NPP). In recent election cycles, key CRVA Index, underscoring challenges around combatting corruption and ensuring transparency and accountability, increasing women’s “[The driver of election violence is] zero-sum participation in politics, and mitigating political politics, where contesting for a political position violence. In most regions of the country, fieldwork is a do or die affair.” participants highlighted the threats posed by an increasingly polarized political landscape along - Civil Society Actor, Accra party lines. This included the politicization of communal conflicts, emergence of youth vigilante groups hired by politicians, election-related

47 “The Ghanaian elections: 2016”, Mbaku, J., Brookings, December 2016.

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regions have been aligned behind the two major parties – with Volta, Northern, Upper West and “I don’t think that electing MMDCEs Upper East supporting the NDC, and Ashanti, (Metropolitan, Municipal and District Chief Eastern, and Western largely supporting the NPP.48 Executives) will stop the issue of vigilante The ‘winner takes all’ perception of the national groups. What will happen is that it will rather elections is mainly due to the benefits that the decentralize vigilantism… These groups start President and their party derive through political around individuals, and this won’t reduce the appointments at the national and subnational tension in the country either. The election will however make the elected officials be level. As Ghana doesn’t have regional-level accountable to the people, and that will also legislatures, in addition to appointing the Vice bring development closer to the grassroots.” President and Ministerial Cabinet, the president appoints the ten Regional Ministers, and the - Civil Society Actor, Accra Metropolitan, Municipal and District Chief Executives (MMDCEs), which head the district assemblies. While local elections are held every four years for the district assemblies, technically The other phenomenon that was highlighted in field candidates are non-partisan, contributing to a work as a salient issue during the 2016 election general perception that the party in power at the period, as well as a major risk factor for the 2020 national level has disproportionate power down to elections, was the emergence of youth vigilante the local level. This heightens the stakes during groups. Hired by politicians, the groups – mostly national election periods, as party supporters vie comprised of unemployed youth – were reported to for influence and power – and if their party is have engaged in intimidation, criminal activities unsuccessful, can be a source of tension and and violence during the recent election period. violence. At the local level, fieldwork participants During a roundtable on the issue held by the highlighted the increasing role of youth in acting as Coalition of Domestic Election Observers (CODEO) security to politicians and, if unsuccessful in an in July 2017 in the Upper West Region, they election, as participants in protests, vandalization highlighted the role the NDC and NPP parties had and violence during elections and the swearing in played in enabling the groups, and the need for of political appointees. Many interviewees collaboration with police to eradicate criminal described the nepotism that has become behavior.49 Despite the election period being over, synonymous with the government system – with many of the groups – such as ‘Invincible Force’ and many describing how they would be excluded from ‘Delta Force’ – are still in operation, with government grants, business opportunities, job interviewees describing their engagement in promotions and university places based on their criminality and armed robbery as a post-election party affiliation. Even within the family unit, during revenue source. Many also cited the widely focus group discussions (FGDs) women in the publicized incident of April 2017 when members of Upper East described incidents of domestic Delta Force attacked a courthouse in the Ashanti violence as a result of political affiliation. In one incident described during a FGD, a woman was permanently disabled after being beaten by her husband for attending an opposing political rally.

48 “Ghana: President: Election 2016”, Peace FM Online 49 “The Menace of Political Party Vigilantism in Ghana”, CODEO, July 2017

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Region, where they sprung their colleagues from a Bawku in the Upper East Region, a drawn-out jail cell and forced the judge to flee.50 conflict between two ethnic groups, the Kussasi and Mamprusi, over land and chieftaincy has become polarized along political lines. Fieldwork “Most of the members of the vigilante groups participants described the negative impact of the are not gainfully employed and are often used politicization of the conflict, leading to further as party security. The risk in this is that they are violence in an area that already has a long-term perpetuating impunity in the country because military presence due to insecurity. Ethnic they are not punished for crimes committed identities were also highlighted as a driver of due to their political leanings… These are youth tensions within the political sphere, with with some skills that can be used for any wrong participants in Ashanti citing that the Akan ethnic reasons, such as acts of terrorism… They group were perceived to dominate political become readily available for use by anyone.” appointments, while in the Volta Region,

- Civil Society Actor, Accra participants felt that their Ewe-majority region has been excluded from government investment.

In light of the polarizing party politics during the “If you look at most of the chieftaincy disputes recent election, and the emergence of political in Ghana, there are simmering political vigilante groups, several civil society leaders interference that determine how disputes get interviewed during field work raised concerns over settled.” proposed changes to local political structures. The government is currently considering changing - Government Representative, Accra MMDCEs to become elected officials (instead of political appointments), and shifting the district The perceived marginalization of the Volta Region assembly elections from non-partisan to has led to discussions of secession by some partisan.51 While on the one hand it may break the communities in the region. According to field ‘winner takes all’ syndrome that flows from interviews in Ho and Keta, a push for the Volta national elections with respect to appointments, Region and parts of the Northern and Upper East they noted the move would risk polarizing party Regions to form a new state called ‘Western parties further and could lead to more violent local Togoland’ represents a significant threat to election cycles. governance and unity within Ghana. The leaders of

the advocacy group agitating for secession, the During field work, politics was often cited as an Homeland Study Group Foundation, were arrested exacerbating factor in other communal disputes. on charges of treason in March 2017, fueling For example, in the Upper East, Upper West and outrage from their supporters.52 While the Northern Regions, chieftaincy and land issues are separatist movement was heralded as a major risk major drivers of violence. While the Ghana factor for interviewees in the Volta Region, the constitution bars traditional leaders from taking issue was not raised by field participants in other partisan positions, interviewees in the regions regions or by national-level stakeholders. described the increasingly politicized alliances being formed by chiefs. In the hotspot area of

50 Ibid. 52 “You can’t go away with Ghana land – Western Togoland 51 “Ghana likely to go for referendum on District Chief ‘separatists’ told”, GhanaWeb, March 2017. Executive election proposals”, Owusu-Aboagye, M., Joy Online, June 2017.

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In the CRVA Index, Ghana’s most vulnerable campaign financing for women was also widely indicator was Gender Representation in Politics, cited as a barrier to participation. with a score of 2.95 out of 10. While there are no laws that bar women from participating in political While Ghanaian youth have a high rate of political life, Ghanaian women remain underrepresented in participation (particularly during the campaign and political decision-making positions. Lack of female electoral periods), formal representation for youth representation in the political sphere was a core in decision-making processes remains low.57 In the theme during field interviews with women across current 275-member parliament, only 13 members the country, particularly in the north of the country. qualify as “youth” (under the age of 35).58, 59 During Ghana does not have a gender quota for candidate a number of youth FGDs, participants noted that lists or elected positions. Of the seven candidates youth had very little influence on the policy in the 2016 presidential elections, only one was platforms of the parties or on government, but were female, and women accounted for 11.8 percent of used during election periods for mobilizing voters the 1,158 candidates who contested the 2016 or for the provision of security, in exchange for Parliamentary Elections.53 There are currently money. thirty-seven women in the 275-member parliament.54 At the district level, female In the CRVA Index, Ghana had one of the highest representation in politics has also historically scores in the region for Governance and Perceived remained below 10 percent.55 Women’s Legitimacy, with 9.24 out of 10. In addition, representation in nominated positions similarly Freedom House’s 2017 Freedom in the World remains below parity; nine (25 percent) out of the Report ranks Ghana as “Free”, with a score of 36 cabinet ministers in the current administration 37/40 in Political Rights and 46/60 in Civil are women.56 Female field interviewees described Liberties.60 However, despite the quantitative data, the toxic political environment for female perceptions of corruption and lack of transparency candidates that often deter more participation; in government decision making were highlighted slander is regularly used by men and other women during field interviews. While Ghana has legal to embarrass female candidates. Lack of access to structures to promote transparency, corruption continues to hinder effective governance and undermines the state’s perceived legitimacy. In “It’s a fact that women are less represented in 2016, Transparency International ranked Ghana key political institutions due to the fact that 70th out of 176 countries in the Corruption women don’t want to go through the rigorous Perceptions Index.61 Ghana’s score on the nature of elections and the negativity that Corruption Perceptions Index has worsened since comes with it, to become a Member of 2014, reflecting the perception that corruption has Parliament. So women stay out. It is not that increased in recent years. One high-profile case of they are not capable. Gender representation is corruption was a 2015 judicial bribery scandal, in still a problem.” which video evidence showed dozens of judges,

hundreds of court clerks, and multiple attorneys - Civil Society Actor, Accra and police officers receiving bribes.62 Mistrust of

53 “Women in national parliaments”, Inter-Parliamentary 57 “2016 Global Youth Development Index”, The Union Commonwealth 54 “Members of Parliament”, Parliament of Ghana 58 Based on the ECOWAS Youth Policy 55 “Affirmative Action, Gender Equality and Increased 59 “Members of Parliament”, Parliament of Ghana Participation for Women: Which Way for Ghana?”, Appiah, E., 60 “Freedom in the World 2017: Ghana”, Freedom House Statute Law Review, October 2015. 61 “Corruption Perceptions Index 2016”, Transparency 56 “Ministers of State”, Government of Ghana International 62 “Bribery & Corruption | Ghana”, Global Legal Insights

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police was a significant theme in field interviews Ongoing human rights concerns in Ghana include with community members sharing regular human trafficking and child labor, use of excessive occurrences of corruption or collusion by police, force by police, poor conditions in prisons, abuses which contributes to the low rate of reporting of within the mental health system, and crimes and the prevalence of mob justice. The discrimination against LGBTI individuals.69 Human Ghanaian government has taken steps to bolster trafficking routes for sex workers and forced labor anti-corruption measures including the primarily stay within the country, although there are Commission on Human Rights and Administrative also cases of Ghanaians being trafficked to other Justice (CHRAJ) and the Serious Fraud Office which countries in West Africa as well as to the Middle were established in the 1990s to combat East and Europe.70 Child trafficking and child labor corruption, and in 2014 the National Anti- is particularly prevalent in industries such as Corruption Action Plan (NACAP) was passed by the fishing, domestic service, and mining.71 Field parliament.63,64 Ghanaian civil society participants in the Upper West and Upper East organizations and the media have also played an highlighted poverty as a major driver of child labor, important watchdog role in exposing corruption with children often dropping out from school in and promoting government accountability.65 rural areas to help the family farm. According to the 2014 Ghana Living Standards Survey Report, Ghana has historically enjoyed a vibrant media conducted by the Ghana Statistical Service, 21.8 landscape and press freedom is protected in the percent of children aged 5-17 participated in child 1992 constitution. Under the Mahama labor, which was significantly higher among rural administration, however, the press experienced areas.72 Human Rights Watch has documented the increasing restrictions, with several arrests of poor labor conditions facing workers within the journalists and raids on newspapers.66 In mining sector, particularly in the artisanal/small- December 2015, the government endorsed scale mining sector, known as galamsey.73 In regulations that required operators of public addition to the physical and health risks inherent in electronic communications or broadcasting mining, children working in the mines are less likely services to gain authorization from a government to attend school, which affects future employment media commission before the content is opportunities and income potential.74,75 disseminated.67 In 2017, Reporters Without Borders ranked Ghana 26th out of 180 countries in While the Ghanaian government has taken steps to the World Press Freedom Index.68 For many field combat incidents of torture and mistreatment, participants, the media were viewed as a resilience human rights abuses continue to occur within the factor for civic education and promoting criminal justice system, according to the UN Office transparency. of the High Commissioner on Human Rights.76 Prison conditions are generally poor, with reported

63 “Overview of Corruption and Anti-Corruption in Ghana”, 71 Ibid. Transparency International, February 2011. 72 “Child Labour Report”, Ghana Statistical Service, August 64 “Freedom in the World 2017: Ghana”, Freedom House 2014. 65 “Ghana Corruption Report”, GAN Business Anti-Corruption 73 “Precious Metal, Cheap Labor: Child Labor and Corporate Portal Responsibility in Ghana’s Artisanal Gold Mines”, Human 66 “Ghana: Media pluralism but not enough independence”, Rights Watch, 2015. Reporters Without Borders 74 Ibid. 67 “Freedom of the Press 2016: Ghana”, Freedom House 75 “Child Labour and UNICEF in Action: Children at the 68 “Ghana: Media pluralism but not enough independence”, Centre”, UNICEF, May 2014. Reporters Without Borders 76 “Ghana: Much remains to be done but UN expert welcomes 69 “Ghana 2016 Human Rights Report”, U.S. Department of steps taken to combat torture and other ill-treatment”, UN State Office of the High Commissioner on Human Rights, October 70 “2017 Trafficking in Persons Report: Ghana”, U.S. 2015. Department of State

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cases of physical abuse, overcrowding, and a lack and same-sex sexual activity between men is of sanitation, food, and medical care.77 Arbitrary illegal.84 arrests and extended detention times without trial have also been reported.78 Security forces have Social and Institutional Resilience Factors been implicated in cases of abuse and use of excessive force against prisoners, but victims are Despite the polarized party politics and high often reluctant to register complaints and tensions during the 2016 elections, Ghana investigations for these incidents are often produced a peaceful transition of power, which has ineffective.79 Field participants in the Northern, characterized the country’s political system for Upper East and Upper West Regions praised the almost three decades. For civil society leaders and responsible conduct of the military, in contrast to experts interviewed in the capital, despite the risks, those in the southern regions who highlighted Ghana remains a largely peaceful and unified issues related to their deployment as part of the country. The 1992 Ghana Constitution was widely anti-galamsey ‘Operation Vanguard’ joint cited as a source of pride and resilience by civil taskforce. society, community members, and government representatives alike during the field work; it While Ghana has fair and free institutions, enshrines many of the governance structures and minorities are often targeted or mistreated, with civil protections in place today. Civil society and the gaps in legislative protections. For example, media were also identified by participants as individuals with psychological and physical important sources of civic education and advocacy, disabilities face abuses within the Ghanaian health while government mandated bodies such as the system and wider society. The shackling of National Peace Council and CHRAJ were noted as patients, the use of prayer and spiritual camps, and important institutions for mediation. the non-consensual institutionalization of patients are some of the common approaches used to address mental health challenges, according to Human Rights Watch.80 Psychiatric hospitals are “[In Ghana there is] this whole feeling of oneness and this could be traced back to our often unsanitary and overcrowded,81 and although early days after independence. For example, the government passed the Mental Health Act of the Avoidance Act prescribed that you could not 2012 to address some of these issues, the establish any religion, political party, etc. that 82 legislation has yet to be fully implemented. belonged to one group.” Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex (LGBTI) individuals also continue to face - Civil Society Actor, Accra discrimination and harassment in Ghana, including discrimination in employment and education, abuse, stigma and intimidation by security forces.83 Ghanaian law does not prohibit discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity

77 “Ghana 2016 Human Rights Report”, U.S. Department of 81 “Ghana 2016 Human Rights Report”, U.S. Department of State State 78 Ibid. 82 “Ghana: People with Disabilities Freed from Chains”, 79 Ibid. Human Rights Watch, July 2017 80 “Ghana: People with Disabilities Freed from Chains”, 83 “Ghana 2016 Human Rights Report”, U.S. Department of Human Rights Watch, July 2017 State 84 Ibid.

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Population and Demographics (Second Most Vulnerable Pillar)

Vulnerabilities • Population growth and migration • Land- and resource-based tension • Early marriage • Teenage pregnancy • Low rate of family planning • Inadequate access to quality public services, including education and healthcare • Increase in population • Poor infrastructure, including housing, electricity, water, roads, etc. • Drug abuse • Child labor Risks • Natural disasters • Effects of climate change, including changing rainfall patterns, flooding, and drought • Coastal erosion • Disease outbreaks

Vulnerabilities and Risks experienced widescale ethnic conflict; however, there are reported incidents of inter- and intra- As of 2016, Ghana had a population of ethnic conflict often stemming from issues of 28,206,728.85 Ghana is an ethnically sovereignty, land control and chieftaincy heterogeneous country and the 2010 census succession. reported that the largest ethnic groups are the Akan (47.3 percent), the Mole-Dagbani (16.6 Ghana is also a majority-Christian country, with percent), the Ewe (13.9 percent), the Ga-Dangme 71.2 percent of the population practicing (7.4 percent), the Gurma (5.7), and the Guan (3.7 Christianity, 17.6 percent practicing Islam, and 5.2 percent).86 The Akan make up a majority of the percent practicing traditional or animist religion.91 population in the Central (81.7 percent), Western The three northern regions largely practice Islam (78.2 percent), Ashanti (74.2 percent), Brong- while the southern regions primarily practice Ahafo (58.9 percent) and Eastern (51.1 percent) Christianity.92 Relationships between religious Regions.87 They also are the largest segment in the groups in Ghana have historically been peaceful, Greater Accra Region (39.7 percent), followed by although there are some cases of tension between the Ga-Dangme at 27.4 percent.88 The Ewe are and within religious groups. For example, members predominant in the Volta Region with 73.8 percent of the Ga traditional religion have come into conflict of the population.89 The Mole-Dagbani are highly with some Christian churches over a noise ban concentrated in the Northern, Upper East, and Upper West Regions.90 Ghana has never

85 “Health Nutrition and Population Statistics”, World Bank 89 Ibid. 86 “2010 Population & Housing Census: National Analytical 90 Ibid. Report”, Ghana Statistical Service, May 2013. 91 Ibid. 87 Ibid. 92 Ibid. 88 Ibid.

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during the annual Homowo harvest festival.93 percent of the population under the age of 15 and Ghana has also seen incidents of intra-Muslim a population growth rate of 2.2 percent.95 While violence, which often has ties to inter-ethnic or this youth bulge could theoretically be an economic political tensions.94 In several regions during the boon to the country by providing a large labor force, fieldwork, however, interviewees highlighted rates of youth unemployment and Ghana’s history of peaceful ethnic and religious underemployment remain high, with some relations as a key source of social resilience, citing statistics estimating youth unemployment to be as examples of inter-faith and inter-ethnic marriages. high as 48 percent.96 Interviewees throughout the The country’s system of boarding schools was also country connected the prevalence of youth viewed by one respondent as promoting a cultural unemployment to increases in criminality, illicit openness to diversity by bringing together students practices such as cybercrime and small-scale of different identities and backgrounds. artisanal mining (galamsey), and drug use. Several participants also noted that the lack of formal There is a notable North-South divide in Ghana in employment opportunities increases the terms of distribution of ethnic and religious groups, vulnerability of youth to manipulation by politicians. as well as in historical development patterns. As one interviewee in Accra described, “There are In addition to the growth of the youth population, disparities between the North and South with Ghana has also experienced a steady growth in regard to development, provision of social services, access to health, and education and schools. The South is much more developed than the North. And “I think the government must invest in jobs, the North is more prone to other vulnerabilities invest in the huge youth bulge. A happy man given its geographic location near the Sahara, with does not throw a bomb. If someone is decently the adverse effects of climate change.” While these employed, I don’t think he will leave his job and disparities remain salient, they do not appear to be go and fight.” a potential conflict driver, according to fieldwork participants. However, there have reportedly been - Government Representative, Accra instances in which political actors have drawn on regional disparities in infrastructure and urban areas and rural-urban migration, with the development as a point of mobilization during urban share of the population growing from 36.4 campaign periods. percent in 1990 to 54.7 percent in 2016.97 Fieldwork participants, particularly in the southern Key population and demographic issues identified regions, noted that migration and population by participants in the fieldwork included population growth has put pressure on services and growth, youth unemployment, early marriage, infrastructure. For example, interviewees in the teenage pregnancy, gender-based violence (GBV) Central Region reported that local communities in and child abuse, and inadequate access to quality Cape Coast have resorted to building housing on public services such as education and healthcare. top of waterways, which makes these communities highly vulnerable to flooding. Like many countries in the region, Ghana has a large and growing youth population, with 29

93 “Ethnicity, Religion and Conflict in Ghana: The Roots of Ga 96 “Youth unemployment Ghana’s major challenge – ACET”, Nativism”, Asante, R., Ghana Studies, January 2013. African Center for Economic Transformation, September 94 “Identities, Inequalities and Conflicts in Ghana”, Tsikata, D. 2016. and Seini, W., Centre for Research on Inequality, Human 97 “Urban population (% of total)”, World Bank Security and Ethnicity, November 2004. 95 “Health Nutrition and Population Statistics, World Bank

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18, and 39 percent had given birth before the age “Rural investment in development and of 20.103 The Volta and Brong-Ahafo Regions have infrastructure will reduce the pressure on the reported the highest percentages of women ages cities and spread development. …[T]he 15-19 who have begun childbearing.104 Fieldwork movement is still to Accra and Kumasi and that participants noted that teenage pregnancy often puts pressure on these cities.” forces girls to drop out of school, and early pregnancies have been found to cause severe - Civil Society Leader, Accra health complications for both the mother and the child.105 The issue of teenage pregnancy is also Early marriage was also identified by fieldwork exacerbated by Ghana’s relatively low utilization of participants throughout the country as a key family planning; although 99 percent of women concern, despite the fact that Ghana’s Children’s report knowing of at least one form of Act of 1998 sets the minimum legal age of contraception, in 2014 only 22 percent of women marriage as 18. According to the 2011 Multiple reported using any method of family planning.106 Indicator Cluster Survey Report on Ghana, approximately one in four women (27 percent) was Gender-based violence (GBV), particularly married before the age of 18, and six percent were domestic violence, and child abuse were also married before the age of 15.98 The highest rates identified as key issues affecting the lives of of early marriage are found in the Upper East, women and youth in Ghana. However, despite the Upper West, and Western Regions, and rural areas prevalence of these issues, GBV remains widely report higher rates than urban areas.99 As of 2014, underreported in Ghana due to deeply ingrained the mean age at first marriage was 24.7 years,100 cultural stigmas and a culture of silence that deters and the median age at first marriage is 3.5 years women from seeking justice. As one female civil younger for rural women than for urban women society leader in Tamale described, “Even if [the (19.2 years compared to 22.7 years).101 Early victim of abuse] is bleeding with a cut to the head, marriage has been found to negatively affect she will tell you she fell.” The failure of police and women and girls in a number of ways, including by the judicial system to properly investigate cases of disrupting education, reducing economic GBV has also contributed to low rates of reporting opportunities, increasing poverty, and contributing by victims, according to fieldwork participants. to health complications.102 Fieldwork participants noted that early marriage, which is most often Finally, inadequate access to quality education and driven by financial pressures or the desire to mask healthcare was identified as a vulnerability in the pre-marital pregnancies, has resulted in a higher area of population and demographics. Expensive rate of school dropouts among girls at the school fees, poor school attendance, and secondary and tertiary levels. corruption were highlighted as factors that undermine the education system. Girls in Ghana Relatedly, the prevalence of teenage pregnancy in face higher rates of school dropouts, often due to Ghana was also highlighted by interviewees early marriage, sexual harassment, or teenage throughout the country. According to the 2014 pregnancy. In addition to the education sector, Demographic and Health Survey, 22 percent of healthcare was an area of concern. While Ghana Ghanaian women had given birth before the age of has a relatively strong health system compared to

98 “Child Marriage in Ghana”, UNICEF 102 “Ghana: Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey: Final Report”, 99 “Ghana: Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey: Final Report”, UNICEF, 2011. UNICEF, 2011. 103 “Ghana: Demographic and Health Survey”, USAID, 2014. 100 “Health Nutrition and Population Statistics”, World Bank 104 Ibid. 101 “Ghana: Demographic and Health Survey”, USAID, 2014. 105 Ibid. 106 Ibid.

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neighboring countries, healthcare services school due to pregnancy or marriage have been continue to be hampered by a lack of staff, training successful. and resources, and poor coverage in rural areas. In 2010, there were 0.1 physicians per 1,000 people In addressing issues of GBV, several interviewees and as of 2011, 0.9 hospital beds per 1,000 cited the Domestic Violence & Victims Support Unit people.107 Rural-urban disparities in healthcare (DOVVSU) within the Ghana Police Service as access are compounded by a North-South offering useful services to victims and promoting dichotomy in development. As of 2007, the two increased reporting of domestic violence and child regions with the highest number of health facilities abuse. were Greater Accra (549) and Ashanti (467).108 In contrast, the Upper West Region had 135, Upper Finally, as noted above, Ghana’s history of peaceful East Region 144 and the Northern Region 188.109 relations between religious and ethnic groups was Southern regions also have a higher concentration widely viewed as a source of social resilience, and of doctors and other medical staff. While southern participants cited examples of inter-faith and inter- regions like Greater Accra had one doctor per every ethnic marriages in regions throughout the country. 5,103 people in 2009, the Northern Region The country’s system of boarding schools was also recorded one doctor per every 50,751 people.110 viewed by one respondent as promoting a cultural Fieldwork participants highlighted a number of openness to diversity by bringing together students shortcomings in the health system – for example, of different identities and backgrounds. one interviewee in the Eastern Region reported that women are not given antibiotics after giving birth, while youth in the Central Region recounted “Ghanaian society is quite cohesive. Historically that a local health clinic lacks beds for patients. post-independence, the country has been cultivating an environment of peace among all Social and Institutional Resilience Factors Ghana, and there is generally a feeling of oneness …The educational system is also very open to mixing Ghanaians from different In the fieldwork, interviewees highlighted the work regions. For example, the boarding school of NGOs and other civil society organizations system helps bring children together from (CSOs) to sensitize communities and combat the different regions, ethnicities, religious prevalence of early marriage and teenage affiliations and socio-economic status. There is pregnancy in Ghana as a source of resilience. ‘unity in diversity.’” Programs by the NGO ActionAid, SEND Ghana, UNICEF, and the Single Mothers Association in the - Civil Society Actor, Accra Upper East Region were specifically identified. In the Upper West Region, participants in the Youth FGD reported that distance education programs targeting young women who have had to leave

107 “Health Nutrition and Population Statistics”, World Bank 109 Ibid. 108 “Assessing the Spatial Distribution of Health Facilities in 110 “Key health challenges in Ghana”, The Association of the Eastern Region of Ghana”, Ofosu, D., School of Graduate Chartered Certified Accountants, April 2013. Studies Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, June 2012.

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Security (Third Most Vulnerable Pillar)

Vulnerabilities • Galamsey operations • Porous borders • Perceptions of corruption and malpractices among security forces • Illicit activities such as drug trafficking and proliferation of small arms and light weapons (SALW) • Communal tensions Risks • Tensions with Operation Vanguard • Land- and resource-based conflicts, including herder-farmer violence and clashes with land guards • Chieftaincy disputes • Increase in criminality as a result of galamsey activities (illegal mining activities)

Vulnerabilities and Risks customary tenure, which gives control of land and its resources (including any mining deposits) to the Although Ghana is relatively peaceful and is often chief, this raises the stakes for potential disputes considered to be one of the least violent countries over succession. in the region, fieldwork participants identified a number of security concerns. Most prevalent Land- and resource-based disputes are also among these were incidents of criminality common in Ghana according to fieldwork (particularly armed robbery and cybercrime), drug participants. Interviewees cited cases of land being trafficking, and substance abuse, chieftaincy sold to multiple people, as well as tensions disputes, land- and resource-based disputes emerging from the appropriation of land for mining, (including cases of herder-farmer violence), oil, or gas operations. Conflicts between herders political vigilantism, gender-based violence (GBV), and farmers over the destruction of crops and and galamsey.111 Across the country, interviewees access to grazing land also occur, particularly in the attributed youth involvement in criminality, Ashanti, Upper West, and Volta Regions. In urban cybercrime, and drug use to high rates of areas, disputes over land ownership has led to a unemployment, poverty and a lack of alternative proliferation of so-called land guards (armed livelihoods. individuals or groups who are hired to protect land or property), leading to violence. The practice of Chieftaincy disputes occur most frequently in land guards was banned in 2004, but security northern Ghana, particularly in the Eastern, forces continue to combat the problem.112 Northern, Upper East, and Upper West Regions. Fieldwork participants reported that chieftaincy Ghana has experienced political violence in the disputes often result from inadequate planning for past, and 2017 has thus far seen an upward trend succession or over struggles to control land. As in incidents motivated by political grievances.113 land in northern Ghana is largely held under This rise in violence, which primarily takes the form

111 Illegal small-scale artisanal mining 113 “Conflict Trends (No. 58): Real-Time Analysis of African 112 “Parliamentary Oversight of the Security Sector: Lessons Political Violence, May 2017”, ACLED from Ghana”, Aning, K. and Lartey, E., Centre on International Cooperation, 2009.

