NATIONAL OPTICAL ASTRONOMY OBSERVATORIES
NATIONAL OPTICAL ASTRONOMY OBSERVATORIES
FY 1997 PROVISIONAL PROGRAM PLAN
September 19,1996
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW 1
II. THE DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM: MILESTONES PAST AND FUTURE 3
IE. NIGHTTIME PROGRAM 6
A. Major Projects 6 1. SOAR ".""".6 2. WIYN 8
B. Joint Nighttime Instrumentation Program 9 1. Overview 9 2. Description of Individual Major Projects 10 3. Detectors 13 4. NOAO Explorations of Technology (NExT) Program 14
C. USGP 15 1. Overview 15 2. US Gemini Instrument Program 16
D. Telescope Operations and User Support 17 1. Changes in User Services 17 2. Telescope Upgrades 18 a. CTIO 18 b. KPNO 21 3. Instrumentation Improvements 24 a. CTIO 24 b. KPNO 26 4. Smaller Telescopes 29
IV. NATIONAL SOLAR OBSERVATORY 29
A. Major Projects 29 1. Global Oscillation Network Group (GONG) 30 2. RISE/PSPT Program 33 3. SOLIS 34 4. Study of CLEAR 35
B. Instrumentation 36 1. General 36 2. Sacramento Peak 36 3. NSO/KittPeak 38 a. Infrared Program 38 b. Telescope Improvement 40
C. Telescope Operations and User Support 41 1. Sacramento Peak 41 2. NSO/KittPeak 42 V. THE SCIENTIFIC STAFF 42
VI. EDUCATIONAL OUTREACH 45
A. Educational Program 45 1. Direct Classroom Involvement 46 2. Development of Instructional Materials 46 3. WWW Distribution of Science Resources 47 4. Outreach Advisory Board 47 5. Undergraduate Education 47 6. Graduate Education 47 7. Educational Partnership Programs 47
B. Public Information 48 1. Press Releases and Other Interactions With the Media 48 2. Images 48 3 Visitor Center 48
C. Research Experience for Undergraduates 48
VII. COMPUTER SERVICES 50
A. NOAO-Tucson 50 B. KPNO - Kitt Peak 51 C. CTIO - La Serena 52 D. CTIO - Cerro Tololo 53 E. CTIO Communications 54 F. NSO - Sacramento Peak 55 1. Main Lab 55 2. Telescope Computers 56 G. NSO - Tucson 56 H. NSO-Kitt Peak 57 I. IRAF 57
Vin. FACILITIES MAINTENANCE 58
A. Cerro Tololo 59 B. KPNO 60 C. Tucson: Central Facilities and Operations 61 D. Sacramento Peak 62 E. NSO/KittPeak 63
IX. CENTRAL SERVICES 64
X. THE BUDGET 65
Appendix: Scientific Staff: Research Interests and Service Roles CTIO i Tucson Nighttime xv NSO xlvi I. INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
NOAO and AURA have recently submitted a proposal to renew for four years the cooperative agreement under which we operate. That proposal outlined what we plan to accomplish between now and the year 2000. The program plan for FY 1997, which is described in this current submission, provides more detail on the specific activities that will be undertaken during the coming fiscal year but is entirely consistent with the renewal proposal. To place the program plan in context, we summarize here the long term goals outlined in the proposal to renew the cooperativeagreement.
Astronomers using NOAO facilities pursue studies of objects as nearby as the Sun and planets and as distant as quasars formed when the universe was only a few percent of its current age. These studies require both imagingand spectroscopy throughout the optical and infrared regions of the spectrum at a range of spectral and angular resolutions. To pursue these studies, NOAO plans to provide access to a suite of state-of-the-art facilities for both solar and nighttime astronomy and to supporting facilities and instruments that will provide the types of observations required to use the forefront facilities effectively.
In nighttime astronomy, the first priority is to complete the Gemini telescopes, which is the task of the international Gemini project, but NOAO's own first priority is to provide the additional support expected from each of the Gemini partners. To this end, NOAO has established the US Gemini Program as a fourth division of NOAO. During the construction phase, the USGP is responsible for managing the work packages assigned to the US; managing the entire infrared instrumentation program; obtaining input on scientific requirements and goals from the US community; and disseminating information about the project. During operations, the USGP will in addition be responsiblefor supporting the US user community in all activities before and after the observingruns themselves. These activities include providing information about facilities and instruments and expert advice concerning proposal preparation; soliciting and evaluating proposals from the US; supplying data reduction support and software; coordinating maintenance support for systems provided by the US; and providing such other support for queue observing, remote observing, and access to archived data as may be required. In addition, Gemini is interested in sharing NOAO's infrared instruments, particularly in the southern hemisphere, to supplement the instrument complement being provided as part of the construction budget.
Because of budget reductions over the past fourteen years (northern hemisphere operations have been essentially level-dollar funded as measured in current year dollars throughout that period of time; in effect, we have had to absorb all inflation since 1984), we are now at the position where the nighttimeobservatories can operate and instrument only three telescopes at each site. A primary goal is to upgrade one of the three telescopes at CTIO to a new 4-m class telescope. The project that we hope to initiate this year, depending on the availability of funding from partners, is SOAR (Southern Observatory for Astronomical Research). The partners are the University of North Carolina, Michigan State, and Brazil. With the completion of that telescope, KPNO and CTIO would then each operate two 4-m class telescopes and one intermediate aperture telescope, with the intermediate-size telescope being used primarily for imaging. Those intermediate apertures are currently the 2.1-m and 1.5-m telescopes, which would require substantial upgrades to meet current image quality expectations. NOAO will work with the community in the coming year to develop a consensus on the role and desired performance of the imaging telescopes, with the longer term goal of obtaining new 2.4-m telescopes for each site through industrials partnerships. The Mayall and Blanco telescopes would be used primarily for observations requiring a large field of view (tens of arcminutes) and moderately good image quality. The WIYN and SOAR both will take advantage of new technologies to offer excellent image quality, and SOAR will be designed so that infrared instruments built for it can also be used at the Gemini telescopes.
Key to keeping these telescopes competitive is the instrumentation with which they are equipped. During the time period covered by the renewal proposal, NOAO plans to build for the nighttime telescopes two CCD mosaic imagers, one for each hemisphere; an upgraded Cryogenic Optical Bench for ER imaging at CTIO; an R = 100,000 IR spectrometer (Phoenix); a multi-fiber spectrograph for CTIO (Hydra-clone); and a high throughput optical spectrograph. NOAO will also build an infrared spectrometer under contract to the international Gemini project and will provide infrared arrays (1024 x 1024 IriSb) and IR controllers to Gemini. We have initiated discussions with Ohio State University with the goal of having OSU provide an IR imager/spectrometer for KPNO. The current program plan describes what we plan to achieve on each of these projects during FY 1997.
The long-range scientific program of the National Solar Observatory (NSO) is organized around a community-wide effort to understand the solar activity cycle. Helioseismology has opened a window into the Sun that will provide, for the first time, the quantitative knowledge of interior structure and dynamics that is necessary to constrain models of the solar dynamo. By combining helioseismology with measurements of the solar atmosphere from ground and space, astronomers will be able to follow solar-cycle variations from the radiative core to the outer corona and ultimately to Earth.
The program that NSO proposes to exploit this unprecedented opportunity has four cornerstones: GONG, RISE, SOLIS, and CLEAR. The Global Oscillation Network Group (GONG) is now fully operational and surpassing its initial performance goals. Moreover, it is known that solar oscillation frequencies vary during the solar cycle. The GONG Scientific Advisory committee has recommended that the operation of GONG be continued for a solar cycle, and a proposal will be prepared by the GONG project for this extension of operations. The second cornerstone of NSO's program is a pair of Precision Solar Photometric Telescopes (PSPTs) that are currently under construction as a component of a broader national program (Radiative Inputs of the Sun to Earth or RISE) to study solar irradiance variations and their effect on global change: The PSPT telescopes will be deployed in 1997. The third NSO cornerstone is SOLIS (Synoptic Optical Long-term Investigations of the Sun), which will provide the sustained high-quality synoptic observations that are necessary to understand the operation of the solar cycle. A proposal to fund the construction of SOLIS is currently under review at the NSF.
The final cornerstone of NSO's program is a large-aperture OIR telescope to replace both the Vacuum Tower Telescope and the McMath-Pierce Telescope. For its flagship facility, NSO is currently evaluating the technical feasibility of CLEAR (Coronagraphic and Low Emissivity Astronomical Reflector), a 2- to 4-m telescope for high angular resolution observations of the solar disk and corona. The feasibility study will be completed in 1997, and NSO will then consult with the solar community to decide which (if any) of the several concepts it has considered should be formally proposed. The NSF has requested a study from the NAS/NRC to advise the Astronomy Division on the long-term priorities of NSF-supported groundbased solar astronomy. The future plans for the current NSO facilities will have to be consistent with NSF's recommendations. This Program Plan proposes investments in facilities and site upgrades and maintenance on the assumption that NSO is continuing operations at both Kitt Peak and Sacramento Peak for the immediate term. II. THE DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM: MILESTONES PAST AND FUTURE
The primary component of the NOAO program is the continued operation of observing facilities for the user community at all three sites. There will, however, be reductions in the number of facilities operated, in the level of services provided, and in the number of instruments made available—all occasioned by the reduction in budget for support of operations.
In addition to operations, NOAO conducts an ongoing development program for both telescopes and instruments in order to ensure that what we offer to the community is competitive with the best facilities available worldwide. In this section, we list new milestones for FY 1997 and summarize the status of progress toward milestones included in the plan for FY 1996.
The milestones for FY 1997 are as follows:
GONG: Submit full-scale papers on initial results to archival journals; continue network operations and distribution of reduced data to the community; prepare proposal to NSF for operation of GONG with upgraded cameras through a solar cycle. SOAR: Initiate design of this 4-m telescope, which is being constructed through a partnership involving Brazil, the University of North Carolina, Michigan State University, and NOAO.
RISE: Deploy two Precision Solar Photometric Telescopes at field sites.
Phoenix: Complete commissioning of the high resolution 1-5 micron spectrometer at KPNO.
Optical Mosaic: Complete commissioning of this 8K x 8K mosaic of eight CCDs at KPNO.
Cryogenic Optical Bench: Complete modifications and upgrades to this instrument, install a 512x512 Aladdin array, and commission the instrument at CTIO.
NIM 2: Commission filter-based Near Infrared Magnetograph.
Solar cameras: Commission 2K x 2K CCD camera and data acquisition system.
Solar adaptive optics: Experimentally validate wavefront sensing concept.
KPNO Mayall 4-m Telescope: Complete work on cooling of primary mirror and develop an algorithm for using the cooling to improve image quality; design system for improved ventilation of dome; undertake package of smaller improvements based on CTIO program to improve image quality.
• CTIO Blanco 4-m Telescope: Install f/14 IR secondary; begin commissioning tip/tilt capability.
• Kitt Peak Vacuum Telescope: Complete telescope control system upgrades.
• SQIID: Upgrade this imager with the installation of at least three Aladdin arrays; demonstrate the performance of the prototype Gemini IR-array controller. • GRASP: Work out arrangement with OSU for construction and deployment of at least a three- channel IR/Imager Spectrometer; complete preliminary design review.
• Gemini Work Packages: Complete Preliminary Design Review for Gemini IRS; deliver controller to Gemini by July 15, 1997.
A similar list of milestones was included in the program plan for FY 1996. Their status as we approach the end of the fiscal year is as follows:
• GONG: First simultaneous operation of full GONG network; reduction and distribution of data to the community. Full network operations began in October 1996. The scientific duty cycle of the network exceeds 90%; equipment downtime is 0.4%. Data are being reduced and distributed in cadence with the observations. First-look results were published in a special issue of Science.
• WIYN: Initiation of science operations at WIYN. Science operations began in July 1995; throughout the first year, the median delivered image quality has been 0.8 arcsec. NOAO has used much of its share of the time in queue-mode and has gained valuable experience that is being applied to the planning of Gemini operations.
• Phoenix: First telescope testing of this high resolution 1-5 micron spectrometer. Phoenix achieved first light in June 1996, and spectra were shown to the NSF site review panel in July. Much of the summer was spent improving thermal and noise performance, and the instrument will return to the telescope for testing at the end of August.
• Optical Mosaic: Completion of fabrication of mechanical parts; completion of hardware and software to enable parallel operation of 8 CCDs (Arcon). The imager achieved first light at the 0.9-m telescope in May in a partly operational state. Effort is currently in progress at CTIO toward the successful multiplexing of the four ARCON controllers required to read out eight CCDs. Major modifications to the Mayall prime focus pedestal to accommodate the imager and corrector are in progress, and testing of the imager at the Mayall is planned for September 1996.
• Aladdin: Completion of initial phase of project to develop 1024 x 1024 InSb arrays; assessment of yield and development of strategy for future foundry runs; deployment of first large array (if any are obtained) in the Cryogenic Optical Bench. A half dozen Aladdin arrays have been received and tested. The yield of partial arrays (512 x 512 and 512 x 1024) is high, but the yield of 1024 x 1024 arrays is low. Three of the partial arrays will be deployed this fall: a 512 x 1024 has been installed in Phoenix and has seen first light; a 512 x 512 will be deployed in the Cryogenic Optical Bench and sent to CTIO (the current controller cannot operate a larger array and because of resource limitations and commitments to Gemini we will be unable to upgrade the controller and install a larger array until FY 1998); a 512 x 1024 array will be installed in the Ohio State University imager/spectrometer for testing in September 1996.
