DEVELOPMENTAL ACTIVITIES AND ECOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF ROHILKHAND
OKtBtTATION SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DECREE OF
IN GEOGRAPHY
BY NAVED UDDIN SIDDIQI
Uii^tr 4hc Suptrvition of Dr. S, M Shahld Hasan (Re&der)
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNfVERSlTY ALIGARH (INDIA) 1990 DS2028
D tlhSr-^ Phone : 5661 DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH
CaHTIFlCArS
rhis la to certify that Nr.NavactiidldlB Slddlql ham OMipl«t«d his H^Rill.DlsMrtatloa Mdtltled " DarvlApMiital Actlvltlas uA i^^loslcal Coadltlona of Hohllkhaod " under •y auparvlalon* Jb^ (S,K,Sliaiiid Haaan) Supenrlaar CONTENTS
Page No. Acknowledgement List of Tables ii List of Figures iii-iv Introduction '^
Chapter-I Physical Setting of Rohilkhand Division. i. Structure 1 ii. Drainage pattern 5 iii. Climate 24 iv. Soil 37 Chapter-II
Economic Environment i. Agriculture Development 46 ii. Industrial Development '^^
Chapter-Ill
Human Environment i. Population growth 100 Ii. Sex-ratio 103 iii. Occupation Structure —— 109 iv. Religious Community 113
Chapter-IV cnange in Ecology 116 Chapter-V
A Review of v;ork done so far 12 9 Bibliography 141 A CKNOWLEDGEMENT
Completion of this work gives me much awaited opportunity to express my most sincere and deeply felt gratitude to my supervisor EJr. S.M. Shahid Husain, Reader, Department of Geography, A.M.U., Aiigarh. All that my feeling cannot be expressed in few words I can only say that I would have been in wilderness without his assistance, guidance and help. His advice, sweetness and suggestions made my deliveration highly Inspiring and interesting. His Ideals will always guide me in future. I am also thankful to my Chairman, Prof. Farooq Slddlqui for providing me all the necessary facilities and help.
I also placed on record my thanks to Prof.Mohd.Shafi for his co-operation and sy/rpathetlc attitude.
I am also thankful to Mr. jabir Hasan Khan, Mr. Noorul Islam and Mr. Shafiqullah, Research Scholars, Department of Geography for providing me all the necessary succour and co-operation.
ved Uddin Siddiqi) 11
LIST OF TABLES
Page No, 1 . Winter monthly, maximum and minimum temperatxare 2 7 2. Monthly rainfall In winter season 29
3. Monthly maximum and minimum temperature {Summer) 31 4. Monthly distribution in Rainfall 34 5. Net irrigated area 47 6. Use of Fertilizers 49 7. Area under High yielding varieties 51 8. No. of tractors per ten thousand hectare 53 9. No. of threshers per ten thousand hectare 55 10. No, of plough per ten thousand hectare 57 11. Agricultural credit advanced by Cooperative Bank and primary agricultu ral credits Societies per ten thousand hectare 59 12. Area of production of principles crops of Rohilkhand plain (1950-51 to 1981-88) 66 13. No. of Registered factories under factory act 1948 in Rohilkhand (1961) 80 14. No. of Registered factories under factory act 1948 in Rohilkhand (1971) 82 15. No, of Registered factories under factory act 1948 in Rohilkhand (1988) 84 164.Different categories of S£I Unit in Bareilly 79 16b.Different categories of SSI Unit in Badaun 86 Hi
16c. Different categories of SSI Unit in Shahjahanpur 88 16d. Different categories of SSI Unit in Pilibhit 90 16e. Different categories of 3ST Unit in Bijnor ^2 16f. Different categories of SSI Unit Moradabad 95 16g. Different categories of SSI Unit in Rarrpxor 98
17. Decadal population growth in Rohilkhand 101 18. Distribution of population and its density in Rohilkhand (1981) '- 104 19. Sex Distribution in Rohilkhand (1981) 107 20. Percentage of primary, secondary. Tertiary activities 110 21. Percentage of each religious community in Rohilkhand (1981) 114 22. District-wise area under forest in Rohilkhand 117 2 3. District-wise factories under factory act 1948 in Rohilkhand 121 iv
LIST OF MAPS
Page No. 1. Location Map vi 2. Physiographic division 2 3. Drainage ^ 5 4. Soil 38 5. Area and production of major food crops (1950-51) 63 6 . Area and production of maj.or food crops (1987-88) 64 7. Growth of population (1911-1981) 102 8. Density of population 105 9. Sex ratio (1981) 108 INTRODUCTION
Environmental problems have attracted the attention of a wide criss-section of people all over the world from the beginning of the present century, but momentum has gained since the last two decades. People are now seems quite concerned about a variety of problems like global warming, decreasing oxigen^draughts^ famines^floods, scarcity of fuel, firewood and fodder, water and air pollution, etc. which have adverse effects on the environment.
The most inportant issue for the survival of human beings is "the protection of environment and ecosystem,which is highly inportant for the fullfilment of human needs because resources are not unlimited in the environment and decreasing day by day.
An ecosystem may be defined as a functioning interacting system conposed of one or more living organisms and their effective environment, both physical and biological. The environment includes air, water and the inter-relationship which exists among them. Any disturbance to any of these factors have inevitable repercussions on others.
The interaction of Man-land-and resources and their utilization occupies a vital position when one talks of ecology, ecosystem and ecological Imblance and conservation. The geographers and its practitioners have authentic claims vl
78 79 do' -30 ROHILKHAND 68 ,76 ' i^ • ^2 • ido LOCATION MAP 3 6" 1 \ - 32- > 1 .J ROHILKHAND f-^ y m:. ^ I •sUP 7^--^."_ ' • ^—J .••;•••-..••. 2<4- 1 N " D 1 A < "A^
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and genuine ccaicern to understand this Intricate and con:¥)lex relationship as it leads to certain spatial structures, which need a holistic frame of analysis and understanding. Spatial concern is the donain of geography and its methods and techni ques invariably call for a full time approach and understanding. Geography>,whlle dealing with environment and environmental lssues^,adds an important dimension as It basically interprets complex environmental Issues on an anthropogenetic^ transformat ion matrix.
Food chains systems of energy transfer and chemical element recycling achieve natural balance and sequence within undisturbed ecosystems. Humans, however, have had a long record of altering the smooth flow of these cycles. The inpact of humans upon the environment are conplex and are never isolated. An external action that impinges upon any part of the web of nature Inevitably triggers chain reactloas. The ultimate inpact of which appears never to be fully anticipated. Human Intervenes^ and fragile structxire of the environment disrupts and this process is on increase rapidly.
Human beings are part of the natxural envlronmenty and depend for their lines on the water^ air- food and energy resour ces that the biosphere contains. It Is well established fact that human can not manipulate^distort, pollute or dlstroy any part of the ecosystem without diminishing its quality or dls- trupting its structure. vlll
The Increasing population and poverty are the fundamen tal causes which make people over-exploit the natural resources of the country like land, forest and water for meeting their basic needs for enployment, for shelter for fuel and fodder for their cattle. It Is widely recognized that population growth Is essentially the result of poverty and lack of educat ion. However, the change of environment by human action is as old as the history of humans themself.
Like other parts of the country the Rohllkhand division of Uttar Pradesh is also facing environmental problems. Rohllkhand cortprlses seven districts namely Barellly, Bijnor, Badaun, Moradabad, Shahjahanpur, Pilibhit and Raitpur. Rohllkhand is a part of Indo-Ganga alluvial tract and has an area about 30 544 sq. kms. The whole region is a fertile plain and the main rivers that pass through it are Ganga, Ramganga, Gomatl, Deoha, Aril, K^l and Sarda etc.
The population of this region in 1951 was 850 3282 and in 1981 was 13168240 of U.P.inthese two decades the population has Increased about 35.42 per cent. Since land is the basic resource for providing the need of the people. The population growth directly effects the land and its forest.• In 1951 area under forest was 528852 hectares while in 1981 it reduced to only 186194 hectares .In these three decadeJ^the forest area reduced very fast about 64.7 per cent. The deforestation increases Ix
the land degradation, which may be due to the soil erosion etc. The rapid development In Industrialization of this region affected the deforestation directly for its demand for land, wood, and other types of raw materials. These industries claimed their share for forest land. The registered factories under "Factory Act 1948" in 196-0 were 145 while in 1988 the number of factories increased to 929v these Industries are also responsible for the envircffimental problems.
The present study aims at applying the theoritical postulates like industrialization, agriculture, population growth^etC;,on the ecological conditions of Rohilkhand. In this dissertation the scheme of chapters is as follows. Chapter-I contains the physical structvire, drainage system, soil and climate of Rohilkhand division. Chapter-II deals with the agricultural and industrial development in the region. The chapter-Ill has been devoted to the human environment. The main attributes of the population that has been taken for discussion are the trends in the growth rates, density, sex- * ratio,the religious cortposltlon and the population engaged in primary, secondary and tertiary activities. In the IVth chapter an attenpt has been made to study the pattern of ecology in Rohilkhand, and chapter-V gives a review of the work so far done. In the la sty a selected bibliography has been given^after arranging alphabetically on the author^s name. PHYSICAL SETTING OP ROHILKH^ND DIVISION
The present study relates to the area which lies bet ween latitudes 2 7» 35' to 29'' 58« N and longitudes 78» 0* to 80«» 27' E. It cortprlses the districts of Badaun, Moradabad, Rartpur, Bareilly, Bljnor, Pillbhlt and Shahjahanpur. The study area lies In the north western part of Uttar Pradesh and covers an area of 30544 sq. km. . It is roughly about 10.3 per cent of the total area of Uttar Pradesh.
Physical Setting ;
(i) Structure (11) Drainage (111) Climate (Iv) Soil STRUCT1JRE The whole of Rohllkhand region is a fertile plain and Is a part of Indo-Ganga alluvial tract which extends over about "^cvgt^sq. km. The deposits of this tract belong to the last chapter of earth's geological history. They conceal beneath them the northern frlngw of the peninsular formation .
1. Krlshan, M.S., Geology of India and Burma, Madrxs, 1956, p. 529. 2
78 79 80. •30
ROHILKHAND PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS
-2 9
281- KHAOER LANDS II-TARAl ZONE mo-GANGA SAT INT IIIb-BAHGUL DEOHA IVQ-ARIL RAMGANGA TRACK IVB-CHAUKA DEOHA RAMGANGA INTERFLUE V - TRANS RAMGANGA PLAIN 0 10 20 30 kO 50 I I I r • ' KILOMETRES
? ^- Surface features are gralnty observation indicate that the Ganga plain is deepest in the central portion and gradually gets small over towards the west of Delhi and east of Rajmahal hills^
The presence of characteristic Gondwana rock on the northern rim of this alluvial tract indicates that its sub stratum is an extension of the peninsular rock viz, Archean 3 gneiss with areas of Vindhyan and Goundwana sediments .
S.G. Bunad on the basis of geological data concluded that the plain occupies a deep rift valley with parallel fault 4 on its two sides with a maximum down throw of twenty miles .
The recent view regarding the origin of this region is that its crust formed between northward drifting deccan plateau and the comparatively soft sediments accumulated in the Tethyan as well as in the connected basins on the north. The crun^iling of the sediments resulted in the formation of mountain system ,
2. Oldhan R.B., The Gangetic Basin and the folding in its Floor Memoirs of the geological survey of India, vol. IXXII, Calcutta, 1917, p. 128. 3. Hayden H.H., Nates on the relationship of Himalayas to the Indo-gargatic Plain and the Indian Peninsula "records of geological survey of Indiai vol. XLIII 4. Burrard, S.G,, On the Origin of the Himalaya Mountains Geological Survey of India., 5. Krishnan, M.S. Geoloav o^ India and Burma, Madras, 1956, p. 529. ~~ According to Edward SuCss the great Australian geologist. It Is a fore-deep formed Infront of the resistant mass of the peninsula when the Tethyan sediments were thrust southward and compressed against them. The peninsula is regarded as a stable mass and central Asia as the moving segment of the crust. The rivers from the Himalayas brought a tremendous amount of dep<|sits since the pleistocene age and thus the plain came Into existence .
The total thickness of the alluvium is not known. The deepest bore hole at Lucknow is Uttar Pradesh is only 1336 7 feet and has not touched the rock bottom .
According to Oldham, it has been deduced geologically that the depth of the alluvium along edge of the Himalayas 3 amount to 4616 to 6158 metres ^
According to Hayden the geodetic evidence seems to confirm to the generally accepted view that the Indo-Gangetic depression is a broad basin, shallow on the side and sloping 9 gently inwards the Himalayas .
6. Ibid, p. 330. 7. Oldham, R.D., The Deep Boring at Lucknow, Records of the Geological Survey of India, vol. XXIII, Delhi, 1939, p.263. 8. Oldham, R.D., The Structurf of the Himalayas and of the Gangetlc Plain "Memairs of the geological survey of India, vol. XLIII Pt. if, Delhi, 1939, p. 82. 9. Hayden, H.H., 'The Himalayci and the peninsula,Records of the Geological Survey of India, vol. XLIII Pt.2, Delhi, 1939, p. 167. 0
The sediments of this basin are sand, salt and clays with occasional gravel beds and peaty organic matter and varying proportions of loam. The older alluvium, bhangar is rather dark in c4>lour and rich in nodules of inpure calcium carbonate knowhas Kankar in the northern India. The Khadar concretions are of all shape and size. The older alluvium forms, are elevated terrace above the flood level. It is of middle and upper pleistocene age. The newer alluvium called Khadar in light coloured and poor in calcareous matter. It contains linticular beds of sand and gravel. It merges by insensible gradation into the alluvium and should be assigned to upper pleistocene and percentage .
DRAINAGE PATTERN i
The important rivers and their tributaries which form the drainage lines of the area are Ganga, Ramganga, ACal, Deoha Sarda, Kosi.
THE GANGA . The Ganga is the largest river of the area. It forms the western boundary. It first touches Bijnor in the extreme north close to its points of .«xit £rom' the hills above Harward. It flows southward
10. Spate, O.H.K., India Pakistan, London, 1957, p. 497. I i 80
ROHILKHAND DRAINAGE
P'.r :i in a wide bed of boulders the volume of the stream being greatly diminished by reason'of the Ganga canal which takes off at Mayapur on the right bank , a short distance from this place. It becomes sandy and the channel in comparatively shallow and the river is not navigable. It reaches the x±n vicinity of Negal in Pargana NajlbabadJhe Ganga bends south wards again at Barnwala in Pargana Mandwar. The Ganga enters the Moradabad districts in the northwest about 4 km west of the village of Papsari (in Hasanpur), then flows southerly direction along the western boundary of the district for nearly 65 kms (which is also the entire length of Hasanpur from borth to south) and seperate the district from those of Meerut and Bulandshahr. In the district it has only two insignificant tributaries the Baia and the Matwali. The former joins near the village of Kharajpur and latter near that of Dhoria in Badaun it forms 149 kms long boundary in the west and south of the district where Ganga enters the area near village Dippur in Rajpura Pargana. It passes through at Qadir-chavik in the extreme southeast corners of Badaun district.
Tributaries of Ganga :
The Baha : This small stream enters the district of Bijnor near the village of Papsari (Hasanpur). On the northern border of the district. Flowing southwards for about 2 kms 8
It takes a southwesterly course as far as Mukaraitpur from where It flows in a south easterly dixection till it merge in a broad semi-circular lagoon known as Jalthal Dhab.
The Krishni :- The small stream near the village of Paharpur Inayatpur (in Hasanpiir) and separates the districts from Bijnor for about 3 kms. It merges in the Jaithal Dhab near the village of Azampur.
The Bala s Emerging from the Jaithal Dhab near the village of Saharanpur the Bala flows in a southerly course through the Ganga Khadar for about 20 kms and join the Ganga near the village of HtTigrl, It is perennial stream.
The Matwali : This stream issues from a Swamp near the village of Chakanwala (in Hasanpur) about 3 kms from the village of Aiinagar. Flowing southward about parallel to the Ganga as far as Pattipora, It takes as easterly course for about 2 Ions and then flows south again joining the Ganga near the village o f Dhar la •
The Mohawa : This is the largest tributary of the Ganga. The course of the Mohawa for tlie most part is parallel to the Ganga. The Mahawa oariginates about 3 kms to the north of Bachharoon town of Moradabad, After it enters into Badaun district 2 kms northwest of Ga\^«n, It receives water of numerous seasonal small stream Nariaoli where it is nearest to the Ganga and passes thxoucjh the Gemga Khadar. It passes through Rajpura Sahaswan and joins Ganga near about the middle of the length of Badaun district. There are various long lakes along the river ^4ohawa, In the rainy season when it is flooded it flows into two district channels. One of which is seasonal in the northiwest of gahaswan and at a distance of 5 kms from the Mahawa. There is a big semi circular lake named^ Dhand, in addition to many small lakes in the rainy season these lakes Nariaoli where it is nearest to the Ganga and passes through the Ganga Khadar, It passes through Rajpura Sohaswan and joins Ganga near about the middle of the length of Badaun district. There are various long lakes along the river Mohawa, In the rainy season when it is flooded it flows into two district channels. One of which is seasonal in the northwest of Sahaswan and at a distance of 5 kms from the Mohawa, There is a big semi-circular lake named Dhan in addition to many small lakes in the rainy season the^e lakes join and form continuous sheet of water.