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of riots, stems from dissatisfaction among youth are ineffective at investigating cases and seeking supporters of the New Patriotic Party (NPP).114 In justice for women. April 2017, an NPP-affiliated political vigilante youth group known as “Delta Force” led riots in the Although less of a concern, Ghana has recorded Ashanti Region and stormed government buildings cases of inter- and intra-ethnic conflicts. Inter- in Kumasi.115 According to ACLED and ECOWARN ethnic conflicts often center on issues of data, since January 2016 clashes between political sovereignty and land control,117 while intra-ethnic supporters of the NPP and the National Democratic conflicts have largely revolved around issues of Congress (NDC) have been reported most chieftaincy succession.118 Fieldwork participants in frequently in the Northern, Greater Accra, Ashanti, the Northern Region recounted the legacy of the and Brong-Ahafo Regions. Guinea Fowl War, also known as the Konkomba- Nanumba conflict, in the 1990s. The conflict, which Galamsey, or illegal small-scale artisanal gold involved multiple ethnic groups in northern Ghana, mining, was also viewed by the majority of resulted in the death of up to 2,000 people, participants as a primary security threat in Ghana. massive displacement and widespread gender- In addition to the environmental degradation and based violence (GBV). pollution that accompanies galamsey, interviewees reported a rise in criminality, drug Fieldwork participants also raised concerns around use, and prostitution around mining sites. As part the country’s porous borders, and noted the of the new administration’s anti-galamsey potential for cross-border conflicts or spillover from campaign, a joint task force of military and police conflicts in neighboring countries. In particular, called ‘Operation Vanguard’ was deployed to interviewees in the Upper East and Upper West communities across three regions of Ghana in Regions highlighted issues of cross-border August 2017. Deployed for an indefinite period, criminality and conflicts with pastoralist herders reports of tension with communities and alleged from Burkina Faso. Similarly, participants in the abuses have begun to surface.116 Fieldwork Volta Region reported cases of cross-border participants in the Ashanti Region also reported smuggling and an influx of refugees from Togo due that the level of criminality in the region rose to political instability in that country. following Operation Vanguard’s intervention, as youth previously engaged in galamsey are now without income. “We need to tighten our borders because they are quite porous. There is a great arms Gender-based violence (GBV), particularly circulation in the region further to the collapse domestic violence and rape, is also prevalent and of the Libyan state, and this needs to be checked to protect and prevent more arms is affecting women and girls throughout the getting in through tightening of our borders.” country. Event data from ACLED and ECOWARN recorded more than 30 reported incidents of GBV - Civil Society Actor, Accra since January 2016; however, fieldwork participants warned that GBV is routinely underreported due to widespread cultural stigma and perceptions that the police and judicial system

114 Ibid. 117 “Identities, Inequalities and Conflicts in Ghana”, Tsikata, 115 Ibid. D. and Seini, W., Centre for Research on Inequality, Human 116 “Operation Vanguard denies killing 4 at Akyem Kwabeng”, Security and Ethnicity, November 2004. Baneseh, M., Graphic Online, August 2017. 118 Ibid.

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Security concerns in Ghana are exacerbated by the proliferation of small arms and light weapons “The Vigilante groups are a threat to peace and (SALW) within the country and the West Africa stability in the country. Sometimes the military region at large. Ghana functions as a hub of is called upon to assist police due to the level of production, a transit point, and as a consumer for violence and type of weapons they are using … smuggled arms in the region. Of the 220,000 small The vigilante groups are to be considered arms that are held by civilians, an estimated carefully because they are not a typical criminal 125,000 of them are illegal.119 Besides local group – in their ideology, they are fighting for something, and so they create fear and blacksmiths, who manufacture almost 80 percent mayhem.” of the illegal guns in circulation, police forces, soldiers returning from peacekeeping missions, - Armed Forces Official, Accra and Ghanaians abroad also contribute to weapons trafficking.120 Efforts to prevent arms trafficking within the region are hindered by porous borders, as well as ineffective monitoring structures, Social and Institutional Resilience Factors corruption, and a lack of resources and capacity among security forces. Fieldwork participants identified a number of social and institutional resilience factors that help to In general, fieldwork participants did not express a mitigate security risks in Ghana. Neighborhood high level of confidence in the Ghanaian security watch or vigilante groups were seen as contributing forces. The effective functioning of the security positively to security at the local level. In the forces, including the Ghana Police Service (GPS), is Ashanti Region, one interviewee reported that reportedly undermined by corruption and political efforts to modernize the land tenure system, bias, as well as a lack of resources and training. including digitizing records of land sales, had Analysis from several recent surveys indicate that helped to reduce disputes over land. Several the GPS is viewed as one of the most corrupt participants pointed to Ghana’s culture of peaceful institutions in the country,121 and interviewees coexistence between religious and ethnic groups confirmed this perception. In 2010, the Ghanaian (broadly summarized by the term tijaabuunyen – government doubled the salaries of police officers “we are one”) and the prevalence of inter-faith and in an attempt to prevent corruption; however, a inter-ethnic marriages as social resilience factors 2015 report from the International Growth Centre that mitigate inter-group conflicts. Government found that the frequency and amount of bribes agencies – particularly the Domestic Violence & actually increased following the policy reform.122 To Victim Support Unit (DOVVSU) and the Department compensate for lapses or gaps among the security of Social Welfare – were viewed as helping to forces, non-state actors – including neighborhood protect and promote women’s rights in Ghana. watch committees, youth organizations, chieftaincy Finally, while interviewees expressed mixed systems, private security groups, and land guards - opinions around the long-term viability of Operation have historically been involved in security provision Vanguard, many participants noted that the joint in Ghana. task force has been successful in closing galamsey sites, at least in the short term.

119 “Trafficking of small arms and light weapons (SALW) in 121 “The IEA Corruption Survey: Main Report”, IEA Ghana, West Africa: routes and illegal arm caches between Ghana, November 2016. Togo, Benin, and Nigeria”, Asoba, S. and Ohene-Asare, S., 122 “Do higher salaries lower petty corruption?: A policy Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, 2014. experiment on West Africa’s highways”, Foltz, J. and Opoku- 120 Ibid. Agyemang, K., International Growth Centre, June 2015.

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Economics and Resources (Least Vulnerable Pillar)

Vulnerabilities • Rural-urban divide and regional disparities in development and infrastructure • High rate of youth unemployment • Reliance on natural resource extraction and primary commodities • Rising cost of living • Barriers to financing, credit and land ownership for women • Environmental degradation, including galamsey operations, and negative effects of climate change on agriculture Risks • Tensions/clashes between local communities and mining companies • Food insecurity

Vulnerabilities and Risks infrastructure and service provision. For example, the Northern, Upper East, and Upper West Regions The Ghanaian economy is largely reliant on the continue to have the highest rates of poverty in the service sector, agriculture and fishing, and the country127 and more limited access to education gold, cocoa, oil and forestry industries.123 In 2016 infrastructure.128 However, the 2016 Ghana the service sector accounted for 56.9 percent of Poverty and Inequality Report found that economic gross domestic product (GDP), while industry inequality is actually greater within regions - that is, (including mining, manufacturing and electricity) between rural and urban areas - than between accounted for 24.2 percent of GDP.124 Although regions. Urban areas have greater access to agriculture and fishing contributes less to Ghana’s employment opportunities, particularly in informal GDP, this sector is an important source of trade, and as of 2013, 37.9 percent of rural employment: approximately 50 percent of the dwellers were experiencing poverty compared to Ghanaian population is engaged in agricultural only 10.6 percent of urban dwellers.129 Fieldwork production,125 and nearly all rural poor households participants noted that this rural-urban divide has (94 percent) participate in crop production.126 This economic reliance on natural resource extraction and primary commodities leaves the country ‘‘The urban dwellers have access to good roads, vulnerable to volatility in global commodity prices, transportation, communication, police service, hospital, job opportunities, and good drinking as well as food insecurity due to environmental water. These are not found in the rural areas.’’ pressures stemming from climate change or natural disasters. - Civil Servant, Kumasi, Ashanti Region

Ghana has a salient North-South divide in terms of development and regional disparities in

123 “Ghana: IMF and Private Support Help Cope with 127 “The Ghana Poverty and Inequality Report”, Cooke, E., Financing Needs”, Euler Hermes Hague, S., and McKay, A., UNICEF, March 2016. 124 “Provisional 2016 Annual Gross Domestic Product”, 128 “Basic Education Quality in Ghana: Final Report”, Etsey, Ghana Statistical Service, April 2017. K., et. al., USAID, June 2009. 125 “The Report: Ghana 2017: Agriculture”, Oxford Business 129 “Ghana’s Request for IMF Assistance”, Deressa, T. and Group Sy, A., Brookings, August 2014. 126 “Economic Importance of Agriculture for Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction: Findings from a Case Study of Ghana”, Diao, X., OECD, November 2010.

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driven migration to urban areas such as Accra and ownership under customary law,133 which makes it Kumasi, particularly by youth. more difficult to start or expand business enterprises. As noted above, Ghana continues to face challenges in combatting youth unemployment. Fieldwork participants identified a number of illicit Fieldwork participants throughout the country activities as playing a role in the Ghanaian highlighted the lack of formal employment economy. Most prominent among these was the opportunities as a leading vulnerability, noting that cultivation or trafficking of drugs, including Indian unemployment makes youth more susceptible to hemp, tramadol, and cocaine, as well as the political manipulation and promotes involvement proliferation of small arms and light weapons in criminality, drug use and other illicit activities. (SALW). According to the World Drug Report, Ghana Within urban areas, unemployment and rural- accounted for the fourth-most proportion of total urban migration by youth also places additional cocaine seizures in West Africa over the 2009- pressures on public institutions and services.130 2014 period.134

Additional vulnerabilities identified by fieldwork Due to the dominant role of agriculture in the participants include a rising cost of living, barriers Ghanaian economy, land and resource to women’s economic and educational attainment, management are salient issues, both in rural and illicit economic activities, land- and resource-based urban areas. Ghana has a pluralistic land tenure disputes, environmental degradation, and climate system in which statutory and customary practices pressures, and concerns around the extractives overlap. Customary tenure is most dominant in industry. northern Ghana, where patrilineal inheritance of land is most common, while southern Ghana (and While Ghana has made admirable progress in particularly urbanizing areas) is increasingly reliant promoting girls’ education in recent years, women on statutory land management.135 Competition and continue to face challenges and disparities in conflicts around land access and allocation have employment and the economic sphere. Girls are occurred, both between herders and farmers and less likely to complete secondary school, often due between communities.136 Cases of herder-farmer to financial pressures, early marriage or teenage tensions were identified by fieldwork participants in pregnancy.131 In addition, 65 percent of women are informally employed within the urban non- agricultural labor force compared to 44 percent of “Around Ho in the district of Adaku we men, which often offers lower wages and fewer witnessed farmers and herders’ tensions. The labor protections.132 Fieldwork participants Fulani would lose control of their herd which reported that women are most often engaged in destroys farmland, but it has not resulted in open conflict in Ho.” petty trade, agriculture, the service sector, including jobs such as nursing, teaching, and - Civil Society Leader, Ho, Volta Region administration. Women in Ghana also face barriers to financial services and credit, and to land

130 “Ghana: Assessing Risks to Stability”, Throup, D., Center 133 “Social Institutions & Gender Index: Ghana”, OECD for Strategic and International Studies, June 2011. 134 “World Drug Report 2016”, UN Office on Drugs and Crime 131 “Understanding the Barriers to Female Education in 135 “USAID Country Profile: Property Rights and Resource Ghana”, Lambert, M., Perrino, E., and Barreras, E., Blue Governance: Ghana”, USAID Kitabu Research Institute, March 2012. 136 Ibid. 132 “Statistics on Informal Employment in Ghana”, Budlender, D., Women in Informal Employment Globalizing and Organizing, May 2011.

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the Ashanti, Upper West, and Volta Regions, and practices of oil and gas companies in the area, who event data from ECOWARN and ACLED shows that tend to hire skilled laborers from foreign countries the highest number of incidents between herders rather than local workers. Similarly, interviewees in and farmers was reported in the Ashanti Region, the Ashanti Region, which is home to large gold followed by Northern, Eastern and Greater Accra mining operations, reported that the region Regions. In addition to herder-farmer conflicts, continues to have poor road infrastructure despite fieldwork participants reported cases of land being the presence of international companies and sold to multiple people and clashes between land promises by government officials to construct new guards. roads.

Finally, key environmental concerns raised by “You really hear that…that benefits are not fieldwork participants included deforestation, soil coming from oil or gas. What is a benefit? Is it degradation, pollution of water, and the depletion 1000 cedi in your pocket, or is it school for your of fisheries. In coming years, the effects of climate child and your grandchild?” change are expected to result in increased temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, rising sea - Government Representative, Accra levels, increased greenhouse gas emissions, and loss of carbon sinks in the country.137 As the country is particularly reliant on the agricultural, forestry, and energy sectors, climate change may A leading issue raised in the fieldwork was the negatively impact food security and livelihoods in controversy around small-scale artisanal gold mining, known as galamsey. Gold mining has been the future.138 In addition, as the amount of arable land decreases and climate pressures spur a widespread practice in Ghana for centuries, and migration, there is a risk of increased conflict remains a major source of economic wealth for the between herders and farming communities. country – gold accounted for 42 percent of exports 139 in 2016. While Ghana is well known for its large- The role of the extractives industry scale gold mining industry, its artisanal and small- scale gold mining sector, which is most often As noted above, the extractives industry – including informal or illegal, employs an estimated 1.1 mining, oil, and gas operations – plays an million people, representing two-thirds of the 140 important role in the Ghanaian economy, and the country’s total mining labor force. impact of these operations was a leading topic of discussion during the fieldwork. Interviewees Galamsey became a heated topic during the 2016 expressed mixed opinions around the benefits of presidential election campaign, with wide media the extractives sector. While some noted positive coverage and political rhetoric surrounding the investments in education and infrastructure by issue, and violent protests by illegal miners mining companies, others expressed that local reported in the mining hub of Obuasi, Ashanti 141 communities have not adequately benefited from Region in October 2016. The main backlash the presence of these companies. For example, in against galamsey by the government and the Western Region, fieldwork participants in communities hinges on environmental Takoradi related grievances surrounding the hiring degradation, with key waterways and arable land

137 “Ghana National Climate Change Policy”, Ministry of Wilson, M., et. al., International Journal of Environmental Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation, 2013. Research and Public Health, 2015 138 Ibid. 141 “Illegal Miners Vandalize NDC, NPP Offices in Obuasi”, 139 “Ghana”, Observatory of Economic Complexity Peace FM, October 2016 140 “Integrated Assessment of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Ghana – Part 3: Social Sciences and Economics”,

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polluted with runoff from the unregulated mining Multilateral Mining Integrated Project (MMIP) activities – including the use of mercury and designed to disband illegal mining by focusing on arsenic. According to Human Rights Watch, there security, environmental rehabilitation, and also remain serious concerns around child labor, alternate livelihoods.145 At the time of the field with thousands of children estimated to be assessment, the MMIP’s implementation had employed in the informal sector.142 Many fieldwork focused solely on the security aspect, establishing participants also attributed a rise in criminal a permanent joint task force (JTF) of military and activity to galamsey operations. In the Upper East police personnel under the banner of Operation Region for example, they highlighted the Vanguard in Eastern, Ashanti, and Western prevalence of substance abuse among youth who Regions.146 For many community members, civil take illicit drugs to work harder in the mines. There society actors and government officials who were also reports among participants of flows of participated in field interviews, concerns were small arms and light weapons (SALW) among raised about the impacts of an increased miners, violence, and fatalities in the mine areas permanent presence of armed security forces in and increased prostitution around mining sites. For these communities. Several participants also many youth, and even children, galamsey offers an highlighted the lack of coordination between attractive means to make quick cash, especially in Operation Vanguard and more sustainable an economic climate where skilled employment programming such as alternative livelihoods for the opportunities are limited.143 thousands of miners who have been forcibly stopped from their work. As one security expert explained during a KII, one of the unintended “Some of these illegal miners have been doing consequences of Operation Vanguard so far has this all their lives, and as a result they don’t been an increase in criminality, with youth who have any other skills, and they must keep body were previously engaged in galamsey turning to and souls united, so they will do anything to armed robbery and criminal activity to make a keep their trade.” living. There were also reports that the groups of small-scale miners had migrated to the Central - Government Representative, Accra Region and northern Ghana, increasing insecurity – and precipitating an expansion of the Operation Vanguard footprint. Other civil society leaders Following the 2016 election, the new highlighted concerns about the potential for administration adopted security measures to radicalization of the youth whose perceived eradicate galamsey operations. This included livelihoods have been taken away. military deployments to community areas where illegal mining was taking place, which were met Social and Institutional Resilience Factors with community backlash – including one incident where an army captain was lynched and burnt to Fieldwork participants identified several sources of death by an angry mob in May 2017, causing a social and institutional resilience that mitigate national outcry after the footage emerged on social economic vulnerabilities and risks in Ghana. media.144 In July 2017, the Ministry of Lands and Several interviewees praised government- Natural Resources announced the rollout of a new sponsored infrastructure and development

142 “Precious Metal, Cheap Labor: Child Labor and Corporate 144 “Captain Mahama will get Justice – President assures”, Responsibility in Ghana’s Artisanal Gold Mines”, Human Sackey, K., Ghana News Agency, June 2017. Rights Watch, 2015. 145 “Small scale mining is preserve of Ghanaians – Akufo- 143 “Expanding Job Opportunities in Ghana”, Honorati, M. and Addo reiterates”, Joy Online, August 2017. de Silva, S., World Bank, 2016 146 “’Operation Vanguard’ – A Timely Saviour of Our Environment”, Abissath, M., Government of Ghana

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programs, including the recent provision of free participants expressed mixed opinions around the secondary education147 and the construction of a long-term impact of Operation Vanguard, many new sports stadium to engage youth in the Central reported that the task force has been successful in Region. Local-level and CSO initiatives to promote closing galamsey operations. Other initiatives to girls’ access to education, such as the construction curb galamsey, such as a youth-led media of the Doone Girls School in Nyariga in Upper East campaign in the Western Region, were also Region,148 are also a key source of resilience. highlighted by respondents. Finally, a Traditional leaders and chiefs play an important representative of the National Petroleum role in resolving land disputes, and interviewees in Commission noted in a KII that the government of the Ashanti Region reported that an initiative by a Norway and the World Bank are currently working local chief to digitize land sale records has helped with the Ghanaian government to build capacity to mitigate land disputes in that area. On the topic around the management of oil revenues. of the extractives industry, although fieldwork

147 “Ghana Launches Free High School Education”, Forson, 148 “Doone Girls School”, The Blessing Basket Project F., Voice of America, September 2017.

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Rule of Law (Least Vulnerable Pillar)

Vulnerabilities • Slow judicial processes • Lack of resources in the judicial system, such as manual file system • Limited police capacity, particularly in rural areas • Perceived lack of independence of the judiciary • Backlog of court cases • Inadequate training for judicial staff • Barriers to justice, including accessibility and affordability • Perceptions of corruption in the judicial system • Culture of silence around gender-based violence (GBV) reporting • Under representation of female lawmakers Risks • Incidents of corruption • Vigilante/mob justice • Impunity around gender-based violence (GBV) crimes

Vulnerabilities and Risks such as the police. During the field work, a Ghana remains one of the leaders in West Africa in commonly used phase among participants was terms of the Rule of Law sector, with the CRVA ‘justice delayed is justice denied’, referring to the Index ranking it with the highest score in the slow pace of the court process. ECOWAS region. Ghana’s strong legal protections for its citizens through legislation and the 1992 Within the Rule of Law sector, according to the Ghana Constitution, as well as its separation of CRVA Index, Ghana is most vulnerable in the areas powers between the executive and judiciary, of Gender Representation in Legislation and underscore the country’s stable structural Judicial Institutions, with a score of 5.70 out of 10. foundation. At the operational level however, Women continue to be under-represented in both Ghana still faces significant challenges with the legislature and judicial institutions. Some implementing judicial processes, and establishing fieldwork participants believe that the low number domestic credibility and trust for its institutions of women holding seats in the national parliament (12.74 percent as of 2017),149 undermines efforts to shape legislation that strengthens protections “Rule of law is on track as far as Ghana is for women. They noted that there is a perception concerned. However, the wheel of justice grinds that many male parliamentarians don’t want to be slowly in Ghana. This is because under the personally impacted by the legislation, so they Ghanaian Law, it is the police who can block it, such as a change to the law concerning investigate criminal matters. State prosecutors underage marriage, which remains classified as do not investigate such matters. Dockets can only a ‘misdemeanor’ in the criminal code, or get lost or even stolen and that can affect ensuring inheritance rights for women who are prosecution.’” mistresses or girlfriends and bear children (Amendment to PNDCL Law 111).150 As one KII - Government Representative, Accra respondent explained, “Parliamentarians are

149 “Female MPs in Ghana’s 7th Parliament”, Fact Check 150 “Government to Amend PNDC Law 111”, Government of Ghana, February 2017 Ghana

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mostly men, so legislation is not always going rather than going through the formal justice through. For example, Amendment 111 on property system. rights for women or the child marriage law, which is now 16 with consent of parents… it used to be 18… men in Parliament don’t want that to be “Most of the victims are defiled by close charged, especially in the North.” While political relatives so it’s not reported, and witnesses are representation remains limited, women do hold unavailable. In criminal cases, without several critical decision-making roles with the witnesses, it cannot be tried or secure a judiciary. For instance, the current Attorney conviction. Most of the times when victims report the case to the police, like I said before, General (who is also the Minister of Justice) is a it’s a man’s world, the policeman will ask, ‘What woman. Additionally, Sophia Akuffo, the current did you want there or why did you go there? You and 13th Chief Justice, is the second female to hold are a bad girl.’” 151 this role. However, of the twelve justices who currently sit on the bench of the country’s Supreme - Government Representative, Accra Court, only three are women, including the Chief Justice.152

Men and women have equal rights under the Recent structural changes have attempted to Ghanaian constitution and Ghana has ratified both increase the role of women in decision making, the Convention on Elimination of All Forms of such as increasing the role of traditional female Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) and the leaders, Queen Mothers, in matters of customary Protocol of the African Charter on Human and law. Reforms included the inclusion of Queen Peoples’ Rights of Women in Africa (Maputo Mothers in the National House and Regional Protocol).153 Ghana has also taken steps to provide Houses of Chiefs, and the creation of ten regional legal protections to women within domestic law. paramount queen associations, tasked with For example, rape is criminalized under Ghanaian addressing issues relating to women.156 While at law and in 2007, Ghana adopted the Domestic the structural level there may be changes, field Violence Act which criminalizes acts of interviewers – including Queen Mothers intimidation, harassment and abuse.154 However, themselves – see the power of traditional female persistent social stigma and a lack of resources for leaders as significantly weaker compared to their investigations and prosecutions often undermine male chief counterparts. In chieftaincy disputes in these legal protections. In addition, reliance on the north for example, women reported that they religious and customary law often results in were largely excluded from any role in decision discrimination towards women on issues such as making or conflict resolution. inheritance and land access.155 During field work interviews with women, some of the main barriers The effective functioning of the judicial system in to reporting crimes were the lack of trust in the Ghana is undermined by perceptions of corruption, police to investigate, the prohibitively expensive poor access to the court system, and slow legal fees and the long, drawn-out court processing times. According to a recent survey proceedings. For survivors of sexual assault or conducted by the Institute of Economic Affairs, 47 defilement, it is common for their family to reach a percent of respondents viewed the judiciary as financial settlement with the perpetrator’s family, corrupt, naming it the third most corrupt institution

151 “List of Chief Justices”, The Republic of Ghana Judiciary 155 Ibid. 152 “Justices of the Supreme Court”, The Republic of Ghana 156 “Ghana shares legal framework for elimination of Judiciary discrimination against women”, Ghana News Agency, October 153 “Africa for Women’s Rights: Ghana”, WikiGender 2014. 154 “Social Institutions & Gender Index: Ghana”, OECD

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in Ghana (the Ghana Police Service and political parties came in first and second, respectively).157 Access to formal justice for many field participants In addition, only 14 percent of respondents reported that they trust the Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ) to fight “Lack of automation of the court delays justice corruption.158 In 2015, corruption in the judiciary because the judge has to write all cases.’” was highlighted in a high-profile bribery scandal, in which 12 High Court judges and 22 lower court - Government Representative, Accra judges were implicated in accepting bribes. After investigations were carried out by a five-member around the country was also perceived as limited disciplinary committee set up by the then-Chief due to the prohibitive cost. According to a 2014- Justice, Georgina Wood, some of the judges were 2015 Afrobarometer survey, 32 percent of fired; of those fired, some were fired with full respondents did not seek legal recourse because benefits and others were not.159 For one of court fees and 22 percent cited attorney fees as interviewee familiar with the Judiciary, they a barrier.160 The presence of the legal system also explained that though there was corruption by varies by region, largely aligning with the North- judges, the one resilience to combat that was the South dichotomy. For example, the Greater Accra strong Ghanaian legal framework. As they and Ashanti Regions have the highest number of explained, “If judges are swayed… if the case is courts and registries. The former has almost one airtight, they can’t do anything… as we are going by hundred courts and about 30 registries and the the law. We can appeal and go above to the Chief latter has 61 courts and just over 40 registries. The Justice... who will investigate and ask why they lowest number of courts and registries are in the gave that verdict. If you are a lazy lawyer and Northern, Upper West, and Upper East, with fewer appear before a judge who is biased, then that than 20 in each region.161 The lack of access and judge can have his/her way, because you didn’t trust in the formal justice system manifests in build a solid case with good evidence”. mob/vigilante justice. Referred to as ‘instant justice’ in Ghana, mob violence and lynching was In practice, the lack of resources for the Ghana widely reported in field interviews, with some Police Service and Attorney General’s Department interviewees even sharing social media images of hamper investigations, the effective collection and the killings. As one KII explained, for the average storage of evidence, and the swift processing of rural market seller who lives in poverty, if a crime cases. For example, the Prosecution Division such as theft is perpetrated against them, seeking currently relies on a manual case file system, ‘instant justice’ is a much more palatable solution whereby there are two paper copies of a case file than the costs and time involved in police and court and evidence, with no electronic backup. During processes. one KII, the interviewee noted that this meant paper case files could be lost, destroyed, or stolen, Social and Institutional Resilience Factors which would result in the case having to be dropped by the prosecution. Similarly, during court One of the greatest resiliencies for Ghana is its proceedings, Judges must handwrite all their own strong legal framework, including the checks and case notes, adding to delays in processing cases. balances of power, and human rights protections

157 “The IEA Corruption Survey: Main Report”, IEA Ghana, 160 “Ambitious SDG goal confronts challenging realities: November 2016. Access to justice is still elusive for many Africans”, Logan, C., 158 Ibid. Afrobarometer, March 2017. 159 “Ghana dismisses judges guilty of bribery charges”, BBC, 161 “2015/2016 Annual Report”, The Judicial Service of December 2015. Ghana

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afforded to its citizens. While in practice, the and mediation of disputes. While CHRAJ’s mandate implementation of rule of law remains problematic extends to human rights complaints, ombudsman, in several areas, this is chiefly due to under and corruption investigations, field respondents resourcing and perceptions of mistrust, rather than mostly highlighted their work on mediating issues an erosion of the institutions themselves. The such as land, employment, and inheritance. While 1992 Ghana Constitution contains various the formal court processes were widely highlighted provisions that seek to guarantee the as too slow and expensive, CHRAJ offers its independence of the judiciary,162 and there have services free to all Ghanaians, and makes not been any noted cases of executive interference provisions to include those who otherwise might in judicial decisions.163 In fact, the opposition’s not be able access justice – such as people with acceptance of the 2012 Supreme Court ruling in disabilities, pregnant women, and people who are favor of the presidential incumbent can be viewed illiterate or only speak local dialects. One of the as an indication of respect for the Court’s biggest challenges for CHRAJ is education, with independence.164 It should be noted, however, that many community members unaware of the the Constitution lacks certain limits on presidential services that they can access. Additionally, CHRAJ appointments of judges, which could potentially does not have prosecutorial powers, which threaten judicial independence,165 though as some undermines their ability to follow through on field work respondents noted, the strength of investigations related to corruption or criminality. Ghanaian laws can help in combatting incidents of An expansion of CHRAJ’s powers to fight corruption, corruption or case bias. as well as increased resources and visibility within communities, will build trust and credibility of the The Commission on Human Rights and formal justice system in Ghana, and strengthen Administrative Justice (CHRAJ) is also an example transparency of its governance institutions, of a significant resiliency within Ghana, specifically including the police. in the area of casework related to human rights

162 “The Constitution of the Republic of Ghana”, The 164 Ibid. Government of Ghana 165 “Political Context Study: Ghana”, Abdulai, A., University of 163 “BTI 2016 | Ghana Country Report”, Bertelsmann Stiftung Leeds, January 2009.

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its borders to date, there are concerns around the External Factors potential for spillover from conflicts in neighboring countries or an influx of refugees. For example, Ghana is actively engaged with a number of fieldwork participants in the Volta Region reported regional organizations, including ECOWAS and the that refugees from Togo have been crossing into AU, and also is involved with multiple international Ghana following political turmoil in Togo in recent organizations such as the UN, the African, months. Along the northern border with Burkina Caribbean and Pacific Group(s) of States, the Non- Faso, interviewees also reported cases of cross- Aligned Movement (NAM), the International border criminality and tensions with pastoralist Organisation of La Francophonie (OIF) and the herders from Burkina Faso. In addition, the World Trade Organization (WTO). Ghana is also a country’s porous borders facilitate cross-border permanent observer to the Organization of flows of small arms and light weapons (SALW),169 American States (OAS). as well as regional networks of drug and human trafficking.170 In many regions, fieldwork In the area of economics, Ghana is impacted by participants reported that unemployed youth are changes in global commodity prices and the frequently involved in the cultivation and trafficking activities of international financial institutions (IFIs) of Indian hemp, cocaine and other drugs. Cases of such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and human trafficking for forced labor and prostitution the World Bank. The World Bank currently funds were also reported by interviewees in the Upper projects in the areas of transportation, energy, East and Volta Regions. Cyber-crime activities – 166 education, trade and agriculture in Ghana. known as sakawa – continue to affect individuals Ghana is also the site of multinational mining, oil, and organizations both within and beyond Ghana’s and gas operations. In addition to large-scale borders.171 operations, small-scale artisanal mining operations, known as galamsey, have attracted Finally, Ghana faces pressures from environmental workers from neighboring countries such as degradation and the effects of global climate Burkina Faso, Mali and Côte d’Ivoire, as well as change, including changes in rainfall patterns, 167 foreign nationals, particularly Chinese workers. coastal erosion and sea level rise.172 In the Volta Region, for example, fieldwork participants In the area of security, Ghana is an important reported that coastal erosion, salinization of land contributor to peacekeeping forces around the due to mining, and changes in rainfall patterns world, including the UN Mission in South Sudan have affected agricultural outputs, displaced (UNMISS), the UN Interim Force in Lebanon coastal communities, and impacted livelihoods of (UNIFIL), the UN Organization Stabilization Mission fishermen and farmers. As the Ghanaian economy in the Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUSCO), is particularly reliant on the agricultural, forestry and the UN Multidimensional Integrated and energy sectors, climate change is likely to 168 Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA). While continue to negatively impact food security and Ghana has not experienced a terrorist attack within livelihoods in the future.173

166 “Ghana: Projects & Programs”, World Bank Togo, Benin, and Nigeria”, Asoba, S. and Ohene-Asare, S., 167 “Gold, guns and China: Ghana’s fight to end galamsey”, Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, 2014. Burrows, E. and Bird, L., African Arguments, May 2017. 170 “World Drug Report 2016”, UN Office on Drugs and Crime 168 “Troop and Police Contributors”, United Nations 171 “Workshop on Cybercrime Statistics Opens in Accra”, Peacekeeping Ghana National Communications Authority 169 “Trafficking of small arms and light weapons (SALW) in 172 “Ghana National Climate Change Policy”, Ministry of West Africa: routes and illegal arm caches between Ghana, Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation, 2013. 173 Ibid.

