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Beyond Blood and Belonging: Alternarratives for a Global Citizenry

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Beyond Blood and Belonging: Alternarratives for a Global Citizenry Beyond Blood and Belonging: Alternarratives for a Global Citizenry by Jessica Dawn Bardill Department of English Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Priscilla Wald, Supervisor ___________________________ Sharon Holland ___________________________ Dominika Baran ___________________________ Charmaine Royal ___________________________ Tol Foster Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of English in the Graduate School of Duke University 2011 ABSTRACT Beyond Blood and Belonging: Alternarratives for a Global Citizenry by Jessica Dawn Bardill Department of English Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Priscilla Wald, Supervisor ___________________________ Sharon Holland ___________________________ Dominika Baran ___________________________ Charmaine Royal ___________________________ Tol Foster An abstract of a dissertation submitted in partial Fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of English in the Graduate School of Duke University 2011 Copyright by Jessica Dawn Bardill 2011 Abstract This dissertation, Beyond Blood and Belonging: Alternarratives for a Global Citizenry, considers how communities depict collective identity through the metaphor of blood. I chronicle how language, images, and stories circulate through novels and the oral tradition, science writings and legal writs, mainstream media and popular culture to form a paradigmatic story of biological belonging that I call “the blood narrative.” The blood narrative is a story about identity rooted in a reference to the biological makeup, in short a story where biological belonging to a community is determined by the metaphor of blood. I show how the tendency to articulate belonging through the metaphor of blood crosses cultures as well as disciplines. Expressions such as full-blood, 1/8 Choctaw, or mixedblood attest to the presence of the blood narrative. The most recent manifestation of the blood narrative has emerged around DNA, and characterizes both stories where genes stand in for belonging to communities and in new work in population genetics that places an emphasis on ancestry. My particular interest lies in the relationship between these biological metaphors and citizenship, a legal and political form of belonging. Typically, American citizenship has made the claim that it is separate from the biological, but my dissertation explores how the biological informs that citizenship discourse and with what consequences. iv Biological citizenship, different from the legal and political citizenship of nations, is a term that has emerged at this nexus of the biological and communities of belonging. I bring a literary critical perspective to this intersection, attending to the language and stories in a variety of media and genres, with a particular emphasis on novels, which, I argue, uniquely reflect the story of the nation. The particular novels I analyze also emphasize transnationality, thereby presenting not only a national story but relations between nations mediated by story. Novels allow for the expansion of narrative in ways beyond verse and short prose in their length, which allow for the treatment of larger histories and development of narratives both based in the nation but that create something beyond the nation as well. Bringing the methods of literary criticism to such diverse texts as legal writs and scientific writing allows me to pay particular attention to language, metaphor, and story that has been missing from the discourse. The circulation of these terms makes them conventional and therefore useful for the narratives, but the examination of how the circulation occurs is useful to understand the blood narrative as foundational. I also bring to this work my background in biology, which helps me to understand the science more fully as it circulates through the narrative in DNA stories. Native cultures highlight the contradictions at the heart of political belonging in the U.S. between citizenship and the biological, especially through their status as nations within the nation. The clash of the blood narrative with other ways of understanding identity and belonging is especially pronounced in Native American communities because the v citizenship issues are already fraught with historical tensions. The introduction of biotechnology and the related DNA narratives have produced a dual reaction in Native communities, in oral culture and practices as well as in literature that this project seeks to explore and engage. This dissertation consists of an introduction and four chapters in which I identify and track the relations between blood and belonging, through the issues of citizenship and genomics. The introduction, The Relations of Blood and Belonging, takes an historical look at the blood narratives that have preceded the identification of DNA. I trace the blood narrative through different cultures and disciplines, providing an introduction to this pervasive narrative. In the first chapter, Regulating Narratives: Constrained Citizenship and the Force of Legislation, I examine both historical legal documents and modern tribal constitutions. A 2007 amendment to the Cherokee Nation constitution exposed differing biological understandings of identity within the Cherokee Nation and the relationship of that issue to the legal form of belonging. I chronicle how that decision still echoes in the Cherokee Nation and further afield in Indian Country and the United States, as well as the circumstances that led to the decision. This chapter focuses on how differing conceptions of citizenship (political belonging) underwrote the irresolution and exploitation that characterizes the relationship between the United States and Native nations. This chapter also explores the diversity of models of belonging within Indian Country by examining the three federally recognized Cherokee vi tribes, their differences and similarities. While each Cherokee tribe has different citizenship requirements derived from their tribal sovereignty and influenced by the blood narrative, the Cherokee Nation amendment excludes descendants of the Freedmen from their citizenship and reinforces the blood narrative, thereby contributing to a self-termination of the tribe. In the second chapter, The Future is Now: Blood Narratives and DNA, I turn to contemporary genomics and its introduction into this discourse, and show how DNA builds on the blood narrative and its relationship to political belonging to instantiate communities. I am concerned in this chapter with how blood narratives inform discourses of citizenship and how biological citizenship highlights the tensions between U.S. and Native cultures as well as tensions within Native cultures. DNA works as a new tool of colonialism continuing the exploitation of indigenous communities through the colonization of their bodies, and the flora and fauna of their lands, a new form of colonization termed biocolonialism. I am interested as well in how the adoption of biotechnology, including ancestry testing, by Native communities highlights the problems of internalized blood narratives. Finally, after presenting the problems arising from the blood narrative, I turn to the modern literature as a production site of alternative narratives of belonging. Here, Native literature revises the blood narrative with the tool of DNA, and creates other narratives of identity, all while critiquing the legal and scientific definitions of identity vii and belonging. I call these narratives “alternarratives” because they provide an alternative to the reigning narratives of identity and belonging, with focus on the Other, the alterity of the Native American. These alternarratives in turn provide other ways to understand citizenship, both political belonging and other modes, including the relationship to the dominant U.S. culture. Two authors are the focus of these two chapters: Gerald Vizenor, a White Earth Anishinaabe wordsmith, in chapter four, and Thomas King, a Cherokee novelist, in chapter three. I analyze the work of each writer with the help of the lessons learned in the chapters on citizenship and genomics to produce a greater understanding of blood narratives, and their ramifications, and to demonstrate the healing power of stories. For each author, I focus on two novels, Vizenor’s Heirs of Columbus and Hiroshima Bugi: Atomu 57 and King’s Green Grass, Running Water and Truth and Bright Water . I argue that the alternarratives offer answers to the problems highlighted by the struggles seen in the previous chapters. These narratives can offer an alternative to the blood narrative in providing a foundation to belonging in its myriad forms. viii Dedication This doctoral dissertation is dedicated to my family and friends, whose love and support have made this work possible and important. ix Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgments .................................................................................................................... xiii 1. Introduction: The Relations of Blood and Belonging ........................................................... 1 1.1 Defining Terms ................................................................................................................. 8 1.2 Counternarratives
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