The Tikta : This is known as the eastern Bajad nadi rising in the district of Moradabad, It enters the area from north west and adopting a southeasterly course. It forms the district boundary of Moradabad, It receives the water from Anderia and other small seasonal channels the lake forms the lu
district boundary of Badaun for 6 kms. After it the river Joins the Mohawa on its eastern bank.
The Sot or Yariwater : YariwQfadar name was given by Moharranad Shah . It flows in a southeasterly direction through the Sambhal, It has a well defined and fairly broad valley in most places of considerable depth with a long slopes from the uplands down to the alluvial soils which is found in the bed of stream. It is a perenneal stream"and has a large volume of water throughout the ye.ar. The Chhaiya Joining it on the right bank at Dhakia.
Sota lakes it water firstly from the Bhainsaur and then flows southeastward and finally Joins the Ganga. The presence of a nuntoer of ox-bow lakes close to the lift bank of the river clearly indicates that the river was flowing at a distance of about two or three kms away from its present course. The river enters the Shahjahanpxjr district where it receives numerous sirall seasonal streams. Kadwara, which originates and flows in the low land of Dataganj through numerous long lakes. The Kadwara receives two small seasoned stre?im. Anil nadi and Sotva nadi the latter comes from the Ramganga.
11. Esha Basanti Joshi, Uttar Pradesh district Gazetters, Moradabad (Allahabad), 1968, p. 7. Jl
The Ban : This stream rises in the Bijnor and enters the Moradabad near the village of Kalapxxr (Kalampiir) * In the northeast of Arhroha it joins iJie river Ganga on its right bank at the village of Sirra Manihor.
The Burdmar : With the nanie of Singli nadi. It drginate 4.8 kms northwast of Rajpura village and 13 kms after its original point. It becomes a strong seasonal stream and is renamed as Burdmar nadi flowing eastward, it finally joins Mohawa at the right bank in the area.
'T]•.:-' Chhoiya : It is orginated with a broken and undefined course in the Santohal tahsil of Moradabad district, v»^en it enters the area 1,5 kms north of village Manikpur it attains a definite course which is fEom northwest to southeast. It is a seasonal stx'eam, the iarea where it flows is a low lying and Marshes and lakes. This tract was formerly occupied by numerous small seasonal channels^ known as Kadwsuras which discharged their water in the ^'tohawa.
The Bhainsaur : It originate from a seasonal lake and flows in a southeasterly direction. It is a seasonal channel upto Bilsi and Sirasoul its course Is broken. Its course begins to be very meandering until it joins Sotanadl. It receives the water of a seasonal river Kanra nadi which originate from 3 kms long lakes and in a meandering way it meets the Bhainsaur to IZ
the northeast of village Bhainsora the Karma nadl it parallel to firstly Mohawa and afteirwards ti Ganga. After receiving the Kanara the Bhainsaur crosses only 2 kms of land when it has to full into the Sota nadi* Bhainsaxir flows in Banga tract except in its long course.
THE RAMGANGA :
Rising in the snow range of the Himalaya, after traversing the district of Bijnor and Moradabad it enters the district of Rampur. It flows in a northwest parts of Rampur and Bareilly districts. It flows south along the western border and then enters tehsil ^[oradabad. Skirting the city on the east and bend towards Rampur, It has no affluent on the right bank but on the left several streams feed. It forms the high lands on the north deserving the Phikar Pepi, Dhela jthe Rajhera^Ko.si^Dojora ^ceoranian^Nakatia, Bahgul and Pangalli, During its course Ramganga flows in a shifting and uncertain bed in rainy season the river attains very large dimension spreading out« Over the Khadar and carving out for
itself fresh channels through the soft alluvial land in the 12 most cupricious manner • To wast of Bareilly city these are two alternative channels several miles apart and the river
12, Henry Prowde, Emperial Gazetteer of India, vol, XXI, London, 1908, p, 175. 13
is constantly shifting from one channel to the other. These are several ox-bow lakes in the low lands which represents old channels aboundened at different periods 13 , owing to tlie breadth, of the Khadar and tlie depth of the breadth of the jvhadar and the depth of the channel below to the level of the up land the Ramganga is little one for irrigation 14 .
The Tributaries of Ramqanqa :
This stream, which risers in the hill of Kamaun and forms the boundary for some distance between Nainital and ttiat of Bijnor enters the Moradabad district near the village of Rrltampur on the northern bor.ieir of ThiOaardwara.
The Khalla rising in the t^rai this stream enters the district near the village of Tanda Alain in the northwest of Thakurdwara and receives the Kawakher when it becont^s knoT-m as Repi or Rapi, It is joined by the Jahdia Tarai stream before it meets the Ramganga.
The Kurka t This stream starts as a nullah close to Thakurdwara town and flows in a southerly direction as far as
13. Hayden H.H., Bxirrard, S.G. and Herson, A.M., A Sketch of the Geography and Geology of the Himalaya mountain and Jibet Part III, Delhi, 19 34,, p. 175. 14. Neviil, H.R., nlstrict oazr^ttr^-'^r3 of '"-areilly, vol. XTII Allahabad, 1909, p. 6. u village of Sultanpur nast. Taking almost a westerly course from here. It is fed on the right bank by a small tributary the Lapakna near the village of Kharagpur.
The Lapakna rising in the Tarai region this stream enters the district Moradabad near the village of Raghoolwala on the right bank it is fed by the Lapakna nala near the village of Rehta Maufi ^5ustehkam the limited stream shortly afterwards discharging its water into the Ramganga,
The Dhela this stream rises from the hills of Nainital enters the Moradabad district near the village of Kalyanpur. After flowing for about 2 kms the boundary between the two districts. At this place it is fed by the Metwali (east) or Dhandi which seperates Thakurdwara from that of Kashipur. It is fed by the Damdana near the village of Bhagalpur Ratan before It joins the Ramganga.
The Rajhera : This stream has its origin in the depressions of the rice lands near the village of Samdha Ramsahl. It is fed by several minor water courses, the chief being the Kachia. Its bed is characterised by claylsh sand and its banks have poor and brown soils.
The Dojora : It is formed by the junction of two pairs of streams comprising the Kichia and the western Bahgul on the east the Dhakra and the Bhakra on the West. The bank of Dojora 15
15 are high and of a permanent nature •
The Sankha - To the east of Dojora and its tributaries to next tributary of the Ramganga in the Sankha. The river flows in a well defined channel and never changes its course or over flows its banks . About several miles west of Bareilly city it joins the Ramganga,
The Deoranian : It rises in the tarai just north of Bareilly district. The river has a bed of alluvial salt with raised banks. The Deoranian ultimattjly joins the Ramganga near Bareilly,
The Nakatia : It receives water in upper course from the Bahgul with the result that it frequently floods a large extent of the country in its upper reaches. There is an abundance of Kankar on the banks of Nakatia.
The Bahgul : The perennial river originates in the Jarai of Nainital district and crossing the district of Bareilly in the northwest of Jalalpxor village. Where it forms the district boundary of Bareilly and Shahjahanpur«11 receives many seasonal stream like the Andhoi which joins it on the
15, Nevill, H.R., District Gazetter Bareilly, vol. XIII, Allahabad, 1909, p, 7. 16. Ibid, p. 8. 16
right side. It has numerous ox-bow lakes In Its lower reaches In the area on the eastern side. A seasonal tributary originating 3 kms southwest of Tilhar town meets. Bahgul on its left side. The tributary becomes a stream in the rainy season, Bahgul finally fulls into the Ramganga on its left bank. In 1969 in order to drain a Swamp in the tarai and to provide more water for irrigation stream called Sukhi was led into the Bahgul, with the result that very distructive 17 floods occured along it^^course in years of heavy rainfall Since the river has widened its channel the intensity of flood has almost ceased.
The Panqalli : It rises from in Pilibhit district. Thp Pangalli is a small and perenjiial stream feld by nwnerous springs in its bed which is well define
The Absara River : Rising In the tarai the Absara enters into the district of Pilibhit tlmrough its northwestern corner.
17. Op. Cit., p. 11. 18. Nevlll, H.R., District Gazetteer Pilibhit. vol. XVIII, Allahabad, 1909, p. 15. 17
A fter flowing in a southerly direction for about thirty miles it joins Pangalli in the Bareilly district which ultimately falls into Ramganga.
The Aril River : It originates in maititain village of Tehsil Bilari in Moradabad district. It is a large tributary of Ramganga. It is a perennial river. It becomes a force-full stream in the rainy season. It attains large size and spread in the adjoining low land. In the upper parts the slope is gentle and land consisting of loamy soil, but in its lower part of the area it produce,water logging coming into the area 5 kras northwest of village S±sarka*It forms the boundary of about 1.8 kms between T'toradabad and Badaun district. It again forms 13 kms long boundciry of Rampur and Bareilly district with Badaun district'. The Bajha nadi from northwest and Andheria nadi from north meet the Aril. The courses of the Bajha and the Aril in this region are devious and meandering. There are nemerous long curved lakes. Then it fails into the Ramganga and its right bank one km. northeast of village Chitri.
The Chhaiva Nala - •tj^j^^uta^Y of Aril : The drainage channel starts near the village of Roza (Bilari) and flows in a southeasterly direction along the southen half of the eastern boundary of Bilari forming the natural dividing line between 1«
this district and that of Rartpur. Flowing south It Is fed by a water course which emerges from a lake lying to the east of the village of Deorakhas. It leaves the district near the village of Balkaranpxir to join the ArlL In district of Badaun.
The Garra or Deoha : The tributary - This perennial river comes from Taral region of Nainital and crossing the district of Plllbhlt in a north to south direction. It enters the area 3 kms north of village Niajhkhera, it receives so many seasonal and perennial rivers on its both sides of which the Khanaut on the left bank of Garra is a perennial river originating from a lake near village Palla Dasobast 6 kms south of Khudaganj . The eaksl Nadl flows seasonally being roughly parallel to Garra and meeting with an other seasonal channel named Garri Nadl which receives water of numerous^ small seasonal channels on both sides finally it joins the Garra on Its right bank.
The Katna Nadl a seasonal stream forming the inter district boundary of Plllbhlt and Shahjahanpur. Another tributary of the Garra meeting on Its left bank in Kamua Nadl a seasonal stream which originates frond a lake. It also gets the Khandni Nadl on its left v/hich makes inter district boundary. The Khakra : Deoha receives a number of tributaries on its ,left bank, Khakra is one of them, it is a large stream and u
enters into the district of Plllbhlt to the east of the village Alan^ur. Maintaining a south westerly direction it reaches the out skirts of the city of Plllbhlt and then turns west to join Deoha.
The Mala :It's source is In a series of ,swanps on the northern border of Plllbhlt. The Mala traverses the belt of forest land in the southern part of Plllbhlt districts The Mala is known as Katna under this new name it changes its character and becomes a narrow stream with a sandy' bed,high banks and no Khadar. The Mala is extensively used for irrigation, the water being held by teiiporary dams. It leaves the district of Plllbhlt to join the Deoha In Shahjahanpur while the Ramganga and its tributaries dirain the south western part of the area.The Sarda is the main drainage line of the north eastern part.
The Sarda and its tributary : The river enters into the district of Pllibhit about twenty miles to the east of Alampur and flows in a southeasterly direction. It has a low velocity except enterles of floods and its bed consists of at first of sand and afterwards of mud. There are no rapid and the banks are not soft that the stream has no difficulty in removing 1 9 Obstructions for itself fresh channels . In heavy floods
19. Op. Cit. p. 7. 2U
Sarda is opt to change Its course to a remarkable extent and this accounts for the numearous abounded channels and bank water , Sarda has been dammed in its upper reacht'S at Ban-Basa and the Sarda canal provides irrigation to several neighbouring districts.
The Ghauka : It is a parennial stream that flows the line of old high bank and marks the rtvost westerly courses over adopted by Sarda at any rate with historical times. The stream forms a great obstacle to cross country communicat ion. It has a course of some twenty five miles in Pilibhit district before it joins the Sarda. The Ch«4ka in variably keep a close to the flood banks on its right while on its left stretches the marsh land of the Sarda valley.
The Kosi and the tributaries : This large stream (which is known as the Kausilya oar Kcsi) rises in the district Aimora and passing through the district Nainital and Rampur touches The district boundary on the east near the village of Khabaria Bhxir/ where it is fed by the Bahalla or Beh. It becomes the district traversing the western part of the Rampur district in a southerly coarse of about 2 kms. It once again enters the Moradabad near the village of Dhateoa.
20. Henny Frowde, Enperial Gazetter of India, vol. XXII, London, 1908, p. 102. 21
Meghanala joins the Rampur so^tii of the village of Bhaya Nagla. The average depth during the rains Is about 2 metres and Its breadth about 305 metres. It Is dammed near'Rampur and most of the canals which irrigate the greater portion of the district depend upon the river 21 •
The Bahalla : This stream (which is also known as the Boh) rise in the Taral and touching the district boundary near the village of Nawala skirts the Moradabad tehsil boundary on the east. During the course before joining the kosi near the village of Khabaria Bhur. It is fed by the Nachna (which rises a few kms to the south of Kashipur in Nainital district) and its tributary the Ghagra near the village of Kher Khata. Gangan- Rising in the north of the district of Bijnor this river enters the district Moradabad near the village of Kaiinukhla and forms the boundary of the d4.strict in the north for a short distance. It flows in a southeast direction for about 5 kms and then goes on towards the southwest for about 2 kms near the village of Isapur it makes a bed and again flows on in a southeast direction as far as village of Slboli Naraln where it is fed by the Karula on the left bank and further down at Sirsa Manihar by the Ban on the right bank
21. Navall^ H.R., District Gazzetter, Rampur, vol. XI, Allahabad, 1969, p. 3. 2^
near the village of Pandit Nagla (Moradabad). It is fed by an other Kerala a smeill stream rising in a chain a lakes to northwest of the city. Its upper course the character of this bed is claylsh sand which gradually becoR>es clayish in the south.
The Gonati and the tributaries : The Gomati name of the river corresponds to the local ward "Ghoomti" meaning as curving or meandering. This characteristic feature of its is found throughout its course with some distance. It orginates near village Sobcdpur tehsil Puranpur district Pilibhit at 7 kms north or our area.Recieiving the Jaknai,. it becomes a big river. A small stream Barva nadi meets Jaknai, These stream passes defined courses while banks of the Gomati are at places high and permanent. These Khadar area on the right bank of Gomati and the land left of joknai are liable to annual incendation during rainy season. It is important that the Gemati?s Khadar tract on its right side is safely cultivated in the greater part of the year and there is no danger of erosion of land or deposition of course or infertile sand. The Joknai forms a permanent also adjacent on its channel which is 14 kms. above its confluence with the Gomati. Gomati receives another seasonal stream the Bhainsi on its right bank. In its upper part the Bhatsi has a seasonal channel of 6 kms. after which it generally contains water for a long past of the year. At 23
least the Gomatl flows southecistward flowing the boundary of the area for about 16 kms. The Gonati leaves the area 4 kms. northeast of the village Ageona Buzurg.
The Kathna : Originating in the area from a small lake north of village Bansupur of Pawaejan^ commands a seasonal channel upto a long lake situated on the inter-district boundary of Shahjahanpur and Lakhiitpur after which it attains a large course flowing to south where this river has got a well defined course and forms inter district boundary.
The U.I. River : Forming the eastern west boundary of the area the U.I. river flows in a broad course from northwest to southeast. It originates in the reserved forest .j some 4 kms northwest before touching the area eastern boundary through out it flows through the reserved forest. l^
CLIM^Ti
Climate is one of the ntost In^ortant actor governing and controlling the activities of man, natiirall vegetation, soils etc . The climate of Rohilkhand plain i5 characteris tically raBffisoonal with a rhyth:m . of changing seasons. The change occurs with respect to climate elements which effectively control the whole agricultural set up and the arrangement of 22 the crops seasons.
The monsoon climate of the area 1^ characterised by the two air currents of one north east and the others south west monsoon in the winter and summer months of the year respectively . Th«e reversal of tenperature conditionJb and pressure of the air takes place twice in a year. The winter monsoon^ being continental in origin is mostly dry while summer monsoon being oceanic in origin is moisture laden, the winter rains always remain lesser than the summer monsoon rains.