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adopted in countries such as Rwanda, which has Gender Considerations 64 percent female representation in their national parliament.180 Other factors that contribute to the Women in decision making and political under-representation of women in the political representation sphere include lofty electoral filing fees, and a lack of financial support. This was echoed in field One of the most salient themes in both quantitative interviews around the country, with women in data and field interviews was the gender disparities nearly every region highlighting the lack of access in traditional structures of decision making and to campaign financing as a barrier to running for politics. Within the ECOWAS region, Ghana receives office. Similarly, many noted that social norms an above average score of 6.83 out of 10 for the prevented women from engaging with political gender indicators in the CRVA Index, and on paper parties or running campaigns with participants has strong legislative protections for equality detailing incidents of husbands inflicting domestic imbued in documents such as the 1992 violence on wives who hold different political views. Constitution.174 However, the knowledge and More broadly, there was a cultural perception in implementation of these laws remains limited, with many communities that politics was a man’s women continuing to face barriers in the economic, domain, and women who attempted to run in social and political spheres. elections would be slandered as ‘prostitutes’ or ‘she-men’ by men and women alike. A key area in which women face discrimination is political representation. For example, of the seven Another area that was highlighted as a barrier was candidates who contested the 2016 presidential decision making around security and conflict elections, only one (Nana Konadu Agyeman- issues, particularly as they related to communal Rawlings, wife of former president John Rawlings) violence over chieftaincy and land. Chieftaincy was female. In the 2016 parliamentary elections, disputes emerged as one of the major security risk in which 1,158 candidates were vying for seats, factors for Ghana particularly in the Northern, only 11.8 percent were female.175 Thirty-six of Upper East, and Upper West Regions where the top these women won seats in the 275-member patriarchal chieftaincy position (Paramount Chief) parliament, six more than during the 2012-2016 is a high stakes affair as it confers additional term.176 This trend of female under-representation access to land and resources. While there are is also reflected at the district level, where female traditional female leaders (Queen Mothers) in representation has historically remained below 10 Ghana, there was a sense for many women – percent across the ten administrative regions.177 In including Queen Mothers themselves who were 2014, the total percentage of females who served interviewed – that their powers were limited as Metropolitan, Municipal and District Chief compared to that of their male Chief counterparts. Executives (MMDCEs) across all ten regions was In communal chieftaincy disputes, which in the 7.87.178 Ghana currently lacks legislated or northern regions have proved particularly fatal in voluntary quotas to promote women’s participation areas such as Bawku and Bolgatanga in Upper in politics,179 which have been successfully East, women are mostly excluded from mediation

174 “The Role of Ghana’s Public Service in Women’s 178 “NGO Shadow Report to 6th & 7th Periodic Report of Empowerment: Challenges and Prospects (2)”, The Ghana on Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Government of Ghana Discrimination against Women (CEDAW)”, UN CEDAW 175 “Women in national parliaments”, Inter-Parliamentary Committee, October 2014. Union 179 “Gender Quotas Database”, Institute for Democracy and 176 Ibid. Electoral Assistance 177 “Affirmative Action, Gender Equality, and Increased 180 “Proportion of seats held by women in national Participation for Women, Which Way for Ghana?”, Appiah, E., parliaments (%)”, World Bank Statute Law Review, June 2015.

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or formal conflict early warning efforts. One of the infrastructure in some regions and expensive filing key government institutions that manages issues and legal fees undermine the ability of women to at the district and regional level are the security adequately access justice. For example, a 2014 committees (REG-Sec and DI-Sec), which are NGO Shadow Report to the UN CEDAW Committee comprised of stakeholders such as government, found that when women are dissatisfied with public security and traditional leaders. These rulings from the lower courts, the exorbitant legal institutions were reported to exclude women fees at the higher courts deter them from entirely in the Northern and Upper East Regions, appealing decisions.182 During many field due to perceptions that women could not be interviews, the low levels of reporting of rape, trusted to keep information confidential. Similarly, defilement and domestic violence were considered the Regional and National House of Chiefs, which a norm for many communities. This was attributed review chieftaincy disputes, largely exclude to low levels of confidence in the police to women; only one Queen Mother is listed on their investigate the crime competently and Ministry Advisory Board.181 By contrast, the transparently, the long and expensive formal court National Peace Council, another government body process, and the social pressures from the victim’s under the purview of the Ministry of the Interior, family to settle for compensation from the was widely cited as an institutional resilience for its perpetrator’s family to avoid shame. At the role in resolving conflict, as well as for placing a structural level, while Ghana has legal protections stronger emphasis on the inclusion and for violence against women imbued in documents representation of women. such as the 1992 Constitution and the 2007 Domestic Violence Act, gaps remain in the Women involved and trained in conflict early implementation. For example, as one female legal warning, as well as Queen Mothers, represent a expert explained during a KII, there are no significant resilience in peacebuilding that could provisions for compensation or damages in strengthen such forums. During a KII with one of criminal cases related to defilement (sexual abuse the founders of the Women and Peacebuilding of a minor) or rape. This means that for the few Movement in the Northern Region, an organization cases that are reported, investigated by police, and which builds the capacity of women in have sufficient evidence to convict, the victim peacebuilding, she described how women in the cannot seek compensation in criminal court. A community had detected early warning signs in hot separate case must be brought in civil court, which spot areas such as Bimbilla where a chieftaincy is often long and prohibitively expensive. This and land dispute had become polarized along incentivizes victims’ families to accept out of court ethnic and political lines. It was through the financial settlements with the perpetrator, women’s intervention she said, that tensions had dropping the case against them in return for been reduced. Other field work discussions payments. One example given was a girl who had highlighted related stories, such as Queen Mothers been raped, and while the Department of intervening to stop communal violence after Prosecution had a strong case, the girl’s family receiving information at the market. opted to settle with the preparator’s family for Representation and access to the judiciary 1500 cedi (about $US 340), forcing her to drop the case. Another gap highlighted during field Although women hold some critical decision- interviews was the weak legal deterrents against making roles in the judiciary, limited court child marriage. Under the criminal classification,

181 “The Ministerial Advisory Board Members”, Ghana Discrimination against Women (CEDAW)”, UN CEDAW Ministry of Chieftaincy and Traditional Affairs Committee, October 2014. 182 “NGO Shadow Report to 6th & 7th Periodic Report of Ghana on Convention on the Elimination of all forms of

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child marriage is designated as a ‘misdemeanor’ Support Unit (DOVVSU), was created as a rather than ‘felony’, which means it can be settled specialized unit of the Ghana Police Service and out of court. 183 In reality, as one KII participant tasked with tackling crimes against women and described, this often results in a fine of only 500 children.189 Furthermore, institutions such as the cedi (about $US 112) which is easily paid by the Domestic Violence Secretariat (part of the Ministry bride’s new husband, making for a weak deterrent. of Gender, Children and Social Protection) are also responsible for protecting the rights of women in Gender-based violence Ghana.190 Despite these substantial efforts, gender-based violence continues to be a problem. Gender-based violence remains an issue of Persistent social stigma, fears of retaliation, and concern in Ghana. According to a 2016 study cultural acceptance of gender-based violence conducted by the Ghana Statistical Service, 42.4 contribute to under-reporting and limited resources percent of women reported having experienced at within the police and judiciary remain major least one form of physical violence in their hurdles to investigations and prosecution.191 lifetime.184 The prevalence of exposure to a lifetime of physical violence is higher among women living In addition to gender-based violence, human in rural areas (44.4 percent) than those living in trafficking is a threat to the safety and security of urban areas (40.7 percent).185 In addition, the data women in Ghana. Some women are recruited suggests that 30 percent of women have been under false pretenses to go to the Middle East, subjected to sexual violence at least once over where they are often forced into prostitution or their lifetime.186 Unlike physical violence, the domestic service.192 Incidents of child trafficking incidence of sexual violence was more pronounced and prostitution were also noted during field among women in urban areas (32.1 percent) than interviews with a focus on major urban centers among those in rural areas (27.8 percent).187 As such as Kumasi, Accra and Takoradi. noted above, the 2007 Domestic Violence Act criminalizes a range of acts of physical and sexual Economic empowerment and access to resources violence, abuse, and intimidation. In 2008, the National Policy and Plan of Action was enacted to Within the economic sphere, Ghanaian women are jumpstart the implementation of the Domestic primarily engaged in agriculture, the informal Violence Act. The law mandates that perpetrators private sector (small and medium enterprises), of domestic abuse be fined and/or imprisoned for manufacturing, and the service sector.193 In the a term not to exceed two years.188 Acts of rape are agricultural sector, women face barriers to land also criminalized in the country, although Ghana’s ownership due to the prevalence of customary law, legislation does not address spousal rape. In 1998, which governs around 80 percent of land in Ghana the Women and Juvenile Unit (WAJU), which was and privileges male inheritance.194 On lands later renamed the Domestic Violence and Victim farmed by women, they often do not maintain

183 “Chapter 6: Sexual Offences”, Acts of Ghana: Criminal 190 Ibid. Code 191 “Ghana 2016 Human Rights Report”, U.S. Department of 184 “Domestic Violence in Ghana: Incidence, Attitudes, State Determinants and Consequences”, Ghana Statistical Service, 192 “2017 Trafficking in Persons Report: Ghana”, U.S. July 2016. Department of State 185 Ibid. 193 “The Role of Women in Ghana’s Economy”, Amu, N., 186 Ibid. Friedrich Ebert Stiftung 187 Ibid. 194 “Women’s Evolving Land Rights in the Face of Economic 188 “Ghana 2016 Human Rights Report”, U.S. Department of Change: Ghana”, Hughes, A. and Knox, A., Focus on Land in State Africa, January 2011. 189 “Domestic Violence in Ghana: Incidence, Attitudes, Determinants and Consequences”, Ghana Statistical Service, July 2016.

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decision-making roles on what crops to cultivate women had no idea about the legislative and are less likely to control the resources and mechanisms that helped to protect women from monetary gains that accrue from their labor.195 being excluded from inheritance and land During interviews in the Upper East and Upper tenure.196 Greater awareness and access to formal West, women described how patrilineal land in mechanisms for land issues will help to promote their communities privileges men, and when economic empowerment for women, providing women are given plots they are sub-standard land more opportunities to access and cultivate arable that had previously been used and/or depleted by land for subsistence and commercial farming. male farmers. There was also a dynamic highlighted in the Upper West, where Strengthening access to girls’ education, predominately female farmers would rent land particularly in the rural areas of the Northern, from predominately male landowners and when Upper East, Upper West, and Volta Regions, is also the farms yielded crops, the landowners would crucial to empowering women to participate in the seize back the land, leaving the female farmer with formal economy. During field interviews, teenage nothing. pregnancy was highlighted as a major barrier to girls continuing their education with young mothers Informal trade also offers fewer labor protections forced to drop out to take care of the child. The and lower wages, opening women up to additional Ghana Statistical Service estates that 14 percent vulnerabilities and risks. In field interviews, many of girls in Ghana between the age of 15 and 19 women described instances where widows were have begun child-bearing, rising to 16.9 percent in thrown out from their home with their children, and rural areas, and up to 23 percent for girls who did the family land seized by the husband’s family. not attend school.197 In the Upper West Region, Often these incidents were linked to accusations of interviewees noted the success of long-distance witchcraft, with the widow accused of killing the education in providing young mothers with an husband as a means to dispossess her from the avenue to go back and pursue their education. land. There was also a sense of disempowerment While in the Upper East, women discussed the role for many women interviewed around the country, of a girls’ primary school in the Bolgatanga with limited knowledge or trust of formal grievance municipality, conceived by a mothers group who mechanisms for contesting land ownership, or lack raised funds to build it, in boosting the next of financial resources to do so. The gap between generation of girls’ education in the community. the legal protections available to women with Using the school grounds for farming, the mother’s respect to land tenure, and the implementation group are now selling produce and saving the and use of those instruments remains significant. money to fund a secondary school to continue the As a report by the UN Food and Agriculture girls’ education. Organization (FAO) found in the Volta Region, most

195 Ibid. 197 “Ghana: Demographic and Health Survey”, USAID, 2014. 196 “Impact of Legal and Customary Laws on Access to and Control Over Land in the Volta Region”, FAO

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Sub-National Level Vulnerabilities, Risks and Resilience Factors: Observations by Region

Ashanti Region

The Ashanti Region is bordered by the Brong-Ahafo Region to the north, the Central Region to the south, the Western Region to the south west, and the Eastern Region to the east.198 Its population of 5,406,209 according to 2016 estimates, makes it Ghana’s most populous region.199 The predominant ethnic groups in the region are the Akan, Mole-Dagbani, Ewe and Gurma.200 Agriculture, including forestry and fishing, wholesale and retail trade, and manufacturing are the region’s major economic activities.201 The Ashanti Region also has one of the largest gold- mining sectors in Ghana.202

Structural Vulnerabilities • Perceptions of corruption and nepotism in politics • Underrepresentation of women and youth in political decision- making • Population growth due to migration to urban areas • Lack of family planning • High rates of youth unemployment • Child labor • Galamsey operations • Environmental degradation, pollution and climate pressures • Perceptions of corruption and bias within the judicial system Event-Driven Risks • Tensions with Operation Vanguard • Tensions with mining companies • Violence between political vigilante groups • Land-based disputes

198 “Ashanti Region”, Government of Ghana 199 “Population projections summary 2010 to 2016”, Ghana Statistical Service 200 “2010 Population & Housing Census: Regional Analytical Report: Ashanti Region”, Ghana Statistical Service, June 2013. 201 Ibid. 202 “Ashanti Region”, Government of Ghana

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• Chieftaincy disputes • Criminality and illicit activities flowing from youth unemployment • Food insecurity

Social and Institutional • CSOs and media organizations Resilience Factors • Traditional and religious leaders and chiefs involved in dispute resolution • Initiatives to mitigate land disputes, such as digitizing land registries • Domestic Violence and Victims Support Unit (DOVVSU) • Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ) • Department of Social Welfare • Community nurses

Politics and Governance “While the youth population is voting on issues, Fieldwork participants cited perceptions of the older generation is voting on ethnicity. This corruption, nepotism, and a lack of separation of means that the youth are interested in policies powers as key political vulnerabilities in the Ashanti that will transform their economic well-being Region. Interviewees stated that widespread and not ethnic cleavages that will keep them perceptions of corruption and impunity have poor.” undermined the government’s political legitimacy. - Civil Servant, Kumasi Corruption is reportedly draining state resources, weakening institutional effectiveness, and negatively affecting employment opportunities. The generation votes based on ethnicity, while the new administration is currently trying to pass younger generation votes on issues. During the legislation to establish an independent prosecutor Men’s Focus Group Discussion (FGD), interviewees to fight corruption, which was a major campaign stated that there is discrimination along ethnic promise, but fieldwork participants expressed little lines regarding access to some political position optimism that this would result in meaningful with the Akan tribe reportedly dominating political change. Interviewees also discussed corruption in appointments in the region. relation to political campaigns, stating that campaign donors are preferred in government Women and youth remain underrepresented in contracting. Further, it was stated that government political decision-making in the Ashanti Region, resources were used by incumbents to win elections. Participants highlighted concerns that the Director of the Electoral Commission’s position “In Obuasi, a man and a woman contested. The is a political appointment, allowing space for way they insulted the woman, it discouraged corruption to erode the independence of the her from standing again. It has also Electoral Commission. discouraged other women. Consequently, some women have decided that even if they have Fieldwork participants also discussed the role of money, they would rather use it on themselves.” ethnicity in politics. During one Key Informant Interview (KII), a civil servant stated that the older - Women’s focus group discussion, Kumasi

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although interviewees noted that women are reportedly led to increased pressure for land and increasingly involved in political parties at the local social services in urban areas such as Kumasi. level. Women continue to stand as candidates, despite losing frequently, and are a strong Teenage pregnancy and a lack of family planning mobilizing force for elections. However, women were also identified as key issues facing women continue to face social and economic barriers in and girls in the Ashanti Region. According to the the political sphere. Women receive fewer 2014 Ghana Demographic and Health Survey, only campaign contributions than male candidates, 26.4 percent of women ages 15-49 in the Ashanti preventing many female candidates from being able to compete at the same level. Participants also stated that female political candidates receive “On Wednesday when you go to Manhyia Clinic, more negative or disparaging comments than male you will find many pregnant young girls. candidates, resulting in fewer women running for Because it is common, they have dedicated office. However, during the Youth FGD, participants Wednesday to post-natal care for teenagers. held optimistic views about the role of women in Also in Obuasi, at the government hospital, Mondays and Thursdays have been dedicated politics, citing the visibility of women in roles like to teenagers.” Deputy Regional Manager, Presiding Member of the Municipal Assembly, Regional Director of - Women’s focus group discussion, Kumasi Education, District Chief Executive of a municipality, as well as the numerous positions held in unit committees, district assemblies, and Region reported using any form of parliament as marked progress towards the contraception.203 While these issues reportedly advancement of women in society. receive greater attention in urban settings, fieldwork participants noted that there is little Civil society organizations (CSOs) and the media education on family planning, disease prevention, were cited as resilience factors during the fieldwork or reproductive health in rural areas. Relatedly, because of their impact in building capacity, there is a high rate of teenage pregnancy in the providing civic education, advocating for other region, particularly in rural or mining areas. rights and social issues, and holding the government accountable. According to fieldwork Youth were highlighted as a particularly vulnerable participants, CSOs and the media have active population in the Ashanti Region due to high social media platforms that engage citizens quickly unemployment, high rates of drug use, and a lack and effectively. However, some CSOs are politically of government support for economic advancement, aligned and therefore lose credibility because they despite being active in politics. During the youth lack impartiality. FGD, participants highlighted the need for funding, facilities, skills training, and idea development for Population and Demographics entrepreneurship initiatives, and stated that the absence of job creation targeting youths is a key Fieldwork participants cited overpopulation as an vulnerability. Child labor was another commonly ongoing vulnerability in the Ashanti Region. Rural cited issue facing youth, with many children from to urban migration flows due to a lack of economic poor families being forced to work in quarries and opportunities in rural regions has been a primary mining sites, carry heavy loads on farms, and sell driver of this issue. The population influx has water and other petty items to make money.

203 “Ghana: Demographic and Health Survey”, USAID, 2014.

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Security were no other employment opportunities for illegal miners. The leading security concerns identified by fieldwork participants in the Ashanti Region are The Ashanti Region has also seen a proliferation of chieftaincy disputes, armed robbery, mob justice, political vigilante groups in recent years, which has drug use, gender-based violence (GBV), disputes resulted in increased violence and vandalism. The with land guards,204 galamsey205 mining NDC-aligned group is known as the Ba’ashaka operations, and herder-farmer conflicts. Movement, while the pro-NPP group is called Delta Force. In March 2017, 13 Delta Force members Participants also discussed vulnerabilities related were arrested for storming the Ashanti Regional to public security forces, stating that the military is Coordinating Council to remove an official from allegedly complicit in crimes and that any positive office,207 and members of Delta Force work police forces have conducted has been subsequently raided the Kumasi Circuit Court to overshadowed by perceptions of corruption and free their arrested members in April 2017.208 logistical challenges. Community policing groups, neighborhood watchdog committees, and private Economics and Resources security groups are all involved in security provision in the region, and have reportedly been relatively Fieldwork participants cited rising prices and wage successful in lowering violence. stagnation, food insecurity, and worsening living conditions in mining communities as key economic vulnerabilities in the Ashanti Region. Participants “The soldiers are encouraging crime or covering were also widely frustrated with increasing up crime. The police and military are aware of unemployment, poverty, poor access to electricity, the hideouts of criminals and yet do nothing.” and poor road conditions.

- Women’s focus group discussion, Kumasi Ashanti is a region rich in natural resources and is home to several major mining operations. However, fieldwork participants expressed that Operation Vanguard206 was generally viewed these operations have largely failed to deliver favorably by fieldwork participants, who felt that economic benefits to the local communities in the military had been effective at reducing which they operate. For example, one interviewee galamsey in the region. However, as many in the Youth FGD reported that the town of Obuasi, participants noted, the success of Operation which is home to one of the world’s largest gold Vanguard simply means that “illegal miners are put mines, continues to have poor road infrastructure. out of business without any social or employment Moreover, fieldwork participants reported cases of programs to help them,” which raises questions land seizure and appropriation by traditional about the long-term sustainability of this solution. leaders and mining companies. Participants in the Interviewees reported that the number of armed Men’s FGD also expressed that state institutions robberies and attacks rose briefly following the have been coopted by the interests of mining introduction of Operation Vanguard, because there companies, and thus local communities have little recourse for grievances.

204 “Land guards” is a local expression used to designate task force was launched in July 2017 and has since expanded armed individuals hired by landowners to protect their land. its activities to additional regions. 205 Illegal small-scale mining operations 207 “13 Delta Force members to face fresh charge”, Amofa, G. 206 Operation Vanguard is a joint task force of the Ghanaian and Dwumfour, Y., Ghana News Agency, October 2017. military and police intended to combat illegal mining activities 208 “NPP Delta Force storms court; set suspects free”, Citi (galamsey) in the Western, Eastern and Ashanti regions. The FM, April 2017.

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Rule of Law Galamsey, or small-scale artisanal mining, is prevalent in the Ashanti Region as well. Many Fieldwork participants in the Ashanti Region respondents noted that galamsey has provided reported that the effective functioning of the income and employment for youth in the region, judicial system is hampered by corruption, bias although others highlighted the negative toward the wealthy, and a lack of independence environmental effects of galamsey such as due to executive interference. Many stated that pollution of water. Interviewees expressed mixed public trust in the judiciary has eroded due to opinions around the long-term success of corruption, and access to justice is perceived to Operation Vanguard, stating that while the military only be available to wealthy citizens. Interviewees operation has been effective in shutting down also noted that judicial processes are frequently galamsey operations in several areas, the program long and cumbersome. This lack of confidence in fails to provide alternative livelihoods for displaced the formal judicial system has resulted in an miners. In addition, some interviewees reported increased reliance on mediation and alternative that the closure of galamsey operations has led to mechanisms of dispute resolution. The Manhyia

‘‘Galamsey has improved the well-being of the “In Nsuta-Kwamang, when an incident occurs, youth in farming communities who were poor the matter is first referred to the Queen Mother. while farming. They have built houses and GHS 20 is charged as consultation fee and GHS bought expensive cars out of the galamsey. In 10 as sitting fees. If it is beyond her, she refers this regard it will be difficult to keep them out of the matter to the ‘Ahenfie’, i.e. Chief’s palace. small-scale mining as a result of Operation It is only when it is beyond the chiefs that the Vanguard.” matter is referred to the police. On the other hand, people who are more religious take it to - Civil Servant, Kumasi their pastors.”

- Women’s focus group discussion, Kumasi miners in the Akim Bomfa area mining under private houses to escape the oversight of Operation Vanguard. Participants in the Women’s Palace (the seat of the Asantehene, the Ashanti FGD also reported tensions between members of king), as well as chiefs and religious, community, Operation Vanguard and local communities in and family leaders have all been used in recent Obuasi, stating that the soldiers would randomly years to settle land, chieftaincy, and family arrest young people and sleep with people’s wives disputes in the Ashanti Region. As one youth leader and children. stated, “Traditional authorities are faster and relatively cheaper in terms of cost in dispute Finally, the Ashanti Region has been affected by settlement.” environmental degradation and climate pressures. Participants were mainly concerned about the soil Women’s issues are receiving greater attention in and water degradation occurring at mining sites. the Ashanti Region, and participants stated that Infrequent or shifting rainfall patterns due to police generally take cases related to sexual climate change was also a concern among assault, domestic violence, and rape against participants because of its effect on agricultural women seriously. The Department of Social outputs and food security throughout the region. Welfare, Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ), and Domestic Violence and Victims Support Unit (DOVVSU) were

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all cited among fieldwork participants as ensuring participants in the Men’s FGD pointed to the work women’s rights are upheld in the Ashanti Region. of WANEP-Ghana, as well as social media and news sites such as GhanaWeb as helping to spread Social and Institutional Resilience Factors information. Community watch and vigilante groups are involved in security provision, while Despite the risks and vulnerabilities detailed traditional leaders (including Queen Mothers) and above, a number of social and institutional chiefs are involved in mediation and dispute resilience factors were identified by fieldwork resolution at the local level. As noted above, the participants in the Ashanti Region. CSOs and media Department of Social Welfare, CHRAJ, and DOVVSU organizations reportedly play an important role in are also involved in protecting and promoting the promoting government accountability and carrying rights of women in the Ashanti Region. Finally, out civic and rights-based education initiatives to participants in the Women’s FGD reported that a benefit the public. Community nurses and the chief in Asokore Mampong has computerized land Ghana AIDS Commission are also involved in records in his community, which has reduced cases sensitization efforts around family planning, while of multiple land sales and ensuing disputes.

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Brong -Ahafo Region

The Brong-Ahafo Region, located in west- central Ghana, is the second-largest region, accounting for 16.6 percent of the country’s total land area.209 It is bordered on the north by the Northern Region, to the south by the Ashanti and Western Regions, to the southeast by the Eastern Region, to the west by Côte d'Ivoire, and to the east by the Volta Region. Brong-Ahafo has a population of 2,660,642, according to 2016 estimates.210 The region is home to several ethnic groups, including the Akan, Mole-Dagbani, Gurma, Guan and Grusi. Two-thirds of people are Christians, and the remaining third practices Islam and African traditional religions.211 With agriculture, including forestry and fishing, as the predominant economic industry, the Brong- Ahafo Region provides about 30 percent of Ghana’s food.212 Other sources of economic livelihood include wholesale and retail trade, and manufacturing.213

Structural Vulnerabilities • High rate of youth unemployment • Emigration to Accra or Europe • High rate of early marriage • Gender-based violence (GBV) • Galamsey operations • Illicit economic activities, including illegal logging and drug trafficking • Rising cost of living • Perceptions of corruption and nepotism in politics • Underrepresentation of women and youth in political decision-making • Perceived corruption, bias and lack of independence in the judicial system • Slow processing times in the judicial system • Criminality and proliferation of small arms and light weapons (SALW) • Low levels of confidence in security forces due to perceived corruption and bias • Inadequate staff and resources for security forces

209 “2010 Population & Housing Census: Regional Analytical Report”, Ghana Statistical Service, May 2013. 210 “Population projections summary 2010 to 2016”, Ghana Statistical Service 211 “2010 Population & Housing Census: Regional Analytical Report: Brong Ahafo Region”, Ghana Statistical Service, June 2013. 212 Ibid. 213 Ibid.

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Event-Driven Risks • Elections • Tensions with Operation Vanguard • Chieftaincy disputes Social and Institutional • Civil society organizations (CSOs) Resilience Factors • Chiefs and traditional leaders involved in dispute resolution

Politics and Governance

Key political issues identified by fieldwork 27 district leaders in Brong-Ahafo Region are participants in Brong-Ahafo include widespread women. perceptions of corruption and nepotism, as well as the underrepresentation and manipulation of Similarly, youth are often engaged and mobilized by women and youth during election periods. politicians during the campaign period, but are Interviewees described a situation in which political sidelined in decision-making after the elections. affiliation and party loyalty is the leading Interviewees noted that youth are promised jobs or determinant of employment and other other benefits during election periods, or are opportunities, and as a result youth will reportedly “bought for some money or alcohol.” The failure of leave agriculture or other jobs and work for political politicians to fulfill campaign promises, often parties in the hopes of receiving a more lucrative regarding employment or infrastructure projects, post after the elections. One respondent also noted was a common grievance expressed by fieldwork that “politicians appoints their relatives regardless participants in Brong-Ahafo. One participant noted of the fact that they are unqualified for the that the perceived high stakes of these campaign position.” promises serves to make election periods more volatile, and others connected unfulfilled campaign promises to cases of violence and vigilantism “Politics and corruption are no longer seen as a among youth. crime here because it is practiced in the open. They are twins and can’t be separated.” “The burden of work women do at home tends - Women’s focus group discussion, Sunyani to limit their opportunities in participating in politics and decision making processes… [there are] no facilities available for them to keep their children and feel that they are safe to enable them to participate in politics.” In addition, women remain underrepresented in political decision-making in the Brong-Ahafo - Female Youth Leader, Sunyani Region due to cultural norms that discourage women’s participation and a lack of education and funding to run campaigns. Interviewees observed that while women may play supportive roles in Finally, several interviewees expressed concern political parties, such as providing food during around the politicization of chiefs, noting that this campaign rallies or mobilizing other women, these undermines the neutrality and authority of these activities are rarely translated into formal positions. traditional leaders. Participants also warned that According to fieldwork participants, only two of the civil society organization (CSO) leaders who take

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positions in the government may weaken their programs in the region to reduce early marriage legitimacy in the eyes of the population. and its effects.