• DLIRIM: Implementation of diffraction-limited (at 3.5 microns) imaging capability at the 4-m Mayall telescope; completion of service observing with DLIRIM for community proposers. This experiment demonstrated 0.25 arcsec imaging at the 4-m through real-time shift- and-add. Some data were obtained in a service observing mode and provided to users. However, the failure of the shutter at the 4-m, which required closing the telescope for several weeks, cut short this observing program. With the deployment of COB to CTIO, this capability can no longer be offered at KPNO. The architecture used to achieve real-time shift-and-add is being used in the new generation of IR array controllers for NOAO and Gemini.
KPNO 4-m Telescope: Implementation of automatic control systems for cooling the observing floor, the oil, and the primary mirror. The cooling systems for the floor, oil, and primary mirror have been installed. They have not been integrated into an automatic control system because the catastrophic failure of the dome shutter required the engineering staff that would normally have been used for telescope improvements.
CTIO 4-m Telescope: Completion and commissioning of f/14 secondary for IR astronomy; test of tip/tilt capability for secondary; initiation of three year program to upgrade telescope control system. The mechanical tests of the tip/tilt system in Chile are on schedule. The new secondary was shipped from Tucson in August 1996. The first phase of the control system upgrade involved replacing the obsolete equipment in the screen room and removing redundant cabling. Tests began in August of the control of the telescope from the new screen room. Software modifications have improved the performance of the guider.
RISE. Complete first RISE/PSPT instrument package. A prototype instrument (funded by the Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma) was deployed in Italy and is returning data. The prototype uses a IK x IK CCD; the first 2K x 2K camera should be delivered before the end of FY 1996.
Vacuum Tower Telescope: Implement thermal control of the Vacuum Tower Telescope entrance window and commission Mark II correlation tracker. A thermal control system has been implemented and experimentally verified to improve performance significantly. The Mark II tracker has been fabricated and should achieve first light by the end of FY 1996.
Solar Cameras: Complete two fast-framing IK x IK solar CCD systems. A IK x IK Thomson camera (10-bit, 5 frames/s) and a 1317 x 1035 Kodak camera (8-bit, 6 frames/s) are now available to users.
NIM 2: Initiate fabrication of an improved near-infrared vector magnetograph. Optical and mechanical fabrication of NIM 2 is nearly complete. The project is on schedule to achieve first light in FY 1996.
He 10830 Video Filtergraph: Commission He 10830 Video Filtergraph and use it to support SOHO. The filtergraph was successfully used to study an erupting prominence in intensity and Doppler modes together with SOHO. The instrument will be finalized during FY 1997 by addressing a noise problem in the data acquisition system and by completing the user interface.
McMath Seeing: Evaluate seeing at the McMath-Pierce telescope as the first stage of a project to improve image quality. Seeing external to the telescope was measured and recorded during most of FY 1996; image motion at the focal plane was recorded with a Brandt meter during campaigns. Microthermal and mirror-temperature sensors are installed and connected to the data-logging system. Progress was limited because the project engineer (Forbes) retired for health reasons.
Gemini work packages: Complete negotiation of work scopes for CCD arrays, IR arrays, near-IR spectrometer; develop plan for obtaining CCD controllers and IR array controllers; initiate competition to design mid-IR imager. The selection of CCD arrays for Gemini has not yet been made. The Aladdin arrays have been chosen for the IR instruments, and NOAO will handle testing and characterization of the arrays and will build the controllers. The near-IR spectrometer, which NOAO is building, has passed its conceptual design review with PDR scheduled for fall 1996. An evaluation of options for the CCD controllers will be conducted by the USGP in early winter of FY 1997. The competition to select designers for the mid-IR imager has been completed by the USGP and negotiations with the winners are in progress.
III. NIGHTTIME PROGRAM
A. Major Projects
1. SOAR
NOAO has recently submitted a proposal to the NSF to provide partial support of the 4-m SOAR telescope project. The partners in the project are Brazil, the University of North Carolina, Michigan State University, and NOAO. The commitments of UNC, MSU, and NOAO appear to be firm. A meeting was held in August to determine whether the Brazilian commitment is such as to allow the project to proceed. Brazil will make its final decision on 1 October, but prospects look very strong. On that basis NOAO is proceeding to work with the partners to develop a detailed project plan, budget, and the necessary Agreements with the partners. All of these detailed plans will be subject to further review by the NSF. The proposal as it stands provides an overview and cost estimate that, based on NOAO's experience with WIYN, defines an accurate funding envelope. The detailed specifications and plans must, however, be worked out in conjunction with the partners. Pending the hiring of SOAR staff, NOAO will work out a project management plan. It is likely that the project team will be based in Tucson during the design phase, although it may subsequently move to Chile.
The SOAR telescope will complement the existing Blanco Telescope by offering truly excellent image quality over a narrower field. The planned suite of instruments will support IR/optical imaging and single-object spectroscopy with tip/tilt and, if significant gains can be realized, with full adaptive optics correction. In order to provide our partners with access to a wider range of observing capabilities, there will be an exchange of time between SOAR and the Blanco telescope. The detailed specifications of the telescope are given in the restructuring proposal already submitted to the NSF.
One Nasmyth port will be used for 1-5 |am infrared instruments, and the other for 0.35- 1.0 uxn optical instruments.
It is a high priority for NOAO that SOAR be able to accommodate Gemini IR instrumentation. Accordingly, SOAR will provide an f/15 beam at the infrared Nasmyth port. This will permit use of the major IR instruments currently being built by NOAO. These include the COB imager/grism-spectrometer and CTIO's duplicate of the Gemini IRS low-to-medium resolution infrared spectrometer. Both of these instruments will be permanently stationed in Chile but will be shared with Gemini South. In addition SOAR will occasionally be able to use the Phoenix high-resolution spectrograph, which will be shared among NOAO and Gemini telescopes in both hemispheres. All of these instruments are designed to sample properly ~ 0.2 arcsec images (at a 4-m telescope) and will have 1024 x 1024 InSb detectors. SOAR will therefore have full access to a suite of state-of-the- art infrared instruments, valued at more than $7M and fully optimized for the wavelengths and image sizes where SOAR is most competitive.
The other Nasmyth port will carry a "permanently" mounted set of optical instruments looking through a fixed corrector including an atmospheric dispersion compensator. A low-to-medium resolution spectrograph (to be built mostly by Brazil) will directly receive the Nasmyth beam. Two additional instruments will be fed by pickoff mirrors: a direct imager (transferred from one of CTIO's small telescopes) and an imaging Fabry-Perot spectrometer (to be built by North Carolina). The project is currently determining the focal ratio that gives a satisfactory tradeoff between sampling of the expected optical PSF and field size for direct imaging and how to configure the telescope optically to deliver that focal ratio. Both the optical and infrared instruments will be mounted on the telescopes for long periods of time; NOAO anticipates changing infrared instruments once every 3+ months, and optical instruments on much longer time scales.
Minimizing instrument changes will lead to improved reliability and lower maintenance costs; instruments will be changed by teams from La Serena so that the permanent staff on the mountain top can be smaller. With a single 4-m telescope, the number of instrument changes will always be high because of the need to provide the full range of observing capabilities at that one facility. The underlying strategy at CTIO is to provide a suite of telescopes that are specialized but complementary to each other, so that together they provide a full range of scientific capability.
An additional advantage of the SOAR focal arrangement is that it readily supports a queue observing mode, which will allow the astronomical community to take full advantage of the very best observing conditions. A major advantage of queue scheduling is that highly-rated scientific programs that require above-average conditions are much more likely to be completed on an interesting timescale. An additional advantage is that, since Gemini will also operate with a considerable level of queue observing, it will be particularly easy to divide large observing programs into those parts best done on Gemini and those best done on SOAR. This further enhances the degree to which observations carried out on SOAR can supplement observations carried out on Gemini. NOAO plans to adopt the queue observing software now being developed by Gemini, although some of the procedures may have to be modified in order to operate the telescope at the low manpower levels dictated by our projected operating budget.
To the extent possible, SOAR will adopt Gemini standards for hardware, software, and user interfaces. Such commonality will minimize design and maintenance costs, and a common support staff can then be shared between the two facilities. SOAR will almost certainly use the Gemini coating chamber. We are also exploring operating both telescopes from a common control room in order to minimize the staff required on the mountain for safety purposes.
The proposed mix of instruments for the two 4-m telescopes at CTIO would then be as follows: a. Blanco 4-m telescope:
Prime focus: Mosaic CCD Imager Cassegrain (f/7.8) - Hydra clone Cassegrain (f/14.5) - Upgraded SQIID for wide-field IR imaging
b. SOAR (Queue-scheduled: remotely operable):
IR focus: Cryogenic Optical Bench; IRS spectrometer; Phoenix spectrometer (all shared with Gemini; Phoenix also shared with KPNO) Optical focus: High-throughput CCD spectrometer; High-resolution CCD imager; Imaging Fabry-Perot Spectrometer
The capabilities of those instruments that will be provided by NOAO are described in Section III.B.2.
With this arrangement, instrumentation changes on the SOAR telescope would be limited to the swapping of the two IR instruments with the Gemini telescope. While detailed designs are not yet complete, the goal would be to switch among the three optical instruments at Nasmyth with a flip mirror, much as Gemini is planning to do. On the Blanco 4-m, the only instrument changes would be at Cassegrain between the Hydra clone (f/7.8) and SQIID (f/14.5). This suite of instruments provides capabilities for imaging and spectroscopy at a range of resolutions in both the IR and optical portions of the spectrum. The capability for wide-field optical imaging would be provided by an 8K x 8K mosaic of CCDs.
2. WIYN
The 3.5-m WIYN telescope, a collaboration between the University of Wisconsin, Indiana University, Yale University, and NOAO, has been in regular science operation on Kitt Peak since July 1995. This telescope is primarily used for optical imaging and multi-object spectroscopy with optical fibers, with a relatively fast focal ratio (about f/6.3) and a corrected field of view of a full degree (15 arcmin uncorrected). WIYN delivers the best image quality of any telescope on Kitt Peak, with a median image size of 0.8 arcsec and images better than 0.6 arcsec about 10 percent of the time. This superb image quality is achieved through a variety of technological enhancements including rapid enclosure ventilation and active computer control of the primary mirror temperature and shape, as well as active control of the primary and secondary mirror optical alignment.
One Nasmyth focus is equipped with a wide-field corrector and the Hydra fiber positioner for use with a bench-mounted spectrograph for multi-object fiber spectroscopy. The other Nasmyth focus is designated for a CCD imaging camera and other university instruments. Instrumentation for the WIYN telescope is being provided both by NOAO and by the universities. NOAO has provided the fiber positioner, the multi-object spectrograph, and a large format CCD for imaging. NOAO will maintain the facility instrumentation provided with the telescope. The universities will be responsible for university instruments, which will not be generally available to the NOAO user community.
Time on the telescope is shared among the members of the consortium according to the financial contributions of the four partners. Forty percent of the time is allocated to NOAO for use by the national astronomical community through the peer-review process. During NOAO telescope time, observations are obtained primarily by NOAO staff through queue observing, rather than by individual astronomers assigned nights on the telescope. Queue observing allows NOAO to execute the most highly ranked scientific programs first and under near optimal observing conditions. It also facilitates a larger range of observing program lengths than is usually possible with classically scheduled telescopes, as well as more efficient scheduling and execution of synoptic programs. The WIYN queue observing program is essentially a prototype of the queue observing program planned for the Gemini Observatory. Thus, lessons learned at WIYN now can be applied at Gemini in the future. The NOAO Newsletter provides regular updates on our experience with the queue.
Improvement projects at the WIYN are described in Section III.D.2.b.
B. Joint Nighttime Instrumentation Program
1. Overview
The scientific staffs of the two nighttime observatorydivisions have defined a long-term goal for balanced instrumental capabilities at the two sites and have jointly agreed on a five year plan for instrumentation. This plan, which was described in the proposal submitted to the NSF to renew the cooperative agreement, takes into account the strengths of the Gemini telescopes, and provides complementary and supporting instrumentation for optical and near- infrared imaging and spectroscopy. The new capabilities are based on the gains to be realized through the large-format detector arrays for both optical and infrared wavelengths developed under NOAO leadership. This program plan for FY 1997 then defines the means of getting 20% of the way to completing the five-year plan.
The scientific oversight of the priorities and progress of the Instrument Projects Group (IPG) resides in IPAC, the Instrumentation Program Advisory Committee. The committee consists of Taft Armandroff and Dave De Young (KPNO), Richard Elston and Bob Schommer (CTIO), Todd Boroson (USGP), Jay Elias (Gemini Near-IR Spectrograph project scientist), and Richard Green (NOAO Deputy Director and Chair). EPAC meets monthly, and sets the scientific priorities of the projects in queue for the allocation of resources by the engineering managers. The five-year plan developed two years ago has remained relatively stable. The major instrument projects have fully subscribed the resources available, so that FY 1997 will see the beginning of studies for only one new project not previously baselined in the plan.
The operational plan for IPG/IPAC includes a relatively strict model for the approval and allocation of resources for new instrument projects. A new development project is led by a project scientist and project engineer. Design engineers with the requisite skills, including software, form a project team to develop the instrument concept. This matrix group stays together at least through the Preliminary Design Review, which provides the gate for approval of allocation of resources for detailed design. The critical design review then clears a project for fabrication, assembly, and commissioning. IPAC benefits from community expertise by convening non-advocate external review panels for these occasions. Such a major review was held for the multifiber positioner and wide-field corrector for the Blanco 4-m in December 1995. The first major projects to be completed through the new system will be the high-dispersion, near-IR spectrograph, Phoenix, and the large-format mosaic CCD imager. As discussed below, both projects were brought near completion in FY 1996, and will be carried into FY 1997 for final iteration, user interface completion, and documentation. By the end of FY 1996, the Cryogenic Optical Bench will be upgraded to a 512 square format ALADDIN detector and soon after deployed at CTIO as the first scientific application of the new InSb arrays. In addition, NOAO is supplying a 512 x 1024 ALADDIN array to the MOSAIC near- IR imager/spectrograph produced by Ohio State University for the MDM Observatory. That instrument will then be shared with KPNO on the 2.1-m and 4-m telescopes to provide ALADDIN-array-based instrumentation to Northern Hemisphere users. The first test run is scheduled on the 2.1-m for September 1996.