The most .decisive factor for the agricultural operation in the area vmder review is the summer monsoon rainfall which
2 2. Tiwari, A.R., Geography of Uttar Pradesh, 1971, p. 17. 2 3- In the Gengatic plain the north east Monsoon blows from north west and south west monsoon from south east see Harwood W.A. Memoris of Indian Metrological l^artment, vol. XXIV, Calcutta, 1924, p. 248. 20
affects the water supply around the year. The low temperature and the gentle pressure gradients during the winter months are accompanied by the weak winds, while during the summer monsoon season, the high terrperature in area with intensive heating of north west India, produce steep pressure gradients resulting in strong winds with jet monsoon stream rising from the east south east in the areas. The cropping seasons - Kharif and rabi are closely related to the summer and winter monsoon seasons, and the abnormal weather conditions if any also effect upon the agricultural operation of the area.
The dry part of the year is divided into two seasons that is cold weather season (November to middle of January) and the hot weather season (mid March to mid June) . The farmers correspondence with the season of rabi crops while the latter is conpletely dry which does not allow cultivation except few insignificant Zaid crops consisting of melons, water melons and cucumbers in dry river beds.
The wet summer season comprises the remaining months of the year, i.e. from mid June to October, which correspond with the Kharif season. Thus there are generally recognised three seasons of the year.
(i) Cold weather season mid Noverttoer to mid February (Migsar to Fagon) 28
( ii) Hot weather season mid March to mid June (Chet to Asar)
(iii) Rainy season - Mid June to October (Asar to Kartlka)
The cold weather season corresponds to the period of rabi crop and the season of rain corresponds to that of Kharif crop.
Cold weather season :
It also popularly known as Mohasa in local terminology. In the month of November a high pressure belt extends from north western India and the prevailing direction of wind is from west to east. This is determined partly by the trend of Himalayan relie^^. The maximum and minimum temperatxire in December is 2 3»C to 28'>C and B'C to 10*C at Rohilkhand plain, In districts close to the foot hills the tenperature are much below. January is the coldest month of the year in the Rohilkhand plain. While the diurnal range in the plain is fairly high. The days are warm while the night are cold. In Ferbuary the tenperature rises but the month remains cold. In these months heavy mist or fog<. locally known as Kohra often
14. Mean pressures and winds as given in climatological Atlas for Airmen Poons, 1943, p. 10. I icr 1 m O r-t ISl 1 O T-< Oi 27
1 >1 1 !^ 1 3 i * 1 1 M 1 • a 1 in c^ r- r» "* 00 <* 1 i3 IX E 1 • • • « • • • 1 (U r- VD VD r- in in in i ^ 1S|} 1 CM CM CM CN' CM CM CM
1 • 1 1 * a 1 in E 1 un VO •t in 00 s^ i in 00
1 >i 0) ; !d 1 * 1 1 :3 1 * a 1 ro O r~ •
occurs at night and lasts until the early morning hours. It is evident from table that the tenperature is contparatively low in the month of January and high in that of Noventoer,
Frost, however is not a regular feature of the winter months in the area. There are no defin4-te records of its frequency or of the exact area affected by frost..
Frost generally occurs in the month of January or the last days of Decenrber, and the approximate number of days when frost may occur is about 1 to 5 days according to official 25 records •
The rainfall during the winter months is rather scanty as low as about 50 mm on an average for the areas. As can be seen from table 1 the rain which falls in the winter season is scanty. A small amount of it falls in the month of Ferbruary which Is highly beneficial for winter crops.
It has been observed that some of these depressions originates in the Mediterranean area, a few coming as far distant as the Atlantic, The cyclonic rainfall is preceded by a warm close weather with light southerly or easterly winds
25 . Report of the Metrological Department Lucknow. Source (Table II) Metrological Department, New Delhi. 2a
10 (0 CD O r~ (N O CT> o L-) CD
m 0) u Id V 3 C S C-H o o o o o o 0) t 03 (0 C o o o o o (-2 Q: *H o
H -H 1 0) rH x: r-» r-t X5 (0 (fl U-l e^ •cH (0 0) 2 a XI (0 S E«w . r-i vo 01 00 •P «) C S o £ C 4J 0) (0 C (N * CD CO C CM 0 2 S3
to o •H o a,(0 s Is «w • « C 2 o o o o o VO O (0 C o o I o o in i
o 3 o ^ CO 0) 'O •p o % r-l S -H u (0 i-l c (0 x: 0 TJ ^ -r-l 3 ••-( XJ c (0 a ai (0 x: •H n ••-1 u E u T) rd r-i •H 0 (0 (0 (0 J: H D m z: £« ffi m CO Cl4 3U
and Is followed by a considerable falls of temperature and 26 strong and cool westerly winds . The velocity of the winds Is least In November but generally Increases with advance of the season. During the month Noventjer to February, the vjelocity ranges from 1.5 km to 5.6 kms/hour at the above the mentioned stations 27.
The rainfall though small in quality Is extremely useful for the rabl crops as It comes at a time when plants are flowering the effectiveness of the rainfall is further increased by the prevailing low temperature. The cold weather depressions are sometime accoiripanled by hall storms which cause of llttle^denage to the crop of they occui> in the early part of the cold weather season. Hot Weather Season ;
Hot weather seasons locally known as Kharsa begins from mid March and continue till mid June. Its begining is marked by an appreciable rises in temjjeraturc and decreases in pressure The maximum temperature in March is 31 "C to 33«>C and minimum temperature is 8«C to 15'C in plain. The terrperatures continue to rises from April till the middle of June.
2 6.. Based on the records of wind volicity Indian Metrologlcal Department (New Delhi), published, computed volicity at Badaun and Moradabad is available. 2 7 • Ibid, Source table III Data has been taken from metrologlcal office, Lucknow. in c\j k£) ^ CO •H a» 31 CM CM CM CM CM CM
0)
"X) a\ r<^ 00 0^ • • CO (1> in IT* 00 •Cl rn -3-
in rn >^ m cr> a a t « •H 0) CM o .n R S 6-t CM CM
in T- m ON 00 00 xa^ • • in S:EH in in fn
CO >^ in in c a » in *X) in CM CM
I H •H o a <: in CO C7N CM in CM o
00 00 CO o fn 0) o iw
SI O J f^ ' o in CO c a t^ 00 CTi • CM « • O •H
• Q, 1 rn CM r- (J^ CM ^ in X a 1 • • • * • t • to 01 1
As is avident from the table III the temp«-rature continues to rise from the nionth of April to the middle of June. So that the month of May and June are the hottest during the year and those of March and April have comparatively a low temperature in the area. With the increase of tempera ture humidity decreases.
The month of May and June records exceptionally high temperature. The temperature, rises upto 46.0*C on the hot days during May and June. The days are characterised by intense heat and dry air, the humidity is being as low as 2 4 per cent.
The "Loo" (Hot wlnd^) blows during the day with normal speed of 8 to 9 km in the day time and at night 4.7 and 7.4 kilometres per l;iour. They are comparatively feable at night and active during the day, being forceful in the afternoon g'^nerally from 12.00 noon to 4 P.M. which the humidity occa sionally falls to as low as 2 or 3 percent. The occurance of
dust storms known locally as "Andhi" also form an important 2 8 feature of this seasons.
28 . The wind velocity, computed on the basis of all records available upto 1982-83, Indian metrological Department, New Delhi. Source table IV iData has been taken district Headquarters. 33
The rainfall In March is generally beneficial to the ripening of rabl crops. The total rainfall of the season varies from 27.5 mm to 40 mm in 2 or 3 rainy days.
RAINY SEASON (CHOMASA) :
On account of excessive h^at of the summer months low pressure area is developed in the north-western India, by the middle of June, it brings of humid oceanic current result in the fall of temperature and the air becomes cool and pleasing. The mean monthly temperature falls, from 35.0*C in June to 31 .7">C In July. The relative humidity Increases from 27 per cent In May to 74 per cent in July. The sky is generally over cast in the rainy season. The time of on set and retreat of the monsoon varies In space and time. The rain generally set in by the middle of June and continue till the end of Septerrber or early October.From the point of view of agriculture this is the most Important season of the year. It receives about 90 per cent of the total annual precipitation.
From the table IV It is obvious that a great amount of rain Is received In the month of July - August and Septentoer after this it is the harvesting season In this region2 9.
2 9 . The Season of rain Is locally known as Varsharltu or Berseat. 34 lil jam • 0 c s o CM in •«* o •P-H • • O (0 Cc o o CD o a\ ON o o a:Q: -H
O r-l • s nj S VO o O r-1 CNJ •> c s Q.'H o c^ in CO 0> (0 C 00 CO 05 -H CM (0 U-l c
a
o •P (0 S g 0) tM • a\ vo in •H 2.CS 00 ,-( CM CJ\ •P r- 00 3 o en cr. ^ vO I J3 =» «> c in •<* •«}' VO in f-H •H n D
>i i-H x: 0) •p c o n» s: »p • VO C^ x* c^ >iC S s iH -H o VO CM VO ro Tf VO d (0 c r- UT rH CM ro o C7» b a •H •* in •^ VO ij- •* Tj<
•p o
0) II) X 1 •H M-l • 1 CM O o .H o CM t^ Q 9) CX 1 « • • • • • • 00 in •«* C^ o CTi CM 3 0. 0) T3 •p cn) p u x: •H (0 iH C rfl x: •H 8 ^ •H :J "•-> X) n) (U x: •H c 1-4 « (T> rH ••-1 O CO (i0 (0 Usually^rainfall starts by middle of June and remains steady In July and August and decreases In amount by Septentoer. It will be seen thus that July and August are the Wettest months and taken together they amount for about 60 per cent of the annual rainfall. As the monsoon currents move from east to west their capacity to retain moisture gradually decreases from east to west. The Incidence of rainfall Is also not continuous through out the season as the bearing currents are unsteady. During this seasons* the hall storms, fog or frost are entirely absent. The relative humidity Increases from June to August in the region. The rainfall diminishes in September and gradually ceases by the end of September and early October. The incidence of rains during this period is of special significance to agricultures. If in September rainfall is deficient the sowing of the rabl crops may be affected, while due to excessive rain fall the lowlylng areas might be waterlogged and render difficult for ploughing of the field. THE SEASON OF RFTRFATING MONSOCN ; The period of retreating monsoon Includes the month of October and November. By the end of October the humid currents of the south-west monsoon are replaced by the dry continental winds. By and large this is a period of transition from wet 36 to dry weather. Usually this phases continues till the end of Noveirber. Varibilitv of Rainfall s The mean annual variability of rainfall is greatest in the south and western part of the Ganga plain and least in the north eastern part over 27 per cent is the mean annual vari ability in the western part of the area under review while it is below 21 per cent in centre of eastern half of the area. The variability of rainfall existed also from year to year at a place if the rainfall in one year is on the average it is liable to change next year, to be below or above average. This climatic phenomenon can be seen at any rainfall station. The monsoonal activity and the distxibution of rainfall are liable to considerable variation. The variability of rainfall in June largely affects the agricultural operation, as late occur- ance of rainfall delays sowing of crops. The inter-quartile range showing variability of rainfall in July and August. The little rainfall in October is useful fori the ripening of Kharif crops, v^ile the excessive occurance is injurious. Thus it will be. seen that rainfall in western half of the area is quite variable in those month of year when its regularity is nrast needed. Such a variability can not but lead to the uncertainties in agricultural operations. 37 SOIL Soil is a natxiral body developed by natural forces acting on natural naterial. It is usually differentiated into horizons of mineral and organic constituents of variable depth which differ from the parent material below in morphology physical properties and constitution chemical properties and 30 composition and biological characteristics. The soil is a natural medium for plant growth , soil supplies nutrients for growing plant and plant manufacture feed for animals and food and fibre for man. Soil is a priceless resource from which we obtain our food clothing and other necessities of life.Soil undoubtedly is the greatest assest of a nation. It is the basis of our economic stability and the source of our national strength with a fast growing population and rapidly expanding economy constan tly increasing demand are continuing to be made upon the land. We have therefore, to conserve our soil and maintain its ferti lity in order to keep our economy sound,our people novirished and nation strong . 30, Dubey, R.N., Economic Geography of India, India, p. 101, Allahabad, 1958, 31. Ibid, p. 101. 38 I» 78 TT •3 0 80 ROHILKHAND SOILS N 4^ -29 -28 FOOT HILL SOIL TARAI SOIL ALLUVIAL SOIL 10 0, 10 20 30 1*0 50 ' ' * • • • • KILOMETRES /^7 33 Indian soil like all tropical soil in general are very deficient in organic matter and nitrogen. The phosphate deficiency Is comparatively less marked while potash deficiency is rare . The affect of the rock as well as of soil of the climate on soils in general is clear^^ wadia and other have made an outline study of the influence of geology on India soils. There are five principle factors of soil formation viz parent material, climate, vegeta^rlon relief and time climate aided by vegetation which it forest acts upon the parent material. The action of these two factors is conditioned by local relief and topography . For a study of the soil in the undisturbed condition in the field a vertical set up to the unwheathered rock come up to depth of about six feet in the case of alluvial soil is usually examined. The vertical section is called a "soil profile" and is made up of succession of layer termed •f 35 "horizons . 32 . Randwara's, M.S., Agriculture and Animal Husbandry in India, p. 30, 1958. 33. wadia, D.N., Soil of India Records of the Geological Survey of India, February, 19 35. 34.. Ibid, p. 102. i 3 5.Tiwari, A.R., Geography of Uttar Pradesh, p. 13. 4U The data regarding the soil of the area is far from adequate. The main soixrce of Information Is based on district Gazettacrs the settlement report and field work done by writer. Geologically they can by classified as 1 • newer alluvium known as Khadar 2. old alluvium known as bhangar. NEW ALLUVIUM OR KHADAR lAND : The new alluvium of the Ganga plain called Khadar correspond with the recent geologic age of the deposits of silt and sand brought by the river and in thus found along the river banks."n^e Khadar ie light coloured sandy and poor in calcareous matter prevails in general in the river valleys. The Khadar areas in Ganga plain are like figures along the main stream and their sub-parallel tributaries as Ramganga 36 Gomati^ Deoha KOsi and Sarda , The surface soil varies from sandy loan to mere sandy proportion decreases away from the river and is replaced by 36 . Spate O.H.K., India Pakistan London, 1957, p. 497. u fine silt. This fine silt called Parga Is most fertile and in laid down by the river after the flood water has receded; The sand and gravel grading imperceptibly into recent alluvium 37 and good reservlrs of underground water . Khadar land owe their origin to the banger lands through the croslne action of the rivers. The remanarts of hangar lands are subjected to erosion by the change in the direction of the "38 meandering river channels^. The amount of nitrogen and organic matter in Khadar soil is derived from the silts of the flood water and needs renewal every year for purposes of cultivation Khadar is deficient in calcareous constituents but injurious salt of Soda and Magnesia accumulations and from saline or alkaline salts. THE BANGAR LAND : The bangar land occupies the higher land or ground and 39 is not flooded by the river during the rains . The prevailing material in the bangar alluvium is the nodular Kankar of carbonate of lime, "^he Kankar found in abundance is the irregular concretion of impure calcareous matter. The bangar 37, Krlshnan, M.S., Introduction to the Geology of India, Madras, 19 44, pp. 169-70" 38. Wadla, D.N,, Geology of India, London, 1926, p. 251, 39 . Shafi, M., Land Utilization in Eastern. Uttar Pradesh. Aliqarh. 1960, p. 3. 42 land is characterised by patches of saline and alkaline which are the result of the gentle slope of the land and the composition of the alluvium. The banger generally above flood level passesses clay and sodium clay as dominant continent reaching with kankar which liberates sodium carbonate and is turned into calcium clay. According to Medical and Blanford the kankar nodules and the calcareous beds have been depasited from water containing a solution of carbonate of lime drived from the older rocks of various kind4 0. Bangar soil texturally may be classified into three types. i. Clay ii. Loam iii. Clayey loam. Clay is a mixtxire of silica and alumina in Veirying proportion and when the amount of the latter exceeds fifty percent. The clay is only fit for brick making. It is very retaintine of moisture but owing to its natural density requires meretillage than any other soil. Greater portion of the clayey soil in found in nothern part of Bareillyi Bijnor, Moradabad, being clayey these soil are rich in resquioxides and the iron content is also high Magnesia is throughout less than lime the 40. Medicat H.B. and Blanford, i-.M'., A Mannual of the Geology of India, London, 1870, p. 39 3. 