Gender-based violence (GBV) is also a concern in Population and Demographics the region, particularly among underage girls. However, incidents of domestic or sexual violence A primary demographic issue identified by remain underreported, largely due to cultural participants in the Brong-Ahafo Region is the high stigma. As participants in the Women’s Focus rate of youth unemployment. Several interviewees Group Discussion (FGD) explained, “This is mostly noted that poverty and the lack of formal resolved between the families where the girl’s employment opportunities has contributed to youth family gets paid a certain amount of money, and the issue stays unreported for fear of stigmatization.” Underreporting is also driven by “Migration to Accra for higher lifestyles is on the the fact that police do not seriously investigate rise but most of the time they end up suffering cases of domestic violence when they are reported. and living below standard over there.” One youth leader observed that police often deem domestic violence cases to be “foolish” and blame - Female Youth Leader, Sunyani the woman for being “disrespectful to her husband.” engagement in illicit activities in the region, Security including criminality, prostitution, cultivation of

Indian hemp, galamsey (small-scale artisanal Key security concerns identified by fieldwork mining), and cybercrime. In addition, youth participants included criminality, including armed unemployment has driven a strong trend of robberies and gang activity, drug trafficking, emigration to Accra or to Europe, with youth cybercrime, and the proliferation of small arms and reportedly traveling from Brong-Ahafo to Libya and light weapons (SALW). Incidents of political onwards to Europe in search of employment violence between supporters of the NDC and NPP opportunities. have also been reported in the Brong-Ahafo

Fieldwork participants also observed a high prevalence of early marriage in the region. As of “Some of the security people give their uniform 2011, 29.1 percent of girls in Brong-Ahafo Region to thieves to use at night for robbery and some were married before the age of 18.214 Interviewees might also give them their guns.” noted that early marriage of underage girls often takes place to mask pre-marital pregnancies or is - Men’s focus group discussion, Sunyani compelled by financial pressures, as the bride’s family receives a dowry and financial support from Region, as well as chieftaincy disputes. the groom’s family. Early marriage has reportedly contributed to higher rates of school dropouts Fieldwork participants did not express a high level among underage girls and entrenched poverty, as of trust in the region’s security forces. Interviewees well as health problems such as Vesico Vagina highlighted issues of corruption among security Fistula (VVF). One interviewee noted that CSOs, forces, reporting that security personnel are including ActionAid and UNICEF, are working on involved in galamsey or other illicit activities, and that criminals use weapons from the security

214 “Child Marriage in Ghana”, UNICEF

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forces in carrying out armed robberies. Furthermore, security personnel are reportedly “In cocoa growing areas, children [provide] recruited based on political affiliation, and thus are support on the farms, care for the cattle, farm seen as being politically biased toward the ruling with their parents for a 6-7-month periods party. As one interviewee stated, investigations during the rainy season before returning back “are delayed for those whose party is not the ruling to school.” party and [they] are kept in jail awaiting trials for years.” Several respondents also reported - Female Youth Leader, Sunyani inadequate staff and resources for police in the region, noting that some communities rely on neighborhood watch groups to ensure security. the region. Several interviewees noted that security forces have taken steps to address drug trafficking Economics and Resources in the region, but most of the arrests carried out thus far have targeted traffickers rather than the Primary economic activities in Brong-Ahafo Region farmers cultivating the drug. include the production of cash crops (cocoa, A primary concern identified by fieldwork cashew), manufacturing, and commerce.215 In addition, galamsey is prevalent in the area participants was the rising cost of living, including surrounding Sunyani, and many youths are increasing prices for food, gas, and other staple reportedly engaged in galamsey activities due to goods. As one interviewee stated, “Gas prices keep economic pressures and the high rate of rising whilst incomes are not rising unemployment. Several interviewees highlighted proportionately.” These increases have reportedly the negative environmental impacts of galamsey in affected food security in the region, particularly for the region, most notably the pollution of water. As vulnerable populations living in rural areas. one interviewee stated, “[Galamsey] has polluted Participants in the Women’s FGD also expressed the source of water in the whole region to the dissatisfaction with the costs associated with extent that you can’t drink water from the tap.” electricity provision by the Volta River Authority (VRA). For example, interviewees reported that While Operation Vanguard216 has taken steps to curb galamsey, fieldwork participants noted that customers must pay for the VRA’s meters in order these actions have been only partially successful, to receive electricity, a policy which one respondent as some security forces are suspected to be characterized as “like going to the butcher and complicit in galamsey operations. Prominent taking your own scale along.” politicians and local chiefs are also allegedly involved in galamsey, which undermines attempts Child labor is also reportedly a concern, particularly to end the practice. One interviewee reported that in the agricultural sector. According to a 2014 the closure of mining sites due to Operation report by the Ghana Statistical Service, Brong- Vanguard has driven some youth to engage in Ahafo Region has the third-highest percentage of armed robbery and other illicit activities. children engaged in economic activity, after the Upper East and Upper West Regions; 41.7 percent In addition to galamsey, illegal logging and drug of children aged 5 – 17 in Brong-Ahafo (more than cultivation and trafficking – primarily hemp - were 382,000 children) were reportedly engaged in identified as prominent illicit economic activities in some form of economic activity in the 7 days prior to the survey.217 Those children who were engaged

215 “Brong Ahafo”, Government of Ghana task force was launched in July 2017 and has since 216 Operation Vanguard is a joint task force of the Ghanaian expanded its activities to additional regions. military and police intended to combat illegal mining activities 217 “Child Labour Report”, Ghana Statistical Service, August (galamsey) in the Western, Eastern and Ashanti regions. The 2014.

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in economic activity also had lower rates of school As a result of this low level of confidence, attendance. In Brong-Ahafo, school attendance community members reportedly turn to mediation was a reported 88.4 percent among children by chiefs or other forms of alternative dispute engaged in economic activity, compared to 92.7 resolution in civil cases, rather than going through percent among children not engaged in economic the judicial system. Interviewees also reported that activity.218 mob justice is a frequent occurrence, particularly in criminal cases which are beyond the purview of Rule of Law traditional dispute resolution mechanisms.

Mistrust of the formal justice system was prevalent Finally, as noted above, cases of gender-based among fieldwork participants in Brong-Ahafo, violence (GBV) are routinely underreported. Police primarily due to a perceived lack of judicial often fail to properly investigate cases of domestic independence, slow processing times, and violence, terming them “foolish cases.” Several allegations of corruption and impunity. interviewees also noted that women are not Interviewees described cases in which criminals adequately informed of their legal rights, which are released by the police after a short period of deters them from seeking justice. time, often due to corruption. In addition, one respondent noted that members of the Delta Force Social and Institutional Resilience Factors vigilante group have in the past operated with relative immunity, and have even forced the police Despite the risks and vulnerabilities detailed to release their members who have been arrested. above, fieldwork participants in Brong-Ahafo identified a number of sources of resilience in the region. CSOs play an important role in awareness “The Executive tends to influence much of what raising and sensitization in the region. ActionAid the judiciary does, their allegiance stays with and UNICEF are reportedly working to decrease the whomever has appointed them into office.” prevalence of underage marriage in the region. In addition, ActionAid and other CSOs provide - Female Youth Leader, Sunyani capacity-building for women and youth in the region to encourage their participation in politics. Chiefs and traditional leaders are also involved in

dispute resolution at the local level, although their role does not extend to criminal cases.

218 Ibid.

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Central Region

The Central Region is bordered on the north by the Ashanti and Eastern Regions, on the south by the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by the Western Region, and on the east by the Greater Accra Region.219 Home to the Akan, Guan and Ewe, the region comprises of 2,437,798 persons, according to 2016 projections.220 Inhabitants in the region primarily engage in agriculture, including forestry and fishing, wholesale and retail trade, and manufacturing.221 The Central Region, because of its prominent historical and geological sites, is also vital to the country’s tourism industry.222

Structural Vulnerabilities • Perceptions of corruption and bias within politics • Political polarization and partisanship • “Winner-takes-all” electoral system • Underrepresentation of women and youth in political decision-making • Population growth • Inadequate provision of quality education and healthcare services • Gender-based violence (GBV) and child abuse • Early marriage • Perceptions of corruption among security forces • Inadequate resources for police and security forces • Poverty • High rates of youth unemployment • Rising cost of living • Galamsey operations • Climate change and environmental pressures • Perceptions of corruption and bias within the judicial system Event-Driven Risks • Elections and political campaigns • Land-based disputes, including clashes with land guards • Criminality, particularly drug trafficking, armed robberies, and cybercrime

219 “Central Region”, Government of Ghana 220 “Population projections summary 2010 to 2016”, Ghana Statistical Service 221 “2010 Population & Housing Census: Regional Analytical Report: Central Region”, Ghana Statistical Service, June 2013. 222 Ibid.

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• Gender-based violence (GBV) Event-Driven Risks • Tensions with Operation Vanguard • Mob justice Social and Institutional • Chiefs and traditional leaders Resilience Factors • History of peaceful inter-ethnic and inter-religious relationships • Infrastructure and development projects

Politics and Governance policies, which has resulted in a lack of continuity in policy or development projects. Concerns about the country’s political process and the general character of the political climate were prevalent during interviews with participants from “Women that are vocal and fearless are Central Region. Interviewees described a context of regarded as concubines to politicians.” constant politicking, with one participant in the Youth Focus Group Discussion (FGD) stating, - Educator, Cape Coast “Politics has become a way of life for some people and a means to an end.” Political identities and partisan politics have reportedly extended into the Women and youth also remain underrepresented socio-economic sphere, and often impact in politics in the Central Region. Interviewees employment opportunities. One interviewee noted attributed women’s underrepresentation in that “Looking for employment is tied to the decision-making roles to cultural norms that deter question of ‘do you belong to a political party?’” women’s political participation. Several Other concerns included tensions around political respondents noted that women in political rallies, increased political polarization along positions often face shaming or abuse, or are regional, ethnic and tribal lines, and widespread assumed to have traded sexual favors in exchange perceptions of nepotism and corruption. for political positions.

Addressing the recent 2016 elections and the Youth are similarly underrepresented in decision- subsequent post-election transition, interviewees making roles, and fieldwork participants expressed highlighted several vulnerabilities in the current concern around the vulnerability of youth to governmental structure, which is believed to political manipulation and the threat of youth promote a “winner takes all” atmosphere. This militancy. In one Key Informant Interview (KII), an results in entrenching divisions along political educator stated, “The youth have become more lines, increasing political militancy among the politically divided. They are lured to campaign for youth, and promoting capricious governmental politicians who later dump them. This cycle of misusing the youth is what has made the youth “The political system is completely exclusive. militant.” Winner-takes-all syndrome will one day create rebellion in the country. This system of Finally, participants expressed a low level of governance is building up time bombs.” confidence in the ability of civil society organizations and the press to effectively promote - Men’s focus group discussion, Cape Coast transparency and good governance practices.

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Respondents noted that a lack of independence, communities highly vulnerable to flooding, were as well as civil society organizations’ (CSOs) fears cited. of retaliation and victimization for their viewpoints, had undermined their contributions to good Participants also expressed concern with the governance. The presence of a partisan news region's public services, specifically the education media, the tendency of some media groups to write and health sectors. Interviewees particularly cited inaccurate stories due to economic pressures, and expensive school fees, poor school attendance, a the use of radio media to incite discord were cited disconnect between school curricula and as further hindrances. employment needs, and corruption as undermining the quality of the region’s education system. As one Population and Demographics participant in the Women’s FGD noted, “For a teacher to get promoted to the next level, most Fieldwork participants in the Central Region times, she must bribe her way through or else could reported that demographic changes, particularly stagnate for years.” The security of female population growth and migration, coupled with high students in schools, particularly at the tertiary level, rates of unemployment, have resulted in rising was also identified as a primary issue of concern. socio-economic pressures in the region. For Although fieldwork respondents noted that female interviewees, population growth, which has attendance in schools had increased in recent contributed to an increased scarcity of employment years, they also reported that girls face increased opportunities, has made youth susceptible to sexual harassment and abuse from teachers and manipulation by political elites. As one respondent professors. As one participant in the Youth FGD stated, “[The] increase in population has led to a explained, “Girls are intentionally failed in their lack of employment opportunities and, as such, the exams in order to force them to sleep with lecturers politicians use the youth during election time to do their dirty jobs and thereafter ignore them.” In addition to political manipulation, participants “More girls attend school now than before. expressed concern that youth unemployment However, when it comes to tertiary education fosters criminal activity, such as drug trafficking, (Universities and Colleges), the heads of institutions want to sleep with you before you and increased youth participation in galamsey223 get admission. Sometimes, they propose to and Sakawa224 schemes. Migration from the region you.” to Accra, which respondents attributed to the high rate of unemployment, was also described as - Youth focus group discussion, Cape Coast contributing to “brain drain,” or the scarcity of educated and trained individuals for local jobs. before they pass them.” The impact of population growth on the housing sector was also highlighted as a vulnerability. One In addition to the education sector, fieldwork participant noted that population growth has participants highlighted the region’s weak capacity contributed to a housing deficit, thereby resulting to provide quality healthcare. Interviewees noted a in resource competition and a reliance on lack of adequate resources for local health clinics alternative housing sources. In particular, the and hospitals, and poor infrastructure. For conversion of toilets into rooms and the example, one participant recounted how, upon construction of houses on waterways, which makes donating mattresses to a health center in the village of Moree, a youth group discovered that

223 Illicit small-scale artisanal mining 224 A form of cybercrime that combines online fraud with ritual practices.

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there were no beds in the clinic for the mattresses percentage increased between 2006 and 2011.226 to be placed upon. Fieldwork participants noted that early marriage is often driven by financial pressures. As one Gender-based violence (GBV) and the vulnerability traditional leader stated, “Wherever there is of women and girls were also identified as key poverty, there is early child marriage.” issues in the Central Region. Interviewees described Ghanaian society’s view of women as Security “second-class citizens,” in part due to the influence of religious beliefs and cultural norms that prevent Key security threats identified by participants in the women’s empowerment. Respondents also noted Central Region included criminality and armed the prevalence of GBV, particularly domestic robberies, drug trafficking, and mob justice. Indian abuse, which is routinely under-reported. As one hemp and cocaine were identified as popular drugs participant in the Women’s FGD explained, used by youth in the region. One interviewee also “Domestic abuse is very prevalent here and mostly cited land conflicts, including tensions with land perpetrated by the fishermen. They beat their wives guards227 and disputes over land sales, as a and if she reports it to DOVVSU,225 her in-laws take security concern. it seriously and the release of her husband, if at all arrested, could lead to her being divorced and also blamed by her in-laws. As a result, most cases of “The security agencies are worsening the domestic abuse go unreported.” Socio-economic situation. They have spoilt the system. The pressures have also led to an increase in citizens keep quiet even when they are being prostitution, including of underage girls from rural robbed.” areas. - Traditional Leader, Cape Coast

“If you go to the streets at night, you will see girls of between the ages of 12-14 engaged in prostitution. There is a slogan in Cape Coast In general, fieldwork participants expressed a low that says, ‘One cedi=One girl’. If you have a level of confidence in the capacity of the security cedi, you can have sex with one girl. These girls forces to protect local populations, largely due to a are from hinterland Ghana.” lack of staff and resources as well as widespread corruption. Interviewees noted that security forces - Traditional Leader, Cape Coast are often accused of complicity with criminals, or fail to adequately investigate incidents, particularly cases involving prominent politicians. Participants The exposure of children to violence, exploitation in the Youth FGD also noted that there are tensions and abuse was also reported as an area of and a lack of respect between police and youth in vulnerability. In addition to the prostitution of the region. As a result of this low level of trust, underage girls, interviewees identified child labor, communities frequently turn to mob justice. street hawking, child abuse, child rape, and early marriage as concerns in the Central Region. As of Economics and Resources 2011, 31.2 percent of women in the Central Region were married by the age of 18, and this Fieldwork participants in the Central Region identified a rising cost of living, high rates of

225 Domestic Violence & Victim Support Unit of the Ghana 227 “Land guards” is a local expression used to designate Police Service armed individuals hired by landowners to protect their land. 226 “Child Marriage in Ghana”, UNICEF

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unemployment and poverty as key economic recounted, “People have destroyed their houses issues in the area. Salaries have reportedly not thinking that they have gold underneath. kept pace with increases in commodity prices and Farmlands and rivers are all are being destroyed housing, which have been driven up, due in part by because people thought there might be gold.” migration and population growth in the region. One Moreover, some participants expressed concerns participant noted that local fishermen prefer to sell about the threats galamsey poses to the region’s their goods in neighboring Ashanti and Brong-Ahafo historical monuments. In a KII, a traditional leader Regions, where they are sold for more profit. As a reported that youth are willing to destroy the result, fish and other commodities are reportedly Elmina and Cape Coast castles (colonial historical “very expensive and unaffordable” for residents of monuments and popular tourist sites), because of the Central Region. rumors about the discovery of gold under these sites. Perceptions about the government’s ability to In addition, the economy of the Central Region is effectively regulate galamsey activities were mixed. primarily based on agriculture and fishing, with few Although some fieldwork respondents held that the private enterprises. As a result, there are limited practice was poorly controlled and alleged that formal employment opportunities available in the “chiefs and politicians are all illegal miners,” other area, particularly for youth, and poverty rates are participants reported that the governmental high. While overall poverty rates have decreased in efforts, including Operation Vanguard,229 have had the Central Region in recent years, the 2016 a significant impact in reducing the practice. Ghana Poverty and Inequality Analysis by UNICEF found that measures of poverty depth and severity increased between 2006 and 2013, meaning that, “Children who should be in school are now “On average the poor… are now living deeper in mining gold, stones etc. This has brought untold poverty than in 2006.”228 Several interviewees also hardship. The effects will be visible in a few noted that unemployment has led youth to engage years from now. This will spring up in issues in crime or illegal activities such as galamsey or such as cultism, armed robbery and other Sakawa schemes. vices.”

Fieldwork participants also highlighted the role of - Traditional Leader, Cape Coast the extractives sector, particularly oil and gold mining, in the region. Perceptions about the oil industry’s contributions to the region’s economic Finally, Central Region is vulnerable to the effects and infrastructural development were largely of global climate change, including changes in positive. One interviewee noted that the oil rainfall patterns. As the economy is reliant on the revenues had aided in the provision of free agricultural and fishing sectors, respondents education by the government. However, gold expressed concerns about the impact of such mining, more specifically the small-scale artisanal climate pressures on economic viability and food mining known as galamsey, was widely perceived security. As one participant in the Women’s FGD as a destructive enterprise. Respondents noted, “The rainy season has changed, and late described the practice as a driver of crime and rains affect farm produce and food security.” As a insecurity and a detriment to the environment, coastal area, the Central Region is also vulnerable agriculture, and health. As one interviewee to shoreline erosion and sea level rise, which can

228 “The Ghana Poverty and Inequality Report”, Cooke, E., (galamsey) in the Western, Eastern and Ashanti regions. The Hague, S. and McKay, A., UNICEF, March 2016. task force was launched in July 2017 and has since expanded 229 Operation Vanguard is a joint task force of the Ghanaian its activities to additional regions, including Central. military and police intended to combat illegal mining activities

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impact livelihoods and increase the exposure of of these traditional authorities to effectively fulfill coastal communities to flooding and storm their roles as mediators were mixed. While some damage.230 participants described them as vital instruments of dispute resolution and conflict mitigation, other Rule of Law interviewees reported that they had been coopted by political interests and were therefore ineffective Fieldwork participants generally expressed a low at safeguarding the rule of law. Participants in the level of confidence in the formal judicial system in Women’s FGD also reported that some people turn the region, citing a lack of judicial independence to indigenous religions to seek justice. One and widespread perceptions of corruption and bias respondent stated that, “If the custodians of the toward the wealthy. As one civil society leader law can be bribed to overturn justice, we know that explained, “You need to pay everyone to get your the gods cannot be bribed. Cases have been taken case even heard…they will tell you if you don’t pay to the shrines where a broom is invoked and used then we will not see your case.” As a result, to arrest the offender and then justice is served.” participants reported that local communities frequently turn to mob justice rather than relying on Social and Institutional Resilience Factors the police or the courts to deal with suspected criminals. Despite the vulnerabilities and risks listed above, Central Region has a number of social and institutional resilience factors that help mitigate “The rule of law is at risk. If you don’t have these risks. Fieldwork participants particularly money, connections or hired supporters, and identified the role of chiefs and traditional leaders you get into trouble, you are likely to be jailed for the slightest offence. If you don’t have any in dispute resolution and conflict mitigation. of these and you go to seek justice, your case Government-sponsored infrastructure and will be adjourned several times just to frustrate development projects, such as the provision of free you.” education, the establishment of a new sports stadium for youth engagement and the creation of - Traditional Leader, Cape Coast a new modern market, were also identified as positive resilience factors. Finally, the region’s history of peaceful ethnic and religious

relationships, including inter-faith and inter-ethnic This low level of confidence has also led to a marriages, was highlighted by fieldwork reliance on alternative forms of dispute resolution, participants as a source of resilience in the Central notably mediation by chiefs and traditional Region. authorities. However, perceptions about the ability

230 “Analysis of Shoreline Change along Cape Coast-Sekondi Coast, Ghana”, Dadson, I., Owusu, A. and Adams, O., Geography Journal, 2016

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Eastern Region

The third most populous region after Ashanti and Greater Accra with 3,028,597 people,231 the Eastern Region is bordered to the north by the Brong-Ahafo and Ashanti Regions, to the south by the Central and Greater Accra Regions, to the west by the Ashanti Region and to the east by Lake Volta. Its population is comprised of several ethnic groups, including the Akan, Ewe, Ga-Dangme and the Guan.232 The main economic activities in the Eastern Region include agriculture, primarily the production of cocoa and pineapples; inland fishing; inland water transportation; and tourism.233 Mining, as well as the trade and service industries, are also essential to the region’s economy.234 The Eastern Region, with its hydroelectric dams, is the country’s largest supplier of electricity.235 It also provides power to neighboring countries like Togo and Benin.236

Structural Vulnerabilities • Manipulation of youth by politicians • Underrepresentation of women in decision-making • Gender-based violence (GBV) • Criminality • Lack of clarity around land use policies • Lack of resources and pay for security forces • Perceptions of corruption among security forces • High rates of youth unemployment • Galamsey operations • Perceptions of bias and corruption in the judicial system • Slow processing times in the judicial system Event-Driven Risks • Herder-farmer conflicts • Chieftaincy disputes • Tensions with Operation Vanguard Social and Institutional • Traditional and religious leaders Resilience Factors • Peaceful inter-religious relationships • Youth organizations • Transportation system and infrastructure

231 “Population projections summary 2010 to 2016”, Ghana Statistical Service 232 Ibid. 233 “2010 Population & Housing Census: Regional Analytical Report: Eastern Region”, Ghana Statistical Service, June 2013. 234 Ibid. 235 “Bui and the Tale of Three Hydro Dams”, Government of Ghana 236 Ibid.

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Politics and Governance some participants said that the region has adequate access to public services, several Fieldwork participants generally expressed positive interviewees highlighted shortcomings in views of the government and political processes in healthcare services. For example, one participant the Eastern Region. The region is an electoral in the Women’s Focus Group Discussion (FGD) stronghold for the New Patriotic Party (NPP), and reported that women in the region are not provided while interviewees reported some political tensions with antibiotics after giving birth. surrounding past elections, these concerns were relatively minor. However, several interviewees did As a source of community resilience, interviewees express concern around the potential for highlighted the positive inter-religious relationships vulnerable or unemployed youth to be manipulated in the region. As one interviewee in the Women’s by politicians, and noted that “vigilante boys” FGD said, “We have churches and mosques here; sometimes operate as informal security forces for we coexist.” politicians. One interviewee also expressed disappointment in the region’s political leadership, Security noting that politicians abandon campaign promises and projects after elections. According to fieldwork participants, the primary security issues in the Eastern Region are Women’s representation in political decision- criminality, substance abuse, prostitution, gender- making in the Eastern Region is reportedly growing, based violence (GBV), land disputes and and interviewees cited several examples of women chieftaincy disputes. Interviewees highlighted the in prominent positions, including a municipal chief prevalence of armed robbery and petty theft in the executive and deputy minister. However, women region, as well as the activities of the “Sakawa continue to face cultural barriers and norms that boys”237 who are involved in cybercrime and fraud. discourage their participation in decision-making. Criminality is often reportedly perpetrated by As one religious leader noted, these barriers are youths, and fieldwork respondents attributed these maintained not only by men, but also by “women crimes to the region’s high rate of youth [who] don’t want their fellow women to be in unemployment and low education levels. power” due to envy and a “pull her down” culture. Gender-based violence, including domestic Population and Demographics violence and sexual assault, is also reportedly widespread in the Eastern Region. Interviewees Key demographic concerns identified by fieldwork noted that, despite the prevalence of GBV, participants in the Eastern Region included early reporting of these cases is frequently hindered by pregnancy among teenagers and growing substance abuse among youth. Youth in the region “Rape is an issue. In the last two weeks, my face high rates of unemployment, and several youngest daughter’s 10-year-old mate went to participants attributed the issues of drug use and school and on the way a gentleman called her criminality to insufficient employment and to help him in an uncompleted house. He raped education among youth. her, and the girl was hospitalized… I think the family is going to report it” Respondents also expressed mixed opinions on the provision of public services in the region. While - Women’s focus group discussion, Koforidua

237 “Inside the world of Ghana’s internet fraudsters”, Darko, S., BBC, May 2015.

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social stigma. As a result, GBV cases are often business in the region is underdeveloped, in part settled out of court or mediated by religious or due to the region’s proximity to Accra. As one traditional leaders, rather than being reported to respondent in the Men’s FGD explained, “Nothing the police. is booming. You see people will always pass Koforidua to go to Accra, as it is the city so people Land disputes are also a concern, according to go there.” Several interviewees also expressed that fieldwork participants. Many of these disputes the business environment in the region is not reportedly occur within or between families over welcoming to new enterprises, and that high the sale of land. Interviewees also noted a lack of interest rates on loans make it difficult to promote clarity and popular knowledge around land use entrepreneurship. policies. In addition to disputes over land sales, the Afram Plains area of the Eastern Region has seen Interviewees also highlighted youth unemployment violent conflicts between herders and farming and rising food prices as key economic concerns in communities over the damage of farmland and the Eastern Region. As noted above, participants access to grazing areas. attributed cases of criminality and drug use to the high rate of youth unemployment. One interviewee Chieftaincy disputes were identified as another also noted that the lack of formal employment in source of violence in the Eastern Region. the region has contributed to a trend of youth Participants in the Women’s FGD noted that migration to Accra, or encouraged youth to engage fighting between chiefs in Koforidua had forced the in galamsey (small scale artisanal mining). community to cancel the annual Akwantukese festival (which commemorates the migration of the The practice of galamsey was a primary concern Juaben people from the Ashanti Region to the identified by fieldwork participants. While some Eastern Region)238 in the past. participants noted that galamsey provides an important source of livelihoods for youth, others Finally, fieldwork participants noted that security raised the negative environmental impacts of forces in the region often face a lack of resources artisanal mining, including water pollution and the and pay. As one participant in the Men’s FGD destruction of agricultural land. Participants in the described, “You will have to pay for fuel for [the Women’s FGD also reported that the prevalence of police’s] car to come, and this happened to me galamsey has led to a rise in violence and when I needed them.” Several respondents also criminality in mining areas, and has contributed to reported widespread perceptions of corruption and school dropouts among youth. The Eastern Region instances of abuse among the police in the region. is one of the target areas for Operation This has contributed to an overall perception among fieldwork participants that police and security forces in the region are largely ineffective. “They have bigger equipment, and are destroying our rivers… the rivers are brown. You Economics and Resources can’t drink the water, formerly you could drink. No fishing, no bathing…”

The economy of the Eastern Region is largely based - Women’s focus group discussion, Koforidua on agriculture, with nearly 60 percent of households engaged in agricultural production.239 Fieldwork participants reported that trade and

238 “Preparations underway to mark 20th Akwantukese 239 “2010 Population & Housing Census: Regional Analytical Festival & Daasebre’s Silver Jubilee”, Today Ghana, October Report: Eastern Region”, Ghana Statistical Service, June 2017. 2013.

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Vanguard,240 and fieldwork participants warned have lost interest by the time it is resolved, it takes that the military intervention risks raising tensions years.” with local communities if they do not provide youth engaged in galamsey operations with alternative Due to this low level of confidence, fieldwork sources of income generation. participants reported that individuals often prefer to turn to an alternative form of justice, including Rule of Law mediation by community leaders or turning to a ritualist to cast a spell on the perpetrator. Fieldwork participants in the Eastern Region Interviewees also reported cases of mob justice in generally expressed a low level of confidence in the the Eastern Region, in which the community “will security forces and judicial system, due to first beat [the thief] up and then take him to the widespread perceptions of corruption and bias police.” toward the wealthy. One religious leader noted that judicial decisions are often influenced by personal Social and Institutional Resilience Factors connections, so in seeking a favorable decision, if “you know the judge, go to his house and see him.” Despite the vulnerabilities identified above, Participants in the Men’s FGD further noted that participants in the FGDs and Key Informant cases brought to the police are sometimes Interviews (KIIs) also highlighted a number of social dismissed as “foolish” cases, and the perpetrator and institutional resilience factors in the Eastern will be released or justice not served because of Region. As noted above, traditional leaders and corruption at the police level. The judicial system royal families play a key role in mediation and is also reportedly hindered by long processing dispute resolution. In addition, fieldwork times. As one participant in the Women’s FGD participants highlighted the region’s peaceful inter- stated, “the court process takes so long, you may religious relationships, and the role of religious leaders and churches in supporting education and health initiatives in the area. Participants in the “You can report, they will tell you they are Men’s FGD also noted that student associations investigating, but nothing is done. It doesn’t and youth organizations have a positive influence yield anything.” on youth in the Eastern Region. Finally, the region’s relatively good transportation system and - Women’s focus group discussion, Koforidua infrastructure was identified as a source of resilience by interviewees.