Other projects planned for resource allocation in FY 1997 include major design effort on the (externally supported) Gemini Near-Infrared Spectrograph, for which NOAO won the national competition in 1995, upgrade of the four-channel imager SQIID to 512 square format InSb detectors, and design work by Ohio State University on the GRASP imager/spectrograph. Design and initial fabrication work will proceed on a version of the Hydra fiber positioner for CTIO, and concept investigations will proceed on a high- throughput optical spectrograph. NOAO will continue active involvement in consortia to produce large-format optical CCDs and near-IR InSb arrays. Closely related to the successful implementation of new detectors is the development of controllers adequate to handle the large data volume to produce images in a format useful for astronomical analysis. Controllers for the new ALADDIN InSb arrays will receive major effort in FY 1997. As discussed below, the R&D effort will be expanded to include investigations of new technologies with promise for advancing astronomical instrumentation. The first year's effort will probably be devoted primarily to study of volume phase technology holographic transmission gratings for use in high-throughput spectrographs.
2. Description of Individual Major Projects
Phoenix: High-resolution near-infrared spectrograph. R = 100,000 for a 0.4 arcsec x 30 arcsec slit on the 4-m telescopes. The detector is a 1024 x 512 ALADDIN array. Because of its compatible approach to design, cooling, and cold dichroic for optical guiding, the Gemini Project has chosen Phoenix as a desirable loaner instrument. The instrument saw first light at the telescope in June 1996. July and August were devoted to improvements of cryogenic mechanisms and achieving low-noise performance with the ALADDIN array. Further commissioning time is scheduled on the 2.1-m telescope for the end of August. Phoenix has been offered to users on a shared risk basis for spring semester 1997. Phoenix will be shared among KPNO, CTIO and the Gemini telescopes, and a schedule for this sharing is currently being worked out.
CCD Mosaic: This is a large format CCD imaging system, with a single dewar containing a mosaic of 2K x 4K CCDs producing an 8192 pixel square format, covering almost a degree at the prime focus of the 4-m telescopes. The system consists of the dewar and associated ARCON controller electronics, a filter transport for large-format filters, and data system. The system saw first light at the KPNO 0.9-m telescope in May in a partially operational state. Further effort was required by CTIO for successful multiplexing of the four ARCON controllers required to read out the eight CCDs. Over the summer, the KPNO 4-m prime focus pedestal was rebuilt to accommodate the greater load and higher precision of focusing
10 and rotation of the Risley prisms required for the Mosaic. The new wide-field corrector with atmospheric dispersion compensating prisms is scheduled for check-out, along with the fully functional Mosaic, on the 4-m in late September. Mosaic will be offered to KPNO users on a shared risk basis for observing in spring 1997. The current plan is to produce a clone of this wide-field imager, so that it will not be necessary to ship it back and forth between hemispheres. That project should be completed in FY 1999. The Mosaic will be deployed initially with engineering grade, thick CCDs. Participation in a small consortium for a mass buy of science grade, thinned CCDs is currently under active investigation.
SQIID Upgrade: SQIID is a four-color near-IR imager, which records the J-L bands simultaneously through splitting the beam with cold dichroics. The first NOAO application of the project to produce upgraded array controllers for use on Gemini IR instrumentation will be to adapt the prototype to operate SQIID. SQIID will be upgraded with (up to) 4 ALADDIN type InSb arrays, each of which will have one working 512 square quadrant. Deployment is expected in summer 1997.
GRASP: The four-color near-IR imager/spectrograph is based on the successful SQIID heritage. The input beam is split into at least three and possibly four channels feeding ALADDIN detectors that could have full four-quadrant performance, covering simultaneously the J-L bands. The format covers a 5 arcmin field of view with 0.3 arcsec/pixel. A Preliminary Design Review by a non-advocate committee with strong external membership was held in March 1995. The review panel warmly endorsed the concept of the baseline instrument. It was subsequently realized that NOAO internal resources were not adequate to produce GRASP and the Gemini spectrograph simultaneously. To proceed with the instrument, a collaboration has been developed with the Ohio State University astronomical instrumentation group. They produced an independent conceptual design, which passed review in May 1996. Preliminary Design Review is currently scheduled for November 1996. Deployment is anticipated for 1999. GRASP is planned to become the workhorse infrared instrument for KPNO and will reside at the 4-m.
Gemini IRS: This is a Gemini facility instrument produced with support from the International Gemini Project. The current concept calls for a long-slit spectrograph with a reflecting collimator, a choice of dispersions, and two camera image scales, one with 0.05 arcsec/pixel and one with 0.15 arcsec/pixel projected onto ALADDIN 1024 square arrays. The schedule for FY 1997 calls for a Preliminary Design Review in the first quarter, and concerted work on the detailed design for the rest of FY 1997, leading to Critical Design Review in October 1997. Delivery to the site is planned for FY 1999. NOAO plans to produce a near clone of this instrument to be shared between CTIO and Gemini South. This will require staff to produce duplicate parts during the fabrication stage of the Gemini work, as well as to assemble and test the CTIO instrument. The near-term impact of work on the Gemini IRS is in the combination of training new, temporary technical staff added for the Gemini spectrograph, and in the slowdown of engineering work on some instruments for the existing sites as experienced staff are diverted to the Gemini work.
Hydra CTIO: The CTIO Users cited this as the highest priority new instrument for CTIO. About 70 percent of the design used for the KPNO instrument is reusable, and the multi-fiber robot positioner is a near-clone of the version used at the R-C focus of the KPNO Mayall 4-m before it was converted to use at the WIYN telescope. Modifications include fibers of different diameter to optimize for extended objects (galaxies) and stellar objects in good
11 seeing, and new motor controllers that will increase the speed and replace obsolete hardware in the older version. Optimum image quality at the 4-m requires a new wide-field corrector with atmospheric dispersion compensation for the R-C implementation.
ALADDIN Arrays, Controllers: NOAO, USNO Flagstaff, and Hughes Santa Barbara Research Corporation have formed a partnership to develop 1024 x 1024 InSb arrays for astronomical research. By the middle of FY 1997, the ALADDIN Project should have produced about sixteen attempts at hybridization. NOAO will also manage a production run of arrays for the Gemini Project. NOAO intends to form other such arrangements. In exchange for foundry run management and characterization expertise, NOAO would receive some arrays for use in future instrumentation. Critical to the successful operation of the arrays are capable controllers with adequate bandwidth, multiplexing, image format reconstruction, and compatibility with existing NOAO controller operation. Resources were devoted to the upgrading of the current WILDFIRE controller to meet the more stringent standards during FY 1996; completion is required to meet Gemini's delivery schedule in FY 1997. As discussed above, the first NOAO application of the new generation controller will be in the upgrade to the SQIID imager.
High-throughput Spectrograph: This concept will continue scientific definition and preliminary technical study during the fiscal year. The definition of the instrument complement for the SOAR telescope will be a major factor in the scientific requirements for the low-dispersion spectrograph.
A summary of this program, including manpower and costs, is given in Table 1. Detailed project plans are available on request.
12 Table 1 NOAO FY 1997 Instrumentation Projects
($K) ($K) ($K) Project PI MM Payroll Capital Total
Operations & Maint. Green 47 263 70 332 Subtotal 47 263 70 332
KP Upgrades ** Image improvements Jacoby 37 207 207 Gold Cam II Armandroff 10 56 56 Adaptive Optics Imager Jacoby 18 101 100 Subtotal 65 364 363
R&D Infrared Array Development Gatley 33 185 50 234 OUV CCD Development Armandroff 27 151 20 171 New Technology Barden 6 34 25 58 Detector Purchases Green 25 34 Subtotal 66 370 120 497
Major Instruments CCD Mosaic Imager Boroson 6 34 10 43 PHOENIX Hinkle 6 34 33 SQIID Merrill 57 319 80 398 HYDRA CTIO Barden 44 246 107 353 OSU GRASP Gatley 100 100 ALADDIN Array Controller Merrill 28 157 45 201 High Throughput Spectograph Armandroff 3 17 17 Gemini IR Controller * Merrill 37 207 -206 0 CTIO Hydra Corrector Armandroff 5 28 90 118 Subtotal 186 1042 226 1263
TOTAL 364 2039 416 2455
* Salary recovered will be applied to instrumentation capital requirements ** Project capital supplied by KPNO Gemini Spectrometer ext funding 60 334 334
3. Detectors
The successful completion of this program will require a substantial investment in new detectors. For CCDs it appears that we can purchase arrays from SITe that will be guaranteed to meet our specifications. We prefer this approach rather than resorting to the riskier foundry runs, where our experience indicates that the costs are likely to be at least comparable, there is no guarantee of performance, and the delivery would almost certainly be
13 slower than the SITe proposal. The cheapest approach to acquiring SITe CCD arrays for the two mosaic imagers involves establishing a consortium with partners so that the total number of CCDs purchased at a single time exceeds 30, since there is a significant price break for quantity purchase. We have also decided that we can accept Grade 2 rather than Grade 1 devices for most of the CCDs. Even so, the cost of the purchase is likely to be around $1M.
We have requests for 16 ALADDIN arrays of various sizes between now and the year 2000 (see Table 2). Some of these requests may be descoped (e.g., populating only three channels of SQIID and GRASP and not implementing the L channel in either instrument). It is also unclear how much capital investment is likely to be required from NOAO. We expect to participate in two or possibly three consortia in which we will carry out the testing and characterization of ALADDIN arrays and in return receive one or more arrays from the consortium purchase. Because NOAO's priority in the distribution list is normally number 4 or 5 and we expect the yield of 1024 x 1024 arrays to be low, it is likely that these arrangements will yield the partial arrays (less than 1024 x 1024) that are required, but we may have to purchase another foundry run in order to obtain full arrays.
Table 2 Requirements for InSb Arrays
Instrument Size Quantity Date Required COB I 512x512 1 1996 OSU Imager 512 x 1024 1 1996 Phoenix 512 x 1024 1 1996 SQIID 512x512 4 1997 COB II 1024 x 1024 1 1998 NSO 1024x 1024 2 1998 GRASP 1024 x 1024 or 4 1998 1024x512 GNIRS clone 1024 x 1024 1 1999 Wide-field camera 1024 x 1024 2 2000
Of these devices, the COB I chip is available and could be recycled to SQIID to reduce the requirements by one. Devices for the OSU imager and for Phoenix are already available, leaving 13 additional devices to be acquired over the next four years. In addition, seven controllers will have to be built.
4. NOAO Explorations of Technology (NExT) Program
NOAO plans to establish a small group of scientists to study and keep track of potentially interesting technologies that may be of value in astronomical instrument development. The effort will involve monthly meetings among some of the NOAO staff to target items for study and to evaluate results of components under study. A lab at NOAO will be devoted to the evaluation of such optical and infrared componentry (e.g., optics, electronic devices, etc.). The results of these studies will be published and made available to the astronomical community by way of the NOAO Newsletter, journal articles, and a WWW accessible database. Input from the community will also be solicited for additional ideas for exploration and for possible collaborative efforts.
14 The goal of this group is to identify and characterize potentially viable technologies that have either recently become available or are in sufficiently mature stages of development to warrant some study. It is not the intent of this group to develop technologies or to fabricate end-user instrumentation. A typical study might be completed in a few months of elapsed time. This group will complement, but not replace, the NOAO detector programs, which often evaluate new CCD and IR detectors as they become available.
Some possible explorations for FY 1997 include:
a) the evaluation of a volume phase holographic grating, which shows promise as a high efficiency, first order, transmission grating for astronomical spectrographs.
b) the performance evaluation of axially gradient index of refraction lenses and discussions with the manufacturing company to see what limitations exist in their fabrication.
c) a study of some new forms of light diffusers for their suitability in astronomical applications.
Funding in this program plan budget includes lab equipment required to evaluate small aperture optical components (lenses, diffusers, gratings) and funds to purchase such components for evaluation. Staffing includes time to design and fabricate necessary custom fixtures, to install electronic components in the lab, and to breadboard the circuitry necessary for the evaluation of the components acquired over the year. The effort will be led by Sam Barden.
C. USGP
1. Overview
The US Gemini Program (USGP) serves as the liaison between the US astronomy community and the Gemini Project, an international partnership to build and operate two 8- meter telescopes. The purpose of the USGP is to facilitate the scientific participation of the US astronomy community in the Gemini Project. The division does this by establishing two- way communication with the community on technical and scientific issues, providing oversight and advice to the Gemini Project, advocating and representing US interests in Gemini, and coordinating the efforts of US institutions providing subsystems such as instruments to the Gemini Project.
The USGP staff currently consists of four, including David Silva, who was hired as an assistant astronomer in FY 1996. His arrival marks the beginning of the transition from the construction phase to the operations phase of Gemini. It is expected that the number of NOAO personnel with either full or partial responsibility for USGP activities will increase over the next few years as USGP duties involving telescope proposals, time allocation, observing run preparation, and data reduction are defined.