43 soluable salt concentration is average and salts are mostly compounds of bicarbonates and chlorides. The colour of these soil is generally grey to dark gray. They are midly calcareous 41 and neutral in reaction. Loam : The loam is the predominant soil of the area. It occupies considerable area in all the districts of Rohilkhand. The sand is predominant in this soil. This is a future soil making for the growth of wheat, barley and sugarcane. Its fertility is depending on the availability of water and nanure. Some limes Khadar is feeble formations is also found in the lower depth of the soil. Lime contents are low to average and Magnesia is much higher than the liine.8G»luable salts area bit high but harmful catobonates are almost absent. Then pH 42 of these soil is neutral to slightly alkaline . The soil is moderately firm but pnrous through which the rain filters easily and for the some reason it throws off moisutre readity locally the soil is known as domat or dores. Clayey loam ; generally occurs in the northern region near the vicinity of the Tarai region and is traversed by a number 41. Stewarts, A.B., Soil Survey and Soil Work of U.P., Vol.XI, Allahabad, 1952, pp. 41-52. 42. Ibid. 44 of rivers. The drainage is slightly inperfect. The soil in generally grey colour though at some places It is of yellowish colour. Its capacity to retain moisture is high. A variety of crop are grown on this soil but it is best suited to culti vation of rice. CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL BY POSITION • The cultivators also recognise an alternative system of soil classification which is based on the organic matter present or supplied to the soil. The field immediately adjoin ing a group of houses receive most of the refuse thrown away by the inhabitents. Moreover the villager generally apply all the available manure to these field in order to save the expences are the trouble of carrying it to the distant fields. Thus the fields nearest the settlement site are most often manured field lying a little further off are manured occasion ally, and those at the greatest distance get no manure at all. Thus each group of houses is a centre from which the fertility gradually decreases to the outskirts of the village. As a general rule the most reraenaratlve crops are found near the houses and the interior crops further off the highly raenured land round the houses is locally known as gained or gauhsn. RFCLAMATIC»J OF USAR SOILS : The usar soils can be reclaimed by the removal of the excess of salt from the soil. Some of the method which ney be 45 helpful are the Inprovemenr ot. drainage the use of organic manures the selection of tolerant crops and the uses of chemical substances. One of the main causes leading, to the fornation of usar is bed drainage both surface and underground. The extent that the crppratlon starts due to eplllary action and the salt a are preapitated as a white incrxistation on the surface adequate drainage therefore is the first prerepuisits to usar recalamation. A viater table considerably beyond the effective capillary action is absolutely necessary. A puretical method of salring this problem is to divide usar lands into small fields and to arreet substantial field embarkments around each field to hald water. These field then should be Subjected to frequent ploughing for by doing these after flushed out end a crop of dhaincha is sown as a green manure. After six weeks the crops is ploughed under and the field is ready for the sowing of transpilanted paddy. CHAPTER-II ^^ ECONOMIC ENVIRCNMSNT Agricultural Development : In the development of agriculture natural factors play a vital role. The uncontrolable weather conditions the character of soils and biological rhythm of plant life the agricultural efficiency of the farmers. Man is, however, trying to overcome some of the natural hazards. He controls excess of water by regulating Agriculture in Rohllkhand region,as is well known has undergone a revolutionary change in recent years. Agricultural 1 . Shafi, M, Measurement of Agricultural Productivity of great Indian Plain, The Geographer, vol, XIX, No. 1, 1972, Aligarh, p. 4. "{ U9 Tj in a 0 •-^ •* 7 b •1 >_k M a 1 3 f* 7» b (.A J, n IT il •^ c y » 3 ;^ » 3 M -p w hJ vn • r- Ui -I 0^ O w »- v>> 0 0! 1 O w o ;* <0 "^ It' 11 •.u •i^ 0> r» n 1 0 i» 1 1 -< 1 hj ;^ flD •* •* •-• 2 < -J li^k 9» w «J * 0 3 1 v^ O « •- 0\ xO u> ,r^ * ^ «J vO •i) J jt »^ e* o 1 « ai f o O r» ^ KJ K> ^^ »- n ft L b >o UJ -J 0> */ u* 71 o u> CD 2 o n 'J^ > o o O ru •'-J 09 ^:J) -O (SJ O^D « I ^ N) O A £ Ul -J o tn Kl w• f C •O o o QD (J) ^' •1 »A— ^ u <^ («« ^ u; LJ ly »-• fi " a> tn o • o f. (3 Jh <^ ^- «n o ••• •" O o tr o o -- t- c- vn NJ \C o a- VO o1 o o ^ • J ^ c -J C KJ (S 1 -:' 1 O '/» lyi o< ^ J 1 -,( 1 u> >0 a w t- -J £- c O 1 m n 1 IS w 9- 'o OD 1 O lb 1 1 r 3 1 ( 3> rt 1 o o o o CD O o o O Tl I U <^ 3 •D (.; >£ -C O fl u C> •-- ^ 45 production has increased substantially and cropping pattern -in plain have witnessed significant structxiral changes. A brief discription of changes on the district level are as follows : - BAREILLY Irrigation : The irrigated area in Bareilly district has increased from 24.20 per cent in 1961 to 37.38 per cent of the total cropped area in 1988. Canal dominated in irrigation and comrranded 72»0 4 per cent of the total Irrigated area while wells accounted 11.75 per cent and tube wells 10.04 per cent. In 1988 the irrigated area by canal was 34.00 per cent, by wells 11.62 per cent and by tube wells 45.10 per cent out of total irrigated area indicated in table No- v. • ..I Fertilizers -»• H Y v : The consurtption of MPK was 21.09 kg/ hectare in 1961 and 90.14 kg/hectare in 1988 by table No. VI, The area under high yielding varieties of seeds increased very much. In 1966 the area under HYs of seeds was 1.47 per cent and rose 57.15 per cent in 1988, out of total cropped area in table No. VII. Agricultural Implements and Finances : In 1961 there were 3.10 tractors and in 1988 5 3.85 per ten thousand hectares shown table No. VIII. The nurrber of threshers were 2.80 in 1961 and 43 -d- -;»• K> K> T- r- r- r- § o O O f- O r- T- X— as CD 0^ IS o o o 00 ON fA m c^ in c^ ^ o 5 -4" in ^ ^ in c^ 0) <\> a •H -~^ 0} > (4 I 0) 0) N o H CM o « 3 lA in K^ o in +> * U lA O in vD o 0) 1^ K> in in in r-\ o (d 0) o (0 •p 0) •p 1 CO 1 1 1 1 0) 1 u t>- a\ c^ CsJ 1 g 8 rn 00 -* 8 vO • • • • • \ i IS t^ c^ in r- r- 1 CO <\j T— f\j 1 I ON 1 1 i 1 1 1 ^ 1 3 1 1 CO 9< 1 +» a 1 H ^ +» 1 O i(Ilt 1 U •H § 1 -P 0) (« ^ 5 s 01 1 n IH Tl c« -^ ^1 S 1 -r-l 1 C« C« SX •H •H O 1 Q cq oq CO CU CQ S 5 5U 8 3.50 per ten thousand hectaresin table No.. IX. The number of plough were 343.40 In 1961 and rose to 398.54 per thousand hectaresin 1988 shown by table No. X. The agricultural credit advanced by cooperative banks and prlitary agricultural credit societies in thousands rupees was 28.69 in 1961 and 140.70 in 1988 in table No. XI. BACAUN Irrigation : The total irrigated area in Badaun 1961 was 22.90 per cent which rose to 41.63 per cent in 1988, very small part of the land was irrigated by canals. The concentration of irrigation was a wells and tubewells. The irrigated area by wells was 48.25 per cent, by tubewells 45.08 per cent and by other sources 4.61 per cent in 1961 and in 1988 by canal it was again very small by wells 29.10 per cent, by tubewells 39.63 per cent and by other sources 7.60 per cent indicated in table No. V. The consunption of NPK in the district increased from 17.00 in 1961 to 90.14 kg/hectare in 1988 in table No. VI. The area under high yielding varieties of seeds in 1966 was 0.59 per cent and in 1988 it was 45.58 per cent, o4t of total cropped area indicated by table No. VII. District Is behind to the other districts of the area in tractors. The nurrber of tractors in 1966 were 1.17 per ten thousand hectarefe while in 1988, it were 25.45 per tea .thousand hectares while in 1988, it 51 I in 00 in OS in in • m Cl lA in in in 00 in in 00 vD in o in m 00 en 0} in in o in 0) 00 •H tU •H 11 1 1 1 1 / •^ 11 H , 1 ] I T- 11 1 a> C-- 11 1 1 H 1 1 OO MD O ^ -d- K^ 00 1 o o 1 m f- in rg tn CO T- I a C^ 11 • • • • • • • E-t o> 1 -4- v£) in C\J <}• CM I CQ •H r- 1 fn CM C\J r<^ i<^ ^ m 1 0) 0) >^ U 8 < +> v© (0 (0 CO KO 40J) W O <1- in in »X) r- rn in O • • C\J 00 I CO u 3 1 W a T3 +> % -P o 43 •H CO o 3 a> 5 •rH '3 CO Q* u CO H -3 PI 9 •H cd -C •H •H O CO Q cq CO CU cq s: Oil 52 shown by table No. vii. The number of threshers Increased from 6.51 per thousand hectares in 1961 to lb?.87 In 1988 (table No.IX) The number of plough rose from 353.70 p^ thousand hectares in 1961 to 401.75 in 1988 (table No. X). The agricultural credit advanced by cooperative banks and primary agricultural credit societies increased from 2 3.45 in 1961 to 140.70 in 1988 thousand Rupees (table Bo. XI). • SPftH.TAHANPUR The increase in irrigated area in Shahjahanpur district was high with a rise upto 19.70 per cent in 1961 to 42.47 per cent in 1988. The irrigated area by cahal was 52.21 per cent by wells 12.80 per cent, by tubewells 12.91 per cent and by other sources 13.04 per cent in 1961. In 1988^ the irrigated area by canal was 15.60 per cent, by wells 8.20 per cent, by tubewells 60.66 per cent and by other source 1.40 per cent out of total cropped area (table No. v) . The fertilizer consunption increased from 17.37 kg/hectare in 1961 to 91.88 kg/hectare in 1988 (table VI). The area under high yielding varieties of seeds rose from 0.52 per cent in 1966 to 53.37 per cent in 1988 out of total cropped area (table No. VII) . The number of tractors increased from 12.17 per ten thousand hectare in 1961 53 ir\ in vO in (0 ^' J CO ^ 1\J • • c^• o • ^ 1 in in tn r- 1 in C\J in a\ CT* 00 (O 0) in ON in CM 00 ^f^ • \0 o fn in •4- 0) > I •p (U o r-H I CM X> u to c: X* •p 5^ •(-> o H CO •H H a xs X! •H CO 43 o 3 t •o •H CO +> 3 si H £3 a to CO ct •H PQ Si •H S 5 CO CO a, m 5'> to 59,76 per ten thousand hect PILfBHIT The total irrigated area in Pilibhi^ was 14.70 per cent in 1961 and 44,55 per cent in 1988 out of total cropped area. The eurea irrigated by canal was 90.01 per cent, by wells 3.88 per cent and by tubewells 2.01 per cent in 1961 while 35.40 per cent by canal, 14.60 per cent by wells and 49.00 per cent by tubewells in 1988 out of total irrigated area (Table No.V) , The consu|BpticMi of fertilizer (HPK) increased from 49.89 kg/ hectare in 1961 to 108.03 kg/hectare in 1988 (table No, VI). The percentage of are^under HYV's of seeds has increased out of total cropped area 1.66 per cent area was under high yielding varieties of seeds in 1966 while it was 49.15 per cent in 1988 (table VII). The diffusion of tractors in the district is high. The number of tractors were 6.88 per ten thousand hectares in 1961 and 94.28 per ttsn thousand hectares.in 1988 00 55 00 in in ON co C\J I • • • co 0- 00 cr. ro ^ ^ (M 0) u CO 1 cr» a\ -4- •-^ o CM o 1 1 i<% t- ro ^ \o C! 0) •p XI u 0) o in o O ,0 H a. in tn 00 • (U U xs / ^ tn is •4- O o to I G\ in in tn 0) CO I ^ (U I -C I E-i I «H o o •H o I CO I 2: I CO I I I I -r- 0) o / "^ O r- vO O CO >X) O I O I v£> 00 in o o NS Co o i I 0\ C\| 1^ t^ CM lO CO I r- I I I I a, to a xi o H •H si u to u •H •o 0) X! o 3 CO U C! •H XJ •o o c« Q PQ CQ 01 a. •r-l PCi a: 56 (table VIII) . The nunnber of threshers Increased while the plough were reduce in number. The number of threshers were 12.00 in 1961 and 146.2 per cent thousand hectares in 1988. The plough which were 390-»56 In 1961 come down to 230.06 per thousand hectares in 1988 (table X). The agricultural credit advanced by cooperative banks and primary agricultural credit societies in Rs.OOO was 30.16 in 1961 and 149.60 in 1988 (table XI) . BIJNCa^ In the district of Bijnor the total irrigated area in 1961 was 22.0 per cent and in 1988, it was 44.43 p«=r cent. The area under canal irrigation was 20.47 per cent under well irrigated 13.95 per cent and under tubewell 53.57 per cent in 1961 while in 1988 the irrigated area by canal was 6.01 per cent by well 15.00 per cent and by tubewell 78.00 per cent out of total irrigated area (table No. V). The diffusion of fertilizer is high in study area. The consumption of NPK increased 45.57 kg/hectare in 1961 to 111.03 kg/hectare in 1988 (table VI). The area under high yielding varieties of seeds also increased from 2.1 per cent in 1966 to 59.99 per cent in 1988 out of total cropped area (table VII). The district having 7.49 per ten thousand hectare tractor in 1961 to 94.28 in 1988 (table VIII). The number of threshers'in 1961 were 00 57 00 in c\J I in S s 00 00 T— 00 cr> in in o 00 o 0) J2 o CD I o ^— OS T- t«- r— s CM T— in tr\ -cj- !a H $ o • • • • • • o O 00 CO O in >^ CO u CM r~ T- 5 O 0) u o o vO 1 o o CM ^ \0 ^ o CO 1 f -cf in CM CTN • c^• o• » • • a\• o ( in K> 00 o (0 TJ •p -p C0 o •H X> rH i C XJ ^ CO (H •H 3 (0 O T3 :3 0) at •O x•H> fl CO ft CO ^ T3 iH TO u a •H aJ CO XJ •H •H O (« Q CP cq CO 11. PC) S cr; 58 6.38 pefl thousand hectares(table IX). In 1961 the nuntoer of ploughiwere 339,94 per thousand hectare as In 1988, it were 380.16 per thousand hectares Stable x) . The area Is well supplied by agricultural credit.. The agricultural credit advanced by cooperative banks and primary agricultural credit societies increased from 59.76 in 1961 to 288.48 in(Rs.OOO)in 1988 (table XI) . MORAD^BAD In Moradabad the total irrigated area was 27.50 per cent in 1961 and 50.87 per cent in 1988. The Irrigated area by canal was just 5.68 per cent, by wells 39.00 per cent and by tubewells 44.61 per cent in 1961 and irrigated area by canal was 4.02 per cent by wells 6.00 per cent and by tubewells 58.69, and by others 14.00 per cent in 1988 (table V). The consunptSon of fertilizer (NPK) was 27.06 kg/hectare in 1961 while in 1988 it was 89.01 kg/hectare (table VT) out of total cropped area, the ?\rea under high yielding varieties of seeds was 8,3 per cent in 1966 and 85.01 per cent in 1988 (tablp ^11). The total number of tractors in the district were 6.69 per ten thousand hectaresin 1961 and 81.4 is 1988 (table VIII). The total number of threshers used per thousand hectares were 7.66 in 1961 and 129.79 in 1988 (table IX). Previously the number of ploughs were 336,94 and in 1988 271.94 per thousand hectares (table X). 5S 00 o ?9 o a\ C\J ^ 5 00 • • • • • • • o •J- C^ Cf\ 00 T-^ (\j 0) o O C^ \0 00 cn CVJ CM rg c\i t>- CV ITV a\ fO o • • • • • • • 2 00 o •X) o cr» lA Ln r^ en OvJ T— oo CNJ C»- c^ c^ T— T— r- r- OJ T~ t— 3 O •H u •H I 0) 04 ^ •4- CM C\J in in CO I O CT. 00 09 W' c^• • • o • • m• a%ft 0) o r- fO cr> 00 vo in o ^4 as ^ in •H CO • (0 vO 1 a\ in v£> ^ c^ t- 1 1 . ^ •H -d O 2 T3 3 >> CO 4-' H •H H o 1 •H H C CO JC U CO PI o U •H 3 •n> Xi 0 T> 3 •H +J a> CK XJ •H (0 a< W (-• T^ CO H •T ^ •H CO CO X! •H •H o CaO Q CQ CQ CO Oi :Q s: cd 60 The agricultural credit advanced by cooperative banks and primary agricultural credit societies in the district was 58.47(Rs 000 in) 1961 and rose to 181.89 in 1988 (table XI) . RAMHJR There was a rise in Irrigated area in Ranpur district. The irrigated area is 1961 was 13.90 per cent as compared to 45.27 per cent in 1988 out of total cropped area. The irrigated area by canal was 56.27 per cent by wells 12.68 per cent and tubewells 29.02 per cent and by other sources it was 0.82 per cent in 1961 while in 1988, the irrigated area by canal 23.00 per cent by wells 19.00 per cent by tubewells 62.00 per cent and by other sources it was 5.00 per cent, out of total irri gated area (table V) . The consurtption of fertilizer of NPK in the district in 1961 was 37.62 kg/hectare and 98.71 kg/hectare in 1988 (table VI). The area under high yielding varieties of seeds increased from 1.57 per cent in 1966 out of total cropped area (table VII) . In district, the total number of tractors were 11.32 per ten thousand hectareai in 1961 and 163.11 in 1988 (table VIII) . The number of threshers were 8.00 per thousand hectares in 1961 and 178.61 in 1988 in the district (table IX). The number of ploughswere 295.90 per thousand hectare in 1961 and 287,08 in 1988 (table X) . The agricultiaral credit advances by cooperative societies (in Rs. thousand) was 20.37 in 1961 and 192.42 in 1988, Table-VIII. 81 The number of threshers were 8.00 per thousand hectare in 1961 and 178,61 In 1988 in the district (table IX). The number of plough were 295.90 per thousand hectares in 1961 and 287.08 in 1988 (table X). The agricultural credit advanced by Cooperative Societies in thousand Rupees was 20.37 in 1961 and 192.42 in 1988 (table XI). 6^ CROPPING PATTERN There Is a general feeling that the cropping pattern of the area under study has been on traditional lines and that the farmers have not taken advantage of the possibility of growing higher value crops because of customs and traditions. They have confined themselves to certain crops of lower value. This opinion is not very much true, because certain change have occured in the cropping pattern during the last thirty eight years from 1951 in districts of Rohilkhand plain. The factors which are responsible for the change in cropping pattern are socio-economic and adoption of modern in puts. Aparts from these factoirs cropping pattern of the area depend upon the physical characteristics of the soil and climate. Further cropping pattern of the area will also depend 2 upon the nattire and availability of Iri^igation facilities. It is fiirther observed that economic motivation is the most important in deciding the cropping pattern of the area. There are very clear indication that local cultivator are being gradually Influenced by economic factors. Among the economic 2. Hussaln Majid (1970), Pattern of crOp concentration in Uttar Pradesh, Geog. Review in India;, XXXII, (3), p. 169-85. 63 /^REA AND PRODUCTION OF MAJOR FOOD CROPS 150- S 11950-51) 1U0 130 120 110 100 90 < o < < •- 70 o -700 o a<: 60 < eooiij z 2 < 50^ O 500t- -UOOz o 30 30pS =) O to o 20 < 200 S < LU a. o 2 to 10 a. 100 o 0 ^ P77f ^ V 4 AREA /^ PRODUCTION o B't AREA AND PRODUCTION OF MAJOR FOOD CROPS (1987-88) {2000 1900 1600 -^1700 1600 1500 1U00 H1300 »/> 12001 z o 1100' 1000" z o 900 _ I- o 800 =) o o 700 a o. 600 500 i*00 tXJ [30 0 CO < a UJ -> 3 UJ < a. UJ 200 < CD -J ? 