240 Operation Vanguard is a joint task force of the Ghanaian task force was launched in July 2017 and has since military and police intended to combat illegal mining activities expanded its activities to additional regions, including (galamsey) in the Western, Eastern and Ashanti regions. The Central.

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Greater Accra Region

Occupying the smallest land area in Ghana241 and home to the capital, Accra, the Greater Accra Region is bordered on the north by the Eastern Region, on the south by the Gulf of Guinea, on the West by the Central Region, and on the east by Lake Volta. According to 2016 predictions by the Ghana Statistical Service, Greater Accra is the second most populous region, with a population of 4,613,637.242 It is comprised of several ethnic groups, including the Akan, Ga-Dangme, and Ewe.243 Unlike the other nine administrative regions, where agriculture is the principal economic activity, Greater Accra’s primary industry is the wholesale and retail sector.244 Other key economic activities in the region’s diverse economic structure include manufacturing, accommodation and food services, construction, agriculture, transportation and storage, forestry, fishing, and education.245

Structural Vulnerabilities • Perceptions of corruption and nepotism in government • Under-representation of women and youth in politics • High rates of unemployment • Migration to the region • Early marriage and teenage pregnancy • Low rate of family planning • Perceptions of corruption among security forces and low levels of trust in the police • Rising cost of living • Perceptions of corruption and bias within the judiciary • High costs and slow processing times within the court system Event-Driven Risks • Land disputes • Tensions with land guards • Food insecurity • Criminality and illicit activities Social and Institutional • Civil society organizations (CSOs) and media organizations Resilience Factors • Chiefs and traditional leaders • Domestic Violence and Victim Support Unit (DOVVSU) • Tema Development Corporation (TDC)

241 “2010 Population & Housing Census: Regional Analytical Report”, Ghana Statistical Service, May 2013. 242 “Population projections summary 2010 to 2016”, Ghana Statistical Service 243 “2010 Population & Housing Census: Regional Analytical Report”, Ghana Statistical Service, May 2013. 244 “2010 Population & Housing Census: Regional Analytical Report: Greater Accra Region”, Ghana Statistical Service, June 2013. 245 Ibid.

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Politics and Governance security risk, damaging national cohesion, and increasing government expenditure. Youth are According to fieldwork participants, perceptions of often mobilized by politicians during the campaign corruption and nepotism in the government are key cycle – participants cited the example of the issues in Tema. Most participants mentioned that “Carlos Boys,” youth from the Sakumono Keep Fit employment and promotion within government Club who support the current MP for Tema West – institutions is largely based on affiliations with but are rarely included in decision-making or other government officials, with the Men’s Focus leadership positions following the elections. Group Discussion (FGD) noting that “Various institutions are staffed by either friends, family Similarly, women reportedly remain members or the people affiliated to the highest underrepresented in political decision-making in level of government.” Interviewees also reported the Greater Accra Region, although some that bribes are often demanded by government interviewees noted that women play roles in personnel across various departments, including political parties and are taking on an increasing police and government offices such as the Driver number of formal positions. For example, the and Vehicle Licensing Authority (DVLA). One managing director of the Tema Development participant recounted that she took the exam at the Corporation (TDC), a public entity tasked with the DVLA for her license multiple times, and only urban development of Tema, is currently a woman. passed once she paid a bribe. Another respondent Fieldwork participants attributed women’s from the Youth FGD reported that government continued underrepresentation to cultural and repairmen working to fix a street light required religious norms that deter women’s involvement in bribes from the surrounding homes. Participants the political sphere. One interviewee in the also noted that corruption has led to the Women’s FGD also noted that these norms are mismanagement and waste of public funds. upheld by both men and women, stating: “Women are their own enemies. Your sister is good at something but because you cannot do it, you call the person too-known, i.e. know-it-all or ‘ashawo.’ “Corruption and nepotism are prevalent in …We women drag each other down when someone politics, elections, GES, DVLA, Police Service, from amongst us is rising.” judiciary, and health sector among others. For

instance, employment and promotion in most government institutions are fraught with Finally, participants expressed concern at the corruption and nepotism.” National Communication Authority’s recent closure of 131 media houses in Ghana,246 saying that this - Religious Leader, Tema

“Culturally everything is done in our society at the disadvantage of the girls and women. Many Fieldwork participants raised concerns around the societal beliefs and traditions weigh so heavily election cycle, particularly the polarization of against women. So you can tell the playing field communities and ethnic groups and the is against them … In Ghana we need to re-orient manipulation of youth. According to one ourselves to give opportunities to women to interviewee in the Men’s FGD, the numerous fully play their role for a stronger society.” elections held in a four-year term keep political tensions close to the surface, posing a potential - Men’s focus group discussion, Tema

246 “Closure of 131 radio stations: Is NCA heavy-handed?”, GhanaWeb, October 2017.

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action “is sending the country into the dark ages.” Relatedly, school attendance by youth was raised The Men’s FGD noted that while the government as a concern, with some respondents mentioning has the right to regulate radio stations, “shutting that youth have dropped out of school, some over 130 media houses at the same time does not children cannot afford school supplies, and send a good message when it comes to freedom of children from poorer families are forced to hawk the press and free speech.” goods such as ice water and newspapers. While participants mentioned that most school aged Population and Demographics children in Tema are in school, some reported seeing children selling goods in markets as well. Key issues raised by fieldwork participants in the One participant noted that low levels of education Greater Accra Region are migration into the region, further limits the employment opportunities high rates of unemployment, school attendance, available to these students in the future. and criminality. Many respondents mentioned the relative lack of development in the north of the While most participants mentioned that the health country as compared to the south, citing this as the system and civil society organizations (CSOs) are main reason for the migration into Greater Accra. working to sensitize the population on family One participant noted that migrants come to Tema planning, they also reported that early marriage from across the region because “Tema is the and teenage pregnancy persists in the region. industrial hub of Ghana” and is home to multiple Interviewees in the Women’s FGD reported that manufacturing operations. Migration is also family planning is discussed openly and that there impacted by disparities between urban and rural is access in health centers, but cultural stigma for areas; one participant cited a lack of infrastructure youth and the unmarried keeps them from seeking such as roads, communication and water, health out these services. According to the 2014 Ghana and security, and employment opportunities in Demographic and Health Survey, 28.7 percent of rural areas as factors driving people to cities such women age 15-49 in the Greater Accra Region as Accra. reported using any form of contraception.247

Security “There is a sharp division in the country between the south and the north of the country Fieldwork participants in Tema reported in terms of development and social services in widespread perceptions of corruption amongst the country. This is the underpinning factor police and security forces, as well as a lack of behind migration from north to south.” professionalism. Interviewees described examples of the police soliciting bribes, particularly during - Civil Society Leader, Tema traffic stops. One participant recounted that she was stopped at a checkpoint when police claimed her car plates were faded, while other vehicles that The influx of both Ghanaian and international paid money were let through. This has reportedly migrants to the Greater Accra Region has led to a deterioration of community trust in the exacerbated already-high levels of unemployment, police and a growing reliance on vigilante or according to many participants. Participants also community watchdog groups in the Greater Accra reported that unemployment has led to increasing levels of criminality in the area, as well as a rise in prostitution and child trafficking.

247 “Ghana: Demographic and Health Survey”, USAID, 2014.

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Region. Wealthy individuals also frequently hire prices for food and commodities such as fuel are private security firms. rising, which affects the food security of vulnerable populations.

“Society has lost its trust in the police. They do Tensions around land tenure were also identified not work professionally. They are the ones by fieldwork participants as an area of vulnerability. contributing to mob injustice.” While the land in Tema is owned and regulated by the TDC, thereby limiting disputes over land sales, - Women’s focus group discussion, Tema areas of new development in the Greater Accra Region (such as Klagon) have reportedly seen cases of multiple or disputed land sales. Key security concerns identified by fieldwork Participants in the Men’s FGD noted that the 2008 participants in the Greater Accra Region include redistricting, which separated Tema and Ashaiman criminality (primarily petty theft and armed as administrative entities, has led to confusion and robberies), land and chieftaincy disputes, tensions frustration around land licensing and tenure in with land guards,248 prostitution, and gender-based those municipalities. Disputes around land sales violence (GBV). Illicit activities, including drug and licensing has contributed to a proliferation of trafficking and the proliferation of small arms and land guards in the region, with a resulting rise in light weapons (SALW), are also issues in this insecurity. region. Participants mentioned that drug use and sales, particularly marijuana, is prevalent among “Now you see how complicated land tenure is. youth in Tema and Ashaiman. The growth of the It’s a complex issue, even at the administrative illicit drug trade has also reportedly contributed to levels of government. You will realize that the increased criminality in the area, including armed same land can be sold to many people. Even if robberies and contract killings. you have license and indenture on your land, you run the risk of having it sold to other people. Economics and Resources Now it is clearly the reason why people resort to hiring land guards to protect the land.” As the home of the nation’s capital and industrial center, the economy of the Greater Accra Region is - Men’s focus group discussion, Tema dependent on business, the service sector, seaport activities, and trade and industry. Local populations are also engaged in fishing off the The Greater Accra Region has also been affected coast. Primary economic issues raised by fieldwork by pollution, environmental degradation and participants in the Greater Accra Region included climate change. Industrial waste has polluted unemployment and the rising cost of living. As waterways and the air, and new construction along noted above, unemployment was highlighted as a the coast has driven away wildlife and fish that are leading issue in the Greater Accra Region, and has critical for food production in the area. As one been exacerbated by increased migration into the respondent in the Women’s FGD explained: “The area. Participants in the Youth FGD called for birds have all left. Their droppings used to serve as greater vocational training and government manure, which was good for growing peppers. Now support for entrepreneurship initiatives by women you do not find the pepper anymore. Traders are and youth. Several interviewees also noted that now bringing in onions and peppers from Bolga.

248 “Land guards” is a local expression used to designate armed individuals hired by landowners to protect their land.

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Economics-wise, Sakumono has gone down and some interviewees expressed that these leaders the indigenes are suffering.” Climate change has require more training in mediation. also resulted in changing patterns of rainfall and warming sea temperatures, which impacts Many participants mentioned that women’s rights agricultural and fishing yields. are becoming increasingly recognized in the Greater Accra Region. While women continue to Rule of Law face issues of GBV, particularly domestic violence and rape, several interviewees noted that reporting Fieldwork participants reported that, although has increased. Several respondents credited the there is access to the justice system in the Greater Domestic Violence & Victim Support Unit (DOVVSU) Accra Region, associated costs – such as hiring a with helping to address and reduce crimes against lawyer - make it prohibitively expensive. These women. costs have effectively limited access to the courts for more vulnerable members of society, according Social and Institutional Resilience Factors to one participant. In addition, processing times within the courts are slow. According to Despite the insecurities and vulnerabilities listed respondents, dockets will often go missing, above, fieldwork participants in the Greater Accra adjournments are common, and delays can cause Region identified many resilience factors that help litigation to take several years. One participant to mitigate these risks. CSOs and media reported that often one party will intentionally organizations reportedly play a critical role in “make their lawyer drag their case,” slowing down raising awareness on social issues and promoting the legal process so that the other party will drop good governance. One interviewee particularly the case. cited the work of the NGO Marie Stopes International in providing information on Respondents also reported widespread contraception and family planning services in perceptions of corruption, political bias and a lack Tema. Traditional and religious leaders also play a of independence within the judicial system. Bribery key role in dispute resolution in the Greater Accra is reportedly common, with one interviewee in the Region, with interviewees reporting that many Women’s FGD stating that, “In Ghana, if you can individuals prefer mediation by local leaders over pay, you are not a criminal.” As a result, many the court system. Multiple respondents also people prefer to seek justice through mediation by mentioned that DOVVSU has been helpful in traditional leaders or other alternative forms of promoting women’s rights and increasing reporting dispute resolution. Chiefs and traditional leaders around issues of GBV. Finally, in the area of often arbitrate land and chieftaincy disputes, as security, community watchdog and vigilante groups well as lower-level community disputes, although reportedly play a key role in security provision at the local level. Participants also reported that the TDC had been helpful in reducing issues related to “Alternative dispute resolution (ADR) land tenure and land guards in Tema. mechanisms are available in the country. Traditional authority has been playing a role in the resolution of land disputes, chieftaincy disputes. Religious and community leaders have also been settling family and personal conflicts in the communities.”

- Civil Society Leader, Tema

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Northern Region

The Northern Region, which is situated in the northern part of the country, is the largest of the country’s regions, comprising almost a third (29.5 percent) of the total land area.249 It is bordered on the north by the Upper East and Upper West Regions, on the south by the Brong- Ahafo and Volta Regions, to the west by Côte d’Ivoire, and to the east by Republic of Togo.250 The Northern Region’s population of 2,858,793, coupled with its vast land mass, make it the least densely populated region.251 The Mole-Dagbani, Gurma, Guan, Grusi and Akan constitute the main ethnic groups in the region.252 Agriculture, forestry, fishing, wholesale and retail trade, and manufacturing are the primary economic activities of the region’s inhabitants.253

Structural Vulnerabilities • Limited police and judicial resources • Weak implementation of land title management • Weak structures for chieftaincy succession planning • Limited resource management oversight Event-Driven Risks • Chieftaincy disputes • Land conflict • Vigilante groups • Clashes between political groups • Criminality • Corruption • Gender based violence • Early/child marriage Social and Institutional • Inter-faith dialogue Resilience Factors • National Peace Council • CSOs involved in conflict early warning and peacebuilding • Women’s groups, such as the Women Peacebuilding Movement

249 “2010 Population & Housing Census: Regional Analytical Report”, Ghana Statistical Service, May 2013. 250 “2010 Population & Housing Census: Regional Analytical Report: Northern Region”, Ghana Statistical Service, June 2013. 251 “Population projections summary 2010 to 2016”, Ghana Statistical Service 252 “2010 Population & Housing Census: Regional Analytical Report”, Ghana Statistical Service, May 2013. 253 “2010 Population & Housing Census: Regional Analytical Report: Northern Region”, Ghana Statistical Service, June 2013.

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Politics and Governance prevent them from running for office or being actively involved in policy making. As one women The Northern Region has long been perceived as a described during an interview, “We try and try and stronghold for the National Democratic Congress try… but there is not even one elected female (NDC), the party of former President Mahama. The representative in Tamale… There is a cultural region once again voted for the NDC in the 2016 perception that women cannot lead.” Presidential election, but had 12 constituencies swing to the New Patriotic Party (NPP) in Perceptions of women being unfit for decision Parliament.254 Amidst a national backdrop of such making in the Northern Region also extends to a closely contested race, tensions in the region conflict resolution and security. One of the main remained high with reported incidents of violence bodies involved in security decision making, is the between party affiliates. With a ‘winner takes all’ Regional and District Security Committees (Reg- culture in Ghanaian politics, whereby the winning Sec and Di-Sec) comprised of stakeholders such as party gets to nominate ministers and appointees at security personnel, politicians, private sector, and the regional, district and municipal levels, this traditional authorities. One interviewee described often stokes grievance among the defeated party’s the exclusion of women from the Reg-Sec and Di- supporters. For example, existing communal issues Sec, based on a perception that women cannot be along the lines of ethnicity and chieftaincy have trusted with confidential information, “They take encouraged youth to also become affiliated with Di-Sec as a secret meeting and believe that women political parties, which can exacerbate tensions can leak out their secrets”. Despite lobbying efforts and potential for violence. Interviewees also by peacebuilders and even people within the highlighted the emergence of vigilante groups who committee on the merits of involving women in the are employed by politicians in the Northern Region, committees, particularly in imparting early warning heightening the risk of violence along party lines. information, they are yet to be included according to one female peacebuilder. There was a perception in the region that youth and women are largely excluded from substantive “Women have no decision making… we are policy making, and are used during election periods advocating for women to be represented on the to boost votes in their communities. As one Key Di-Sec… even though they are trained in Informant Interview (KII) interviewee described of peacebuilding, even though there are female youth in politics, “They are used as tools to give the chiefs… they are not involved” party visibility and they are a source of making income… To serve as warriors of their parties.” - Female interviewee, Tamale Similarly, for women, socio-cultural barriers

“Most [youth] are on the payroll of the Population and Demographics politicians. They don’t make any decision on

their own… Their participation is zero and The Northern Region is comprised of four main begins and ends with the elections but in not decisions regarding rule of law, economics, chieftaincy areas – which are each overseen by a governance, policies etc.” Paramount Chief (King) – and they in turn ascend to their positions (thrones) through a system of - Male interviewee, Tamale royal families. As Hizkias Assefa highlighted in a 2001 paper on conflict in the Northern Region,

254 “Election 2016: Parliament: Swing Constituencies”, Peace FM Online

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“Land ownership, to a very large extent, has been chieftaincy dispute between the Andani and Abudu vested in paramount chiefs and is held in trust or groups, who have a history of communal on behalf of the ethnic groups to which the chief clashes.259 Incident data from ECOWARN and belongs.”255 With a number of ethnic groups in the ACLED suggest at least 15 people have been killed region, such as the Mole-Gabon (whose largest since November 2016 in Bimbilla, including 11 sub-groups are the Dagomba and the Mamprus), fatalities in February 2017, and the murder of and the Gurma (whose largest sub-groups are three women in March 2017.260 Other reports of Kokomba, Basaari and Bimoba),256 communal tensions and violence within the Gonja Kingdom, tensions and violence are often intertwined along over ‘enskinment’ (installation of the Chief) were lines of ethnicity, chieftaincy, land, as well as also highlighted as a security threat during field politics. On the other hand, religion is a source of interviews. According to a report by the Ghana resilience within the region, with KII respondents Government on land tenure issues, the majority of highlighting strong cohesion between Christian and chieftaincy disputes are related to land.261 With a Muslim communities. customary land-owning system in many areas on Ghana, the Chief owns the land (and its resources) With a majority of the population engaged in on behalf of his people – raising the stakes for any agriculture, livelihoods can be significantly dispute over ascendancy to the position of Chief or impacted by displacement from communal conflict, Paramount Chief (the highest level within the as well as environmental pressures such as chieftaincy structure). climate change. To combat the impacts of changing climate conditions, such as flooding and drought, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) “Chieftaincy disputes, regarding the right to in the Northern Region have been building farmer’s succession, is the biggest threat to peace and resilience through education programs. As one KII security in the region” interviewee described, “For the agri-sector, there are programs to inform women and men on when - Male interviewee, Tamale to plant etc.… ADVANCE257 is doing that with local radio stations.”

The legacy of the Konkomba-Nanumba ethnic Security conflict in the mid-1990s, known as the ‘Guinea

Fowl War’ which was reported to have killed Communal violence, particularly intra-communal thousands and displaced over 200,000 people262, chieftaincy disputes, are the main driver of highlights the ethnic divisions which can often feed insecurity in the Northern Region. One of the main into other communal grievances, such as land hotspots is Bimbilla township, which has tenure, chieftaincy and politics. The conflict experienced long term conflict and has been under remains fresh in the minds of many in the North, a dawn-to-dusk curfew for over a decade with one female interviewee describing the heinous administered by the police and military.258 The attacks on women including cutting fetuses from current cycle of violence relates to a politicized

255 “Coexistence and Reconciliation in the Northern Region of 258 “Bimbilla residents lament decade long curfew”, Citi FM, Ghana”, Assefa, H., Reconciliation, Justice, and Coexistence: August 2017. Theory and Practice”, 2001. 259 “Refugee Review Tribunal Australia GHA35085”, U.S. 256 “2010 Population & Housing Census: Regional Analytical Department of Justice, July 2009. Report: Northern Region”, Ghana Statistical Service, June 260 “Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) – 2013. Beta Test”, PIND and FFP 257 Agricultural Development and Value Chain Enhancement, 261 “Emerging Land Tenure Issues”, Ghana Ministry of Lands a USAID-funded project in northern Ghana. and Forestry, August 2003. 262 “Guinea Fowl War/Nawuri-Gonja War”, Global Security

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pregnant women, and using cutlasses and iron Vigilante groups were also highlighted as a risk bars on women’s genitals. While the conflict has factor in the Northern Region. The polarization of since ended, a dispute over something seemingly youth groups along political lines heightens the innocuous (the price of guinea fowl), can quickly threat of both vigilante-related violence and escalate into violence, further underscoring the communal clashes, especially during elections. As need for robust early warning networks in the one KII interviewee explained, “The vigilante region. In fact, following violence in 2002 which groups are politically-related and not linked directly was triggered by the death of the King (Chief) from with the chieftaincy disputes. In the Bimbilla the Dagbon community, a “Women and disputes, most of the sympathizers are the youths Peacebuilding Movement” was formed to help who are also aligned with the political parties.” Now involve women in conflict early warning and entering the post-election period, institutions such peacebuilding. As one female interviewee as the National Peace Council and civil society described in relation to communal conflict, women organizations such as WANEP-Ghana are can play an important role in early warning efforts; intensifying efforts to engage with youth, to prevent “Women saw the early warning signs…in the future cycles of violence during the 2019 elections. market, men were having midnight meetings… the As one interviewee described, “Now that there are police station was burnt, people were moving from fewer political activities, we can start training and communities… the children were not playing re-orienting the youths in turning away from together and isolating themselves… women too violence as a tool to stem political violence and were doing the same and isolating themselves.” radicalization before the next electoral season After the Women and Peacebuilding Movement begins. If we wait too long and only start when the became involved in the current Bimbilla violence, political season is about to begin, it will be very they helped to reduce tensions: “When we started difficult to achieve that”. the process of mediation, we changed it; through conflict prevention training.” The role of the regional wing of the National Peace Council – a “The vigilante groups are difficult to disband government mandated body – was also highlighted because they are the creation of the politicians as a source of resilience in resolution of communal who fund their activities. There have been times conflicts, as well as the Yendi Peace Center which that such groups have attacked their own funders.” is often a site of inter-faith dialogue.

- Male interviewee, Tamale

“In the 1994 conflict, they saw pregnant women escaping through the bush and they cut Economics and Resources their bellies to see if the fetuses were boys. If they were boys they killed them… we called it the ‘Guinea Fowl conflict’, it was when the The main source of livelihood in the Northern Konkombas wanted to be recognized…. Now Region is agriculture, and 83.4 percent of the they are recognized, they are in Parliament, workforce is employed in the informal sector.263 now we work together” With a heavy dependence on subsistence farming in many communities, environmental pressures - Female interviewee, Tamale associated with climate change can have significant impacts on livelihoods and food security

263 “Northern”, Government of Ghana

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in Northern Ghana.264 Poverty remains prevalent in impacts on water bodies and land. Frequently, run- the Northern Region, with the Ghana Statistical off from mercury and other harmful chemicals Service putting the poverty head count at 50.4 pollutes drinking and bathing water for percent, the second highest region in the communities, as well as destroying arable through country.265 While the urban center of Tamale is unregulated mining operations. Deforestation in home to a growing population and increased the region has also contributed to soil erosion, investment – such the construction of an impacting farming and increasing vulnerability to international airport – the disparities between flooding in some areas. urban and rural populations remain pronounced. Rule of Law

“Now because of poverty, if you go to the For some interviewees in the region, the judicial transport yard women are carrying the things institutions are perceived to lack impartiality, and on their head… You can pay them and they will are hampered by slow proceedings and under- carry your things to where you need to go” resourcing. One of the issues raised was political power over appointments and tenure for key public - Female interviewee, Tamale servants, such as the Inspector General of Police and Director General of the Criminal Investigation Department. As one KII participant observed, “I Existing land inheritance practices for women can don’t doubt the competence of the judiciary, but my also function as barriers to economic development, suspicion is the interference and politicization. The with some interviewees describing that only sub- tenure of office of the Inspector General of Police standard family land plots, which have already (IGP) must have security. An example is the been heavily used for agriculture, are given to Director General of the Criminal Investigation women. As one woman described, they innovate by Department (CID). If his tenure were secured, and planting crops that can survive in harsher soil a politician misbehaves, he will deal with him or her conditions; “Women don’t get fertilized land… they without fear.” get the land that has already been well used by Under-resourcing of the police and the court men... so women find ways to manage. Soya beans grown well in that land”. “I have problems with the judiciary. It has its umbilical cord with the Politician – The Chief Another threat to the agricultural sector is small Justice is appointed by the politician – done in scale illegal mining (galamsey). As one interviewee consultation with another politician. If we say highlighted regarding illegal gold mining; “The the courts must function and function well, but issue has a terrible impact on farming in the region is the politician that has to give the money. So and it doesn’t bode well for the future of food it’s like scratch my back and I scratch your security for the people in the region. Trees are back.” being cut and water bodies polluted all in the name of mining.” With high levels of youth unemployment - Male interviewee, Tamale and poverty in the region, galamsey provides an attractive source of livelihood with potentially system also contributes to a sense of ‘justice lucrative money. As has been seen in other regions delayed is justice denied’. With disputes, of the country, galamsey can have devastating

264 “Impact of climate change on economic development in 265 “GhanaInfo”, DevInfo Northern Ghana: opportunities and activities”, Darko, E. and Atazona, L., Overseas Development Institute, August 2013.

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particularly over long running land and other prevent outbreaks of violence. As one interviewee communal issues, taking several years to go described, female chiefs (Queen Mothers) can play through proceedings, people can lose faith in a key role in mediating issues, with examples given formal judicial processes, spurring further of intra-communal and political violence mitigated communal violence, and in some cases, mob because of the female chief’s intervention. justice. As one interviewee noted, the communal Institutions such as the National Peace Council can conflict in Bimbilla has been complicated by play an important role in early warning and conflict delayed judicial proceedings; “The issue I have with mediation efforts, and ensure the inclusion of the judiciary concerns the delays in dispensing women in their decision making and outreach justice. If we are talking about due process, it efforts. The Regional and District Security should not be unduly long…look at what is Committees (Reg-Sec and Di-Sec) that also have a happening with the Bimbilla case, it has been with stake in maintaining peace and security should be the Supreme Court for a very long time. When strengthened to include more diverse voices of people don’t get justice on time, that tends to fuel women and youth which will in turn assist them in suspicion and induce mistrust in the system.” With making more informed and effective security chieftaincy disputes forming one of the most decisions. prevalent drivers of conflict risk in the region, resolution through formal judicial channels remain mixed. Typically, chieftaincy issues are resolved “Female chiefs are very good, very active… On through traditional structures such as the regional market day, two women were discussing a or national house of chiefs; though that can take conflict that was about to start in their years. One possible alternative discussed during community. Our people were around so they reported it to the Female Chiefs. So they sent field interviews, was mediation through delegations and addressed it through government institutions such as the National nonviolence… Thank God that conflict didn’t Peace Council. The independent body could offer happen. They did the same thing during political another avenue for resolving disputes, providing an violence...” impartial and expeditious alternative to either the traditional authorities or formal court system. - Female interviewee, Tamale

Social and Institutional Resilience Factors

Religious unity within the state was widely The presence of local and international civil society referenced as a social resiliency within the region. organizations is a major resiliency in the Northern While ethnicity, land, chieftaincy, and politics often Region. Peacebuilding groups such as the Women become dividers in Northern communities, there and Peacebuilding Movement and WANEP-Ghana, was a general sense that religion is a valuable tool which are both carrying out conflict early warning in peacebuilding. As one religious leader described, activities, are crucial to ensuring that communal “There are isolated issues [around religion] but we disputes do not spiral into a larger conflict like the are able to intervene or there is less tension North experienced during the Guinea Fowl War. because the Catholic Church has a Dialogue Centre International NGOs are also a source of resiliency, manned by a trained Priest. We also use the Inter- from building the capacity of farmers to adapt to Religious Dialogue Committee, chaired by an climate change to establishing platforms to resolve Imam. There is also the Northern Ecumenical pastoralist conflicts. Forum that cuts across all faiths. There are also

Peace Clubs at schools across the region from this Specifically, the role of women in peacebuilding group.” efforts in the region has helped to resolve and

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Upper East Region

The Upper East Region, which is situated in the north-eastern corner of country, is bordered on the north by Burkina Faso, the south by the Northern Region, the west by the Upper West Region, and the east by the Republic of Togo. It is home to 1,188,800 people, according to 2016 projections.266 The Mole-Dagbani, Grusi, Mande, and Gurma are the region’s predominant ethnic groups. Agriculture, hunting and forestry are the region’s key economic activities.267

Structural Vulnerabilities • Under-resourced police and judicial systems • Lack of formal chieftaincy succession planning by traditional authorities • Porous border areas with Burkina Faso and Togo • Lack of government monitoring/oversight of natural resource management, such as mining and logging • Patrilineal land tenure system, which often disempowers women

Event-Driven Risks • Chieftaincy disputes • Communal conflict over issues such as land and ethnicity • Political clashes • Domestic violence • Illicit trade flows, including drug and child trafficking • Corruption • Mob justice • Vigilantism • Cross-border crime • Gender based violence

266 “Population projections summary 2010 to 2016”, Ghana 267 “2010 Population & Housing Census: Regional Analytical Statistical Service Report: Upper East Region”, Ghana Statistical Service, June 2013.