The USGP supports scientists serving on the (international) Gemini Science Committee (GSC) at its semi-annual meetings, most recently in Vancouver, and on the US Science Advisory Committee, which helps the USGP develop a US position on issues with scientific implications. The GSC has established working groups that provide scientific oversight to
15 the instrument design and fabrication efforts and to the planning for science operations. The USGP supports US participation in these committees. The USGP will continue its outreach efforts with displays and presentations at national meetings and colloquia at astronomy departments throughout the US on the Gemini Project status and planning for US access to Gemini in the operations phase. In addition, work is underway for a partnership-wide educational initiative aimed at high school students and teachers.
The USGP tries to identify key technologies and interests of the US community that can be applied to the Gemini telescopes. In FY 1996 the USGP organized and held a workshop to understand the priorities of the community for future instruments on Gemini. This was a science-based discussion in the context of all capabilities available to US astronomers. In FY 1997, two workshops are planned. The first will be aimed at understanding the capabilities and facilities that the community needs to use the Gemini telescopes (and other large telescopes) effectively. The second will be another meeting of the US adaptive optics (AO) community to form a plan for participation in the program aimed at the next generation AO system for Gemini.
During the next year, the USGP will initiate efforts in several areas associated with Gemini operations. These include the development of tools for queue scheduling, data reduction software for the first-light complement of Gemini instruments, and a World-Wide Web site that will inform the community about Gemini capabilities and about how to obtain access to Gemini.
2. US Gemini Instrument Program
The dominant activity within the USGP has been the procurement and management of the Gemini instruments that have been allocated to the US. Within the initial instrumentation complement, five work packages fall into this category. These include a Near-IR Imager (assigned to the University of Hawaii), a Near-IR Spectrograph (being built by NOAO), a Mid-IR Imager, CCDs and array controllers for the optical spectrographs, and Near-IR arrays and controllers (to be supplied by NOAO) for the Near-IR instruments. The USGP has the task of organizing and managing these procurements in a way that encourages wide community involvement and guarantees the delivery of instruments to Gemini which meet the requirements of the project and the partner countries. Furthermore, these instruments must be delivered for a fixed price.
For the three work packages for which suppliers have been identified, the USGP has programmatic responsibility for monitoring and evaluating progress, including oversight of schedule, budget, and risk. This responsibility is directly discharged by a work package manager in each case. The work package managers are USGP staff and report in this area to both the US Gemini Project Scientist and to the Gemini Instrumentation Manager. The Gemini Instrumentation Manager has asked the USGP to oversee the design and fabrication of all the infrared instruments as an integrated program. This approach focuses attention on identifying critical interfaces between work packages and ensuring that they are agreed upon in a manner consistent with the overall schedule and budget. The management of the instrument work will continue through FY 1997.
For the remaining two work packages, the USGP is engaged in selecting designers and builders from the US community. In the case of the Mid-IR imager, a competition was
16 recently held to identify one or more groups to do conceptual design studies. Negotiations are currently under way. Following this activity, a second open competition will be used to select a group to produce a complete design and build the instrument. For the CCD and array controller packages, the procurement strategy is somewhat more complicated. The CCDs will likely be purchased from a commercial vendor. A competition will select a group to deliver controllers, fully compatible with the Gemini hardware and software requirements. The integration of CCDs and controllers in the spectrograph cameras will be taken on by NOAO. This will allow the USGP to deliver fully integrated and tested focal planes to the spectrograph builders.
The final element of the US Gemini instrumentation program is planning for the future instruments. Even as early as FY 1997, some funding will be available from the Gemini development fund to begin work on the next group of instruments. The identification of those instruments will come from the merging of priorities of the communities of all the Gemini partners. The process by which instruments will then be assigned to partner countries has not yet been defined, but the development of a plan specifying which instruments will be built and how they will be built is an activity scheduled for early in FY 1997.
D. Telescope Operations and User Support
1. Changes in User Services
During the coming year, several major new instruments will become available to users at both sites. The Cryogenic Optical Bench, equipped with a 512 x 512 ALADDIN array, will be transferred from KPNO to CTIO; this instrument can be used with the new tip/tilt capability at the CTIO 4-m to obtain superb infrared images. Phoenix, a high resolution IR spectrometer, and a CCD Mosaic imager (8K x 8K) will be commissioned at Kitt Peak. Kitt Peak will also be offering the Ohio State University IR imager/grism spectrometer, which will be equipped with a 512 x 1024 ALADDIN array from NOAO.
NSF has initiated the program to support instrumentation at the independent observatories in return for community access. Twenty four nights per year will be available on the converted MMT and 27 nights per year on the Hobby Eberly Telescope for the next six years. It is likely to be about 18-24 months before any of this time can be scheduled. The proposals for the open access time on these telescopes will be reviewed by an NOAO-managed Time Allocation Committee.
A major challenge for NOAO and its users will be to learn how to make effective use of small amounts of time on a diverse set of instruments. We will have access to only a few nights on the MMT and the HET, only 40 percent of WIYN, about 30 percent of SOAR, and only half of each Gemini telescope. A related problem is that we are building instruments for four large telescopes on three sites, and many of the instruments are scheduled to move among the sites. How do we schedule these instruments in such a way as to ensure that scientific programs can be completed? These issues will be explored with the Users' Committee.
The WIYN queue program has now been in operation for two semesters. The flexible scheduling has enabled new types of scientific programs. Synoptic observations of supernovae at high redshift are putting constraints on the deceleration of the universe; the
17 two hour queue has made it possible to obtain snapshots of objects being investigated at other wavelength regions and also to test the feasibility of proposed new scientific programs. We plan to continue the queue observing program for one more year and then evaluate whether or not we wish to extend it.
In response to continued budget reductions, CTIO has announced that it will withdraw its support of the operations of the 1-m telescope at CTIO, which was used almost exclusively for photoelectric photometry. KPNO is continuing to operate all of its telescopes for one more year, but with no improvements, upgrades, or new instrumentation for the 0.9-m, Burrell-Schmidt, or Coude Feed. The goal is to keep the telescopes open at minimal cost until the unique capabilities that they provide can be offered at other telescopes. For example, we will keep the 0.9-m open until wide-field imaging is available at the 4-m telescope with the Mosaic CCD imager. Users of the Burrell-Schmidt, CCDPhot, and NICMASS, which is an infrared detector at the coude spectrograph, have been notified that these capabilities will not be offered after this coming year and have been asked to define what will be required to complete their programs. AURA/NOAO will participate in workshops this fall and winter with the goal of finding alternative sources of funding for those telescopes that can no longer be supported with NSF funds.
After consultation with the Users' Committee, KPNO has changed from a system of Bright and Dark Time Allocation Committees, to Galactic and Extragalactic TACs. With the advent of infrared arrays, a substantial amount of extragalactic work is now being done in bright time, while the study of stellar populations in nearby galaxies requires dark time. Accordingly, the subject matter of the proposals referred to both the bright and dark TACs has become too broad for a small committee to deal with (each TAC has only six members). Changing the system to emphasize subject matter rather than lunar phase allows for more in- depth discussion of proposals, and the TAC members who participated in the one meeting under the new system felt that the change improved the evaluation process. This system is easily extensible when we begin to review proposals to use Gemini and the independent observatories.
2. Telescope Upgrades
a. CTIO
The major activity at CTIO during FY 1997 will be preparing for new instruments that are due to arrive in 1997-98. In collaboration with the Tucson JPG effort, we will be equipping the Blanco 4-m with: a) the Cryogenic Optical Bench (COB) with a InSb array; b) the NOAO 8K x 8K Mosaic imager at prime focus; c) the Phoenix high resolution IR spectrometer; and d) the Hydra/CTIO multi-fiber spectrograph. In order to realize the full capabilities of these instruments, a variety of telescope improvements are required, including installation of a tip/tilt secondary, modification of the prime focus pedestal in order to accommodate the wide-field mosaic imager, and continued improvements in overall image quality. The implementation of active optics, image analyzer, and careful thermal monitoring and controls over the past several years has already improved delivered image quality significantly. In FY 1997, we will continue analysis and tuning of the servo and guiding system; we also plan additional thermal control for the R-C and PF cages. In two years we will then have a 4-m telescope with excellent image quality over a small field at f/14, mainly for near IR imaging and spectroscopy, and good image quality over a full 45 arcminute field. Both Hydra and the Mosaic imager are designed to take advantage of this wide field, while the infrared instrumentation will take advantage of the excellent image quality over a narrower field.
F/14 Tip-Tilt: One of our top-priority FY 1997 projects is the implementation of the new f/14 secondary mirror on the 4-m telescope. One goal is to make our IR instrumentation compatible with the KPNO 4-m (f/15) and Gemini (f/16). The new secondary is also being installed with piezo-electric actuators in place to make it "tip-tilt ready," and we then plan to exploit this capability for IR imaging and spectroscopy and also for optical imaging. This will give CTIO the only major IR tip-tilt capability in the southern hemisphere. This is the logical extension of the program to improve the imaging capability of the telescope. The emphasis is on the near IR (JHK) because this is where tip-tilt achieves the greatest proportional gains in image diameter for a 4-m telescope with good seeing.
The implementation of the tip-tilt capability requires the addition of a guider box at the Cassegrain focus, which will use a dichroic or beam-splitter to feed light from a guide star through re-imaging optics to a fast CCD camera. The fast CCD camera, which will work at about 100 Hz, will be an upgraded version of our existing CCD-TV acquisition cameras. The guider box will have a remotely controlled x-y stage for the guide camera, and eventually will offer remotely controlled selection between different dichroics and beam splitters. The project includes a significant software effort to make the system efficient to use for visiting astronomers. The guider box and fast CCD are scheduled for engineering tests on the telescope in November 1996. The principal work in FY 1997 will thus be software, user interface, and integration of the tip-tilt system.
This tip-tilt focus will feed the Cryogenic Optical Bench (COB), which is being upgraded by the Tucson IPG with a InSb array with 512x512 usable pixels. COB is scheduled for engineering tests on the Blanco in early FY 1997. We also intend to replace the fore-optics in our current IR spectrograph (IRS) to improve the baffling and to permit use at f/14.
Prime Focus Pedestal Upgrade/Mosaic Installation: The Prime Focus Pedestal is not presently strong enough to support the NOAO Mosaic Imager, and during FY 1997 we will modify and strengthen this assembly. The pedestal for the 4-m Mayall telescope is being modified in FY 1996 for the same reason, but due to differences in corrector design it is not possible simply to copy the KPNO system. When we modify the pedestal, we will also install new focus motors and provide lateral and tilt adjustment for the PF corrector. This latter facility will greatly simplify procedures for collimating the telescope. A handling cart will be provided for the Mosaic, and the PF cage will be prepared to accept this instrument.
4-m Control System Improvements: Most of the control wiring and logic for the Blanco 4-m is more than 20 years old. Not only is the performance well below today's standards, but it is no longer possible to get spare parts for basic elements such as encoders and drive servos. During FY 1996, the antiquated 4-m telescope control logic was replaced with a modern programmable logic controller based system, following the upgrades made to the KPNO 4-m several years ago. With the improvement of the optical quality of the telescope, tracking and guiding performance have become limiting factors on
19 delivered image quality. During FY 1996 and continuing into FY 1997 effort is therefore being devoted to improve the servo system performance. Initially this involves careful tuning of the existing servo system and the addition of filters and ramps in the servo loop.
We will also begin a pilot project to replace the actual servo system in order to provide a modern and maintainable level of performance.
4-m Thermal Control: The present 4-m primary mirror cover, when open, forms a 2-m deep cylindrical enclosure above the mirror which can trap air and thus degrade the seeing. We plan to replace the mirror cover with a two-component folding cover, which will provide a completely clear path in the N-S direction to the level of the primary and thus ensure that flushing is rapid and efficient.
An air extraction system for the prime focus cage will be designed, in order to remove the thermal load introduced by the electronics and machinery of the prime focus imagers. Although this load is not large, any air at non-ambient temperature escaping from the cage passes across the telescope input beam and thus will degrade the seeing.
During FY 1996, an air extraction system was installed to flush the primary mirror cell and chimney area during observing. After some experience with this system, we will re-visit the question as to whether any additional thermal control is needed in the Cassegrain cage.
The primary mirror cooling system is run for up to several hours each day to try to bring the mirror to within 0.5 degree of the mean nighttime air temperature. The system is under computer control, and we are experimenting with the algorithm to improve the accuracy of the nighttime temperature prediction. The capacity of the cooling system has proven to be marginal during wintertime, and we plan to investigate ways to improve this.
Analysis of the data produced by the many temperature probes installed on the telescope and dome interior show that there is still significant heating of the dome air by the building interior, of particular importance in low wind conditions when little natural flushing of the dome air occurs. The NOAO 10-micron camera system will be used to help in diagnosing which building surfaces are responsible for the heating, followed by installation of extra insulation or air conditioning, where appropriate.
1.5-m Telescope Upgrades: Our second largest telescope, the 1.5-m, suffers from a poor thermal environment and several optical problems with the secondary mirrors. It is also being run with a hybrid control system. In FY 1997, we have scheduled a TCS software upgrade, converting to the system we are currently running on the 4-m. We will finish the installation of the dome ventilation doors, a project begun in FY 1996. We will start a project to provide more stable secondary mirror mounts, with encoders to permit reliable collimation runs. We will analyze the possibility of providing a field corrector for the f/13.5 focus and study the possibility of resurfacing the f/7.5 secondary to change the conic constant and remove residual astigmatism.
20 b. KPNO
Because of budget-driven resource limitations, the sole focus of KPNO telescope improvements in FY 1997 will be on the two largest telescopes: at the Mayall 4-m work will proceed on improving the delivered image quality; at the WIYN improvements will primarily address engineering and operational issues that affect safety, observing efficiency, and telescope performance. These two telescopes, representing the extrema of a telescope's lifetime, illustrate that improvements to enable better science begin as soon as commissioning ends and continue forever as new scientific demands are made on the telescope.