5 J ^ 100 n 1 ^ • AREA 1%:] PRODUCTION fr< / 65 factors affecting cropping pattern, the chief are price and Income maximisation, farm size and insurance against risk. Most of the agricultural land of the area is served with adequate irrigation facilities, viz. canals, wells and tubewells. Inspite of these facilities the farmers are aware that a successful harvest is very much dependent upon the timely arrival of rain, and there Is certainly a correlation between the two, rain and the production. For instance, different crops, especially paddy and sugarcane in the dry years, when the rainfall was scanty a feable, large area was devoted to hard crops in place of rice like bajra which was the main crop of Badavm and in some part of Moradabad due to dry condition and uncertainly of rainfall, because this hard crop require-^ little water,in water logged parts of th^ Bijnor and Moradabad 3 sugarcane was the dominant crop . We are aware of the fact that there is a decrease, in I death rate of the population of India as well as the region under study, and therefore, population is growing rapidly. Due to this growth of population there is an increase in the demand of food grains in place of cash crops. A3 a result the 3. Agriculture Hand Book, p. 151 (1966). -I«-l.. 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It Is observed that due to mechanization of agriculture, the number of agricultural animals have decreased, and as a result land once given to fodders is devoted to cash crops. The Introduction of new high yielding varieties iH.Y.V.) of seedshawe encouraged the farmers. At present they are in a poslticMi to grow two or three crops in a year, instead of single crop as it was prior to the introduction of these seeds. This has resulted a change in cropping pattern of the area under s tudy. Economic motivations are very important in deciding upon the cropping pattern in tha area. A stable level of prices for a crop provides a better Incentive to the producers to Increase the output. In the year 1971-81 the production of sugarcane increased/probably it was due to low prices of wheat and maize in the plain.This induced the cultivators to give more areas to sugarcane as it fetched better prices. Data given in table Indicate that the cultivated area of sugarcane was high as compared to food crc^s. This was due to the fact that the farmers are primarily interested in producing cash crops for their requirements . They would grow careal crops only for their rec^airement of food grains. G5 The present study reveals that under the crop sharing system the land lord has a dominant voice In the choice of the cropping pattern and their helps In the adoption of Income maximising crop adjustment. There are two main crop seasonjln Rohllkhand, e.g. Kharif or the season of summer crops and rabl or the season of winter crops. Therefore, sowing In this region the kharif season begins generally on the onset of south west monsoon in mid June, while the rabi season start at the beglning of cold weather season. The food crops grown in kharif season are : Rice, Jowar, Bajra, Maize, Green gram. Black gram and groundnut. These crops require high tertperature and almost adequate supply of water. The food crops of rabi season are wheat. Barley, Bengal gram. Peas and Potatoes. These crops require cool weather and 4 moderate supply of water . Since the study is based on selected food crops,there fore,it will be worth while to examine their relative position with respect to area, production and yield. The selected crops are wheat. Rice, Sugarcane, Potato, Maize, Bajra, Pulses and oil seed . 4. Shafi, M., "Agricultural Prodtictivity and Regional Intoalance" (A study of Uttar Pradesh), New Delhi, 1984, p. 48. 5. Ibid, p. 59. 63 WHEAT : Wheat Is one of the mosi; important food grain of the country. It is also a dominant crop in the region. It is usually grown in well drained loam, clayey loams and sandy loams soils. It may also be grown mixed with barley gram and mustard. Although it is grown under a great variety of climatic condition^ it grows most successfully In a cool moist climate , a warm dry climate is favourable for the ripening '&f the crop, The summer tenperature'should rainge between 21 «* and 26* The preparation of soil for wheat cultivation takes place between September 15 and November 15 each year. After heavy shower of rain when the nights have become cool and dew begins to be formed In about the middle October. The harvesting 6, Hand Book of Agriculture. 19R0. I.C.A.R., New Delhi, p. 121. 7U of the crop begins by the ecirly April in the dry parts and continues upto the middle of May. The temperature during this period rises abruptly usually it takes five months to ripen aind 7 harvesting take place in March and April . The wheat production In Rohllkhand region Increases from E to W. When we examine the given table regarding the trend area and production since 1951-88 one find that the annual growth of wheat have third place in comparison to other mentioned crops in the area. The percentage of area under wheat Increased 12.89 percent and production 37.63 per cent from 1951 to 1961 due to increased facilities of fertilizer and irrigation provided in 1st and TInd . five year plauis. From 1961 to 1971 there was again an Increase in the percentage of pridnctlon of wheat. It wa^ due to awaking conslousness of conservative peasants by the Introduction of new technologies of agriculture regarding the wheat production. In decade from 1971 to 1981 their was positive growth of percentage of area and production. It was 16.53 per cent of area and 82.5 3 per cent of production. Between 1981 to 1988 to the area decrease but production continue/lncrease, it was 25.41 per cent. The trend of growth indicates that there is an Increase in wheat production. 7. Ibid, p. 122 71 RICE : A crop of wide adaptability" It Is grown In both tem- peratxire and tropical latitudes . In Uttar Pradesh nearly 20 per cent of the total cul tivated area is devoted to rice. Rice grows best on clayey loams and d'ays that turn into soft mud, when puddled and develop cracks on drying. Quick maturing varieties are grown on loamy and klighter soils in high lying lands, while long 9 duration variety is usually confined to lowlying clay soils . High tenderature and high humidity are the nain requirements for the growth of rice. Since rice is a semi adequate plant, the dominant limiting factors are the adequate supply of water, rice requires a tenperature range of IS" to 20°C at ripening time. It thrives best in regions having 100 - 2 00 cm of annual rainfall The area under study also has suitable climatic condit ion for the cultivation of rice., The table indicates that the annual production and growthi is just second only to potato i.e. 13.01 in last 38 years. The percentage of production and area both 1951 to 1961 as 69.81 per cent and 7.44 per cent 8. Dubey, R.N., "Economic Geography of India", Allahabad, 1968, p. 201. 9. Ibid, p. 203. 10. Tiwari, A.R., "Geography of Uttar Pradesh", New Delhi, 1971, p. 37. 1^ respectively, because of good irrigation facilities 1 n last five years plan'•. In decade (1961-71) the percentage of area under rice decreased to 51.66 per cent while the production of rice increased during the same period to 40.75 per cent due to above previous production, timely rainfall and an increase in the per capita Income of peasants in the area. In next decade from 1971-81 the percentage of area and production increased 23.82 per cent and 86.72 per cent respectively. The percentage of area and production again increased between 1981-88 it was 6.69 per cent and 33.17 per cent,respectively the above mentioned basis. The annual growth of percentage of production in last 38 years was 13.01 per cent. SUGARCANE : The cultivation of sugarcane has made enormous progress in India within recent years due to growth of sugarcane industry under State protection. The great expansion has been in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh where the best condition for cane cultivation and found Uttar Pradesh is main sugarcane producing state in India. It covers about 29.48 lakh hectares in the state i.e. 11. Dubey, R.N., Op. Cit., p. 224 7^ 59 per cent of total cropp*»ri area under sugarcane in the country. This state produces about 46 per cent of the total out put of India 12 Sugarcane thrives best on medium heavy soils. It can also be grown on lighter soi]s and heavy clays, provided there are adequate Irrigation facilities and satisfactory drainage system. Tenperatxire above 50*>C arrest plant grow#i and below 2 0*0 its growth is slow down markedly and severe forost proves total failure, Crops do best in tropical region, having a rainfall of 750 to 1200 nun1 3 . In some parts of Uttar Pradesh (especially in Taral belt), the crop is grown without Irrigation and thrives on the moistiure conserved in the soils. In this region sowing is usually done with the advent of the warm weather after cold season and completed well before the onset. A glance of given table indicates that there is a positive growth rate since 1951 to 1988. The growth rate in area and production during 1951 to 1961 was 31.46 per cent and 54.62 per cent respectively. . While between 1981 to 1988 it raised to 37.5 3 per cent area and 45.36 per cent production. 12. Tiwari, A.R., Op. Cit., p. 60. 13. Hand Book of Agriculture (1966), p. 149. 74 POTATO : pptato Is grown as a pure cash crop and In general two crops one early and one late are grown* The early crop is soven during February to March and harvested during June- July. The late crop Is sown during Septerrber to mid October 14 and harvested during mid February to mid March The potato is grown on variety of soils. The most suited soil for the cultivation of the potatoes are heavy soils, clays, grey and red soils. The most important group of soil§ under which the crop iiS grown are the loams, sandy clays, grey and red soils. The potato crop need a hot and humid cllnate . In Rohiikhand rrainiy liite variety of potato cultivation Is carried in whole pft«i plain area. The production of potato in 1951 to 1961 was 31.22 per cent while the area under potato was 26.28 per cent from 1971-81*The percentage of area under potato was 51.41 per cent and production increased four times to 137.19 per cent between 1981-88 the area and production shows a continuous Increase. The annual growth of production has first place in last 38 years the area was 5.89 per cent and production 15.89 per cent is shown in the table. 14. Dubey, R.N., Op. Cit,, p. 289. 15. Ibid, p. 288. 7a MAIZE: Malae is considered to be an inferior grain, but consumed all over the country,, it is the staple food of people in hilly andsubmountain tracts northern India . Maize is essentially a rich hard crop. It grows best on fertile well drained loamy soils that are neither too heavy nor too light. Deep alluvial loams and red loams free from course material are also very suitable in its physiological adaptibility. It comes next to rice, maize is essentially ._ a year season crops, and in areas of ndld climate it can be grown throughout the year. It is grown in the areas having about 75 cm of rainfall annually. Harvesting start by in end of September and continuous upto November. The area and production are shown in the table. It indicates that the production is slowly increasing except in the decade 1971 to 1981'. When the perc-^ntage of area under maize decreased to - 40.33 and production - 2,08 per cent. The annual growth percentage of area and production of maize from 1951 to 1988 was - 0.37 and 3.74 per cent respectively. Bajra like maize is alsso considered as an inferior grain in India as well as in this region. 16. Ibid. p. 223. 76 Generally, It is grown on light soils. It may be grown an medium loams.Bajra nereds lesser water than wheat. The sowing takes place in June and July harvesting takes place from October to mid November in Rohllkhand, Af'ter 1950 the area under Bajra has decreased and has given the place to cash crops, The table reveal the fact that from 1961tol961 the growth of area and production was negative, it was - 4,35 and - 33.22 per cent,respectively. The decade from 1961-71 the growth rate duiring this decade was - 67.35 and 1.24 per cent. While the decade 1971 to 1981 the percen tage of production and area under Bajra was positive i.e. 14.80 and 97.18 per cent, respectively. The production also increased slowly between 1981*o 1988 it was 0.57 per cent. PULSES : Pulses form almost an tissential part of Indiandietry. They are rich in proteins. It can be grown in areas of poor rainfall. There are numerous varieties of pulses which are grown throughout the years. The sowing for the popular varieties i.e. urad, moog, moth, arhar start in July and harvesting commences in N5arch or April, The area and production was 6.71 and 12.55 per cent in 1951-61. The area and production both show a decrease in two decade from 1961 to 1981 while the percentage of area and 77 production shows as Increase between 1981-88 It was 11.11 and 14.81 per cent respectively. The total annual percentage of production and area Is negative in last 38 years Is shown in the table. OIL SEEDS : The importance of oil seods in India Is rtuch more than their oil being used for industrial purposes. There is a large variety of oil seeds grown all over India both as Rabl and kharif crops. The inportant oil seeds are ground nuts, mustard, cotton seed, rape seed. They aire usually consumed for cooking purpose and also for the manufacturing of hydrogented oil 17 (vanaspatl), soap, khal and oth<2r byproducts The crop thrives best on sandy loam and well drained black soil, where the tenpejrature in warmer month is 20°C and above. It is grow as a rain-fed crop in tracts, where the rainfall in the crop season is more than 50 cm. In Rohllkhand mustard is the chief oil crop. Niustard (laha or lahl) Is shown in October/November and harvested in February/March, it can grown mixed and separately. There was tremendous 17. Ibid, p. 234. ,^ ., ,^ 76' change come in area and production from 1951 to 1961 the 203.03 per cent respectively. The production is also increased from 1961-71 the production was22.23 per cent while the area and production decrease from 1971 to 1981 and again increase between 1985-88 the area and production was 29.57 and 25.54 per cent respectively. INDUSTRIAL DEVELOmhlNT Ii^ ROHILKHAND BAREILLY The Bareilly has become industrially important in the State during the last thirty years. A number of industrial units, under Small Scale and Cottage industries have come up. Important industrial focal points are Clutterbuckganj, Baheri, Nawabganj, Anola, Faridpur and Bareilly itself. The headquarter of the district is industrially developec^. The manufacturing activities are generally varied from domestic goods to industrial goods. Major industries are as follows. x'lATCHES : The western India Match Company (WIMCO) Clutterbuckganj was established in 1930 and manufacturing matches on a large scale. The factory meets the requirement of the State to the 73 Table-?a^lA Different categories of S.S.I. Unit in Bareilly, 1987-88. 31. No. Category Nos, 1. Engineering 188 2. Chemical 107 3. Handlcom units 233 4. Silk units 5. Coir units 13 6. Handicraft units 914 7. Others 19 31 8 . Total 3690 Source : Statistical yeair Book, 1988 District Bareilly, p. 80. 80 Table-XIII Yeair 1961. Number of registered factories under Factory Act 1948 in Rohilkhand, Name of No. of Capital No. of District Factories (in Lakh) Workers Bareilly 33 172,9 3460 Badaun 4 17.4 670 Shahjahanpur 27 97.9 2040 Pilibhit 2 Bijnor 47 156.5 3960 Moradabad 26 281.6 3680 Rampur 7 270.6 4370 Source : Directorate Econorrilcs and Statistics Yojana Bhawan, Lucknow. 8x extent of nearly 60 per cent and consumes about 6 lakh cubic feet of Semal wood annually, v/hich is obtained from the Tarai and Nepal forests. CATSCHU AND CATCH : •The India Wood product Ltd. Izatnagar extracts Catechu and Catch on a large scale. The company was incorporated in 1919. The raw material is obtained from the wood of the Khair tree which grows in the foot hills of Himalayas. U)cal people are generally employeec in this activity. Ri.5lN AND TERPENTINE : The India terpentine and Presion Company Glutterbaickganj manufactures rasin and terpentine on large scale. It was established on February 22, 1924 it gives the employment of 450 persons. SUGAR : There are three sugar factories in the district, the Kisan Sugar works Ltd., Baheri, U.P. State Svigar Corporation Ltd. Nekpur and U.P. Kisan Sihkari Sugar Mills Baheri. They give the employment to 2360 persons. 8 Table-XlY Year - 1971 Number of registered factories under Factory Act 1948 In Rohilkhand. Number of No. Of Capital No. of District Factories (in lakh) Workers Bareilly 75 2649.11 10487 Badaun 17 162.30 1103 Shahjahanpur 65 18S.54 40 34 Pilibhlt 7 625.02 2695 Bijnor 112 1304.88 10079 Moradabad 121 842.05 8145 Rampur 21 614.60 4243 Source : Directorate Economics and Statistics Yojana Bhawati, Lucknow. 83 SYNTHETICS AND CHEMICAL LIMITE13 : Tbe synthetics and chemical Limited have built a synthetic rubber plant of the capacity of 30,000 tons a year. This is the first plant of its kind to be built in India which might make the country self sufficient in respect of rubber in near future. It is very major plant in district and provide the employment of 1853 person, CAMPHOR . : A plant has been erecteci at clutterbuckganj by the camphor and allied products Ltc. for manufacturing of 900 tons of Camphor annually. This unit has been established in technical colloboration with £.A. du port de Nemours and Go. the United State of America. THE INDIAN FARl'aERS FERTILIZER COMPANY : A plant has been established in Aonla for manufacturing of 726000 of Ammonia and urea. It is the biggest unit in the district and provides employment of about 1200 person. The table shows that there were 65 factories registered under factories^ Act 19^ and increase 135 in 1988 of these 91 were functioning with total investment of Rs. 42.09 crores employing over 15 thousand of persons including those who were 8i Table-xV Year - 1988 Number of registered factories under Factory Act 1948 in Rohilkhand, Name of No. of Capital No. of District Factories (in lakh) workers Bareilly 142 12245.05 16873 Badaun 25 1047.33 2828 Shahjahanpur 143 4845.00 10767 Pilibhit 34 3131 .00 4706 Bijnor 294 9889.79 2 4829 Mora da bad 356 10465.00 27071 Rampur 50 6942,00 7842 Source : Directorate Economics and Statistics Yojana ehawan, Lucknow. 