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Social and Institutional • Education institutions focused on increasing girls’ school attendance; Resilience Factors such as the Nyariga Doone Girls Primary School • Government institutions who promote conflict resolution and mediation such as the Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ) and regional office of the National Peace Council • NGOs and CSOs involved in conflict early warning and peacebuilding

Politics and Governance institutions and stoke violence. Many also cited Ghana’s 1992 constitution that mandates that the Like many regions of Ghana, the Upper East is chieftaincy institution be non-partisan.268 becoming increasingly polarized along political lines. Chieftaincy disputes were identified as one of The use of vigilante groups, hired by politicians for the main drivers of insecurity in the region and their security and intimidation, was also noted by some politicization along the fault lines of the two main interviewees as a risk. While some members of the political parties (New Patriotic Party - NPP and male FGD suggested that vigilante groups were National Democratic Congress - NDC), makes them more prominent in other parts of Ghana such as more complex to de-escalate and resolve. As the Northern and Ashanti Regions, they cited interviewees in the Men’s Focus Group Discussion reports of clashes during the Talensi by-elections, (FGD) in Bolgatanga surmised, “The problem is that with many of the group members recruited from the politicians interfere in traditional matters.” For Tamale and other regions. example, in the Bawku municipality, a long- standing dispute over land, chieftaincy, and The role of women in politics was highlighted as a ethnicity has taken on a political dimension – with significant gap in the Upper East, due to social and youth from the two opposing groups aligning economic barriers preventing them from running themselves with political parties leading to for office or meaningfully participating in decision heightened tensions and violence. Similarly, a making. As one female FGD interviewee described, chieftaincy dispute in Bolgatanga has become “Women want to be politicians, Assembly people, politicized, with local politicians backing opposing MPs, any position… but they call you names like factions and allegedly influencing judicial ‘iron lady,’ or ‘man-woman’ and also make up proceedings. As one field interviewee described, stories about you.” Other female interviewees “Sometimes there can be interference, politically. I described the social pressures from their see this – some people were arrested after they husbands and families not to run for office, and the committed some violence [related to the Bolgatanga chieftaincy dispute]. The minister went to the police and asked them to release the “Women are being cut with cutlasses over politics… arrested people… Now that encourages people to I was with some women and we went to a political take law into their own hands… in certainty this rally. My friend came home and her husband incident happened.” For many participants in the cutlassed her because he didn’t want her to go for Upper East, the linkage between traditional leaders that party… now she walks funny.” and politics was a worrying trend that threatened to undermine the credibility of their traditional - Female focus group discussion, Bolgatanga

268 “The Constitution of the Republic of Ghana 1992, Chapter 022: Chieftaincy”, Judicial Service of Ghana

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lack of access to capital faced by women trying to campaign. Women interviewees also described the Population and Demographics commonly held perception that women should follow the same political party as their husband, One of the most pervasive issues highlighted and a failure to do so, for example by attending the during interviews in the region was the prevalence rally of an opposing political party, could lead to of teenage pregnancy. According to the Ghana domestic violence. Health Service, in 2016 15.4 percent of women With over 70 percent of the Upper East population seeking prenatal care in the Upper East Region living in rural areas, 51 percent have access to were between the age of 10 and 19, the highest improved drinking water, and only major towns percentage of any region in Ghana.270 Teenage have access to the electricity grid; overall, access pregnancy often results in lower levels of female to public services remains limited for many education, with girls forced to drop out from school communities.269 This also extends to education once they become pregnant. The Singles Mothers institutions, where schools are inaccessible and Association has engaged in education programs to students often travel long distances mitigate teenage pregnancy, with one interviewee unaccompanied, creating safety risks for children. describing: “We formed girl child clubs to educate In response to low levels of girls attending school them about not having sex out of marriage because in the Bolgatanga municipality, a group of mothers of pregnancy.” Early/child marriage was also raised funds to build a primary school for girls. As highlighted as an issue in the region, particularly in one of the founders described during a FGD, “They rural communities. funded the school themselves for 15 girls… mud walls, books. Then they wrote to an NGO who As noted in the above section, there remains helped them fund it. Now there are 472 girls at the significant barriers to girl’s education in the region. school.” Women in the region described the social In 2010, 48.1 percent of women in the Upper East pressures on girls to de-prioritize education over Region had attended or were currently attending helping the family, or starting a family of their own. school compared with the 60.9 percent for men.271 When building what is now the highly successful According to one traditional leader, rural Nyariga Doone Girls School, the founders faced communities do not value education for girls, with ridicule from men in the community, with one his own father allowing him to attend college but woman saying: “Men were mocking them during preventing his younger sisters from attending building, [saying] that they were building pens for school. animals.” While the school has greatly increased girls’ participation in primary education, the community women are now exploring ways to build a secondary school for the girls, including saving “I’m the first literate person in my family. When profits from farming they do on the school property. I finished college, I wanted to send my siblings As one community woman explained, “There is a to school. My father said no… So, my full sister secondary school needed now... Once the girls and my half-sister from another mother could have finished primary school, there is no place have gone to school but weren’t allowed.” close for them to go. When they travel far they - Traditional Leader, Bolgatanga come back pregnant. So a secondary school close will mean we can watch over them.”

269 “2010 Population & Housing Census: Regional Analytical 271 “2010 Population & Housing Census: Regional Analytical Report: Upper East Region”, Ghana Statistical Service, June Report: Upper East Region”, Ghana Statistical Service, June 2013. 2013. 270 “Family Health Division Annual Report 2016”, Ghana Health Service

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Youth unemployment was also a common theme in lines, with the Kussasi perceived to be aligned with field interview discussions. Ghanaian census data the NDC and the Mamprusi with the NPP.274 As one shows the median age of the population in the FGD participant from Bawku surmised, “They are Upper East is 18 years old, and 68 percent of the leaning against politics to bring about conflict.” population is under 35 years old.272 With a Outbreaks of gun violence have led to an increased predominately agrarian and informal workforce in public security presence in the area, as well as the region, there remain limited opportunities for periods of imposing a curfew and a period of youth to seek skilled labor. Interviewees frequently banning motorcycle riding.275 The military were, cited youth unemployment as a driver of insecurity however, praised as a source of stability in the – with youth resorting to illicit activities such as Upper East – particularly in Bawku – with several cybercrime and fraud, armed robbery, small scale female participants describing their professional illegal mining (galamsey), and participation in conduct in communities; “The military people keep vigilante groups. Several FGD participants also the peace there, they keep you company… you trust highlighted the high levels of drug and alcohol them.” abuse within the region, predominately by youth. Another conflict flashpoint is the chieftaincy dispute in Bolgatanga (known as ‘Bolga’) with at Security least five different fatal incidents reported from ECOWARN and ACLED sources since 2016.276 The The Upper East Region, like it’s Northern and Upper dispute concerns the succession of the Paramount West neighbors, is impacted by communal violence chieftaincy (the highest chieftaincy position), – particularly related to chieftaincy and land resulting in an intracommunal dispute between two issues. One of the hot spots for conflict in the Upper rival groups, the chief’s son and another family East remains the Bawku municipality, which has member. With the dispute currently in a drawn-out seen long simmering tensions between two ethnic court process, tensions remain high within the groups (Kussasi and Mamprusi) over chieftaincy community, prompting military and police and land access issues, further complicated by a deployments to the area to bolster security. As one legacy of colonial administrative boundaries that Key Informant Interview (KII) interviewee gave the Mamprusi political control over the described, “The security has been up and going – Kussasi.273 The divisions between the two groups the police and military. Because of the volatile have become increasingly polarized along party situation, the military have been called to be around, it could have been worse without them – they have done well.” For participants in the male FGD, there was a sense that the local government “Soldiers are now in the community [in Bawku]. should take a more active role in helping to resolve The government banned motorcycle riding, because youth were killing people from their the conflict, alongside the traditional institutions, motorcycles. Then after 6 months they let suggesting that “The Regional House of Chiefs and women ride motorcycles, but not men... They the Association of the Chieftaincy Institution should have connections in the South to get their work hand in hand with the District Chief Executive guns.” and the Regional Minister to address the Bolgatanga chieftaincy dispute and get a - Women’s focus group discussion, Bolgatanga substantive chief.”

272 “2010 Population & Housing Census: Summary Report of 274 “Ghana Conflict Map: Bawku”, National Peace Council Final Results”, Ghana Statistical Service, May 2012 275 “Ban on motorbikes in Bawku still in force – Police”, 273 “The Kusasi-Mamprusi Conflict in Bawku: A Legacy of CitiFM Online, March 2015. British Colonial Policy in Northern Ghana”, Longi, F., Ghana 276 “Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) – Studies Journal, 2014 Beta Test”, PIND and FFP

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“There are numerous armed robberies at “Around 2014, the Paramount Chief passed homes, even when the police are around your on… about two years since they have not had a homes… The armed robbery became an issue chief, so there is conflict now in Bolga town. A soon after the banning of the galamsey good number of chiefs were enskinned here in operations. The boys have come home and they Bolga. So they think that the Paramount Chief have nothing doing. In fact, insecurity and should be enskinned here… No more than poverty are the issues. Even those injured in eight, no less than six lives have been lost over accidents don’t get the necessary care at the the issue… [through] shooting or attacking each hospitals. But if you report to the police, you may other at the funeral place.” even become the suspect.”

- Traditional Leader, Bolgatanga - Male focus group discussion, Bolgatanga

Criminality, particularly armed robbery, was also increasing criminal activities. This has been identified as a pervasive risk factor in the Upper exacerbated since July 2017 when the East Region. Event data from ECOWARN and Government announced Operation Vanguard278 ACLED details multiple incidents of fatal armed and put a moratorium on all small-scale mining, robberies in 2016 and 2017. In April 2016 for pushing unemployed youth into other criminal example, four robbers armed with rifles were activities. reported to have come through the porous border area from Burkina Faso and murdered a sales Gender based violence, including domestic abuse, assistant.277 Field interviewees also described rape, and abandonment were all highlighted as regular instances of theft and armed robbery, often issues in the Upper East Region. Several perpetrated by unemployed youth. Cases of drug participants noted that commonly held and human trafficking were also cited during field superstitions around witchcraft were often used as interviews, sometimes allegedly involving police a pretext for attacking or disinheriting women collusion. As one male FGD participant described, within communities. “Some police personnel are engaged in drug use or are friends with the drug traffickers, so they don’t Economics and Resources arrest them to prevent the proliferation. They find solace in lack of logistics to rapidly apprehend criminal suspects. Those police even inform The Upper East, along with the Northern and Upper criminal suspects about the police operations. West Regions, has the highest and most severe There was a case, where a Burkinabe, recruited rates of poverty and inequality within Ghana, 279 into the police service and put in charge of the according to a 2016 UNICEF report. The majority armory, was supplying arms and ammunitions to of the population in the region lives in rural areas, armed robbers.” with the main economic output focused on 280 agriculture. For many interviewees, a lack of During field interviews, participants also employment opportunities, particularly for youth, highlighted the role of small-scale illegal mining in presented a significant risk factor. According to

277 “Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) – task force was launched in July 2017 and has since Beta Test”, PIND and FFP expanded to other regions. 278 Operation Vanguard is a joint task force of the Ghanaian 279 “The Ghana Poverty and Inequality Report”, Cooke, E., military and police intended to combat illegal mining activities Hague, S. and McKay, A., UNICEF, March 2016. (galamsey) in the Western, Eastern and Ashanti regions. The 280 “Upper East”, Government of Ghana

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census data, only 51 percent of males and females Small scale illegal mining and logging were also aged between 15 and 24 are active in the workforce in the Upper East with the highest rates “Illegal mining is taking place at Naaga in the of unemployment reported in Bolgatanga and Kasena-Nakani district and in the Talensi area 281 Bawku municipalities, both of which have faced at Gbani where a Chinese mining company is insecurity. This large, educated, and idle youth operating. There are small scale miners, but the population is vulnerable to recruitment into communities are accusing the galamseyers of activities such as trafficking, armed robbery, illegal destroying the environment. They also blame mining, and vigilante groups. As one traditional the company for not employing them, saying leader described of his ward during a KII, “The there is collusion between the company and the Youth population – the work age workforce that are community leaders resulting in denial of educated and competing for jobs… For example, livelihood… The problem is that there is always my boy here [gestures to his young male aide] he not consultation before the start of operations. has completed Accounting with Second Class So once someone tells the community the mine Honors, and his national service; but now he is is going to take over their business, then they sitting in the house.” Of the jobs that are available, will react. But there is improper engagement.” respondents highlighted that nepotism based on - Female interviewee, Bolgatanga political connection often influences who is hired. As one male interviewee described, “You are supposed to hire for what they can do. Not who they noted as pervasive issues in the region. With are in the Party.” Child labor and human trafficking unregulated illicit mining activities, the extensive was also noted as a consequence of poor environmental damage to the land and waterways economic conditions, with children expected to can leave resources unusable for generations. contribute to the family income and even coerced Similarly, logging can have long term impacts on to be part of regional human trafficking networks. soil quality and destroy natural ecosystems, which can weaken resilience against natural disasters Women in the Upper East often face economic such as flooding. In one KII, a participant described barriers, due to limited access to land, lower levels the tension created between communities and an of education, and isolation in rural areas. As overseas small-scale mining company in the participants from the female FGD in Bolgatanga Kasena-Nakani and Bawku West districts. Limited described, “Income in general for rural women is community consultation, perceived company low. After harvest, you sit and fold your arms until corruption, and a lack of shared values were next season… You may raise birds – like around highlighted as fueling tension and incidents of November/December [but due to disease] they protest and violence in these areas. may die”. Land competition, especially in rural communities that rely on subsistence farming, can Rule of Law also lead to communal conflict and food insecurity. This was highlighted as a major impact for women One of the institutional resiliencies highlighted in during the fieldwork, with patrilineal land the Upper East was the Commission on Human ownership often leading to intercommunal Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ). CHRAJ disputes and women being dispossessed from is a governmental statutory body that processes their land. cases related to human rights abuses, as well as working as an ombudsman and anti-corruption

281 “2010 Population & Housing Census: Regional Analytical Report: Upper East Region”, Ghana Statistical Service, June 2013.

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body. While CHRAJ doesn’t have the power to chief’s son’s] favor. But it went back to the High prosecute (they make recommendations to the Court and they annulled the ruling, which caused Department of the Attorney General), they often more tensions.” With chieftaincy disputes typically play a key role in mediation of issues for resolved at the community level or through the stakeholders who otherwise don’t have access to judicial powers of traditional structures such as the the formal justice system. For example, there are Regional or National House of Chiefs,282 the drawn- no costs associated with lodging a claim at CHRAJ, out process can leave disputes simmering for years and it is inclusive of people who may be illiterate, or even decades. Other institutions that may be only speak local languages, or have a disability. As able to play a swifter third-party mediation role – highlighted by one CHRAJ interviewee in such as the National Peace Council or CHRAJ – Bolgatanga, “Even if you are illiterate, only speak often don’t get involved in the disputes, deferring the local language – we get a translator… We make CHRAJ as an informal setting as possible so as not to intimidate. We have access on the ground floor “The court process is very long… if you don’t for disabled, aged and pregnant. The offices can be have money you can’t do it.” accessed by walking.” While such services can play an important and expedient role in resolving - Women’s focus group discussion, Bolgatanga conflict, CHRAJ faces difficulties raising awareness; many community members are not aware that CHRAJ exists as an alternative to the formal court “CHRAJ is an independent body, nobody tells us system. Outreach efforts are limited by the what to do. If I am doing an investigation, no resources they have available; “Many people don’t one can stop me. Our mandate ends at know that they can get many things from CHRAJ, recommendations to the Attorney Generals, so same as the court but without fees. If they knew, we don’t have a mandate to prosecute” they would be running here instead of court…. We visit communities, churches, mosques, schools… - Male interviewee, Bolgatanga But we only have three vehicles in the region for CHRAJ, and there is the cost of fuel, so there are limits to what they can do. We did over 200 visits “Punishment is too lenient. Child marriage fine in the region last year.” There are also perceptions is 500 cedi [about $112 USD]. The husband’s by community members that CHRAJ’s mediation family can even give that to the girl’s family. processes are not always able to address the There is no follow up, to see if that girl will go to issues at hand, especially when it comes to school. There are not enough deterrents.” domestic violence. As one female interviewee mused, “If you send your husband to CHRAJ for - Male interviewee, Bolgatanga domestic violence, when you come back home your things will be on the street, you’ll be divorced.” to the traditional structures. According to field interview participants, one of the As a representative from CHRAJ explained, “We main issues that is hampering the resolution of the participate in land and chieftaincy related chieftaincy dispute in Bolgatanga is the slow pace committees, but don’t have a main role in resolving of the formal court system. As one KII interviewee those issues”. described, “The matter is before the courts. The Regional House of Chiefs ruled in his [former

282 “The Constitution of the Republic of Ghana 1992, Chapter 022: Chieftaincy”, Judicial Service of Ghana

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Overall, many field interviewees in the Upper East and accessible alternative to the court process for Region articulated a mistrust of the formal court mediating disputes and reporting human rights system, which they perceived as either too slow, abuses. While the organization operates in many accessible to only the rich, or compromised districts across the region and does regular because of political interference. This extends to education and outreach activities to communities, the role of law enforcement, with a deep mistrust schools and religious institutions, more awareness- of police due to perceived corruption, hampering a raising among communities about the role and willingness to report crimes and often resulting in scope for CHRAJ is critical, especially for vulnerable cases of mob justice. During the male FGD in populations. The Ministry of Interior’s National Bolgatanga for example, participants described the Peace Council, with a regional branch in the Upper impacts the political appointee system had on the East, was also noted as an important institution for credibility of the police; “The IGP [Inspector General resolving communal conflict and promoting peace. of Police] is appointed by the President and it weakens the power of the police service to fight Social reliance was demonstrated through crime including corruption. In the last elections for initiatives such as that of the Doone Mother’s instance, a police commander marshalled new Group, most of whom are illiterate, which raised recruits to go and vote for a particular candidate.” funds to build the Nyariga Doone Girls Primary Prosecution of gender-based violence related School and increase girls’ education levels in the crimes remains mixed, with some female district.283 As women described, using farming and interviewees reporting the prosecution of Female agricultural entrepreneurship activities has been Genital Mutilation and Cutting (FGM/C) had been a an effective way to save for a secondary school for successful deterrent, while others cited ineffective the girls, to decrease girls’ secondary school results on rape and child marriage cases. dropout rates, and discourage teenage pregnancy. Other social resiliencies highlighted were non- Social and Institutional Resilience Factors governmental organizations (NGOs) and civil society organizations (CSOs) involved in conflict Institutional resilience factors for the Upper East early warning and peacebuilding, playing a key role Region were identified as the government in ensuring communal violence does not escalate institutions which promote conflict resolution and into wider conflict, as it did during the 1990s mediation. CHRAJ, for example, provides a credible Guinea Fowl War.

283 “Doone Girls School”, The Blessing Basket Project

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Upper West Region

Located in the north-western corner of the country, the Upper West Region shares boundaries with Burkina Faso in the north, the Northern Region in the south, Côte d’Ivoire in the west, and the Upper East in the east. Its population of 792,535, according to 2016 projections, makes it Ghana’s least populous region.284 The predominant ethnic groups in the region are the Mole- Dagbani and Grusi.285 Agriculture, forestry, fishing, manufacturing, wholesale and retail work are the major economic activities.286 Upper West is the most vulnerable region for poverty in the country, with the Ghana Statistical Service reporting a 45.1 percent incidence of extreme poverty as of 2014.287

Structural Vulnerabilities • Low levels of education, especially in rural areas • Unemployment, particularly among youth • Limited provision of services • Poor road infrastructure • Climate vulnerability • Low capacity police and formal justice institution • Limited representation of women in political sphere • Porous borders with Burkina Faso and Cote D’Ivoire Event-Driven Risks • Criminality • Armed robbery • Drug abuse • Teenage pregnancy • Early/child marriage • Rape and defilement • Chieftaincy disputes • Communal violence related to land tenure • Pastoralist-farmer conflict

284 “Population projections summary 2010 to 2016”, Ghana Statistical Service 285 “2010 Population & Housing Census: Regional Analytical Report”, Ghana Statistical Service, May 2013. 286 “2010 Population & Housing Census: Regional Analytical Report: Upper West Region”, Ghana Statistical Service, June 2013. 287 “GhanaInfo”, DevInfo

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• Changing weather patterns; reducing agricultural yields • Police corruption • Mob justice • Gender based violence

Social and Institutional • Inter-religious dialogue Resilience Factors • Commission of Human Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ) • Regional and National Peace Councils • Ghana Armed Forces • Culture of unity as Ghanaians (Tijaabuunyen – “we are one”)

Politics and Governance cases here where people who, by merit alone, do not qualify but are promoted to higher positions. Like many regions of Ghana, the 2016 elections were a flash point for tensions between the two main political parties; the New Patriotic Party (NPP) “Some youth are involved in politics. For and the National Democratic Congress (NDC). The example, my friend – she belongs to a party. Anytime she can she says something good Upper West Region ultimately went to the NDC about them, and she mobilized the young ladies (former President Mahama) in the Presidential at school. When the party is in power, she will vote, but the Parliamentary elections were closely get lots of things, like motorbikes.” contested with five seats going to the NPP and six to the NDC.288 Against this backdrop, there were - Youth focus group discussion, Wa reports of election violence, the presence of vigilante groups (such as the ‘Jamaica Boys’) hired by political candidates, and protests following the Nepotism brings us down as merit is no longer appointments of ministers and Metropolitan, celebrated and recognized. At the end of the day, it Municipal and District Chief Executives (MMDCEs). is the state that suffers”. In the current political system, the culture of ‘winner takes all’ is reinforced from the national to There was also a perception among interviewees the local level; the winning party gets to nominate that youth are manipulated during election periods, cabinet positions, Regional Ministers and including being employed to support (or provide MMDCEs. As one participant during the Youth intimidation for) campaigns. However, youth get Focus Group Discussion (FGD) explained, this very little input in policy development or appointment process can stoke grievances; “When representation in political parties. Women in the the President was sworn in, there was some FGD reported similar perceptions of exclusion, tension. Mostly from the youth associated with the highlighting that few women run for office in the party. If the president appoints your leader you will Upper West because of social barriers; “We get something. So, if not, then you mobilize, with [women] are always ready to participate in protests, etc.” Men in the FGD also highlighted the politics… but they will call you a prostitute. Give you perceived nepotism that manifests along party all sorts of names, [and imply that] you are giving lines, with examples given of government yourself to men to be popular”. contracts, funding, and positions awarded to party affiliates. As one participant observed, “We have

288 “Ghana: President: Election 2016”, Peace FM Online

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In terms of service provision in the region, healthcare and road infrastructure were highlighted as vulnerabilities. With only one “People will make complaints to the police operational ambulance in the region, access to about their stolen motor bikes and you will be emergency medical care remains limited. This is surprised that the same police you report will further hampered by ongoing security concerns, ask you to go to a particular person to get back with armed robberies preventing medical vehicles your bike, and upon reaching the person asks from traveling at night; “It is very bad for you pay for the retrieval of your own motor bike. ambulances; the vehicles are [broken] down. There How did the police get to know exactly who had is only one proper one in the region, but due to your motor bike, and yet refuse to make any armed robbery they don’t want to move in the night arrest? So people no longer trust the police for from Wa to Tamale”. security in this part.”

- Men’s focus group discussion, Wa Population and Demographics

Teenage pregnancy and early marriage were Association of Ghana, both of which highlighted the highlighted as a major issue for young women in negative impacts of the drug in Wa Municipal the Upper West. Low levels of education and area.289 For some participants, the prevalence of limited access to family planning in rural areas small scale illegal mining increased drug abuse, were cited as drivers of the high rate of teenage with young people seeking to sustain their energy pregnancy, which often forces girls to drop out of levels to mine high-risk, high-reward gold reserves. school. Forced marriage was also noted as being prevalent, as one participant described: “Early As one of the regions that is most vulnerable to marriage is a problem. There was a student who extreme poverty in the country, many of the was forced to get married. She ran away and was population of Upper West face challenges of staying with a madam in town. She won’t go back malnutrition and food insecurity. As the Ghana to school because her parents will get her.” One of Health Service noted in 2014, acute malnutrition the resilience factors in combatting child marriage increased in the Upper West between 2005 and has been non-governmental organizations (NGOs) 2011.290 Female FGD participants highlighted the in the region, which have delivered awareness social pressures that often exacerbate child campaigns against the practice. Participants malnutrition – with cases of spousal highlighted the work of groups such as Action Aid abandonment, or lack of inheritance after a and SEND Ghana. Access to distance education for husband’s death, leaving women to care for young women who drop out due to marriage or children without access to subsistence farm land. pregnancy was also praised as a successful As one participant described, “There is malnutrition program during the youth FGD. here. The children lack nutrients because men don’t contribute, and the woman is poor”. With Drug abuse among children and youth was noted about 80 percent of the working population as a pervasive risk factor, particularly the use of the engaged in agriculture in the region,291 the risk of pharmacy-accessible painkiller Tramadol as well as food insecurity is also high, exacerbated by marijuana. This mirrors other reports by the media environmental pressures such as poor rainfall or and the Pharmaceutical Sciences Students drought.

289 “High Incidence of Tramadol Abuse in Upper West 291 “Upper West Region”, Ghana Ministry of Food & Region”, MyNewsGH, May 2017. Agriculture 290 “Upper West Region records high under-nutrition rate”, Ghana Health Service, 2017.

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reported that they were mostly excluded from Security conflict resolution discussions – even if they themselves are traditional leaders (Queen Armed robbery and criminality remain key threats Mothers). to communities in Upper West, particularly along the arterial trade road to Burkina Faso. This has Pastoralist issues between herders and farmers had a pervasive impact on women in particular, were also reported, specifically related to herders who fear rape and violence as they travel to and migrating from the sub-region through Burkina from Burkina Faso to trade. As one woman Faso and coming into conflict with farmers over described during the FGD, “After 6 or 7pm, you are grazing land. As one female participant described, afraid to come out of your house… Security is not “The Fulani will send cattle to our farm. They will tight. Everybody is afraid”, while another said, “If chase you down on the farm and kill you… they are you are coming down South on Tamale Road, you raping our women on the farms too”. Conflation of are just crying [with fear of what could happen]”. pastoralist issues with ethnic and religious Heavily armed robbers were reported to engage in identifies was perceived as less of an issue in rape, theft and murder mostly with impunity, due to Upper West, with participants identifying foreign lack of police presence in the areas, or police nationals as the main perpetrators of pastoralist corruption. For many participants in the Upper violence; “The Fulani who came from before West, a role for the military in civilian policing would independence, they are not the issue – it is the be welcomed; as they are perceived as more people from Burkina Faso”. One approach credible and effective in deterring criminality. discussed for mitigating the violence was introducing a registration process, whereby Communal violence is also a major driver of regional pastoralists coming over the border would insecurity in the region, including pastoralist register with the local Fulani chief. issues, chieftaincy contests, and land tenure disputes. In the Upper West, there are no clear Economics and Resources succession plans for traditional leaders – particularly for the most powerful position of With many communities in rural areas of the region Paramount Chief who wields the most decision- facing extreme poverty, access to education is making power and access to resources. This leads often sidelined for children in favor of generating to drawn out intra-communal disputes between income. Participants detailed children dropping out community members that can last decades, with of school, or working before and after their classes resolution through traditional structures, such as to contribute economically to their families. As one the Regional or National House of Chiefs, often participant described, “In rural villages the child taking several years. One of the barriers to conflict must go farm to feed the family”. resolution is the limited role of women in decision making within the traditional structures. Women

“When it comes to chieftaincy issues... The Queen Mother can de-stool the Chief in the South. She can take off his shoes and he is de- stooled. But in the North, we don’t have the power… They would say ‘how dare you’.”

- Women’s focus group discussion, Wa

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the problem].” Illegal logging was also highlighted as an issue in the region; it has negative impacts on the environment, such as soil degradation which “I had 3-4 family members supporting my decreases arable land, and bush fires. FGD university fees. To come back and they are participants frequently attributed Chinese feeding you, you become burden, useless… I don’t want to come home. They expect ‘she nationals as being involved in both galamsey and should be able to provide food for them’ and I logging, with one participant suggesting “Chinese don’t have anything to bring. It sets a bad people come here logging. And to do galamsey. example for the younger siblings, because now Then they ship the wood to China. They meet our my parents will not want to invest in their chiefs and pay them money”. education.” Women in the Upper West mostly contribute to the - Youth focus group discussion, Wa economy through farming and trading, including shea butter. Ghana is one of the largest exporters 292 With so few economic opportunities in the region, of shea nut products, and while there are youth unemployment remains a significant source industrialized operations within the country many of vulnerability, and this manifests as a security women in the Upper West use manual labor to risk. As one youth interviewee described, the lack extract the nuts to make shea butter. As one of suitable work opportunities means they often woman described, “We go pick shea nuts at 3-4 resort to acting as couriers for people on market am, then we ground them with our own hands in day, which can be demoralizing and unfruitful; “The granite stone, then beat it for oil extraction… but youth carry on market day - they receive one cedi [frequently] snakes bite the women in the bush”. here, one cedi there. But sometimes people don’t Female interviewees suggested that forming co- pay them, just a ‘thank you’. So, the motivation is ops and investing in machines to help them not there.” This contributes to an overall lack of mechanize their process would help women to motivation towards seeking licit employment, and expand their businesses. encourages youth towards criminality and illicit trade. Rule of Law

Small scale illegal mining (known as galamsey), Perceptions of corruption and political influence while not as industrialized or pervasive as in some significantly undermine people’s trust in the law of the key mining areas of Ghana such as Western and order institutions in the Upper West. FGD and Ashanti Regions, was also noted as a risk participants widely cited incidents of police factor in the Upper West. It provides a high paying corruption, resulting in a lack of reporting of crimes alternative to unemployed youth, but remains due to fear of retribution. As one female fraught with health and safety dangers, and has interviewee observed, “You can report but they devastating impacts on the environment. Part of won’t do anything. The police won’t go to the bush the issue in eradicating galamsey is providing where robbery happened, just in the city… Police alternative livelihoods for miners, but also enlisting will tip off the criminals or share in the robbery the traditional chiefs. As one interviewee noted, spoils.” Another noted, “Police give robbers the chiefs are often complicit in the activities: “Chiefs weapons and ammunition, that is the perception”. are poor, so if someone comes to your land, they will pay to use it. Chiefs are a contributing factor [to Of the crimes that are reported and investigated, there are perceptions that through corruption or

292 “Shea butter nourishes opportunities for African women”, Moudio, R., Africa Renewal Online, August 2013.