Mayall 4-meter: The motivation for improving the delivered image quality (DIQ) on the Mayall 4-m telescope arises from new scientific expectations for this decades-old telescope. Smaller average image size permits fainter objects to be detected, equal brightness objects to be observed in shorter exposure times, and increased spatial resolution. WIYN—with its new technology approach to maximizing image quality—has convincingly demonstrated that Kitt Peak is a much better astronomical site than previously thought and thus image improvements to the Mayall 4-m will enable new science opportunities. The Blanco 4-m at CTIO demonstrates that these "old" technology telescopes can be improved to deliver better images; the Blanco now routinely averages sub-arc second images. While we have made minor improvements to the average image quality through careful thermal management of the building, the next steps are expensive and require careful design and management.
Since WIYN is designed not to degrade atmospheric image quality and has proven to meet this specification except perhaps in the finest seeing conditions (<0.5 arcsec), the measured delivered image quality (DIQ) at WIYN can be taken to be close to that of the free atmosphere above Kitt Peak. The median measured DIQ at WIYN from September 1994 to December 1995 is 0.8 arcsec, with 24% of the time better than 0.7 arcsec and 10% better than 0.6 arcsec. In contrast, the average image size at the Mayall is on the order of 1.1 arcsec (now measured nightly in a systematic and consistent fashion). While the location of the Mayall is not as good as that of WIYN and some orographic degradation of the atmospheric seeing may occur when the wind is from the prevailing SW direction, the enclosure, the telescope structure, and the mirror support system can be upgraded to minimize seeing degradation associated with the enclosure and optics. This upgrade will have significant benefit for observing because we know that the 4-m is capable of delivering 0.6-0.7 arcsec images when conditions are just right. The goal is to decrease the average DIQ to below one arcsec—0.9 arcsec appears possible—and to increase the percentage of time when excellent seeing is available.
The technology in the Mayall 4-m represents the best available in the 1960s when it was designed. Our approach to improving the performance of the Mayall telescope has been to analyze performance and to identify those areas where cost-effective gains can be made. Now that mirror cooling is in effect, the next steps in improving image quality at the Mayall—active support of the 4-m primary, ventilation of the dome, collimation of the f/8 secondary based on an image analyzer at the Cassegrain focus—are relatively expensive, and we are carefully analyzing image degradation from a systems approach so that effective use is made of limited resources. No one single factor—active optics, active temperature control of the primary mirror, careful thermal design of the telescope
21 structure and enclosure, and ventilation of the dome with ambient air by the natural wind—is always dominant in local image degradation. At one time or another each of these factors is the critical one. At the Mayall 4-m, dome ventilation appears to be the next step to take as we see dramatic improvement of seeing when we are able to flush the dome with the wind by orienting the slit into the wind. Dome ventilation would provide this flushing independent of wind direction. Ventilation effectively removes the influence of the dome and opens the telescope to the sky so that temperature gradients are swept away by the wind blowing at even modest speeds.
Specific plans for FY 1997 improvements at the Mayall 4-m include:
• Systematic measurements of seeing (obtained several times a night) will be correlated to other observables (e.g., wind direction, temperature gradients in the dome and on the telescope structure, micro-thermal measures in the dome) to identify principal sources of image degradation.
• The DIQ analysis will be used to write requirements for ventilation of the Mayall dome. Engineering designs will carried out and costed to meet these requirements. If necessary, hydrodynamic modeling of dome ventilation will be carried out to aid in interpreting the effectiveness of the ventilation designs.
• If possible, construction of the Mayall dome vents will proceed during summer shutdown 1997. In any case, dome ventilation is expected to be completed by the end of summer shutdown 1998.
• Encoding of the f/8 secondary will be designed and installed to enable collimation with an image analyzer at the Cassegrain focus. An efficient software system will be designed so that this analysis and collimation can be carried out with minimal use of telescope time.
• Wavefront analysis will be made of the primary mirror aberrations to evaluate the effect of the refurbishment made to the primary support system during summer shutdown 1996 and to determine the need for active mirror supports.
• If active primary mirror supports are judged to be necessary—as they were at CTIO—design studies based on the CTIO approach will be completed in FY 1997 for installation during summer shutdown 1998.
• The mirror heating system developed by Gemini will be considered for installation on the Mayall primary during summer shutdown 1998. If this system proves feasible, heating the front surface will allow us to control the mirror temperature to eliminate the effects of mirror seeing due to temperature differential from ambient. This system has the potential of enabling thick mirrors of the technology used twenty-five years ago to deliver mirror-seeing performance comparable to modern mirrors. However, in contrast to the Gemini mirrors, the Mayall primary is not made of zero-expansion glass. Therefore, detailed analysis of the effect of heating on mirror figure will have to precede any engineering design work.
22 • An automatic thermal control system for the mirror, oil, and floor cooling systems will be installed and integrated so that all three are maintained at optimum temperatures.
WIYN 3.5-meter: NOAO's goal for WIYN is to ensure that it continues to provide high image quality and reliable observing opportunities to astronomers from the community who apply for time through NOAO as well as to members of the WIYN consortium. WIYN has just completed 12 full months of science operations, a year where it has proven to meet its design goals and to enable excellent astronomical observations. Our experience during this first year has helped identify areas where the safety of the telescope and personnel should be improved and where the performance of the telescope and observing efficiency could be improved to maximize science output.
During FY 1997, facility safety will be improved by adding additional subsystems to the facility safety interlock network. Examples include speed limiters for the telescope axes, additional safety limits on the tertiary rotation and fold motions and on the primary mirror covers, additional electrical systems on the emergency stop buttons, interlocks for telescope position and equipment lifts, slower dome hoist speed, and a global watchdog in the Telescope Control System for failure and limit status.
Observing efficiency will be increased by installing faster and more reliable motor controllers in the field acquisition and guiding system and by upgrading the main axis motor system. Since uncontrolled waste heat can degrade delivered image quality, several electronics racks, which currently evacuate their heat into the telescope enclosure, will have duct work added to vent their heat into the main enclosure ventilation system. A new enclosure shutter de-icing facility will be installed to allow a more rapid return to operations after significant winter storms.
Other areas where observing efficiency could be improved include a real-time DIQ estimator, primary mirror system manager, secondary control client upgrades, Instrument Adaptor System (IAS) motor control upgrade and a low bandwidth remote observing port on the MPG (Mountain Programming Group) router. Support and maintenance efficiency would be improved by the following additions: imager dewar registration, Telescope Control System (TCS) version upgrades, new telemetry to the Engineering Data System (EDS), upgrades to the MPG router, and VSIO (VME serial input/output) semaphore to correct system "hang" problems.
Other proposed telescope performance projects include battery charger upgrade, drive motor rework, high pressure brake system upgrade, re-design of the IAS cable wrap, and implementation of boresight commands. Thermal performance areas include sealing the pier plenum around the moat, installation of louvers on building exhaust ducts, and TCS rack and IAS power supply ventilation. Areas where image quality could be improved include active optics cross-coupling tuning, replacement of the tertiary air bag, and installation of wire guides on secondary vanes to minimize top-end vibration.
By the Operating Agreement with the WPfN partners, 6.5 FTE are allocated to WIYN for operations. Day-to-day operations and maintenance take some 5.5 FTE, leaving only 1.0 FTE for improvement projects. The work outlined above has been identified from a larger list of WIYN projects and represents those items that will address the most
23 important issues within the available resources. If not completed in FY 1997, the projects will be re-prioritized with new needs and as necessary be carried over into the following year.
3. Instrumentation Improvements
a. CTIO
Hydra Corrector/ADC Mounting and Installation: In order to obtain high quality images over the entire 4-m R-C field, an ADC corrector is being designed as part of the Hydra/CTIO project for the Blanco 4-m. This corrector should permit fibers as small as 1 arcsec to be used efficiently. In FY 1997 we will begin a project to design and construct the mounting cell and rotation subsystem for the ADC/wide field corrector, based on our experience with the prime focus ADC. Fabrication and installation will carry over into FY 1998. The corrector will be installed in the 4-m chimney and will feature a motor drive to flip the elements in or out of the beam to accommodate other instruments, particularly in the IR.
Hydra Spectrograph: In order to accept the 120+ fiber spectra that Hydra will produce, we are beginning a project to modify the Argus bench spectrograph. Among other things, this entails changing the focal ratio by installing a new camera. The number of fibers which can be accommodated also has to be increased and the optical path changed. Fabrication of the optics for a new camera were started in FY 1996. During FY 1997, we will increase the size of the spectrograph by installing a second optical bench, implement the new camera, and change the optical path. We will then mechanically modify the system to increase its fiber capacity and implement remote controls at least for focus, filter changes, and grating tilt. With the arrival of Hydra the new collimator will be installed. This effort also includes a calibration lamp assembly. Aspects of this project will likely extend into FY 1998.
Arcon CCD Controllers: We plan to begin production of the Arcons needed for the second NOAO Mosaic imager (the "Mosaic clone"). During FY 1996, a major effort has gone into production of the five Arcons needed for the original Mosaic system; this integrated hardware and software effort is finishing now, and the system should be delivered to Tucson in September 1996. IPG has indicated a high priority for a second Mosaic imager, so that both hemispheres will have an instrument available year-round. Although this instrument will not be ready until approximately 1999, we will begin the process of reproducing the Mosaic hardware. The manpower planned for FY 1997 includes CTIO electronics engineers, who will carry out mostly supervisory and development tasks, a contract electronics engineer dedicated to production and testing activities, and electronics technicians to carry out the in-house portions of the fabrication. In addition, we intend to begin retrofitting the existing ARCONS on CTIO with the final versions of the three controller electronics cards, which have been developed over the past year.
Spectrograph Motor Controllers: The R-C (low-dispersion) spectrograph on the 4-m has a number of remotely controlled functions which are presently controlled by a convoluted patchwork of CAMAC and 25-year-old stepping motors, only some of which still work. During FY 1997, we will begin the process of converting spectrograph control
24 to our new generation of standard, self-contained "Smart" Motor Controllers (SMCs). This will involve changing the control of functions of the R-C spectrograph and implementation of remote control of some of the movements of the Argus/Hydra and echelle spectrographs—all of which at present are operated manually. Because of the flexibility of the SMC system, the improved control of these functions can be efficiently implemented/converted one at a time.
This process is part of a more general conversion of much of the old motor control at the observatory to a more modern, robust, and standard system. At the same time spectrograph motor control is being upgraded, we will be engaging in a similar process on the 4-m rotator/guider and the Rutgers Fabry-Perot spectrograph. The amount of time required for this conversion process and the order in which different functions are upgraded will depend on the priority and resources available. Since control of many of these functions is currently implemented via old and unreliable systems, relative priority is always subject to change. As there is little prospect of our having the resources for building new, more modern replacements for these workhorse instruments over the next decade, we plan to at least improve reliability and controllability to make the instruments we have as scientifically productive as possible.
Implement CCD: We expect to bring up one additional CCD on an Arcon controller during FY 1997. This conceivably could be a SITe 2048 x 4096 (or a pair in a mini-Mosaic dewar), for both direct and spectroscopic uses. Our main need at this point would be a lower noise, faster readout CCD to replace the LORAL in our 4-m R-C spectrograph.
Projects Continuingfrom FY 1996: Projects that will continue into FY 1997 include the camera for the 1.5-m spectrograph, new guiders and focus readouts for the 1.5-m and 0.9-m telescopes, and revised calibration lamp assemblies for the 4-m and 1.5-m spectrographs.
Table 3 summarizes the telescopes and instruments that will be offered at CTIO during FY 1997.
25 Table 3 CTIO Telescope/Instrument Combinations
4-m Telescope: ARGUS Fiber-Fed Spectrograph + Blue Air Schmidt Camera-!- Loral 3K ARGUS Echelle FF. Spect. + Blue Air Schmidt Camera-)- Loral 3K R-C Spectrograph + Blue Air Schmidt Camera+ Loral 3K Echelle Spectrograph + Blue Air Schmidt Camera+ Loral 3K + Folded Schmidt+ Tek 1K CCD + Long Cameras-i- Tek 2K CCD Prime Focus Camera + Tek 2K CCD + Photographic Plates (User must supply plates) Cass Direct + Tek 2K CCD Rutgers Imaging Fabry-Perot + Tek 1K CCD Cryogenic Optical Bench +5122InSb CTIO IRImager + 2562 HgCdTe CTIO IRSpectrometer + 2562 InSb
ESO 3.6-m (£12 nights/semester available): ADONIS TIMMI EFOSC1
1.5-m Telescope: Cass Spectrograph + Loral 1200 x 800 CCD Bench-Mounted Echelle Spectrograph + BME Camera + Tek 2K CCD Cass Direct + Tek IK CCD, Tek 2K CCD Rutgers Imaging Fabry-Perot + Tek IK CCD ASCAP Photometer CTIO IRImager + 2562 HgCdTe
1-m Telescope: Closed
0.9-m Telescope: Cass Direct + Tek 2K CCD
Curtis Schmidt: STIS 2K CCD (Direct or Prism)
b. KPNO
New Camera for the 2.1-m GoldCam Spectrograph: The GoldCam Spectrograph on the 2.1-m telescope is a popular and productive instrument, especially since the installation of a 3K x IK Loral CCD as its detector. The instrument is capable of achieving low and moderate spectral resolution on point sources or extended objects with good efficiency. The original camera was not designed, however, to produce good images over the wide field that can be obtained with a large-format CCD. We have begun fabrication of a new camera that takes full advantage of the format of the CCD. The camera was designed to produce good image quality, even with the wide wavelength range resulting from low-
26 resolution gratings. The camera will be installed on the spectrograph and tested during FY 1997.