85 engaged in Managerial ar^ Supervisory capacity. The factories proaUced goods worth Rs. 18.76 crore of rupees of which value added by manufacturing shared 18.3 per cent. The number of factories continue increase from 196I to 1988 in 1961 the factories registered under factory act was 35 it rose 142 in 1988, of these 91 were functioning with total investment of Rs. 42.09 crore&. The nunber of small scale unit like Engineering, chemical, Handloom, Coir Unit Handicraft and other type of units the total number of small scale unit, in the district is 3538. These unit play important role in district economy and give the employment of thousand of persons . The Badaun is industrial backward district ofRohilkhand Plain. In 1961 there vgas 4 Factory registered under factory Act 1948 the number of factory is continue to increase and rose to 25 factory in 1988. These factories are engaged in the product ion edible oil, repair of motor vehicles, cotton giving and baling cotton spining and weaving, manufacture of ice and production of indigenous sugar,. Most of the factories are small employing less than 100 workers each. The Shakambari paper mill Ujjani and Kisan Siiixkari Sugar Mill and Balga Fruit (P) Ltd. are large scale concern employing lli3, 1100 and 137 18. District Census Handbook 1S>81, Uttar Pradesh district Bareilly, Part Xili^ A ViTlarge and Town Directory Series 22, pp. 7-8. So Table No. XVIB Different categories of S.S.I. iJnit in Badaun, 1987-88. Sl.No. category Nos. 1. Engineering 450 2 . Chemical 123 3. Handloom units 106 4. Silk units 5. Coir units 6. Handicraft units 13 7 . Others 448 8. Total 1140 Source : Statistical year Book, 1988, District Badaun, p. 79 87 respectively. The Badaun Is one of the 19 below average district of the State. In the rural area the largest number is engaged in nraking textile garments, followed by rrenufacturing of other wood and wooden products and processing of food grains. In the urban, naking of textile garment and production of other food products such as Sweet meat conditment etc. are the most inportant manufacture of textile garments is there fore, consistently important In both the areas. The number of small scale unit in district was 1140 against the State 19 average of 4, 460 per district SHAHjAHMsiPUR , Industrially, Shahjahanpur is a backward district. In 1961 there was only 27 factories registered under factory Act 1948 it rose 14 3 in 1988. These figxires show, that nuntoer of factories are increasing. In addition'the ordinance clothing factory ' of Government of India and two Sugar factories there are two units engaged in production of alcohal and wine. These factories provide largest enployment. There are 2170 small scale industrial units consisting of Khandsari Mills - general engineering costing, agricultural inplements, cold storage rice nriills and oil mills etc. Efforts Table -^'o. XVIC "^ Different categories of S.S.I. Unit in Shahjahanpur, 1987-88, 51. No. Category Nos. 1 . Engineering 50 2 . Chemical 3 3. Handloom Units 63 4 . Silk units 5 . Coir units 6. Handicraft units 183 7. Others 1823 8. Total 2118 Source : Statistical year Book, 1988 District Shahjahanpior, p. 72 8d are being made to the Industries and to establish new industries like manufacturing of plastic, shoes and chappals, aluminium utensils, polythene bags, lubricant, cycle tubes and electric bulbs etc. A silk production centre is proposed to be set. An area of 15 hectares has been brought under mulbery cultivation. This project i^ expected to provide enployment of about 400 persons. Carpet manufacturing is an important traditional industry of the district. Ansari population would be nearly 12,000#nearly 550 family units conprlsing about 3,500 persons are directly getting their livelihood from this industry. It is proposed to bring this industry under the co-operative sector with this view, a co-operative society has been esta blished that pi ays important role for development of this industry. Beside these co-operative has. also been established which is expected to provide enployment to about 400 families. 20 The total small scale units in the district in 1988 wer.e 2170 PILIBHr:? The Industrial structure of the district is not developed. The industries found in the district are by and 20. District Census hand Book, 1981, Uttar Pradesh, district Shahjahanpur Part XIII "A village and Town Directory Series 22, p. 5-6 Table No. XVID 90 Different categories of S.S.I. Unit in Pilibhit, 1987-88 SI. No. Category Nos, 1. Engineering 305 2 . Chemical 62 3. Handloom units 2 31 4. Silk unit 5. Coir units 6. Handicraft units 1097 7. Other s 397 8. Total 2482 Source : Statistical year Book, 1988 District Pilibhit, p. 71. 91 large based on processing of agriculture and forest produc-i. Rice mills, Khandasari units. Sugar mills saw mills and wood based industries are found in the district. The number of persons employed in Registered factories per lakh is 406 against the state average of 602 in U.P.,State showing lower industrial employment than the state average. The contribution of manu facturing sector is also low as Indicated by the fact that it contributed only 6.2 2 per cent of the total net out put at current prices, which is less than half of the share of the manufacturing sector of 15.27 per cent at the state level. There was 2 factories registered under factory Act 19 48 and rose 34 factories in 1988. Among the tradition craft, the flute (a musical instrument) industry madd from bamboo pipe has sxirvived the ouslaught of times. The district is noted for manufacturing of fluts. There are 34 units in the district employing 116 person, Handloom weaving has suffered a set back as the production of handloom cloth. The total small 21 scale units v BUNOR The district has been industrially backward. Yet the industrial development has caught on with the expansion of 21. District Census hand Book 1981, Uttar Pradesh district Pilibhit Part XIII - A village Town Directory Series - 22. Table No. XVIE Different categories of S.S.I. Jnit in Bijnor, 1987-88, SI. No, Category Nos. 1. Engineering 23 2 . Chemical 146 3. Handloom units 18876 4. Silk units 5 . Coir units 4 6. Handicraft units 468 7. Other 1568 8. Total 21085 Source : Statistical year Book, 1988 District Bijnor, p. 66, 93 traditional handicraft and small scale industries, the products of which is not only enjoy the country wide market but are also exported abroad-., The brass are objects utility articles and utensils are exp>orted. The manufacture of brass articles occupies the foremost position in the manufacturing activities of the district and is concentrated in Bijnor town and other urban, areas. The Infrastructure built up by the development of brass industry is included in the development of other small scale industries. The manufacture of stainless steel and aluminium utensils is catching up fastly and numerous such units have come up. There are four sugar mills and one weaving mill and more sugar mills are proposed to be established In Bijnor, Chandpur, Dhampur and Seohara to meet the demand of farmers. Naglna is famous for its artistical glass industry. The production of western type, combs, toys and beautiful show pieces are the latest addition to the array products of this industry. Handloom wflaving of fabrics is also very important industry of the districts. Yarn weaving industry enjoys country-wide market and its products are also exported abroad. There are 18876 handlooms for weaving cotton cloth distributed in many units engaging approximately 31 thousand persons. Wooden toys and brass ware Inciustries are also prominent in the 3^ city. There is one cotton mill at Nagina in Bijnor district Brass ware, Khadi and handloom cloth Knives iron goods, agri cultural implements sugar and gur edible oil and eastern part are manufacture largly in many town of the district. Also distillery factory at Seohora, battling Company at iNiajibabad Micro Abrasive Ltd arKi straw board mill at Dhampur of district Bijnor are in operation. There was 47 factorits registered under factory Act 19^8 and rose 29h in 1988. There are 21085 small scale units which are registered with the Director of industries, U.P. employing 26,728 persons '', MORADABVil) The district has been industrially backward yet the industrial development has caught on with the expansion of traditional handicrafts and small scale industries the products of which not only enjoy the country wide market but also export ed abroad. The brass art object utility articles and utensil are exported to the U.S.A. west Germany, Canada, Iran, Iraq, Egypt and U.K. and other European and South-east countries. The manufacture of brass articles occupies the foremost position in the manufacturing activities of the district accounting for 50 per cent of the total industrial production and it concentrated 22. District Census hand Book 1961, Uttar Pradesh district Bijnor, Fart Xlll A Viira'gV an3 Town Directory Series 22, p. XXXXXI-XXXXXII. Table No. XVIF Q - Different categories of S.S.I. Unit is Moradabad, 1987-88. 31. No. Category Nos. 1. Engineering 4098 2. Cbemical 185 3. Handloom units 1046 4. Silk iinits 5. Coir units 6. Handicraft units 901 7. Others 8. Total 7376 Source : Statistical year book, 1988 District Moradabad, p. 72. 96 in Moraciabad town wtiich has earned to Pick name of Pital Nagri for itself. Sambal is famous for its artistical horn industry. The production of western type combs, toys and beautiful show pieces are the latest addition to the array of product of this industry. The other important industry toys and artistic furniture mostly found in Amroha for providing opportunities for the expansion of these industries in the district, the State Government has establish6Gajraula has been declared as industrial area in the district 97 and U.P, industrial Development corporation in working hard to accelerate the pace of industrial development of the district . RAMFUR The industrial striicture of the district consists of large, medium and small scale industries and village and cottage industries. There was 7 unit registered under factory Act 1948 its increase 50 units in 1988. The most important units are Raza textile, Raza Buland Sugar factory. New Board Company; Hind Caramics Rajpur. Distillery and Chemical, Government Printing Press, Richandson Hindustan Limited and Rudr Vilas Sahkari Chini factory, which produce goods worth Rs. 1,30409 lakhs. A total capital is invested in these industries and cloth sugar R.C.C. Sheets alchohal mentha, solvent oil straw board are produced one paper Biill is being set up at Rampur with an employment potential of 500 persons. There are 2079 small scale units registered under small scale industries with an investment of Rs. 226.33 lakhs. They produce goods worth Rs. 342.91 lakhs annually. Vii:.age and cottage industries 23. District Census hand Book 1S61, Uttar Pradesh district Moradabad, ^rt Xlil A Village and Town Directory Series 22, p. 5-6. 98 Table No, XVIG Different categories of S.S.I. Units in Rampur, 1987-88, Si. No. Category Nos. 1 , Engineering 321 2. Chemical 141 3. Handleom units 103 4. Silk units 5. Coir units 6, Handicraft units 591 7. Others 890 8, Total 2112 Source : Statistical year Book, 1988 District Rampur, p. 9l. 93 produce shoes edible oil gum hides and skins, ropes, earthen pots, furnitures doors and windows etc. The total capital invested in cottage and village industries amounts Rs. '^+98.000 in 2A9 units which employee 647 persons and 24 produce goods worth Rs. 84.530 annually , 24. District Census hand Book 1981, Uttar Pradesh district ftampur, ]^rt Xill A Village and Town Directory Series 22, p. 6. lOU HUMAN ENVmOSlMENT With a population of about 1^16^2 40 and an area of about 30544 sq. km,^ the Rohilkhand is one of the moat density populated region of the plains of Uttar Pradesh. The large population and Its spatial distribution density and Its occupational structure Reveal that here man has not been only a creator of cultural land scape but also a basic constituent of the eco-system of the region. The regional distribution of population and Its growth have mainly related to the economic land scape of the region. The average density of the region Is approximately 4 30 persons per sq. km. The highest density i.e. 552 personsp«rsq.km..tias been recorded in Barellly district and lowest density 288 persons per sq. km. in Pillbhlt district. The decadnal growth for the plain is 28.60 The Rohilkhand plain both the density and growth rate of popu-* lation are generally higher due to good quality of agricultural land that has made the area comparatively of great prosperity. The growth rates varies; from districts to district ranging between 30.78 per cent in Rampur to 19.80 per cent in Badaun district. The western part of plain recorded relatively higher growth rate than the eastern part. The percentage of growth of population recorded In decade 1971-1981 in the CO 101 CD V.D CN •«* •* CO • • • • o CO iD CO CM in "^ r~ f4t roH o\ tH 00 in 00 o o r- 00 CO CO (M CM ro CM 00 CO ro 0) vD 00 I CO (D r-i § in •D CO 00 XI •H o (0 +J 00 CM ir> CM CM •-• ii 0) a o 0^ (30 r- o ro 00 'I 0) ON 00 VO ai VD cr» OJ CM in in in CM rH in CM in CO CM 00 f^ ^ rH cri I I I I C7^ in VD cr> ID CD CM CO CM 0) M -o c It) >i •P 1 (0 O X) iH Jn:) •H 1 •H (0 x: 1 8 T3 ^ c > (d d) £ •XHJ 1 < 0) c P< •02 (d r-l 1 b <0 {3 10 •H 1 OQ S « CQ m txo: (^ I ]0J GROWTH OF POPULATION IN 30r ROHILKHAND / / 25 Ixl O cr UJ 20 y r / 15 o 10 / ( •=> 5 Q. O I \ I \ / 1 J I I L. 1911 1921 1931 19M 1951 1951 1971 1981 Pyl 103 district of Rohilkhand plain are Bijnor (30.14) Moradabad (29.66) Rampur (30,78) Bareill*(27.7l1 Badaun (19.81) Shahjahan- pur (28.11) Pilibhit (34.06). DISTRIBUTION AND DFNSITY OF POPUlATIC^i : Table XVIII showing the dastributlon of population in the plain clearly indicate that there is considerable variation in number of people living in different districts. The main cause for this uneven distribution can be attributed to the existence of plain and fertile land the level of urbanization, industrialization and the facilities of transport and commxini- cation. The density of the plain as a whole i^ 429.7 person^per sq. km. which is greater than that of whole Uttar Pradesh (377). Table based on 1981 census shows district wise density of population. It is seen that only two district Bareilly (552) Moradabad 528 is having highest group of density which is above 500 person per sq. km,. The medium density of population is found in Bijnor (401) Rampur (498) Badaun (382) Shahjahanpur (360) . The Pilibhit district represent the lowest density where population is less than 300 persons per sq. km. in the region. SEX RATIO : In Rohilkhand plain the general sex ratio varies from district to district. To be sure the distribution of sexes in 10^ Table-XVI11 Distribution of Population aiui its density in Koniiknand in 1981. Di strict area in Density of Population ( Sq-kms^) population per Sq.km. bijnor 48A8 400 1939261 /ioradabad 5967 528 3149406 Rampur 2367 498 1178621 Bareilly 4120 552 2273030 Badaun 5168 383 1971946 Shahjahanpur 4575 360 I6476b4 Pilibhit 3499 288 1008312 Total 30544 3008 13168240 Source : Census of India A i-ortrait of Population - Uttar Pradesh, 1981^. p. 57, 106 T-B- 79 80 ROHILKHAND DENSITY OF POPULATION 981 PERSONS PER Sq-Km Above 500 400—500 300—400 Below 300 10 0 10 20 30 W 50 ^—1—I ' 1 KILOMETRES P'f 8 106 the Rohilkhand is not uniform,. It varies from 863 female in Bijnor to 801 female in Badaun. The principle cause of this imbalance seem to be higher rates of mortality among female due to relative neglect both at the growing period and the reproductive ages and under reporting of female by "orthodox and conservative respondent of peasant families. Migration which is generally considered to be strongly male selective does not seem to be a determinant. This phenomenon can be varl^ied even at state level . SEX RATIO AND ITS RURAL/URBA-N DISTRIBUTIC^ : The disparity between the sex ratio of rural urban population of the plain is marked by a relatively high pro portion of female in urban areas and low proportion in rural ar'^as. The break up of sex-ratio interms of rural and urban varies from 798 to 855 females per lOOO males in rural areas and from 861 to 887 females per lOOO males in urban'areas .The respective averages for the Rohilkhand is 825.2 females in rural areas per 1000 to 869.8 females in urban area per 1000 .The highest sex- ratio in rxiral area is 855 in Bijnor and lowest 198 in Badaun but the urban sex-ratio is highest 887 female/1000 in Bijnor 1. Siddiqui, F.A,^ Regional Analysis of Population Structures, A Study of Uttar Pradesh, 1<)84, p. 133-34. 107 Table-XIX Sex Distribution in RohiUchand, 1981 Sex - Ratio Districts Sex Ratio Ruri Urban No.of Femal es per 1000 ma les Bijnor 863 855 887 Moradabad 842 833 870 Rampur 843 829 883 Bareilly 830 818 861 Badaun 801 798 864 Shahjahanpur 841 801 862 Pilibhit 846 843 862 Average 8 38 825*2 869B Source : A P Census of Inciia , A Portrait of Population of'Uttar Pradesh. 1981, p. 57. 