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political influence, the perpetrators will not face communities has been a source of resilience in consequences. This has led to a frequent culture of defusing inter-ethnic and political disputes. As a mob justice, known as “instant justice,” where male FGD participant described, “The clan and accused armed robbers or criminals are attacked ethnic system is a binding and resilient mechanism and killed by communities. that holds people together”. More broadly, this sense of social unity through ‘Tijaabuunyen’ was also highlighted during field work discussion. As Social and Institutional Resilience Factors

The Upper West is comprised of populations that “When armed robbers are caught, they don’t go follow Muslim, Christian and traditional beliefs. to jail. There is mob justice, they mostly beat Religion is considered a major source of social him to death… Here is a case from last week [shows photo of mutilated body] the community resilience within the region, as well as more broadly killed him. The police had to come and take within the country. Frequently there are inter-faith away the body.” dialogues, and faith leaders have been involved in conflict mediation – such as over pastoralist- - Youth focus group discussion, Wa farmer issues. As one interviewee surmised, “In Upper West, we take our religious beliefs very seriously; they provide unity and support. summarized by one FGD participant, “We have this Generally, there are no inter-religious issues.” common slogan of “Tijaabuunyen” (“We are all one”), which, when said, even when people strongly disagree over certain matters and are in the process of fighting, gives way for warm “We have Christian-Muslim dialogue. [As part of camaraderie.” our women’s association] We visit prisons to

give gifts, we do meetings together, interactions…” Examples of institutional resilience included the Commission on Human Rights and Administrative - Women’s focus group discussion, Wa Justice (CHRAJ), where communities can report human rights abuses and receive free mediation services, and the military, which is seen as a credible and professional alternative to the police While the region is ethnically heterogeneous, in the region. marriages among different ethnic and clan

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Volta Region

Located to the east of Lake Volta, to the west of Togo, and to the north of the Gulf of Guinea, the Volta Region is home to 2,434,212 people, according to 2016 projections.293 Like the country’s other nine administrative regions, the region is multi-ethnic, with the Ewe, Gurma, Guan, and Akan constituting the region’s main groups.294 Agriculture, including hunting, forestry, fishing, as well as the production of cocoa, maize, and rice, serves as the principal source of livelihood.295 Manufacturing and wholesale and retail work are also key economic activities in the Volta Region.296

Structural Vulnerabilities • Widespread corruption and nepotism in institutions • Barriers to women’s participation in political process • Endemic poverty • Lack of development and service provision in rural areas • Cultural and social barriers to the use of family planning • Teenage pregnancy • Porous borders • Lack of perceived professionalism in the police force • High cost of legal services and lack of legal aid • High youth unemployment • Expansion of salt mining leading to environmental degradation • Climate change and environmental pressures Event-Driven Risks • Protests by the Togoland secessionist movement • Intercommunal conflicts over land tenure and sale of communal land • Chieftaincy disputes • Farmer-Herder conflicts • Cross-border crime including smuggling and human trafficking Influx of refugees due to political unrest in Togo • Food insecurity from weather impacts on farming and fishing

293 “Population projections summary 2010 to 2016”, Ghana Statistical Service 294 “2010 Population & Housing Census: Regional Analytical Report”, Ghana Statistical Service, May 2013. 295 “2010 Population & Housing Census: Regional Analytical Report: Volta Region”, Ghana Statistical Service, June 2013. 296 Ibid.

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Social and Institutional • Traditional leaders, religious leaders resolving disputes and advocating Resilience Factors for peace • Civil society groups • Media, especially radio, in contributing to civic education • Leadership of Queen Mothers on social and development issues

Politics and Governance polarized along ethnic and regional lines. For example, the Volta Region is dominated by the now- Corruption was perceived as a major problem by opposition party National Democratic Congress nearly all participants in Key Informant Interviews (NDC), while other regions, such as Ashanti, are (KIIs) and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) in the dominated by the New Patriotic Party (NPP). Some Volta Region. According to interviewees, corruption participants said that it is not possible to publicly exists at all levels of the society and government, state that one is not supporting the main party in from government institutions and licensing power in his or her region. During interviews, agencies to the police, schools and sporting teams. several participants expressed the belief that the Bribes are necessary to access government Volta Region was being marginalized and that there services, and an inability to pay the expected bribes was a lack of regional development due to the can lead to delays in the processing of licenses or ethnic makeup of the region, with the Ewe-majority job promotions. Many participants noted that the region representing only 13.9 percent of the prevalent “whom you know” syndrome leads many national population.297 According to interviewees, people to be put into jobs for which they are not this perception has led some to call for secession qualified and that other appointments were made and independence of the Volta Region. based not on merit, but on political party affiliation. Participants cited these trends as contributing to a Interviewees’ views on the role of women in politics lack of public trust in government institutions and were mixed. Participants noted that women’s exacerbating inequality in the region. political participation and right to vote were protected by the constitution, but that women face many social, cultural and economic barriers to full political participation. Traditionally, men are seen “The ‘Whom you know’ is eating deep into our social fabric. Corruption and nepotism as leaders and women have very little political have been the source of institutional power or voice in public discourse. Although there fragilities in the country. The governance are traditional women leaders, known as Queen ineffectiveness in the country is also Mothers, participants said that their power and largely due to corruption and nepotism… participation in decision-making was limited by There are a lot of square pegs in round their male counterparts. Other participants cited holes.” criticism of female leaders by both women and men, and financial constraints as factors limiting - Police Officer, Keta women in the political arena. Interviewees in a women’s FGD in Keta said, “Women are shamed in the community if they try to occupy political

positions. They are called names. Other women will Fieldwork participants stated that politics in the not even allow you to participate. Hardly do you find region, and in Ghana overall, is increasingly

297 “The World Factbook: Ghana”, CIA

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men who support their wives to do such.” At the therefore limiting the ability of wives to seek family same time, some participants noted that things are planning options. Thus, single women are more changing and that more women are playing roles in likely to use it, but there are rumors and political parties. misinformation about family planning and its side effects. Many interviewees highlighted high rates Perceptions of the role of youth in politics were also of teenage pregnancy and a rise in single varied among fieldwork participants. Several parenthood as prominent vulnerabilities, participants highlighted that youth play a large role particularly in fishing and salt mining communities. in political organizing at the presidential and parliamentary level, as well as in the media and as Although there are often negative perceptions of political vigilantes recruited by politicians. migration from other countries in the region, in the However, others suggested youth participation was city of Ho, migration from neighboring countries is hampered by lack of education, economic viewed as having had a largely positive impact. opportunities and a cultural preference for older Fieldwork participants interviewed in Ho noted that people in decision making roles. immigrants from Nigeria and other countries in West Africa were aiding in the development of their Population and Demographics city.

Poverty and internal migration were common Security concerns for fieldwork participants. Rural areas lack economic development, jobs, and key services Security concerns identified by fieldwork such as healthcare, leading to a surge in rural to participants included border security, a urban migration, both within the Volta Region and secessionist movement, intercommunal conflict, to Accra. In Keta, interviewees also noted the and regional refugee flows. impacts of coastal erosion and climate change, which has caused internal displacement and In interviews, porous borders were identified as a emigration. The Volta Region is home to the major key security vulnerability by several participants. transboundary water basin, the Volta River, which Participants also noted that the border region is is the main water source for up to 24 million people home to significant and growing amounts of illicit in Ghana and neighboring countries. As a 2012 trade including stolen and smuggled goods, drugs, report on the Volta River Basin by the International and small arms. They also noted the scourge of Water Management Institute suggested, climate human trafficking in the area, including the change is likely to have significant domestic and trafficking of children and babies. To highlight the regional implications, with impacts on future regional implications (as well as the destinations of economic development, food security, and poverty stolen and trafficked goods), during a focus group in the region.298 in Ho one participant said that “if your bike is stolen, the most likely place to find it is in Togo.” In Interviewees noted that while education and addition, interviewees in Ho mentioned that access to family planning is widespread in the unregulated border crossings were also negatively region, implementation of family planning impacting security, and that because of limited practices is hampered by cultural norms. enforcement there were many nationals from other Participants noted that married women’s countries living in the area illegally. husbands are not educated about the issue,

298 “The Water Resource Implications of Changing Climate in the Volta River Basin”, McCartney, M., et. al., International Water Management Institute, 2012.

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Regional instability also affected migration. cited by several respondents. In Keta, participants Participants mentioned that during political unrest in a women’s FGD said that chiefs and family in neighboring Togo, refugees from Togo would members selling land for salt mining without come to the Volta Region. While many refugees consent of the residents or other family members stayed with relatives and members of their ethnic was a source of conflict and tension. One KII group rather than in government camps, some interviewee in Ho said that Fulani herders in the interviewees said that refugees were a drain on Adaku district would lose control of their herd, scarce national resources, disrupting the school which would destroy farmland, putting them into system due to being housed in classrooms and conflict with local farmers. causing tensions by not respecting local customs. Sectarian violence is not an issue in the region, Several participants highlighted the secessionist according to fieldwork participants in the Volta movement in the Volta Region as a major security Region. However, one KII interviewee said that threat. According to participants, separatist groups some communities on the Togo border that were such as the Association of Homeland Study Group predominantly Fulani Muslims from Mali and Togo are calling for the secession or independence of was “a potential breeding ground for violent “Western Togoland” region. Participants said that extremism and radical ideology.” potential reasons for the growing support for these groups was resentment due to the lack of Economics and Resources development in the Volta Region and citizens of the Volta Region not feeling like a part of greater Agriculture is the main economic activity and Ghana. One KII interviewee in Ho noted that the source of employment in the Volta Region, with the issue was very divisive and a source of tension in exception of the area around Keta, where fishing is the Volta Region, with many people holding the main industry.299 The Volta River, Volta Lake, polarized opinions. and the Keta Lagoon are important sources for freshwater fishing and irrigation.300 During the fieldwork, participants identified rural poverty, high “A major security threat to the country and for youth unemployment, a lack of women’s economic that matter for the Volta region is the empowerment, illicit cross border trade and secessionist movement of the Togoland… I trafficking, and environmental degradation leading believe this is happening because of the to a lack of food security as economic risks and exclusion of the Volta region in the distribution vulnerabilities. of resources. I believe this is done deliberately by the authorities and until this issue is resolved Fieldwork participants noted that there are there are possibilities of violence erupting.” significant gaps in development between rural and urban communities. Poverty incidence rates in - Male Educator, Keta rural districts are much higher than in the urban districts. For example, in Adaklu and Kadjebi districts poverty incidence was 89.7 percent and Other sources of intercommunal conflict in the 66.8 percent, respectively, while the rate in the region include land and inheritance disputes, municipal districts of Ho and Keta was 21.9 chieftaincy disputes, and herder-farmer conflicts. percent and 14.6 percent, respectively.301 Urban Conflict between communities over borders was areas have better roads, access to healthcare,

299 “2010 Population & Housing Census: Regional Analytical 301 “Ghana Poverty Mapping Report”, Ghana Statistical Report: Volta Region”, Ghana Statistical Service, June 2013. Service, May 2015 300 Ibid.

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potable water, communication, education and than the devalued Ghanaian currency. “Smuggling employment; rural areas do not have the same is what we live on here,” according to a women’s access to services. This leads to significant rural to FGD in Keta. urban migration and situations where only the elderly and young children are left behind in rural According to participants, other illicit activities on communities. the border with Togo include textile and oil smuggling, money laundering, drugs, prostitution, Interviewees also highlighted youth unemployment and small arms and light weapons trafficking. Sex as a problem in the region. Participants mentioned trafficking and forced child labor are also prevalent that even educated youth have trouble finding jobs in the Volta Region305 and several interviewees because they are seeking mostly skilled labor mentioned that children are sold for labor or sex positions, which are scarce. The lack of jobs for and child trafficking to Benin and Togo. Child labor youth was identified by participants as a driver of is also common in the region, especially in farming, migration to Accra and other countries. In 2010, fishing, and salt mining communities or as street the Ghana Statistical Service estimated a net out- hawkers in urban communities. According to the migration of 535,671 people from the Volta Ghana Statistical Service, in 2010 an estimated Region.302 13.2 percent of children age 5-17 were employed.306 Women play a large role in the economy, according to participants. Over 70 percent of both men and women are self-employed and engaged in the informal private sector.303 However, men were “I was [a} witness to a story of human identified as having more economic power than trafficking. A woman sold her child for 700 GHC women in terms of control over land and industry. and when the child’s younger brother was According to 2015 national census data, while crying to follow his brother, the woman was women and men had similar levels of employment compelled to give the younger son to the man.” in many sectors, men were more likely to be employed in the construction, transportation, and - Women’s focus group discussion, Keta communication industries while women were more likely to be employed in wholesale and retail trade Interviewees also highlighted illegal economic and hotels and restaurants.304 With a activities within the Volta Region as contributing to predominantly patrilineal land tenure system in the tensions within and between communities. region, women are often excluded from land Participants in the Keta and Ho KIIs and FGDs also ownership; for example, fieldwork participants noted that the sale of lands for salt mining was mentioned cases where men sell land without contributing to tensions and causing women’s consent. environmental degradation. According to one

participant in a women’s FGD in Ho, “In Adina, the Interviewees highlighted the role of women in both chiefs have sold the land to the salt mining local and cross-border trade of fish and vegetables. companies without the consent of the residents. According to participants in one women’s FGD, The lands have become salinated and the entire cross-border trade is attractive because people community is suffering.” While some participants prefer to trade in the CFA currency in Togo rather highlighted the government’s national efforts

302 “2010 Population & Housing Census: Regional Analytical 305 “2016 Trafficking in Persons Report: Ghana”, U.S. Report: Volta Region”, Ghana Statistical Service, June 2013. Department of State 303 Ibid. 306 “2010 Population & Housing Census: Regional Analytical 304 Ibid. Report: Volta Region”, Ghana Statistical Service, June 2013.

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against illegal gold mining, such as Operation Vanguard,307 others said that the expansion of salt Rule of Law mining and the lack of regulation and environmental assessment is “an indictment of Fieldwork participants noted that residents in the government ineffectiveness.” With oil exploration Volta Region have access to courts, but that courts underway off the coast of the Volta Region,308 were not as relevant for most people due to the community members remain wary of the impacts of slow pace of justice and the high cost of hiring the extractives industry. While some highlighted lawyers. According to participants, costs in the legal the prosperity oil as well as un-tapped bauxite system can be prohibitive and discourage people resources could bring to the region, others from seeking justice. According to the Ghana Bar cautioned “We are not ready to accept oil Association, there are only around 14 qualified lawyers in the Volta Region, compared to over 2,000 in Accra.309 Participants said that legal aid is “Salt mining in Adina has affected the Lagoon available elsewhere in Ghana but is not common in and the economic activities of women, the Volta Region. particularly those who deal in fish. The lagoon

has dried up and this has affected incomes and At the same time, there is a perception that households. It has caused conflicts among families and also between indigenes and corruption is high in the justice system and that expatriates. Even drinking water has been executive and senior government officials can affected, coconut plantations and local banks. abuse the system. For participants aligned with the Fish stock has reduced and so has the quality.” secessionist movement, they cited the arrest of secessionist leader Charles Kudzordzi in 2016 as - Women’s focus group discussion, Keta an abuse of power.

Many participants described the use of alternative exploration here. Once bitten, forever shy.” dispute resolution mechanisms enacted by chiefs, Climate change was also identified by participants community elders and religious institutions that as a key vulnerability negatively affecting farming, complemented the judiciary and assisted in the fishing and food security. In Ho, where the settlement of chieftaincy and family disputes. At agriculture is mainly rain-fed, crops have been the same time, others said that alternative dispute affected by changing rain patterns. In Keta, where resolution was still expensive due to administration irrigation is more common, farming has been and facilitation fees, and that chiefs and affected by water resources drying up. Salinization community elders were not always perceived as of lands due to salt mining was also highlighted. neutral. Lagoon fishing and sea fishing have also been affected by weather and climate change. According Participants in Volta have differing opinions about to participants, coastal erosion and extreme the trust placed in the police service. Some weather events such as storms and high seas have interviewees said that police forces were displaced coastal communities, created internally professional and capable, while others noted that displace persons (IDPs), and destroyed homes and police are taking bribes, that response time for coconut groves. emergency services is poor, and that the police

307 Operation Vanguard is a joint task force of the Ghanaian 308 “Keta oil and gas exploration deal ‘finalised’”, Nyavor, G., military and police intended to combat illegal mining activities Joy Online, March 2016 (galamsey) in the Western, Eastern and Ashanti regions. The 309 “Ghana – Justice Sector and Rule of Law”, Appiagyei-Atua, task force was launched in July 2017 and has since K., Open Society Initiative for West Africa, 2007. expanded to include other regions.

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need additional training. Some participants said addition, civil society organizations such as the that the lack of police professionalism has driven a National Peace Council and the National rise in mob justice and that some communities are Commission on Civil Education were cited by relying more on vigilante groups or private security participants as contributing to education and for protection. promoting peace and religious tolerance.

Interviewees said women faced difficulties in the legal system in land disputes because men control land and can sell it without their permission. This “The role of the traditional chief is to ensure ability to sell land also helps men afford legal peace in his community. They help de-escalate services in court cases. crisis and foster community cohesion.”

- Male interviewee, Keta There are also problems for women when it comes to reporting cases of domestic violence, sexual assault and rape. A 2016 government survey found Traditional women leaders or “Queen Mothers” are that 56.3 percent of women respondents in the becoming more prominent in the Volta Region. Volta Region had experienced some form of Queen Mothers and Queen Mother associations domestic physical violence in their lifetime and influence councils of traditional leaders and have 29.9 percent had experienced sexual violence.310 helped with civic education along with other On the issue of domestic violence, participants’ women’s groups. They also lobby politicians for perception of the services available to victims were development projects in the region, according to mixed. Some stated that the police and the one KII participant in Keta. judiciary cannot be trusted to handle domestic violence cases, while others argued that the police Media, particularly radio, is another resilience are “pro-women” when protecting women from factor that is important for civic education around domestic violence. elections, according to fieldwork participants. Radio stations play an important role in educating Social and Institutional Resilience Factors and sensitizing the public about civil rights and other political issues. Social media platforms, such Resilience factors in the Volta Region include as Facebook, Twitter, and WhatsApp were also traditional leaders and religious groups who cited by participants as important tools that helped provide alternative dispute resolution and youth participate in politics. advocate for non-violence during elections. In

310 “Domestic Violence in Ghana: Incidence, Attitudes, Determinants and Consequences”, Ghana Statistical Service, July 2016.

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Western Region

Located in the south-west of Ghana, the Western Region is bordered by the Ashanti and Brong-Ahafo Regions to the north, the Gulf of Guinea to the south, Côte d’Ivoire to the west, and by the Central Region to the east.311 The Ghana Statistical Service projects the population as 2,887,078 as of 2016.312 The Akan are the predominant ethnic group in the region, but it is also home to the Mole-Dagbani, Ewe, and Ga- Dangme.313 The ecological diversity of the region, which is defined by heavy rainfall, vast forests and coastal wetlands, makes it one of the largest contributors to Ghana’s agriculture, fishing, and forestry sectors.314 Wholesale and retail activities, manufacturing, accommodation and food services, transportation and storage services, and construction are also key economic activities.315 The Western Region also has one of the largest extractives sectors (oil, gas, and mining) in the country, accounting for the second highest level of gold production after the Ashanti Region.316

Structural Vulnerabilities • Perceptions of corruption and bias among political actors • Underrepresentation of women and youth in political decision-making • Youth unemployment • Population growth and demographic shifts • Early marriage • Gender-based violence (GBV) • Criminality, armed robbery and drug use • Inadequate resources and staff for police and security forces • Grievances around employment and distribution of benefits from oil and gas operations • Rising cost of living • Pollution and environmental degradation • Perceptions of corruption and bias in the judicial system and among security forces • Inadequate resources and infrastructure for the judicial system • Lack of popular knowledge around judicial processes

311 “Western”, Government of Ghana 312 “Population projections summary 2010 to 2016”, Ghana Statistical Service 313 “2010 Population & Housing Census: Regional Analytical Report”, Ghana Statistical Service, May 2013. 314 “Western”, Government of Ghana 315 “2010 Population & Housing Census: Regional Analytical Report: Western Region”, Ghana Statistical Service, June 2013. 316 Ibid.

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Event-Driven Risks • Land- and resource-based disputes • Chieftaincy disputes • Confrontations with oil and gas companies • Tensions around Operation Vanguard

Social and Institutional • Chiefs, queen mothers, religious leaders and opinion leaders Resilience Factors • NGOs, CSOs and youth organizations

Politics and Governance almost half the cake.” Most often interviewees Fieldwork participants in the Western Region referred to the unequal distribution of profits from broadly expressed concern around the prevalence oil and gas extraction (detailed below), as well as of bias and corruption among political and the provision of roads and social services, such as government actors. One interviewee connected health clinics. corruption among civil servants to rising costs of living and low pay, stating that “Corruption will In addition, women remain largely never be eradicated when prices are soaring, and underrepresented in political decision-making in the salaries are very low---what do you expect the the Western Region. Fieldwork participants civil servant to do?” Several interviewees also reported that women’s engagement in politics is noted that employment opportunities, discouraged by traditional gender roles and development funds and other benefits are often cultural norms that place women in secondary distributed according to political affiliation, rather roles. As participants in the Women’s FGD than merit. As one participant in the Youth Focus explained, “Most men don’t like women to rule over Group Discussion (FGD) described, “Anytime there them. …This prevents women from contesting for is a change in government, people are sacked and electoral positions.” However, several interviewees replaced by supporters of the ruling party.” In some noted that societal perceptions of women in cases, perceptions of corruption or bias have also politics are slowly changing as women increasingly extended to chiefs, eroding trust in traditional take on decision-making roles at the local and institutions. national levels.

“When a party fails in an election, the people “This is changing, as some women are seen supporting the party also suffer…no jobs, [and] participating in politics, while others get community projects are not recognized in the motivated to see female politicians on TV.” new government.” - Educator, Takoradi - Opinion Leader, Takoradi Similarly, youth are also excluded from politics in Fieldwork participants also expressed a sense that the Western Region. Fieldwork participants Accra and other regions of the country are reported that political parties and politicians rarely benefitting from infrastructure and resources at consult youth leaders or organizations when the expense of the Western Region. One developing policies or programs. Some participant in the Men’s FGD stated: “It’s like we interviewees in the Youth FGD also expressed the have a house and we are all living in it together. sense that youth are manipulated by politicians, And now we have a cake, but some people take stating: “Before the elections, the politicians are

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always with the youths, making empty promises in Finally, women and girls in the Western Region order to get the votes. After the elections, they reportedly face domestic and sexual violence, as abandon the youths.” well as routine sexual harassment in the workplace. In a 2016 report by the Institute of Population and Demographics Development Studies, it was noted that 40 percent of women in the Western Region reported having The key demographic concern identified by been subjected to physical violence in their fieldwork participants was population growth, lifetime, and 26 percent reported having been a coupled with high rates of youth unemployment. As victim of sexual violence.319 Sexual harassment of 2011, nearly 40 percent of the region’s can also impact employment opportunities for population was under the age of 15, and the women and girls. As participants in the Youth FGD population is expected to grow steadily as the use described: “Female youth are usually the most of family planning remains limited.317 Given the discriminated against when it comes to region’s limited employment opportunities for employment. Most employers would want to have youth, interviewees expressed concern around sex with her before she’s offered employment.” future economic pressures stemming from the However, while gender-based violence (GBV) is a growing young population. prevalent issue, interviewees noted that GBV largely goes unreported due to social stigma. The presence of international oil and gas companies has also contributed to an influx of Security workers from other parts of Ghana or from foreign countries. Many fieldwork participants reported The primary security concerns raised by fieldwork that local communities feel that these foreign participants in the Western Region were criminality workers are disproportionately benefitting in terms and armed robbery, drug use, land disputes, and of employment and pay, to the detriment of local chieftaincy disputes. Although land disputes are populations. While interviewees did not report less common than in other parts of the country, instances of direct conflict with foreign or migrant tensions over land can reportedly occur when workers, these demographic shifts have certainly farmlands are sold for galamsey (illegal small-scale contributed to the formation of grievances in the artisanal mining) or are appropriated for oil and gas Western Region. extraction. Chieftaincy disputes are also a concern in the region, and one interviewee noted that the Early marriage is also an issue in some parts of the issue is exacerbated by the lack of adequate region. According to the 2014 Demographic and succession plans put in place by Paramount Chiefs. Health Survey, nearly one in three women (32.9 percent) aged 20-49 in the Western Region was Faced with these security risks, fieldwork married or in a union by the age of 18.318 Fieldwork participants highlighted the fact that police and participants reported that women’s groups and security forces in the region lack adequate civil society organizations (CSOs) are carrying out resources and staff to respond to local sensitization campaigns on the issue. communities. Corruption among security forces was also a concern, with one respondent stating: “If you do not have money, then your case will not

317 “Health Policy Project: Western Region”, Government of 319 “Domestic Violence in Ghana: Incidence, Attitudes, Ghana Determinants and Consequences”, Ghana Statistical Service, 318 “National Strategic Framework on Ending Child Marriage July 2016. in Ghana 2017-2026”, Ghana Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection”, November 2016.

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move. Police respond to you if you are a person of low. Participants in the Men’s FGD also expressed position.” As a result of this low level of confidence that the centralization of services and businesses in Accra has resulted in a lack of opportunities for Takoradi. “[There is] nobody to contact when a crime is The presence of international oil and gas being committed… the security personnel give companies, as well as the influx of workers from excuses of no fuel or inadequate logistics. The other parts of Ghana and the wider region, has response time by the security agencies is very driven up the cost of living – particularly food and poor, as it takes a long time from the time a housing prices - in Takoradi. Increased economic crime is reported and when they eventually pressures, as well as the presence of migrant and show.” international workers, has reportedly contributed to a rise in crime and prostitution in oil- and gas- - Youth focus group discussion, Takoradi producing areas. Respondents also noted that traditional enterprises such as fishing and farming in the security forces, vigilante groups have are being abandoned by youth in favor of working reportedly been established in some communities in oil and gas operations, contributing to a higher to augment the police and ensure security at the rate of school dropouts. However, some local level. respondents did acknowledge the positive impacts of the oil and gas sector in the area – namely, the Economics and Resources increase in employment opportunities (both from the extractive companies themselves and in the The Western Region is home to extensive natural growth of new businesses supporting the industry), 323 resources and is one of Ghana’s leading producers the establishment of the Heritage Fund, and the of gold, oil, and gas.320 The oil industry has provision of educational scholarships by oil and gas significantly expanded in the Western Region since companies. the discovery of oil off the coast in 2007, with Takoradi becoming the hub for many of these “The people who work in the oil and gas activities.321 Agriculture and fishing are also companies are not even from here. They come mainstays of the regional economy and the region from Accra and other places and are taking our is the country’s largest producer of cocoa.322 money away.”

Of particular concern to fieldwork participants in - Women’s focus group discussion, Takoradi the region was the perceived inequality in the profits and employment opportunities from the oil Galamsey was also identified as an economic and gas industry. Interviewees reported that skilled concern in the Western Region, particularly the workers with high-paid jobs on the oil rigs are negative environmental impacts of the practice. As generally from Accra or neighboring countries, participants in the Women’s FGD reported, while local workers work in lower-paid positions “Galamsey is not helping us, as there is a lot of with poor conditions. While there are reportedly pollution of drinking water, air, land, and all sorts of employment quotas to encourage the hiring of local diseases.” The pollution has also destroyed workers, many interviewees felt that they are too

320 “2010 Population & Housing Census: Regional Analytical 322 “2010 Population & Housing Census: Regional Analytical Report: Western Region”, Ghana Statistical Service, June Report: Western Region”, Ghana Statistical Service, June 2013. 2013. 321 “Ghana oil boom: Everything is changing in Takoradi”, 323 The Petroleum Revenue Management Act of 2011 BBC, March 2011. established the Ghana Heritage Fund to support future development projects after the depletion of oil reserves.

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livelihoods for fishing communities and impacted access to potable water sources. The Western “A security man makes an arrest and the next Region is a focus area for Operation Vanguard,324 moment, a voice from somewhere orders the and while interviewees reported that the military release of the criminal. If you know somebody, intervention has made some headway in closing then you are above the law, but if you don’t, the galamsey operations, several noted that Chinese law catches up and deals with you.” galamsey workers are still operating in the area. Interviewees also expressed concerns around the - Women’s focus group discussion, Takoradi long-term impacts of Operation Vanguard, as the As a result of this lack of trust in the police and judicial system, fieldwork participants reported “I was in the Western Region middle of last year that local communities often turn to mob justice or and I noticed that most of the rivers had turned brown in color due to the activities of the illegal to alternative methods of dispute resolution. miners”. Chiefs, queen mothers, religious leaders and other local opinion leaders are frequently involved in - Representative of National Peace Council, mediating and settling disputes. Participants in the Accra Youth FGD also reported that people will travel to the Antoa shrine (in neighboring Ashanti Region) to have a curse put on the guilty party rather than youth formerly engaged in galamsey are now pursuing justice through formal channels. jobless and without income.