Corrector and Atmospheric-Dispersion Compensatorfor Mosaic at the 4-m Telescope: In order both to utilize the full field of the 8K x 8K CCD Mosaic Imager and to improve delivered image quality at the 4-m prime focus, a new corrector and atmospheric dispersion compensator are required. These are under construction and will be installed at the 4-m at the very end of FY 1996. Commissioning of the new corrector and atmospheric dispersion compensator will take place in FY 1997, together with commissioning of the CCD Mosaic Imager. The Mosaic will offer a field of view of 36 x 36 arcmin at the 4-m and 1 degree square at the 0.9-m.
New Near-IR Observing Capability: A near-IR imager with low-dispersion spectroscopic capability will be made available on the 2.1-m and 4-m during FY 1997. The instrument was developed by Ohio State University. NOAO is providing a 2- quadrant ALADDIN InSb array for the instrument. The active array format is 1024 x 512 pixels, and there is a choice of two image scales. The instrument will also be used at MDM Observatory.
Detector Upgrades: We will continue to upgrade the CCDs in use at KPNO telescopes as improved detectors become available. In FY 1997, we anticipate receipt of a IK x 3K Loral CCD to be used with the R-C and echelle spectrographs at the 4-m telescope, which will provide better sampling than the CCD currently used. When the 4K x 4K pixel "mini-Mosaic" of SITe CCDs with 15-micron pixels is complete, it will be installed at the WIYN telescope in the WIYN imager, yielding better sampling and greater area coverage.
KPNO will also assist the NOAO Instrumentation Program in the development of ALADDIN IR arrays and array controllers through telescope testing and deployment. The first step will be the detector upgrade in the SQIID IR imager. When SQIID is equipped with large InSb arrays and made available again on Kitt Peak, it will help to fill the gap between the departure of the Cryogenic Optical Bench to CTIO and the arrival of GRASP on Kitt Peak.
Phoenix IR Spectrometer: The high spectral resolution IR spectrometer Phoenix will continue commissioning on Kitt Peak in FY 1997. We expect significant involvement of KPNO staff and engineering resources to commission the instrument and successfully achieve user status.
Fiber Feed to Coude Spectrograph: Because it is likely that the Coude Feed telescope will be closed in about a year and the coude spectrograph is the only capability we offer for very high resolution spectroscopy, we are planning to develop a fiber cable that can feed the spectrograph directly from the 2.1-m telescope. The cable will be permanently mounted to minimize the effort associated with instrument changes.
Optical Imaging: The 0.9-m telescope is the instrument primarily used for wide-field imaging, and it may well be closed to the NOAO user community when wide-field imaging becomes available at the 4-m telescope with the Mosaic CCD. However, we will be able to accommodate only a very small fraction of user demand on this single
27 telescope. We therefore wish to modify the guider at the 2.1-m so that it can accommodate a wider field of view, and we will then plan to move the 2K x 2K CCD currently at the 0.9-m telescope to the 2.1-m.
Adaptive Optics at the WIYN Telescope: The WIYN telescope is KPNO's premier facility for high-resolution optical imaging. A low-order adaptive optics system is desirable at WIYN in order to achieve site-limited seeing more often. Such a system would eliminate telescope shake due to wind and servo control limitations and minimize guiding errors and focus variations. In addition, such a system can improve delivered image quality beyond site seeing by removing low-order aberration terms. NOAO is working with the WIYN universities to specify and develop a low-order adaptive optics system for WIYN. Table 4 KPNO Telescope/Instrument Combinations
Mayall 4-m Telescope: R-C Spectrograph + CCD (T2KB) Echelle + UVFast, Red Long, or Blue Long Camera + CCD (T2KB) PF Camera + direct CCD (T2KB) IR Cryogenic Spectrograph (CRSP) IR Imager (IRIM) CryoCam (with 800 x 1200 Loral chip) OSU IRIS (Infrared Imaging Spectrometer) (shared risk, beginning in spring 1997) CCD Mosaic (8K x 8K) (shared risk, beginning in spring 1997) Phoenix (High-Resolution Near-IR Spectrograph) (shared risk, beginning in spring 1997)
WIYN Telescope: Hydra + Bench Spectrograph (T2KC) CCD Imager (S2KB)
2.1-m Telescope: Direct Camera + CCD (T1KA) GoldCam CCD Spectrograph (F3KA) IR Cryogenic Spectrograph (CRSP) IR Imager (IRIM) High Resolution IR Spectrograph (PHOENIX) OSU IRIS (Infrared Imaging Spectrometer) (shared risk)
Coude Feed: Coude Spectrograph + Camera (5 or 6) + CCD (F3KB) NICMASS HgCdTe Array + Camera 5 (Shared Risk)
0.9-m Telescope: CCD Direct Camera + CCD (T2KA) CCD Photometer (CCDPHOT) (T5HA) CCD Mosaic (8K x 8K) (shared risk, beginning in spring 1997)
Burrell Schmidt: Direct or Objective Prism + CCD (S2KA)
28 4. Smaller Telescopes
CTIO and KPNO are beginning to phase out their smaller telescopes. Yale owns the 1-m telescope at CTIO and has been notified that CTIO will no longer operate it. Yale has formed a partnership with Portugal to support continued operation, and Ohio State University will provide an O/IR imager for it. KPNO has already closed and transferred to the Southeastern Association for Research in Astronomy one of its 0.9-m telescopes. The 1.3-m telescope at KPNO has also been closed but has been used for testing 2Mass instrumentation and observing protocols. Its final disposition remains to be determined.
AURA has developed a plan for evaluating options for the future of the 1.3-m and the other telescopes that cannot be operated within the NSF funding envelope. In a Web posting, AURA has invited community participation in a process of planning for the future use of the smaller telescopes that would maintain more opportunities for open access than would be the case if the telescopes were simply closed or transferred to a single university or university consortium. The first opportunity for community input will occur in October at a meeting to be hosted by Robert Millis in Flagstaff on the topic of small telescope astronomy. This meeting will be followed by an AURA-hosted workshop immediately preceding the Toronto AAS meeting where the community can present and discuss options. We can imagine several possibilities for the continued operation of NOAO's smaller telescopes:
• Organizations could propose to purchase time on a range of NOAO facilities with a variety of apertures.
• An organization could bid to take over operation of one or more existing telescopes.
•A consortium could propose to maintain access for educational purposes.
•A consortium could propose to maintain open access for multi-wavelength studies.
These groups might operate the telescope(s) themselves or might prefer to contract with NOAO or with other organizations or individuals for operations, upgrades, instrumentation, or other services.
What we are looking for at these two meetings is a variety of "concept" proposals for how to make effective use of the small telescopes. We will probably ultimately issue some kind of RFP seeking proposals for the continued operation of these telescopes, but we want to be certain that we do not foreclose any interesting options when we write the terms of the RFP.
IV. NATIONAL SOLAR OBSERVATORY
A. Major Projects
NSO's long-range scientific program is organized around a community-wide effort to understand the solar activity cycle. Helioseismology has opened a window into the Sun that will provide, for the first time, the quantitative knowledge of interior structure and dynamics
29 that is necessary to constrain models of the solar dynamo. By combining helioseismology with measurements of the solar atmosphere from ground and space, we will be able to follow solar- cycle variations from the radiative core to the outer corona and ultimately to Earth. The program that NSO has proposed to exploit this unprecedented opportunity comprises four major projects: GONG, RISE, SOLIS, and a large-aperture "flagship" telescope.
The Global Oscillation Network Group (GONG) is now fully operational and surpassing its nominal performance goals. The status of GONG is described below, along with plans for upgrading its cameras and continuing operation through a full solar cycle.
The second project is a network of Precision Solar Photometric Telescopes (PSPTs) that are currently under construction as a component of a broader national program to study solar irradiance variations and their effect on global change: RISE (Radiative Inputs of the Sun to Earth). As described below, two PSPTs are scheduled to be deployed in FY 1997.
The third NSO cornerstone is SOLIS (Synoptic Optical Long-term Investigations of the Sun), proposed to the NSF early in FY 1996. The principal objective of SOLIS is to provide the sustained, high-quality synoptic observations that are necessary to understand the operation of the solar cycle.
The final component of the long-range program is a large-aperture OIR telescope to replace both the Vacuum Tower Telescope and the McMath-Pierce Telescope. For its flagship facility, NSO is currently evaluating the technical feasibility of a Coronagraphic and Low Emissivity Astronomical Reflector (CLEAR), a telescope in the 2.4-4-m range for high angular resolution observations of the solar disk and corona that would also have nighttime applications.
1. Global Oscillation Network Group (GONG)
The Global Oscillation Network Group (GONG) is an international project conducting a detailed study of the internal structure and dynamics of the closest star by measuring resonating waves that propagate throughout the solar interior. To overcome the limitations of current observations imposed by the day-night cycle at a single observatory, GONG has developed and deployed a six-station network of extremely sensitive and stable solar velocity mappers located around the Earth to obtain nearly continuous observations of the "five-minute" pressure oscillations. To accomplish its objectives, GONG has also established a distributed data reduction and analysis system to facilitate the coordinated analysis of these data. The primary data analysis is being carried out by about six scientific teams, each focusing on a few specific categories of problems. Membership in these teams is open to all qualified researchers.
The deployment of the six-network stations was completed in early October 1995. Several months of network data have been processed by the project's data management group and have been made available to the research community for scientific analysis. A series of papers, written by the project and the science teams, presenting first-look results was published in a special issue of Science in May 1996. A special session of the June 1996 meeting of the AAS was devoted to these results, and the project held its annual scientific meeting in conjunction with the AAS Solar Physics Division meeting that overlapped the AAS meeting.
30 The network is continuing to gather data from all of its sites on a daily basis. Each station returns a tape containing the collected data once a week to the project's headquarters in Tucson. The total throughput of raw data from the field exceeds one GB per day. The performance and reliability of the network is excellent, with an equipment downtime of 0.4%. The scientific duty cycle exceeds 90% and the daily sidelobes are virtually invisible. Routine servicing of the field stations has proceeded since the deployment according to plan.
There are a number of important, though relatively minor, enhancements to the field systems that will be developed and installed. These fall mainly in the area of increasing the degree of instrument automation in order to decrease the support load and enhance reliability. Software development will continue to improve the control systems and provide additional self- diagnostic capabilities. Similarly, development of engineering data-analysis software is continuing to facilitate the review and analysis of the functioning of the remote instruments, including fault diagnosis and long-term trend analysis.
The instrument group will prepare for replacing the nominal 256 x 256 detector with a higher-resolution format. Such a changeout should be possible with the existing optical and telescope control systems. Initial results of a seeing-effects study have indicated that the current optics and the image sampling rate are satisfactory for the larger format system. This new detector will provide spatial resolution compatible with the optical resolution, thus eliminating the spatial aliasing in the current system. Increasing the detector scale would provide significantly improved helioseismic resolution in the near-surface regions that are the home of intense magnetic fields that cause many of the more dramatic aspects of solar activity, extend all aspects of "local helioseismology" and enable many non-helioseismic, diachronic solar measurements.
The data management group will continue to reduce data at cadence with the observations in the field and distribute them to the community. Refinement of the processing software continues, as does routine system administration and maintenance. Consulting services are being provided to the community in support of data access and analysis. The group is studying the data processing impact of the detector upgrade as a part of the engineering study.
The science teams are being supported in a series of workshops to stimulate and facilitate rapid review and analysis of network data. This effort is primarily to accentuate and coordinate the science, but it also will promote rapid feedback from the community about the character of the data, which will be helpful in shaping service, processing, and development strategies. The science teams will submit their results in a series of papers to archival journals in early FY 1997.
Recent accomplishments include:
Completion of field instrument deployment Initiation of routine network data acquisition Initiation of routine service visits to the sites Successful data reduction and merging from remote sites Distribution of reduced network data to the GONG community Publication of the First Results
31 Specific FY 1997 tasks will include the following:
Operate the network and coordinate activities with the host sites Develop software for engineering analysis of remote instrument functions Continue routine operation of the prototype instrument Continue routine preventive and emergency service of the field stations Continue development work on planned modifications to the current system Reduce network data and deliver it to the community Continue the development of data reduction and distribution of software enhancements Coordinate and facilitate science team research efforts Complete a study on continuing the observations for a full 11-year solar cycle and upgrading the detectors
GONG Long-Range Milestones
May 1995 Began three-site network operations October 1995 Began six-site network operations May 1996 Publication of first science results January 1997 Proposal for camera changeout and continued operations September 1998 Continue or terminate network operations September 1999 Continue or complete initial data reduction
The anticipated long-term funding requirements in inflated dollars (3% model) are as follows:
Fiscal Year 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Funding (MS) 2.00 2.39 2.86 2.59 2.35
Budget: The GONG project completed the deployment of the network field stations in early October 1995. Full scale operations and data reduction/distribution are underway. Routine service visits to the field stations by the technical staff are being conducted at the rate of one station per month. This group will also be completing a number of tasks relating primarily to broadening the degree of automation with a view to improving reliability and reducing long- term support costs.
On the advice of the GONG Scientific Advisory Committee, the project is studying continuing the observing run from three years to an 11-year solar cycle and changing the detectors on the instruments to a higher resolution on a time scale of three years, to catch the rising slope to the next solar maximum. For both issues, the objective is to develop the feasibility, cost, and scientific merit for a proposal to the NSF. This will require sustaining the instrument staff near its current level and making some modest non-payroll outlays, at least for FY 1997, until the two matters are resolved.