10^ 78 -30 79 -r»- 80 N ROHILKHAND SEX—RAT I 0.1 98 -29 •28 FEMALES PER THOUSANDS MALE Below825 825 850 '0 0 10 20 30 UO 50 -> • .L. Above850 KILOMETRES %9 IOJ and lowest 861 female/1000 in I3areilly district of the Rohllkhand region in Uttar Pradesh. OCCUPATION STRUCTURE PRimRY OCCUFATICaa : In the Rohilkhand region primary occupations are dominant. The proportion of male workers in primary occupation is now where less than 84 per cent whereas in some districts it is fi. high as 90 per cent. Badaun has the highest percentage of the male working population engaged In primary activity whereas Bii^nor with 84.4 per cent has the lowest percentage. The overall average of male and ferrale is 88.5 per cent and 66.8 per cent. The bulk of the rural population, is the plain (nele and female) is not less than 77 per cent (male) and 67 per cent (female) per cent of the rural working population engaged in primary occupation. The very high percentage above 95 per cent is in Rampur, Bareilly, Shahjahanpur and Pilibhit. In Bijnor and Moradabad the percentage is between 90-95, and brlow 90 per cent in Badaun. The average of males engaged in primary occupa tion is 92.3 per cent. On the other hand the very high percent age of female is 85 in Badaun, and 70-80 per cent in Bijinor, Moradabad, Rampur, Bareilly, while the lowest below 85 per cent no Table No. XX Occupation Structure of Rohllkhand District Primary Secondary Tertlarry Activities Activities Activities Male Female Nale Fenrale Male Female T 84.47 6 3.58 8.04 25.06 7.47 11.34 Bljnor R 84.47 67.27 5.59 25.77 4.06 6.95 U 65.23 55.77 16.07 2 3.58 18.68 20.64 85.46 63.03 6.83 17.50 7, 69 19.45 Moradabad R 94.38 73.16 2.71 13.96 2, 89 12.87 U 58.65 53.28 19.20 20.94 22.13 25.84 T 87.85 64.90 5.19 15.67 6, 95 19, 42 Rampur R 96.45 79.44 1 .50 7.62 2, 04 12, 92 U 61.17 81.77 16,.41 8.58 22.40 9, 64 T 86.05 60.69 5.,59 12.60 8.35 26, 73 Barellly R 95.37 79.24 1 .,90 13.92 2.71 11, 84 U 59.81 51.14 15.96 11.38 24.22 34.61 T 93.68 72.01 2.50 8.23 3. 81 19, 75 Badaun R 77.38 80.66 9.31 6.75 13. 30 12, 57 U 71.59 55.86 10.99 11.01 17, 41 33. 12 T 90.94 70.73 3.39 8.75 ,66 20 50 Shahjahan- R 96.79 84.49 1.31 5.14 ,88 10, 35 pur U 61.15 53.95 13.99 10.23 24.85 35.80 T 90.84 72.92 3.50 60.23 5.64 20.83 Pllibhit R 95.99 83.71 1 ,58 4.80 2.31 11.48 U 59.80 53.71 14.40 8.80 25.74 37.39 Source ; Census of India A Patroait of Uttar Pradesh, 1981, p. 112 Ill is not In Shahjahanpur. TVi^ ovrrall average of female Is 78.3 per cent on the other hand the percentage distribution of Urban working papulation in primary occupation Is quite different. Though the average no where rises above 55 per cent for male and female both, but In Badaun and Rampxor it is as high as 85 per cent and 80 per cent respectively. The primary occupations of the urban population are almost exclusively composed of cultivations and agricultural labour barring a few exception of forestry, live stock, mining and quarrying, SECONDARY OCCUP^TICttJ ; In Rohllkhand plains the secondary occupations are more unevenly distributed. Among the districts the percentage of working population engaged in secondary occupation range from 2 to 8 per cent for male and 2 to 18 per cent for females respectively with a minimum 2.5 male and 2,5 female respective ly and maximum 8.4 and 17.5 respectively. Household and manufacturing industries are the chief constituents of secondary occupation. Through the inter distri cts variation in the percentage of populations engaged in secondary occupation is not very notable but the inter district variation with respect to urban and rural population is relatively more significant and notable. Even the sirrple 112 averages of the seccMidary occupation In the rural and xirban population are distinctly different. The average of rural male and female 3.4 per cent and 11.1 per cent as compaj^ed to urban male population of (l!>.6) per cent and xirban female population (13.5) per cent. Household industry is the chief constituent of secondary occupation in rural population. The regional distribution of secondary occupation in male and female urban population may be broken in-=to two categories 10 to 15 and 15 to 20 per cent among males and 5 to 15 and 15 to 25 per cent respectively among females. TFRTIARY OCCUPATION : The percentage under tei-tiary occupation vary from 3.8 to 8.3 per cent male and 11.3 to 26.7 per cent female giving an average of about 6.4 and 19.6 respectively, ia the -region Bareilly is the highest percentage district and account for 8,3 per cent male and 26.7 per cent female respectively. On the other hand Badaun (3.8 per cent) male population extremely low percentage in this region. The inter district variation in respect of rural and urban population is relatively more significant and notable. Even the average of the tertiary occupation in the rural and urban population are distinctly different. 113 The average of 22.1 and 28.2 per cent for the male and female urban working population in this group is more than four times the male rural average of 4.1 and 2.5 female in the rural average 11 .1 ^ Tertiary occupation enjoy almost the s»me relative significant in urban population as do the primary ones in rural population. This is evident from the fact that the proportion of the persons, niales and females engaged in tertiary occupation varies with in a wic^ range of 18.6 to 2 5.7 and 9.6 to 37,3 per cent of the urban working population. This given an average of 21.1 and 28.2 per cpnt respectively for the districts of the state. Table show?that more than 25 per cent of the male and 37.7 per cent urban population in the Pilibhit districts engaged in tertiary occupation and make a sizeable and district region of the highest percentage in the Rohilkhand region of the State. RELIGiaP!3 COMMUNITY HINDUS : There are number of religious group in Rohilkhand that have been reported in the census. According to 1981 census there are 67.8 per cent of Hin n CM CM CO 00 o O O o O o O o o n C >1 o O o 2C o • o 0) (0 CO d rH CM 0) M 0 CO o o O O no X •H ov (0 X D)t-t o 1^ t •H ft 9> •-< * i-i Q) Tl X> U C g rS }^ o>; (0 lOrH r VO in ro in •<* o o 0) -H A; CM in in o r- Ot .C -H C CO M-l O CO m OQJ rH •p CO (od a> tjN •rH cr 1-t :3 5 m « ^ c c (0 a- 0) -H •H o VW r^ M n OS CM Tj- OJ CN o 0) O CM CO ^ M *i 1 cu O H-l 1« \r> u o •« <^ (0 u '^i^ (0 0 ^ E c a •H in VO CM CM CM in 00 o in 00 VO •rH CO VO r-l .-1 in o rH •* in vD 00 00 r- 0. (0 C 10 % xID: 8 ^ % c (fl 0) (rt £ 0} •0 n> •H ^ Id (0 JC ra s « M-J CQ to CU 115 Hindu population bplow 50 per cent out of the seven districts in 1981 the proportion of Hindu exceeds 70 per cent of the total population in four district. These districts are Bareilly, Badaun, Shahjahanpur and Pllibhit. Muslim constituting average 29.8 per cent of population from the next largest social group. Rarrpur (47,42 per cent) are the area where the Muslims are in absolute majority. There are three district Bijnor (39.45 per cent) Moradabad (38.06 per cent) Ranpur (47.42 per cent) in the Rohilkhand region, in which Muslim: from above 30 per cent population. As the growth rate of the Muslim is much above the national average in both the decades. Christianity is the third major group in Rohilkhand region. Christiar^ are almost concentrated in a region. The three district of the region in the state Moradabad (0.21 per cent) Rampur (0.62 per cent) Bareilly (0.32 per cent) f Of the other three religious groups Sikhs are concen trated largely in Pilibhit (3.93 per cent) Rampur (3.53 per cent) which account for above 3 per cent'of the total Sikh population of this plain. Buddhist are few confined in Bijnor (0.04 per cent) Moradabad (0.04 per cent) . Jains are generally spread in Bijnor but they form a very small proportion of the total population in all these Rohilkhand Region. 116 CHAPTER.-IV CmNGE IN ECOLOGY Our present world is facing a number of socio-economic and political problems. Among them the ecological imbalance is increasing day by day, caused by high growth rate of population and its activities. Nature has created a balance among diff-rent things for their existence and survival. To fulfill his denands man has created disturbances in the existing things due to exploritation, misuse and mismanagement of resources. Consequently, certain things have been minimized and reduced while certain other unnecessary and undesirable things have been added in the existing environment. Consequently, our planet earth is slowly becoming unsuitable for biotic community. When due to man's interference certain things are added or reduced in the e«ising environment it is called pollution. The agents that pollute are termed as pollutant and they are of various types. Geographers are mainly concerned with - 1. Air pollution 2. water pollution 3. Soil pollution. Due to the partition of the country in 19 47 more than 8 million Hindus and Sikhs migrated from Pakistan to India. They settled down in different parts of the country. Encouraged Table Mo.. •X>XII District-wise Area under ^'orest in Rohilkhand Districts Forest area % to total Forest area % to total in (1951) 1 area (1981/ area Bijnor 160474 32.60 70847 14.39 Woradabad 26131 4.40 11921 2.00 Rampur 16352 6.94 6611 2.80 Bareilly 1150 0.28 411 0.10 Badaun 15927 3.05 6903 1.32 Shahjahanpur 36265 7.92 11722 2.56 Pilibhit 272553 78.13 77779 22.29 Total 528852 186194 Source : 1. Techno-Economic Survey of Uttar Pradesh, 1965, p. 259. 2. District Stastical year Book of Rohilkhand. 118 by government, thousands of Sikh immigrants inhabited on the northern Swampy Tarai region of Rohilkhand division in Uttar Pradesh. This area of Uttar Pradesh was very scantly populated before the settlement of Sikh immigrants. It was a forested region where wild life was in abundance. These immigrants cleared the forest and began to cultivate the fields, changing the natural vegetation into agricultural crops. Later on, the Sikhs from divided Punjab also began to migrate to this region to occupy the cheap and fertile agrcul- tural lands. A3 a result of these migrations the Tarai region in the study area was settled down in stages. The Sikhs started to do intensive agriculture supported by liberal financtial assistance provided by the banks. They also began to cultivate on sandy soils with the help of tubewell irrigation,chemical fertilizers, and other modern Inputs. These migrants generally use heavy doses of chemical fei-tilizers, insecticides and pesticides. It has adversely effected the fertility of the soils. In addition these ti'pes of elements are dissolved with the rain water and pollute the rivers. Still the settlers in this Tarai region are encroaching upon the neighbouring forest I'^nds and clearing the forests.Table iNio.>^>lshowing the percentage distribution of area under forest, shows that in every district the area under forest has decreased nearly two and half times v/ith:Ln thirty years (l951-198lJ.Due to cutting of the forest,not a substantial number of wild animals have outmigrated from the region but it has also increased the intensity of soil erosion ana floods. na As we know, that after Independence our democratic government Is trying to increase the number of industries for fulfilling the basic needs of growing peculation, Sonin the study area a number of forest and agricultural based industries have come into existence. The forest based industries have adversely affected the area under forest. Some of the trees which are used in the forest based industries are nearing to extinction. Therefore, now the manufacturers are encouraging the farmers to grow the trees on agricultural lands, so that t 1 these industries (NBtches) do not suffer losses and production continues. The forest contractors along with the corrupt forest officials are also damaging the green trees. Air Pollution : Our atmosphere is a mixture of gases which are essential for the life on the surface of the earth. The percentage of different gases in the atmosphexe is fixed. If their propor tion is disturbed, it may create a great danger to biosphere. In the present century, due to burning of oil and coal the percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is continuing and in combustion engines that releases hydrocarbons to our atmosphere. It has been observed that the nrain caused of air pollution in the cities is caused by automobiles. Due to growing population the members of means of transport and 120 factories are also Increasing and adding hydrocarbons in the atmosphere. In industrial areas, it is very difficult to breathe freely due to soffocaticn and smoke. People residing in such areas mostly do not have good health. Carbon dioxide Is a gas that do the work of green house. It permits short-wave radiation from sun to earth but it is opaque to long wave radiation from earth to space. Due to increasing proportion of carbon dioxide the terrperature of our atmosphere is slowly increas: increasing. It has been estimated that upto the turn of the present century this raising temperature will melt ice of the highlands and high latitudes. It will raise the sea level. Consequently, the low'lying coastal areas will be submerged under the sea water. As we know that for growing population, there is a great dettand to increase the area under cultivation but increasing proportion of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere will reduce the fertile cultivation. What will it severe consequences is a question of global discussion. In this region, it has been observed that the number of agro-based Industries eg. Sugar nlll and rice mills are continuously increasing. The industrialization has mostly developed in urban centres namely Barellly, Moradabad, Shahjahanpur, Rarrpur, Pllibhit and Bijnor. Moradabad is the most populated urban centre in the region while Barellly Is industrially advance district In Rohllkhand Division. There 121 are mostly forest based Industxles eg. match, rubber, terpentine, catchu, wood and chemical, fertilizer factories. In Moradabad brass Industry is highly developed, such indust ries have polluted the atmosphere very badly. Table No. XXIII nistrict-wise number of factories registered under factories Act 1948 in Rohllkhand. Districts Factory in 1961 Factory in 1988 Bijnor 47 2 78 Moradabad 26 336 Ranrpur 7 54 Bareilly 33 135 B adaun 4 32 Shahjahanpur 27 143 Pilibhit 2 31 Total 146 1009 Source : 1, Directorate Economic and Statistics Yojana 3havan, Lucknow. 2, Stastical Year Book In the rural areas as vrell as in smaller township the oresence of sugar and rice '-actories are also polluting air. .'^urther to add the irony, is Vvit they do not know that what they .are doing", not to mention about the adoption of nneasures to check ths air pollution. To check the air pollution the following steps may be taken into consideration. The government should impose restrictions in issuing new licences for establishing facrtorles that pollute to air in uroan centres and inhabited areas. Such type of factories should oe located away from habitalkie areas, especially in t>arren lands. Tn addition, thie factories ciiBt have already been established should be highly taxed to irrpose filters on the Chimneys so that pollutants may be removed before the smoke comes out of the Chimneys. The height of rhimneys should be increased, to central our urban areas, some type of restrictions may be imposed in issuing new licence:? of automobiles the air pollution and solving traffic problems, in rural areas, strict measures may be adopted to control over pollution caused by rice and sugar mills. /^TER POLLUTION : In the contenporary World the problem of potable water is very alarming. The two principal sources of water pollution are sewage and sullage from urt^an centres, and the industrial waste. The rivers and reservoirs are contaminated by chemical and other materials. Underground water has become unsuitable both for drinking and irrigation due to waterlogging and dewage. !23 n v/aste matters into the rivers. In this area intensive agriculture is being done with the help of heavy doses of cheiiiical fertilizers, i-'armers aiso use insecticides and perticides to control and save tne cro^s from insects and pests- In rainy season these yoisonous matters are dissolved with the runnirig water and i-ollute the river water, in water-logged areas these matters are also badly polluting to tn^^ underground water, it aoes not affect only to the terrestial life but also very badly to the aquatic life. To control over water pollution, the first remedial measure that should be adopted is that sewage ana other waste matters should not be disposed directly in the rivers. It should be dumped elsewhere. The v/ater of the drains of the cities should be used for irrigation purposes around the city on the land used for cultivation, checks and restriction may be imposed to issue licences for the establishment of factories near river banks. The factories that have been already localised near river banks should not be allowed to dispose tneir waste matters in the rivers. In water logged areas, tne trees that have very high transpiration cai'acity should be planted. In such areas tubewell irrigation should be practiced to control over water logging. To check the flow of water pollutants, caused by the use of insecticid the scientist should develop such type of biological process that may control the harmful oacterial activities in agriculture. In addition, a great emphasis should be given to the use of green manures than chemical fertilizers in agriculture. SOIL POLLUTION : Soils are one of the precious resource of nature to man we cannot think about haman life without soils. It takes tnousands of years for the formation of a very thin layer of soil. So, due to the slow pnjcess of soil formation, "soils" may be considered as a nor)-r(juewable resource. Jiut as far as soil erosion and degradation is concerned it takes very small time. There are a number oi natural and synthetic materials that can adversely affect the physical, chemical and biological I-roperties of soils and seriously affect its productivity. Soil pollution is a extremely complicated process. It may be direct effect of dumping and disposal of wastes applicat ion of agro-chemicals or the indirect result of air pollution. The chief soil pollutants, are pesticides, fertilizers indust rial wastes, salts, asphalt, metalic and non-raetalic minerals, discarded food, paper etc. 123 Application of pe;:>ticides and insecticides reduce the jjopulation and number of apecies of living organisms wnicn affect the structure and lertiiity of soil, A number of i-'esticides or their degradation products are absorbed by the plants, which in their process may adversely affect the entire food ctiains and food webs. After green revolution, the fanner are cutting the forests to brinj the land under cultivation and are using new technulogicai methods in cultivation of the soil. It has loosened the soil ana due to free flow of rain water, loose soils are easily erod, ana the matter is silted in the river valleys. Consequently, the area under flood plain is continu ously increasing. In inumated areas, soils are degraded and become unsuitable for good cultivation. In audition, the overgrazing is also a main cause of soil erosion. The excretor product of people and livestock, and digested sewage sludge usea as manure pollute the soil. In developing countries, like ours, the unhygienic practices of people and faulty sanitation aggravats soil pollution. The innumerable pati'iogens contained in these wastes contaminate the soils and vegetable crops, and cause serious health hazards for man and domesticated arduials. However, biological sources a re a minor factor in al terir:.