Social and Institutional Resilience Factors Rule of Law Despite the risks and vulnerabilities detailed Fieldwork participants in the Western Region above, participants in the Key Informant Interviews expressed a low level of confidence in the formal (KIIs) and FGDs identified several sources of social judicial system due to widespread perceptions of and institutional resilience in the Western Region. corruption and bias toward the wealthy or politically Most prevalent was the important role of chiefs, connected. The judicial system is also reportedly queen mothers, religious leaders and other local hampered by a lack of adequate resources and opinion leaders in mediation and dispute infrastructure to accommodate the growing resolution. In addition, non-governmental number of cases in the region. One respondent organizations (NGOs), civil society organizations noted that courthouses in the region have not been (CSOs) and youth organizations are reportedly expanded or updated in decades. In addition, engaged in awareness-raising on a number of participants in the Women’s and Youth FGDs social issues. Participants in the Youth FGD cited highlighted a lack of popular knowledge around the the example of a youth-created media campaign judicial system and how to access it. intended to curb the practice of galamsey in the area.

324 Operation Vanguard is a joint task force of the Ghanaian (galamsey) in the Western, Eastern and Ashanti regions. The military and police intended to combat illegal mining activities task force was launched in July 2017.

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Conclusion and Recommendations

From an international perspective, Ghana is often proceedings, which may take years to go to trial for heralded as a model of democracy and stability a homicide, or even decades for the resolution of a within the West Africa sub-region. In the 2017 chieftaincy dispute. Fragile States Index, Ghana was ranked the fourth most stable country in Africa after Mauritius, the While per capita conflict fatalities remain Seychelles, and Botswana.325 Its Rule of Law score comparatively low for the region, Ghana is not for the CRVA Index was the highest in the ECOWAS without its security threats. Communal violence sub-region, reflecting its strong legal framework over land, chieftaincy and resources are common and democratic institutions. On security, it also with long simmering conflicts in areas like Bimbillia appears strong, with low per capita violence and a in the Northern Region, and Bawku in the Upper history that avoided the periods of destructive civil East Region requiring curfews and a long-term conflict that plagued its regional neighbors. A military presence. In the Upper West Region, field series of peaceful transitions of power– including interviewees described the state of fear they live in after the closely contested 2016 Presidential race due to the prevalence of armed robbery, including – also highlight Ghana’s democratic credentials. the rape and murder of market women on the road From a domestic perspective, however, Ghana to trade with Burkina Faso. In the Ashanti, Western faces major challenges in fully and equitably and Eastern Regions, a new joint task force of implementing the very legal and democratic military and police, Operation Vanguard, has been governance structures that are widely praised by permanently deployed to stop small scale illegal outside observers. This, in turn, has led to some mining (‘Galamsey’), displacing thousands of significant risk factors. Throughout the field unemployed youth, without any alternate research, during focus group discussions and key livelihoods. This runs a significant risk of stoking informant interviews, many Ghanaians expressed group grievance, and has already prompted an mistrust and frustration about the gap between increase in criminal violence, as miners shift to provision of laws and good governance structures, other illicit activities to recoup lost income. The and their weak or uneven implementation. In the emergence of politically-aligned youth vigilante areas of Rule of Law, many cite the 1992 Ghana groups, particularly during the 2016 election Constitution as a major source of resilience in period, was also highlighted as a threat by protecting citizen’s freedoms and ensuring interviewees from the security sector and civil effective democratic institutions. However, for society. With porous borders with Cote D’Ivoire, everyday Ghanaians, especially those in rural areas Burkina Faso and Togo, in-flows of small arms and and the poorer regions such as the Upper East, light weapons (SALW) only compound the risk of Upper West and Northern Region, the formal more lethal criminality and collective violence. justice system appears inaccessible. Most people in these regions expressed extreme mistrust for the Ghana experienced a largely peaceful most recent police, who are perceived to be corrupt and even election cycle and transfer of power, aided by the collude with criminals – leading to low levels of conflict early warning efforts from civil society, reporting and frequent incidents of mob/vigilante government partners and donors. However, the justice. The court system itself is often shunned for polarization along party lines and ‘winner takes all its prohibitive legal costs and slow pace of politics’ was a salient theme during the election

325 “Fragile States Index 2017”, Fund for Peace

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period for field respondents. The power of the those institutions – will improve. The social winning party and President of the national election resilience of religious cohesion, a vibrant civil to nominate representatives at the national society and media industry, and a collective sense through local levels, such as the MMDCEs, creates of unity – described in the Upper West as deep partisan divisions and perceived grievances ‘Tijaabuunyen’ (‘we are one’) – will continue to be around nepotism and provision of resources and forces for peace and stability, enabling Ghana to benefits. Regional and ethnic overtones to the live up to its global reputation. national voting blocs can create a geographic polarization, with the current NPP administration Politics and Governance favored by the south and west of the country, and • Empower women and youth to run for the NDC favored by the east and north. The political office proposed changes to shift local elections from non- • Encourage inclusive policies to strengthen partisan to partisan risks polarizing party politics women’s participation in political further, and was cautioned against, due to its processes potential to fuel more political vigilante violence at • Establish a national multi-stakeholder the local level, by some civil society interviewees. group on dialogue to engage civil society The separatist movement of ‘Western Togoland’, and security forces to address the issue of fostered by grievances in the Volta region of youth vigilante groups perceived political and development exclusion, • Political parties should disband or remains a very real issue for communities in the reorganize their vigilante groups as agents area. While the movement has been largely of peace dismissed at the national level, including arresting • Encourage government to implement the the separatist leaders for treason, without more proposed reform of the Metropolitan, measured and inclusive engagement it risks Municipal and District Chief Executives spiraling into a larger threat. (MMDCEs) from nominated positions to

elected positions to improve accountability Barriers to women’s inclusion in traditional and transparency in governance. structures of decision making and representation in the political sphere undermines the spirit of Population and Demographics Ghana’s Constitution. Removing barriers to women participating in peace and security decisions, such • Invest in infrastructure development and as the district and regional security councils, and service provision in rural areas as political candidates will strengthen the country’s • Reform the government administration for resilience and development. Similarly, closing the land titles and registration to reduce land gap in girls’ education in rural areas through disputes innovative programs such as distance education • Invest in girls’ education and literacy and collaborating with communities to build girls’ programs schools will help equip the next generation of • Build the capacity of health services to women to participate equally in the economy. The promote women’s health services and structural vulnerability of youth unemployment family planning threatens to manifest as security risks, as well as • Encourage the implementation of the compound poverty and competition for resources. action plan of the government on gender policy If the gaps between Ghana’s resilient governance structures and weaker implementation can be filled, citizen’s trust in institutions – and use of

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Security • Modernize the economy to attract competitiveness and investment in the • Empower the National and Regional Peace private sector for economic development Councils to play a more active role in • Invest in the manufacturing sector to resolving chieftaincy and succession create new jobs and trade opportunities disputes • Promote investment to modernize the • Build the capacity of traditional and agricultural sector, including subsidies for religious institutions to arbitrate and local farmers to enhance agricultural mediate disputes at the grassroots level output • Invest in improving the governance of the • Invest in alternative livelihood programs to traditional chieftaincy system to mitigate curb illegal mining conflict arising from succession • Promote good governance of natural • Support bi- and multi-lateral training resources through effective oversight, assistance programs, with support from transparency, and accountability regional and international partners, to enhance the institutional and operational Rule of Law capacity of the security forces • Work with regional and international • Build the capacity of religious and partners to address larger regional trends traditional leaders in addressing gender- of insecurity and trafficking networks, based violence (GBV) at the grassroots including strengthening border controls. level in compliance with national laws • Invest in information sharing to promote • Encourage recruitment of women in the trust and effective communication judicial sector between security forces and local • Invest in public awareness campaigns to populations for enhanced security educate women and vulnerable groups on • Leverage more interfaith actors to mediate their legal provisions communal conflict • Strengthen the role of the Commission on • Include more women in formal conflict Human Rights and Administrative Justice early warning and security decision making (CHRAJ) in fighting corruption structures • Expand civic education to build trust and transparency in the judicial system Economics and Resources • Strengthen knowledge management and

retention through investment in electronic • Invest in vocational training and case filing systems entrepreneurship to create opportunities for youth and women

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Appendix A: Data Sample

Phase Dimension Source Metric Sample Phase 1: Desktop Resilience SNA Survey 20 Peace/Security Actors Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability ECOWARN SitReps 692 reports Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability Global Integrity In practice, the 15 (all ECOWAS member agency/agencies states normalized and mandated to scaled) organize and monitor national elections is/are protected from political interference Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability Global Integrity In practice, the 15 (all ECOWAS member agency/agencies states normalized and mandated to scaled) organize and monitor national elections make/s timely, publicly available reports before and after a national election. Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability EIU Democracy Electoral process and 15 (all ECOWAS member Index pluralism states normalized and scaled) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability EIU Democracy Political Participation 15 (all ECOWAS member Index states normalized and scaled) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability EIU Democracy Functioning of 15 (all ECOWAS member Index Government states normalized and scaled) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability IDEA Average Voter 15 (all ECOWAS member Turnout states normalized and Parliamentary scaled) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability Transparency Corruption 15 (all ECOWAS member International Perception states normalized and scaled) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability BTI Political and Social 15 (all ECOWAS member Integration states normalized and scaled) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability Freedom House Political Rights 15 (all ECOWAS member states normalized and scaled) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability World Bank Data Proportion of seats 15 (all ECOWAS member held by women in states normalized and national parliament scaled) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability Mo Ibrahim Index Personal Safety 15 (all ECOWAS member states normalized and scaled) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability UN, ECOWAS, AU Peace Operations 15 (all ECOWAS member states normalized and scaled) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability ACLED Conflict Fatalities per 15 (all ECOWAS member capita states normalized and scaled)

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Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability UPPSALA Presence/Conflict 15 (all ECOWAS member with Non-State states normalized and Armed Groups scaled) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability PTS Political Terror Scale 15 (all ECOWAS member – Amnesty states normalized and scaled) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability PTS Political Terror Scale 15 (all ECOWAS member – State states normalized and scaled) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability PTS Political Terror Scale 15 (all ECOWAS member – HRW states normalized and scaled) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability UNHCR Refugees by country 15 (all ECOWAS member of origin per capita states normalized and scaled) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability UNHCR Refugees by country 15 (all ECOWAS member of origin (difference states normalized and 2015-2014) per scaled) capita Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability UNHCR IDPs by Country of 15 (all ECOWAS member Asylum per capita states normalized and scaled) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability UNHCR IDPs by country of 15 (all ECOWAS member asylum (difference states normalized and 2015-2014) per scaled) capita Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability Global Integrity In practice, the 15 (all ECOWAS member independence of the states normalized and judiciary is scaled) guaranteed. Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability Global Integrity In practice, national- 15 (all ECOWAS member level judges give states normalized and reasons for their scaled) decisions/judgments. Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability Global Integrity In practice, 15 (all ECOWAS member allegations of states normalized and corruption against scaled) senior level politicians and/or civil servants of any level are investigated by an independent body. Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability Global Integrity In practice, the 15 (all ECOWAS member body/bodies that states normalized and investigate/s scaled) allegations of public sector corruption is/are effective. Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability Global Integrity In practice, the 15 (all ECOWAS member mechanism for states normalized and citizens to report scaled) police misconduct or abuse of force is effective. Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability WB Human Rights % of Women on 15 (all ECOWAS member and Law Report Constitutional Court states normalized and scaled)

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Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability WB – Women, Does the law 15 (all ECOWAS member Business, and Law mandate equal states normalized and remuneration for scaled) work of equal value? Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability WB – Women, Does the law 15 (all ECOWAS member Business, and Law mandate states normalized and nondiscrimination scaled) based on gender in hiring? Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability WB – Women, Is dismissal of 15 (all ECOWAS member Business, and Law pregnant workers states normalized and prohibited? scaled) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability World Bank Data Gini coefficient 15 (all ECOWAS member states normalized and scaled) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability World Bank Data Gini WYD 15 (all ECOWAS member states normalized and scaled) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability World Bank Data Income Share Held 15 (all ECOWAS member by Highest 10% states normalized and scaled) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability World Bank Data Population with 15 (all ECOWAS member Improved Sanitation states normalized and (Urban-Rural scaled) Difference) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability World Bank Data Population with 15 (all ECOWAS member Improved Water states normalized and Source (Urban-Rural scaled) Difference) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability UN Stats Children under 5 15 (all ECOWAS member moderately or states normalized and severely scaled) underweight, percentage Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability World Bank Data Depth of the food 15 (all ECOWAS member deficit (kilocalories states normalized and per person per day) scaled) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability World Bank Data Prevalence of 15 (all ECOWAS member Underweight, weight states normalized and for age (% of children scaled) under 5) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability World Bank Data GDP per capita, PPP 15 (all ECOWAS member (current international states normalized and $) scaled) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability UN Stats Literacy, 15-24, 15 (all ECOWAS member Women states normalized and scaled) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability World Bank Data School enrollment, 15 (all ECOWAS member primary and states normalized and secondary (gross), scaled) gender parity index (GPI) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability World Bank Data Employment to 15 (all ECOWAS member population ratio, states normalized and ages 15-24, female scaled) (%) (modeled ILO estimate)

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Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability UN Stats Median Age 15 (all ECOWAS member states normalized and scaled) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability World Bank Data Population Growth 15 (all ECOWAS member states normalized and scaled) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability UN Stats Prevalence of 15 (all ECOWAS member underweight, weight states normalized and for age, female (% of scaled) children under 5) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability World Bank Data Maternal mortality 15 (all ECOWAS member ratio (modeled states normalized and estimate, per scaled) 100,000 live births) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability World Bank Data Contraceptive 15 (all ECOWAS member prevalence, any states normalized and methods (% of scaled) women ages 15-49) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability World Bank Data Life expectancy at 15 (all ECOWAS member birth, female (years) states normalized and scaled) Phase 1: Desktop Vulnerability WB – Women, Percentage of 15 (all ECOWAS member Business, and Law women aged 20-24 states normalized and years old who were scaled) married or in a union before age 18 Phase 1: Desktop Risk ECOWARN IncReps 339 (after reducing for duplicates and relevance) Phase 1: Desktop Risk ACLED Incidents 444 Phase 2: Field Risk and Focus Group Broken out by Men, 26 Research Vulnerability Discussions Women, and Youth Phase 2: Field Risk and Key Informant Prominent 37 Research Vulnerability Interviews individuals and local experts, including gvt officials

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Appendix B: Vulnerability Index

Index Data Sources

Based on the five human security pillars, a series of indicators were identified based on relevance and measurability. Data sources were then identified from recognized institutions such as the World Bank, United Nations, as well as universities, research institutions, and think tanks. A full list of data sources is attached in Appendix A. During selection and testing of the index, the availability of data was assessed to ensure an even distribution of scores.

Process: Calculating the Scores

The index is scored on a scale of 1-10, with 1 representing the highest level of vulnerability, and 10 the lowest level of vulnerability. Each raw data set is normalized and scaled, before being integrated into the indicator and pillar scores.

1. Normalization An index, by definition, integrates and compares data sets with very different curves and distribution. As a first step, therefore, it is necessary to normalize the data so that it can be properly compared. Without framing the data within the context of the wider group of numbers, its meaning can become skewed. Therefore, the process of finding the mean and calculating the Standard Deviation (SD) of the data set, then using those elements to approximate a normal distribution, can be used to provide this meaning. The Gaussian normalization formula is outlined below.

Where μ is the mean

σ2 is the variance

SD is the quantity calculated to indicate the extent of deviation for a group of numbers as a whole. Normal distribution is then used to find how the variables are approximately normally distributed. In the context of this tool, it will help to understand where countries sit in relation to each other within the group distribution of a particular data set.

For raw data sets that have gaps (e.g. data is unavailable for some countries but not others), country data points are left blank. This ensures countries are not provided with an artificial score, where data does not exist.

2. Scaling To create an index where countries are scored within a defined range, the data sets must be scaled so the scores can be integrated. This process of scaling transforms the normalized data into a number between 1 and 10, with 10 representing the lowest level of vulnerability. The below formula was applied to standardize the distribution values from [min, max] to [MIN, MAX], matching the new scale of values both for the highest and lowest edges of the distribution.

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(푀퐴푋 − 푀퐼푁) 푋 = 푀퐼푁 + × (푥 − 푚푖푛) (푚푎푥 −푚푖푛⁡)

3. Aggregation Each indicator may be made up of either one or multiple data sources. In cases where multiple data sets were used to make up the one indicator, the data sets were each scaled to preliminary index scores (1-10), as outlined in the above steps. The average was then taken of these scores to reach a final index score for that indicator. This process was repeated at the pillar level, first averaging, then scaling the indicator scores.

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Appendix C: Additional References

Appiah, E. “Affirmative Action, Gender Equality and Increased Participation for Women: Which Way for Ghana?” https://doi.org/10.1093/slr/hmv016

Asante, R. and Gyimah-Boadi, E. “Ethnic Structure, Inequality and the Governance of the Public Sector in Ghana” http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un-dpadm/unpan040107.pdf

Barma, N.H., Huybens, E. & Viñuela, L. ‘Institutions Taking Root: Building State Capacity in Challenging Contexts’, World Bank Group, September 2014 http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/book/10.1596/978-1- 4648-0269-0

Kodila-Tedika, O., Simplice, A. ‘State fragility, rent seeking and lobbying: evidence from African data’, International Journal of Social Economics, 2016, Vol. 43: Issue 10 http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/IJSE-11-2014-0234

NZAID ‘Conflict-Risk Assessment Guideline’ 2008 http://www.gaportal.org/resources/detail/nzaid-conflict- risk-assessment-guideline

OECD ‘ States of Fragility 2016: Understanding Violence’, 2016 http://www.keepeek.com/Digital-Asset- Management/oecd/development/states-of-fragility-2016_9789264267213-en#page1

Owusu-Mensah, I. and Frempong, A. “The Judiciary and Ghana’s 2012 Elections: Analysis of 2012 Presidential Elections Petition and its Ramifications for Democratic Development in Ghana” http://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/DCS/article/view/26897

Sulemana, M. ‘Understanding the Causes and Impacts of Conflicts in the Northern Region of Ghana’ 2009 https://www.africaportal.org/publications/understanding-the-causes-and-impacts-of-conflicts-in-the- northern-region-of-ghana/

UN Development Programme ‘Mapping Conflict Zones in Ghana: An Exploratory Study’ http://www.undp.org/content/dam/ghana/docs/Doc/Demgov/UNDP_GH_NPC%20- %20draft%20report%20for%20conflict%20mapping-%20Northern%20Ghana%20%282%29%202012.pdf

USAID ‘Interagency Conflict Assessment Framework (ICAF)’, 2008 https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/187786.pdf

Woolcock, M. ‘Engaging with Fragile and Conflict-Affected States ‘, Harvard Kennedy School, August 2014 https://www.wider.unu.edu/publication/engaging-fragile-and-conflict-affected-states

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Appendix D: Glossary Agricultural Development and An initiative of USAID Ghana Mission’s Feed the Future Value Chain Enhancement program that works to reduce global poverty and hunger, Program (ADVANCE) promote an inclusive agricultural sector growth and improve agricultural productivity.

Akwantukese Festival Celebrated by the people of the New Juaben traditional area in the Eastern Region, the Akwantukese Festival is a festival which commemorates the migration of the Juaben people from the Ashanti Region to the Eastern Region.

Carlos Boys A youth group loyal to the current Member of Parliament for Tema West, Carlos Ahenkorah.

Commission on Human Rights and An independent commission established in 1993 by an Act Administrative Justice (CHRAJ) of Parliament to promote good governance and safeguard the fundamental human rights of Ghanaian citizens.

Delta Force A New Patriotic Party (NPP)-affiliated political vigilante group.

Domestic Violence and Victims Formerly the Women and Juvenile Unit (WAJU), the Domestic Support Unit (DOVVSU) Violence and Victims Support Unit, a specialized unit of the Ghana Police Service, was established in 1998 to address incidents of domestic violence and child abuse.

Enskinment The process of installing a chief in northern Ghana where the symbol of the chieftaincy institution is the skin.

Galamsey Illegal small-scale artisanal mining operations.

Guinea Fowl War A 1994-1995 Konkomba-Nanumba war that resulted in over 2,000 deaths, 230,000 displacements and the destruction of over 500 villages.326

Homowo Festival An annual harvest festival celebrated by the Ga people of the Greater Accra Region.

Keep Fit Club A group of individuals who participate in fitness activities to promote and maintain healthy living.

Land Guards Individuals or groups who are hired to protect land and property. Often involved in contestation over land ownership, land guards typically use violence. The practice of land guards was banned in 2004.

Metropolitan, Municipal and District Appointed high-ranking public servants who oversee the Chief Executives (MMDCEs) metropolitan, municipal and district administrative units of Ghana.

326 Debrah, E. et al. ‘The Cost of Inter-Ethnic Conflicts in Ghana’s Northern Region: The Case of the Nawuri-Gonja Conflicts’ http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1068&context=jacaps

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National Democratic Congress One of the two dominant parties in Ghanaian politics, the (NDC) National Democratic Congress is a center-left and social democratic political party formed in 1992.

National House of Chiefs An advisory body of elected representatives of the 10 Regional Houses of Chiefs whose mandate includes the review of chieftaincy disputes.

National Peace Council (NPC) An independent statutory national peace organization established in 2011, under the purview of the Ministry of the Interior, to prevent and mitigate conflict as well as promote sustainable peace.

New Patriotic Party (NPP) The current ruling party, the New Patriotic Party is a center- right and liberal democratic political party founded in 1992.

Operation Vanguard A joint task force of the Ghanaian military and police intended to combat illegal small-scale artisanal mining activities (galamsey) in the Western, Eastern and Ashanti Regions. The task force was launched in July 2017 and has since expanded its activities to additional regions.

Queen Mother A traditional female leader of royal lineage who participates in traditional governance and is responsible for issues regarding women and children.

Regional House of Chiefs A regional traditional institution, present in all ten regions, that maintains advisory responsibilities and jurisdiction over regional chieftaincy affairs.

Sakawa Cybercrime activities that combine online fraud with ritual practices.

Sakawa Boys A term for individuals and groups involved in cybercrime activities.

Tijaabuunyen Meaning “we are one”, Tijaabuunyen refers to a culture of unity as Ghanaians.

Volta River Authority (VRA) Established in 1962 by a governmental act, the Volta River Authority is the principal generator of electrical power.

Winner-Takes-All An electoral system in which the victorious political party or group elects every office within a jurisdiction.

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Appendix E: Matrix of Vulnerabilities, Risks, Resilience Factors, and Recommendations by Human Security Pillar

GHANA Vulnerabilities Risks Resiliencies Recommendations Politics & - Perceptions of - Electoral - Consolidated - Empower women and youth Governance mistrust and processes democratic to run for political office lack of - Electoral gains through - Encourage inclusive policies transparency of violence peaceful and to strengthen women’s government - Politically- successful participation in political institutions aligned vigilante political processes - Perceptions of groups transitions - Establish a national multi- corruption - Politicized - Vibrant civil stakeholder group on - Polarized communal society dialogue to engage civil political system conflict organizations society and security forces along party and - Tensions related (CSOs) and to address the issue of regional lines to secessionism media youth vigilante groups - Uneven regional in Volta Region - Existence of - Political parties should distributions of - Marginalization credible disband or reorganize their resources and of people with institutions to vigilante groups as agents of development disabilities uphold peace - Perceived - Galamsey people’s rights - Encourage government to ‘winner takes operations and protections implement the proposed all’ political (illegal mining (such as the reform of the Metropolitan, system operations) National Peace Municipal and District Chief - Perceptions of Council, Executives (MMDCEs) from nepotism Commission on nominated positions to - Under- Human Rights elected positions to improve representation and accountability and of women in Administrative transparency in governance. Parliament Justice - Under- (CHRAJ), and representation Domestic of women and Violence & youth in political Victim Services decision making Unit (DOVVSU)) - Lack of clarity around land tenure and ownership - Poor chieftaincy succession planning - Gender-based violence (GBV) and child abuse

Population & - Population - Increasing - Tradition of - Invest in infrastructure Demographics growth and criminality and peaceful development and service migration illicit activities relationships provision in rural areas flowing from between ethnic - Reform the government administration for land titles

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- Land- and youth and religious and registration to reduce resource-based unemployment groups land disputes tension - Land- and - Initiatives and - Invest in girls’ education - High rate of resource-based programs to and literacy programs youth conflicts promote girls’ - Build the capacity of health unemployment - Child labor education services to promote - Early marriage - Drug abuse - The Domestic women’s health services - Teenage - Natural Violence & and family planning pregnancy disasters Victims Support - Encourage the - Low rate of - Effects of Unit (DOVVSU) implementation of the family planning climate within the action plan of the - Inadequate changes, Ghana Police government on gender access to including Service policy quality public changing rainfall - Government services, patterns, initiatives to including flooding, and invest in education and drought infrastructure healthcare - Coastal erosion development - Increase in - Disease - Government population outbreaks funded public - Poor - Gender-based secondary infrastructure, violence (GBV) education including and child abuse (public senior housing, high schools)

electricity, - School feeding water, roads, program for etc. primary schools - Disparities in regional development - Environmental degradation and negative effects of climate change Security - Poor logistics - Criminality and - Community- - Empower the National and and funding of illicit activities based Regional Peace Councils to the police such as drug neighborhood play a more active role in service trafficking, watch groups resolving chieftaincy and - Galamsey cybercrime, and - Efforts to succession disputes operations human reform - Build the capacity of (illegal mining trafficking modernize the traditional and religious activities) - Land- and land tenure institutions to arbitrate and - Porous borders resource- based system, mediate disputes at the - Proliferation of conflicts, including grassroots level small arms and including herder- digitizing - Invest in improving the light weapons farmer violence records of land governance of the (SALW) and clashes with sales traditional chieftaincy - Perceptions of land guards - Cohesion and system to mitigate conflict corruption and - Chieftaincy peaceful arising from succession malpractices disputes cohabitation - Support bi- and multi-lateral among security - Tensions among ethnic training assistance forces surrounding the and religious programs, with support from - Communal deployment of groups regional and international tensions Operation - Deployment of partners, to enhance the Vanguard Operation institutional and operational - Tensions and Vanguard to capacity of the security violence forces

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between curb illegal - Work with regional and political groups mining international partners to - Proliferation of - Actions of address larger regional vigilante groups security and trends of insecurity and - Increase in defense forces trafficking networks, criminality as a to maintain law including strengthening result of and order and border controls. galamsey to protect the - Invest in information sharing activities (illegal population to promote trust and mining - Participation of effective communication activities) Ghana Security between security forces and Agencies local populations for (police and the enhanced security army) in - Leverage more interfaith peacekeeping actors to mediate operations communal conflict - Efforts to curb - Include more women in galamsey formal conflict early warning operations, and security decision including making structures Operation Vanguard and local-level initiatives

Economics & - High rates of - Criminality and - Efforts to - Invest in vocational training Resources youth illicit activities modernize land and entrepreneurship to unemployment flowing from tenure and create opportunities for - Rural-urban youth registry youth and women divide and unemployment systems - Modernize the economy to regional - Tensions with - Government attract competitiveness and disparities in Operation efforts to curb investment in the private development Vanguard galamsey sector for economic - Reliance on - Tensions operations, development natural between local including - Invest in the manufacturing resource communities Operation sector to create new jobs extraction and and mining Vanguard and and trade opportunities primary companies local-level - Promote investment to commodities - Food insecurity initiatives modernize the agricultural - Rising cost of - Land- and - Government- sector, including subsidies living resource-based and private for local farmers to enhance - Barriers to conflicts sector- agricultural output financing, credit - Conflicts sponsored - Invest in alternative and land between herders infrastructure livelihood programs to curb ownership for and farmers and illegal mining women - Water, air, and development - Promote good governance - Illicit activities soil pollution projects of natural resources through such as drug - Economic effective oversight, trafficking and reform transparency, and proliferation of implemented accountability small arms and by the light weapons government (SALW) - Investment in - Environmental youth and degradation and women the negative empowerment effects of initiatives

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climate change - Initiatives to on agriculture build the - Galamsey capacity of the operations private sector (illegal mining to invest in activities) local economic development projects - Modernization of agriculture and extractive industries Rule of Law - Slow judicial - Incidents of - Role of - Build the capacity of processes corruption in traditional and religious and traditional - Lack of court system religious leaders in addressing resources for and among institutions in gender-based violence the judicial security forces conflict (GBV) at the grassroots level system - Vigilante/mob mitigation in compliance with national - Limited police justice - Vibrant civil laws capacity, - Mistrust in the society - Encourage recruitment of particularly in court system organizations women in the judicial sector rural areas - Impunity around (CSOs) and - Invest in public awareness - Perceived lack gender-based media campaigns to educate of violence crimes institutions to women and vulnerable independence - Under reporting expose abuses groups on their legal of the judiciary of gender-based and violations provisions - Backlog of court violence (GBV) of civil rights - Strengthen the role of the cases - Capacity Commission on Human - Inadequate building of Rights and Administrative training for security forces Justice (CHRAJ) in fighting judicial staff and judicial corruption - Barriers to staff - Expand civic education to justice, - Reform of the build trust and transparency including judicial system in the judicial system accessibility - Strengthen knowledge and affordability management and retention - Perceptions of through investment in corruption in electronic case filing the judicial systems system - Culture of silence around gender-based violence reporting - Under representation of female lawmakers

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