From a scientific point of view, it appears likely that both of these modifications to the baseline project plan can produce very significant payoffs in our knowledge of the Sun, and at a relatively small cost compared to the overall investment in the program. If funding is not available to pursue these studies, it will become increasingly difficult, and certainly much more expensive, to add either of them in later years. If the funding is inadequate to assure
32 prompt servicing of the network and good turnaround on data reduction and distribution, the integrity of the baseline program will be jeopardized as well.
2. RISE/PSPT Program
The origin of the solar cycle has been a key astrophysical problem for many years. It received wider recognition with the recent suggestion that solar-cycle changes in luminosity may have a measurable influence on terrestrial conditions. A growing expectation that rapid progress can be made against this problem is fueled by: 1) sensitive space observations of total solar irradiance changes; 2) new helioseismic inferences of sub-photospheric solar properties; and 3) high-dynamic-range numerical simulations that allow the "multi-scale" complexity of the cycle problem to be explored. While this is good news, the bad news is that spatially resolved (full-disk) solar observations with the differential (spatial) photometric accuracy of the space-based photometry do not exist. Such data are needed, both as an outer boundary condition for interpreting helioseismic changes, and to interpret the measurable solar luminosity changes in the context of physical models for the variability mechanism.
The Precision Solar Photometric Telescope project will develop and operate a small network of specialized instruments for obtaining high-spatial-resolution and high-photometric- accuracy solar surface photometry. These data will be obtained with a nearly continuous temporal resolution of about one hour and with spatial resolution only limited by the 15-cm telescope aperture. Based on the GONG site survey data, the PSPT network can expect to achieve occasional uninterrupted observing periods of half a solar rotation period (13 days) using a 3-site network.
To realize diffraction-limited resolution in the presence of seeing, the instrument uses a fast tip-tilt mirror in combination with digital frame-selection hardware. The optical design of the instrument minimizes optical complexity and scattered light in the image plane. The 2K x 2K CCD camera electronics are being developed by a commercial vendor to provide an 8 Mpix/s readout with approximately 30 electron read noise. The coated, deep-well detector will be used at four wavelengths between Ca II K at 393 nm out to approximately 700 nm.
The PSPT project is tightly constrained by budget and by community pressure to deploy the instruments as soon as possible. Our development philosophy has been to depend heavily on commercial vendors and to cultivate partnerships with other astronomical institutions. Since these instruments will produce data with a broad range of applications, the PSPT project has several potential scientific and fiscal collaborations. To date, we have initiated partnerships with two other institutions, Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma and the NCAR High Altitude Observatory. Spanish astronomers at the IAC have also expressed an interest in a partnership to operate a PSPT on Tenerife.
Several PSPT milestones have been achieved during the last year:
• The final telescope tracker assembly has been built and is in production. •A prototype instrument (funded by the Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma) was deployed in Italy. • Improvements to the flat-fielding algorithm were made that make it feasible to use with the large format 2K x 2K camera data.
33 • The data-acquisition system and first version software control package have been successfully implemented.
During FY 1997 we expect to build two final telescope systems and deploy them at Mauna Loa and/or Tenerife.
3. SOLIS
Improved long-term measurements of solar activity are key to any scientific strategy for understanding the solar cycle. NSO is already the acknowledged world leader in full-disk synoptic measurements. SOLIS, proposed to NSF in February 1996 as part of the "Renewing NOAO" proposal, represents a new generation of instruments that will form the core of the US synoptic capability for the next twenty years and can serve as a prototype for a worldwide synoptic network.
In order to relate measurements from GONG, RISE/PSPT, and other space-and groundbased instruments to the overall pattern of solar activity, it is necessary to make daily measurements of magnetic and velocity fields, as well as chromospheric and coronal structure, with a stable suite of well-calibrated instruments. The data provided by the SOLIS instruments will be dramatically improved in quality, quantity, and network availability compared to what is currently available. SOLIS will be cheaper to operate because of consolidation, automation, and modernization. SOLIS will replace NSO's existing synoptic facilities.
SOLIS comprises four instrument packages: a Vector Spectromagnetograph that measures the strength and direction of the magnetic field in the photosphere over the full solar disk every 15 minutes, which is of prime importance for understanding the dynamics of magnetic fields and their relation to chromospheric and coronal structure (the present spectromagnetograph only measures the net magnetic flux along the line of sight, typically once a day); a Full Disk Patrol that delivers digital full-disk images of the Sun in various spectral lines at high cadence (the present instruments typically deliver one image per day on film with a very limited selection of spectral lines); a Coronal Emission-line Imager and Photometer that provides intensity and velocity images of the corona in at least five spectral lines with high spatial resolution (the current coronal photometer performs intensity scans around the solar disk at coarse resolution once per day in three lines); and a Sun-as-a-star Precision Spectrometer that delivers very precise spectra of integrated sunlight over a substantial spectral range (current measurements are performed in a labor-intensive manner with a heterogeneous collection of older instruments using just a few spectral lines).
It is important to build and operate SOLIS soon to study the next solar maximum around the year 2000 and to support SOHO, TRACE, GONG, RISE, and other ground- and space-based observations.
During FY 1997, NSO will prepare for SOLIS by putting in place a Scientific Advisory Committee; by continuing to use its existing synoptic telescopes as testbeds for state-of-the- art hardware and software concepts applicable to SOLIS; by continuing its outreach to the solar physics community through the SOLIS web page, the NSO Users' Committee (which has strongly endorsed SOLIS), AAS/SPD meetings, other fora such as NSO workshops and the community-based Solar Magnetism Initiative; and by pursuing the possibility of
34 partnerships. Potential partners include the US Air Force, the NCAR High Altitude Observatory, and the NOAA Space Environment Center.
4. Study of CLEAR
Over the last few years, NSO has considered several options for replacing its productive but aging "flagship" telescopes.
The international Large Earth-based Solar Telescope (LEST) project aimed to construct a modern high-angular-resolution solar facility for observations at visible and near-infrared wavelengths. The LEST project is currently "on hold" in Europe; the US is not an active participant.
A phase-A study was made of a concept to upgrade the McMath-Pierce telescope to a larger (2.5 - 4-m) aperture: the "Big Mc." This would greatly enhance light gathering power, as well as angular resolution at far infrared wavelengths. The McMath-Pierce is the only sizable solar telescope in the world capable of imaging at all infrared wavelengths accessible from the ground.
A third concept is now under study. CLEAR (Coronagraphic and Low Emissivity Astronomical Reflector) attempts to combine the following characteristics in one telescope: high angular resolution using adaptive optics; access to the full infrared spectrum; highly accurate polarimetry; high sensitivity; coronagraphic capability.
A technical and budgetary feasibility study of the CLEAR concept carried out during FY 1996 made significant progress. The study focused on a design with the following characteristics: 4-m f/3.75 off-axis Gregorian with f/30 secondary foci; minimum spectral range 0.38-15 micron; 0.1 arcsec image quality over a 5 arcmin field of view; polarimetry with 0.01% accuracy; adaptive optics initially designed for 1.6 micron; and low scattering (coronagraphic quality).
The study included the design, modeling, analysis, and costing of the telescope. The cost model considered various descoping options, including relaxing the diameter and scattered light requirements.
During FY 1997, a 1/6-scale mock-up of the telescope enclosure will be constructed to study issues related to seeing and dust control. To evaluate the suitability of existing solar observatory sites for CLEAR, solar scintillometers (acting as seeing-monitor proxies) will be installed on Mauna Loa, Big Bear Solar Observatory, Sac Peak, and La Palma (Canary Islands). Other site parameters of interest are the amount of time during which good seeing and/or coronal sky conditions are satisfied. The GONG site survey data are being used to evaluate sunshine and extinction conditions.
Outreach for this project includes a web page, lectures, and workshops.
NSO's goal is to complete the CLEAR study by the time of the next decadal astronomy review and to discuss with the solar physics community what concept should form the basis for the premier groundbased solar telescope in the 21sl century.
35 B. Instrumentation
1. General
NSO/Sacramento Peak FY 1997 Projects
Project Priority Payroll ($K) Non-payroll ($K)
Active and Adaptive Optics 1 141 62 CCD and IR Cameras 2 33 Dual Fabry-Perot 3 24 CLEAR Development 4 19
NSO/Kitt Peak FY 1997 Projects
Project iority Payroll ($K) Non-payroll ($K) NSF NASA Near Infrared Magnetograph 2 1 44 5 15 KPVT TCS Upgrade 2 179 35 32 Infrared Array and Controller 3 100 McMath-Pierce Control Upgrade 4 88 40
Total 311 180 47
2. Sacramento Peak
Image Quality Improvement: Solar astronomers regard subarcsecond observations as a cornerstone of their effort to understand fundamental physical processes on the Sun. The interaction of surface convection with magnetic fields, the buildup and release of flare energy, and the emergence and decay of sunspots are examples of phenomena that are thought to involve small scales (< 0.2 arcsec or 150 km).
NSO/SP has initiated an active program to obtain consistently higher resolution with the Vacuum Tower Telescope. A correlation tracker that stabilizes the image has been in regular use for a number of years. This device tracks solar granulation, which occurs over the entire Sun, with a high-speed mirror to remove image motion caused by atmospheric "seeing" or by telescope vibration. A frame selection system, designed to capture sharp images during moments of unusually good seeing, is also in use and has produced diffraction-limited images.
Improvements in the VTT optical system: In FY 1996, the optical performance of the VTT was measured, both by Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensing and by interferometry. The results show that the image degradation arising from the telescope alone can be worse than that caused by atmospheric seeing at Sac Peak. Earlier work showed that solar heating of the entrance window and its cell, which predominantly affects the edge of the window, produces time-varying spherical aberration and higher order circular modes in the wavefront. These effects have been studied in detail using interferograms made by combining laser light reflected from the two sides of the window. Besides the circular modes caused by the heated
36 edge, these measurements also show considerable astigmatism that may be temporally variable, as well as some coma.
The thermal effects on the wavefront due to heating of the window have been greatly reduced by an active cooling system that senses the gradient of temperature both across the face of the window and through its 4-cm thickness by combining the measurements from pairs of sensors on the outside and on the vacuum side of the window. The error signal for the servo is derived by comparing the average of one pair of sensors at the edge of the window to another pair 10-cm in from the edge.
A Shack-Hartmann wave front sensor was used to measure the aberrations of the entire telescope, including the entrance window. Comparison of the wavefront errors produced by the window alone to the overall wavefront measured with the Shack-Hartmann showed that a significant portion of the image degradation coming from the telescope does not arise in the window. Subsequent tests of the two 1.1-m diameter Cervit turret mirrors, using a Ritchey- Chretien test set up with a 1.27-m aperture sphere on loan from the NOAO optical shop, showed that the edge of one of the Cervit mirrors is turned down by at least two waves. This mirror is being resurfaced and should be back in the telescope by the end of FY 1996. We expect that the optical performance of the VTT will be greatly improved by the window cooling and the refigured flat.
Active Optics: Further improvement of the optical performance of the VTT can be achieved by using a deformable mirror aimed at correcting residual fixed and slowly changing aberrations. A relatively slow system with a bandwidth of a fraction of a Hz, using a Shack- Hartmann wavefront sensor with a limited number of subapertures should be faster and less costly to implement than a high-bandwidth and "user friendly" adaptive system aimed at full atmospheric compensation. Such an "active" optics system is currently under development, based on a 97-actuator Xinetics mirror purchased with USAF and NSO funds. This active system is regarded as a stepping stone to the more elaborate adaptive optics system that has been under development at Sac Peak for a number of years. Not only should it further improve the performance of the VTT on an interim basis, it will also provide experience and insight into solar-related AO problems such as wavefront sensing using solar granulation. This development will continue through FY 1997.
Solar Image Tracker (Mark II Correlation Tracker): By the end of FY 1996, a Mark II version of the correlation tracker will be finished. It uses commercially available off-the- shelf components, which should provide better reliability and maintainability than the wirewrapped boards used in the older version. Like its predecessor, its correlation algorithm is based on the fast Fourier transform (FFT), but it uses 12-bit arithmetic rather than the 8-bit used previously. The Mark II uses a 64 x 64 pixel Dalsa CCD camera, which offers better resolution and sensitivity than the 32 x 32 Reticon sensor used in the old tracker.
The old and new correlation tracker cameras and sunspot trackers are mounted in an optical system developed under the AO project that shows on video where one is tracking within the 170 x 170 arcsecond field of view of the AO system. A separate video camera with higher magnification shows the quality of the image.
Adaptive Optics: Since the successful demonstration of the Lockheed 19-segment adaptive mirror at Sac Peak in 1991, there has been pressure by users to build a facility AO system for
37 the VTT. Technical problems and lack of personnel have slowed the realization of this goal. Progress has been made in all aspects of the supporting optical system, and much of the optics for the innovative LCD wavefront sensor are in place. The wavefront sensing problem in solar adaptive optics is more difficult than in nighttime adaptive optics because no point source is available on the solar disk. A solar wavefront sensor has to function with solar
granulation,& an extended low-contrast scene.
NSO is using a 640 x 640 pixel thin-film transistor LCD computer to create a spatial mask for filtering the granulation scene and thereby encoding wavefront slopes as intensity variations at the detector. The concept is not unlike the "knife-edge" or Foucault test, the generalizations being that the edges are placed over intensity features (granules) everywhere in a scene, and that the mask is dynamic, being updated as the granulation pattern changes. Because the LCD display is large, the wavefront sensor optical system is placed in one of the (1.5-m diameter by 19.8-m long) instrument vacuum tanks in the VTT.
NSO's efforts are currently concentrated on validating this wavefront sensor concept and comparing its performance to the modified Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor. Evaluating and understanding the wavefront sensor is a crucial milestone to be achieved during FY 1997.