^, . soil composition. 126 Hs we know that our cr/ii-.Lculture is highly influeiiCed by mansoon climate. Therefore,, ia more i^ainfed areas agriculture is practiced with the help of canal, tubewell and tank irrigation. are canals and tubewells. Salts dissolved in irrigation water accumulate on the soil surface. Increase in the concentration of soluble salts adversely affect the soil productivity and degrades the quality of land. X'nis is aggravated by inadequate drainage especially in food ravaged and well irrigated areas. In addition to this, salts from the lower layers move up by capillary action during suimner season and are deposited as wnite crust on the surface.. Control of soil pollution is largely connected with solid waste disposal. Considerable time and money can be saved by constructing transfei" stations at various points in a city for bulk transfer of refuse to discharge sites. Laying of pneumatic pipes for colled:!n^^ and disposing wastes may be economical in the long run. Recycling and recovery of materials appears to be a reasonable solution for reducing soil pollution. This would decrease the volume of the refuse and help in the conservation of natural resources. i'iaterials such as paper, glass ana some kinds of plastic can be recycled. Altnough L'he cost of recycling, of paper and !27 glass is high, it is worthwhile in terms of resource conserva tion for example, recovery of one tonne of paper can save 17 trees. Recovery of metals from scarp has been considered as an economical option in several countries. The manufacture and use of chemical fertilizers can be minimised by applying biofertilizers and manures, biological metnods of insect and pest coixtrol can also reduce tfie use of insecticides and pesticides ana tnereby minimise soil pollution. Control of land loss can be attempted through restoring forest and grass cover to cneck erosion and floods. In addition, mixed cropping and developing plantation crops should be practiced, that wovild improve fertility of the soils and support a larger population. The problein of salinity can be overcome by providing the flood prone and irrigated lands with adequate drainage. Salt affected lands can be recovered by leaching them with more water, especially -where the ground water table is not high. To meet the needs of the increasing populatioia, the aemand of land for agriculture, industry and settlement is rapidly increasing. On the oUier nand, good land is shriiiKing clue to degradation. In the Hohilkhand division, a large part of the land is considered a,b waste land. A3, -we know very 126 well that the redarration oi such lands involves high expenditure, expertise and itvinpower. But wasteland that is reclaimable within the financial means and known techniques should be innmediately undertaken. 12d CUAPTFR-V A RFVIEW OF WCl^K DONE SO FAR A healthy ecological balance ±3 necessary for the survival and development of living things. The increase in pollution which is hazardous for the existence of living things caught the attention of many researchers from different disciplines. These scholars studied the causes of pollution and impacts of human activities on the ecological conditions In their own way. Some researchers like v.K. Patil, Sharma, Jasbir Singh, etc. directed their studies towards the agricultural development and their inpact on ecological conditions while other like Kanwar Ahmad, Thomas studied the inpact of industrial development on it. Some of the workers presented the remedial measures for controlling the environmental pollution. R .B. Singh in his ]paper 'Environment and Development! A search for an integrated stjrategy has outlined the changes in the paradigms of development during the last three decades, laid out the concept of sustainable development, identifies the essential elements of a viable model of sustainable develo^jment and formulated an interated development strategy that nsy ensure growth with equity and environmental sustenance. Corrponents like sustention of environment, transformation of technology, lesser consum^jtioii of conventional energy, maximisat ion of employment opportunities, neutralisation of deprivation 13U traps and strengthening of tae trickle-down process are not only Interrelated by rather mutually reinforcing in the process of development. Ignacy Sachs has outlined main features of eco- development to create a dui"a;jle equilibrium between man and nature, while avoiding the errors of lawless growth. The author has laid emphasis on the development of those local resources which are specifically needed for the satisfaction of the basic needs of the population keeping in view the future needs, technological options, ecological considerations and socio-institutional structure. 2 jagdish Singh has discussed the ecology-technology symbiosis, outlined the nature of the habitat and presented a model of rural habitat tarans formation in Indian context, Singh concludes that it is feasible to attain the twin objectives of maintaining the quality of life, essent^:al to concentrate on ever greater use of rene^wable sources of energy and desirable 1. Singh, R.B., "Environment and Development" Studies in R Environment and Development ed. R.B. Singh, 1988, New Delhi, pp. 289-306. 2. Sachs, I., '"^co-developrn- nt", op. cit., pp. 31-42. 131 to foster a decentralized pattern of spatial organisation. patil discussed that the agriculture is the oldest and the most widely practised profession of man and hence It is essential for us to know its consequences on the ecosystem and the repercussions that arise as a result. Agriculture includes all activities of wan in the production of food, fodder, fuel and force by cultivating the soil, but in sinplest term, agriculture is an effort by nan to shape his environment to suit his needs better. NBn selected and favoured those species of aninals and plant which were useful to him as a source of food or clothing, but the process, the global composition and distribution of both plant and animals species were substantially d J. v,m. e a . 3. Singh, J., "F'cology, Technology and Rural Habitat Transformation", op. clt- pp.4 3-58. 4, Patil, v.K. Recent ^''dvances in Ecology and Environment, 1988, New '">elhi, p., 15., 13Z Prof, M. Shafi has given his opinion for increasing the production of agricultuj^al products, iiccording to him the optimum use of land for production depends to a large extent on the level of technology and the system of fanning. In his opinion, there are tv/o ways for increasing food prod uction : (a) increasing the area under cultivation and (b) increasing the output per head . He also points out that one of the major hinderance in 1:he optimal use of land lies in the land tenure system . Moor Mohammad in hi s study emphasised on theuse of modern technology for bringing about a change in agricultural output. He points out that the technological factors such as fertilizers, improved seeds, pesticides and new farm implements are capable for increasing agricultural producti- VI ty . According to Kanwar, for a maximum output from land it is necessary to bring more land under inrigation, fertilizers, 7 high yielding varieties and better agronomic technology . 5. Shafi, M.," Increasing our agricultural Production," "The Geographer, vol. 28, No. 1, January, 1981, p. 1-8. I t 6. Mohammad, N., Technological Change and Diffusion of Agricultural Innovatioxis'". rrespective in agricultural Geography. New Delhi, vol. 4, 1981, p. 267-71. 7. Kanwar, J.S., "i^ertilizers •- The Aingpin in agriculture, Indian Farming, vol. 18, .Mo. 12, 1969. 133 Khare In his study pointed out that due to certain inbuilt constraints of a backv/ard area development In certain part cannot be spread to the rest of the area and the agrlcu- tural development should be coordinated with dispersal process through a chain of agro-based industries. It is through such a decentralised strategy that we can achieve the balanced regional agricultural development in the country . On the basic of district wise acreages 1950-51 and 1967-68 Sharma (1972) has analysed the changes in harvested cropland, individual crop strength and crop associations to gether with the total volume of change of all the crops in Uttar Pradesh. It has been pointed out that during this period wheat. Maize and groundnut have increased considerably where as barley, gram jowar, bajra, arhar and peas have decreased in the same proportion. A giredter degree of dynamism in the crop land use patterns is noticed in the western and mid-western 9 districts as compared to eastcjrn parts of the State . Kapade has outlined the genesis of India's new agricul tural development and programme achievement during the forth five years plan for Tndid OL^ -:I whole g. SKhare, H.F., Yojana, vol. 31, No* 3, 1987, p. 28. 9. Sharma, Hari Shanker, Morpho-agricultural region of the Lower Chambal Valley, India G.;o graphical Review of India, vol. vol. XXXIV, No. JuneT" p. 109-122. 10. Kapade, S.V., Indian IM^v/ Strategy for ''"agricultural develop ment. Aimer Geoqraphex . vol. 3 & 4, 1972, p. 11-17. 134 Khan, 197 3 describes the crop combination in seven _.„ districts of Ronllkhand in iJttar Pradesh. The study reveals that if similar studies are undertaken ,for different point of time, the ar'^^as sensitive to change in crop pattern iray clearly be demeircated Chakravarti in his paper has highlighted the serious inter-regional disparities in fertilizer consumption.^ use of pesticides and area in high yielding varieties under important food grain crops in India. He has traced the contribution of HY"/ seed programme and concluded that surplus production of food grains is not the tru r- measure of success of the green revolution . Many areas in Inlin' remain unaffected by this programme and are still vulnerable to famines 12 Jasbir Singh in his 'nonograph 'An Agricultural Atlas of India^ A Ger.graphical An^.lysis' has discussed regional diversities in physical complex, regional imbalances in irrigational facilities, national disparities in land usage, regional Imbalancep in level of agricultural production and 11, Khan, ^.H., Crop Combination Region of Rohilkhand, _The Geographer, vol. XX No. 2, pp. 151-62. "" 12. Chakravarti, A.K., Green devolution in India, Annals of _the Association of American Geographers, vol. 63, No. 3, September 197 3, p. 3lT-"30. 13d livestock combination. Finally iniia has been divided into agricultural regions for the irnpiementation of aqricultural development plans . Nagi has sumrriarized the utilization of agricultural land use as dictated by the general ecological conditions of Garhwal district. The distribution of crops^ * cropping patternsand crop ranking have been discussed and interrelation- ship within different agricultural land-uses have been assessed 1 4 Zelinsky has pointed out that,to many p'^ople, economic deterrninism offers a more sound explanation for understanding the size and distribution of human population than does the direct impact of the physical environment but he also identi fies two f*ll*cious assumptions inheret in this line of think ing. There are the number of inhabitants in a region is posi tively correlated with the level of economic development and activity and that universal economic principles govern the 15 interaction of people^ resources and society. Lowepand Worboys has pointed out that the finding concept and approach of ecology have oroved a rich source of idea and 13. Singh, J., An '^^gr:? cultural Atlas of India : A Geographical -analysis, Kurukshetra Univ-rslty Campus, Vlshal Publication, p. X/:vi Er 356. l4.Kt5gi, '-^ .5 ..Agricultural land use of Garhwal district. Tlie Geographical Observer v .;i . 10 .'-'arch, 1974, pp. 56-72. 15. •^ellnsky, W., •• Irolou;-. of : Dpulation C-t-ography, 1966. I3o analogies in the constriction of environmentally sound social 16 planning programmers According to Riordam ,the economic perspective shows concern for values and end for low impact technology and a search for stability via a respect for ecological principles and natural laws,, whereas,, the technocentric perspective con centrates on technology shows faith in rationality and efficiency and stresses th,^- role of professionalism and expertise Khan makes an assessment of the development of small scale industry in India.. According to him the value of export from this sector has Increased rapidly, whilf^ lo^tiin-i the role of Government in the development of the small scale sector, the author also mentions a few problems being faced by the industry vis-a-vis marketing problem, growing incidence of industrial sickness lack of standardisation and trade mark facility^etCj which according to him are hampering the growth of the sector. He suga- str r.-m6?dial measures like establishment state and rryarketihq corpciration in each Identification of sqck 18 unit and .providing them relief 16. Lowe, P. and Worboys, 'A., "The ecology of ecology Nature 262, 1976, p. 432-3. i 17. 0 Riordam, T., Perspectives on Resource Management (Pion, London) , p . 28 , 1^. Khan, ;\'.A., "Development of Small Scale Sector in India, Yojana, vol. 33, No. 18, :.939, p. 11. 13 Fatil differentiated the pollution prc±)lems arising in the rrural and urban localities. The ratal pollution problems are different than that of urban. The pollution created because of 'Chulas' in village adversely affects the women health. The medical reports indicated that the diseases like bronchytis, tiiberclosls, eye diseases are common of smok generated from the Chulas. The preventive measures like solar cooker, gob Chaudhuri published his Interesting study of Indian industries tracing the history of industrialization in India and its development during the ::irst two decades of planning. He critically assessed various i:;heories of industrial location which failed to highlight the role of the geographical factors 20 which influence industrial location . Thomas in his presidential address at Calcutta Geographi cal Society strongly pleaded for a careful planning of 19. Ibid, p. 21. 20. Chaudhxiri, M.R ., "Indian Industries Development and location An Economic and Geographical Apparaisal, Calcutta, 1962. 136 industires in India. He Insisted that in a task like this the geographers help would be fundamental value and should oe sought at once Ahnad worked out the basis of delimiting industrial 7ones in the country. In a conprehenslve study of the industrial zones of India, Me recognised their main distributional patterns and discussed their future prospects.. Me studied the distribution of major industries and en^loyment in each factory included in large industrial establishment in 19 49 and identified 18 chief industrial zones in the country. He also critically examined the industrial policy of Government as envisaged in first five year plan, and suggested that future industrial development should be planned in conformity with the naln regional division of the country. He disapproved of the cvu^rent trend of concentration of industries and thought that, without a regional bias, all planning would be hapha5;ard'' . Moncrief discussed the effect of religious and cultural activities on the environment. He suggested that White's sirrpllstic religious explancttlon is based more on fad than on fact. He has also pointed-out that the environment crisis appears to have a cultural basis, ih being directly related 21. Thomas, H., Presidential Address of the Calcutta, Geographi cal Society Calcutta, Geographical Review, 1943, p. 1. 22. Ahmad, E., Industrial 2:ones and Centre of India> Proceeding of International Geographical Seminar, AUgarh, 1956. J3i* to forces of democracy, technology, urbanization, increasing 23 iniividual wealth, and aggressive attitude toward nature MA.LQ^- rationalized the many changes into four basic themes\(l) new hazards are to a for greater extent than before a side effect to human activity (2) The level of uncertainty in relating cause of effect is much greater than before because of increasing awareness of complexities of natural system. (3) Accumulating evidence is showing that the cumulative effect of srTiall impacts over long period of time may reach significant level before these are detected or realized. (4) It is becoming increasingly apparent that the cumulative effect of some of the environmental impacts oveif space pose a threat of global dimensions The most important fc-ature of backwardness of Indian agriculture as pointed out by Jather and Berl is the endless subdivision and fra^entation of land ho-fldlngs. In the "light of their occurancs the authors have suggested remedial measures 25 to control this problem 2 3. Moncrief, L.H., "The Cultural basic for our Environmental crisis : Science, 170, p. 508-12. 2 4. Malone, T.F., "The role of Scientists in achieving a better environment : ninviroamental Conservation, 3, p. 8 3-9. 25. 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