A second milestone for FY 1997 is to complete the continuous faceplate mirror that is based on 61 actuators made by Queensgate Instruments. These actuators have 0.1% linearity; the inherent piezo hysteresis is removed by a servo control that obtains its distance measurement from a capacitor mounted in the center of each actuator. A mockup of the large mirror that used 12 of these actuators uncovered many problems. Consequently, all 75 of the actuators were rebuilt at Sac Peak, a labor-intensive job that considerably slowed the development of this mirror.
CCD Camera: A Thomson IK x IK camera with 10-bit resolution and a frame rate of up to 5 frames/sec, and a KODAK Megaplus camera, with 1317 x 1035 pixel format and 8-bit resolution running at 6 frames/sec are now available at NSO/SP. These cameras can be used for high-speed imaging and frame selection. A 2K x 2K 12-bit camera has been ordered from Xedar. This camera will be delivered and available to the users by the end of FY 1996.
Infrared Program: NSO/SP maintains two near-IR camera systems which were developed through outside collaborations (with Michigan State University, Wyoming Infrared Observatory, and Haverford College). These cameras account for about 25% of the user time allocated at the VTT and the Evans coronagraph. Some funds were allocated during the last year for IR optics and the purchase of an IR array. During FY 1997 we expect to develop a 1- 2.5 micron system that is available year-round at NSO/SP. A longer-range goal is to develop a lKx IK HgCdTe camera that will satisfy user needs for both photospheric and coronal observations.
3. NSO/KittPeak
a. Infrared Program
Near Infrared Magnetograph, NIM-2: The major goal of the infrared program during FY 1997 will be to commission NIM-2, an imaging vector magnetograph based on a
38 piezoelectrically-tuned, servo-stabilized Fabry-Perot etalon from Queensgate Instruments. Fabrication is nearly complete. First light is scheduled for September 1996.
The existing Near Infrared Magnetograph (NIM) is a unique instrument developed to map the true magnetic field strength in the deep solar photosphere using the McMath- Pierce Telescope, the 13.7-m vertical spectrograph, a 256 x 256 InSb array camera, and two Zeeman-sensitive Fe I lines near 1565 nm. Using the same infrared camera and an improved data system, NIM-2 will complement rather than replace NIM: the existing instrument will excel in spectral resolution and, therefore, magnetic discrimination; NIM-2 will have better time resolution and geometric stability (because the field of view is imaged simultaneously rather than built up by scanning). The NIM-2 project is partially supported by a grant from NASA. In FY 1997, we expect to complete the control software and commission the Amber-based system based on the existing IR camera.
Large-Format Infrared Array Camera and Controller: The McMath-Pierce facility offers capabilities that are unique in the world for infrared solar observations: an unobstructed, all-reflecting light path (giving full wavelength coverage with low thermal background) and large aperture (for angular resolution and photon flux). These capabilities cannot be fully exploited without a state-of-the-art infrared array detector at the focal plane. In FY 1998, we will begin the migration to an ALADDIN-based camera, with the goal of deploying the camera for use with both NIM and NIM-2 in FY 1999.
The present detector is a commercial 256.x 256 InSb array from Amber Engineering, re housed in a dewar from Infrared Laboratories. We chose this system because of its low initial cost and 1-5 micron wavelength coverage. It has succeeded in jump-starting magnetic observations with NIM and enabling a new class of results from CO spectroscopy. However, the Amber system is becoming obsolete (this only takes 3-4 years in the realm of infrared technology). Its non-astronomical origins and suboptimal noise characteristics require that a considerable amount of expensive labor be invested during each use to ensure best performance.
The objective of this project is to replace the Amber array with a state-of-the-art 1-5 micron camera, taking full advantage of NOAO's investment in the ALADDIN array development project. The performance of this system will surpass the Amber system in every important respect (dark current, readout noise, quantum efficiency, and immunity from electronic interference); its 15-20 Hz frame rate is well matched to the requirements of NIM and NIM-2. A 512 x 512 array will give an adequate active-region field of view for many of the anticipated scientific applications. However, a 512x1024 or 1024 x 1024 array would be ideal for spectroscopy and polarimetry with a beam-splitter.
Our program assumes that NOAO will provide without cost to NSO one or more science- grade ALADDIN arrays. NOAO/JPG will produce an ALADDIN controller for NSO during FY 1998 requiring an appropriate expenditure of NSO resources.
The present camera-control software for the Amber system is relatively simple and isolated from the other functions of NIM, such as polarization modulation and spatial scanning. The Aladdin system likewise has a well-defined software interface. We therefore intend to modify existing software to accommodate the Aladdin upgrade.
39 b. Telescope Improvement
Kitt Peak Vacuum Telescope Control Upgrade: The goal of this project is to upgrade the 23-year old control and guiding system of the NSO/KP Vacuum Telescope. The maintenance of the guider and control system has become difficult. Many of the parts are obsolete or no longer available. The guider does not function properly in some operational modes or in light clouds. Recent magnetograph comparisons indicate that spurious image motion is a serious problem for overall magnetic calibration, and they highlight the importance of accurate polarimetry. These problems are being addressed by a multi-year, phased upgrade project supported by both NOAO and NASA. The first elements of the upgrade project have been completed with the installation of new stepper motor controllers and a new drive gear reducer for the large mirror used to scan the solar image. A new mounting for another mirror is about to be installed. This mount will allow it to be moved rapidly to correct deleterious image motion.
The fast image motion compensation will be completed in 1996 by replacing the detectors on the existing limb guider translation stage by ones which operate much more rapidly and have no moving parts. These will provide both an error signal to feed to the movable mirror and also much improved guiding performance under less-than-ideal observing conditions. A recent observing project coordinated with the SOHO satellite emphasized the urgency to complete these improvements. Poor observing conditions introduced considerable noise into the data which would have been absent if the upgrades had been completed. .
A major part of the upgrade is to replace the ancient PDP 11/73 and CAMAC control system. The design of this is underway and involves the use of a distributed control and command system. The design uses well-established hardware and software methods proven in the field of industrial control, and is similar in many ways to the system developed for the GONG project. It breaks ground for the proposed SOLIS facility in its ability to be accessed remotely and in managing large amounts of data efficiently. It will be easily maintainable and has flexibility to allow new capabilities to be added easily.
The final phase of the project will be the addition of compensation devices to correct for polarization introduced by oblique reflections from the mirrors which feed the telescope. The concept design is based on large-aperture, liquid-crystal, variable retarders under computer control.
Fabrication of the mechanical components of the fast #4-mirror mount was completed in February 1996. Integration and testing of the control electronics and #4-mirror mount is now underway in Tucson. Installation at the telescope of the new mount and control electronics is planned for September 1996. Procurement of the Telescope Control Computer and guider control hardware is underway. Installation of the new guider system is planned for late 1996. In FY 1997, we plan to complete the installation of the new #4 mirror mount and control electronics, and complete the installation and testing of both the image-motion compensation electronics and the guider control electronics and software.
40 McMath-Pierce Control Upgrade—Spectrograph Control: The current grating control system is controlled by a FORTH program running on an obsolete computer (PDP 11/73). For maintainability and compatibility with other Kitt Peak data systems, this system will be replaced by modern hardware and software. Also, the current software cannot take advantage of the absolute positioning capability of the new dual-turret spectrograph.
A system is proposed to set the grating, rock the grating if desired, and provide external instruments (such as NLM and visitor instruments) with control of the spectrograph. The current CAMAC will be replaced with a VME-based system and VX-Works, the same hardware and software as planned for the KPVT TCS upgrade. The user interface would again be derived from the KPVT interface and the other KPNO interfaces. The production of new hardware and software solutions will be kept to a minimum. In FY 1997, we will design, fabricate and install a spectrograph control system.
McMath-Pierce Control Upgrade—Guider: The McMath-Pierce facility comprises three large telescopes that are used for a wide variety of observations. A modern guiding system that is computer controlled and that is available all the time is an indispensable part of a modern telescope. There is no permanent guiding system available at the McMath-Pierce facility. The only computer-controlled guiding system is the NEM guider that needs to be put in place whenever it is used. Although a general guiding system was envisioned many years ago, it never became reality. The poor guiding system is one of the major drawbacks of the telescope, especially for collaborative efforts where accurate positions on the solar disk are important. A modern guiding system would significantly enhance the scientific productivity of the McMath-Pierce telescope.
The proposed guiding system will enable accurate tracking, guiding, and scanning of the Main and East Auxiliary telescopes above the main spectrograph. Any coordinate on the solar disk will be reached with high accuracy; complex scans will be performed under computer control. The guiding system will implement the best parts of the NIM guiding system and the new KPVT TCS system. There will be 4 to 8 guiders, which can be switched on or off depending on position on the solar disk. The computer will be a VME-based system with VX-Works, shared with the spectrograph control system described above. We expect to complete design and fabrication in FY 1997 and install and test the guider system in FY 1998.
C. Telescope Operations and User Support
1. Sacramento Peak
Tests of the aberrations of the entrance window of the Vacuum Tower Telescope (VTT) have shown that their variations are due primarily to insufficient cooling of the window. The window cooling system has been modified by R. Dunn and L. Wilkins. It is now in operation and all tests show that it is working adequately.
The slip rings of the VTT were worn and have caused interruptions of observations. The slip rings have been replaced. They are functioning perfectly.
41 An improved version of a correlation tracker is being built for the VTT. This device will allow highly precise tracking of a small field of view, by locking onto images of solar granulation. The new tracker is still under development and is scheduled for a test run in September.
A CCD data acquisition system, employing 1024 x 1024 CCDs, has been developed in collaboration with the Kiepenheuer Institute. The prototype is built and has been replicated for use at NSO. This system is in operation.
VTT optics continue to be evaluated. The Cervit elevation mirror has been removed and shipped to Kodak for refiguring.
A new 2K x 2K data acquisition system is being developed and is scheduled for completion during FY 1997.
2. NSO/KittPeak
An especially critical, long-term operation and maintenance issue facing NSO/KP is the aging Telescope Control Systems (TCS) at the McMath-Pierce and Vacuum Telescopes on Kitt Peak (see instrumentation section). The current control systems are increasingly difficult to maintain, resulting in increased downtime. The replacement of these systems with modern hardware and software is a high priority and is now underway. The upgrades and schedule are fully described in the NSO Instrumentation section.
V. THE SCIENTIFIC STAFF
The roles, responsibilities, and terms and conditions of employment of the scientific staff were described in the renewal proposal. Over the past 10 years, scientific staffing levels have declined by 30 percent overall. We have adopted the philosophy that the size of the scientific staff should be determined by the functional requirements. As a matter of AURA policy, tenured and tenure track staff should have 50 percent of their time available for research, and scientists should be able to devote about 25 percent of their time to research. It is uniform throughout the organization that the staff estimates that they are spending only about 15 percent of their time on research, and this is a situation that must be ameliorated. We are taking several steps toward doing so, including reducing the workload by reducing services offered to users, by encouraging sabbaticals, and by re-organizing the way work is carried out.
The staffing levels that we believe are required based on functional responsibilities, as justified in the renewal proposal, are compared with current staffing levels in the following tables:
42 Table 5 Nighttime Scientific Staffing
Function Chile Staffing Arizona Staffing First 4-m Class Telescope at Site 5 5 (Telescope Performance, IR Imaging, IR Spectroscopy, Optical Imaging, Optical Spectroscopy) Second 4-m Telescope at Site 3 3 Third (Moderate Aperture) Telescope at Site 2 2 Telescope Upgrades/SOAR 1 0 Instrumentation Program Program Scientist 1 Project Scientists 2 3 Conceptual Design 1 1 IRAF 1 Public Outreach 1 Interface to User Community 1 USGP 5
Total 14 23
Current Staff 13.5 22
In addition, the goal is for each nighttime site to have three NSF-funded post docs, with a new three- year appointment being made each year. In practice, KPNO currently has two; CTIO has one, and in addition has a CTIO fellow (a Chilean astronomer) and a Gemini fellow.
In principle, some of the staff required for the USGP and/or the interface to the user community could be based in Chile; however, at the present time, because of the higher cost of living in Chile and the expatriation premium, salary and benefits for Chile-based scientists are approximately 40 percent higher than for Tucson-based staff. To minimize overall costs, we will base in Chile only those staff directly associated with the operation of CTIO. We are also in the process of hiring a consultant to review AURA's compensation policy with the goal of developing new policies that will meet the needs of both Gemini and NOAO.
In the renewal proposal, NSO similarly established a scientific staffing level based on functional responsibilities. The summary of their required staffing is as follows:
43 Table 6 NSO Scientific Staff
Function NSO Staffing Telescope Scientists (VTT, McMath-Pierce, 4 Evans, KPVT, Hilltop) Instrument (Operations) Scientists 4 Instrument Projects 2 Digital Library 0.5 Conceptual Design 0.5 Proposal Preparation for External Funding 1.0 Outreach/User Interface 0.5 GONG 2.0
Total 14.5 Current Staffing 13
What these tables quantify is that the current scientific staff is low relative to the functional responsibilities, as we already knew given the low amount of time available for research. In addition, the staffing tables also reflect some changes in priorities for the future that will make it even more impossible to maintain the current program. In particular, the Tucson program calls for approximately one-quarter of the scientific staff to work primarily on Gemini; the current staff devotes most of its time to the operation of six telescopes on Kitt Peak, rather than to the three that are shown in the table. In other words, ramping up the support of Gemini to the level required when its operations phase begins is compatible with current staffing levels only if we simultaneously ramp down operations at Kitt Peak.
A second issue that must be addressed is scientific staff salaries, which now seriously lag salaries computed on an 11-month basis at comparable institutions (see Table 7). We will begin to address this issue by targeting salary adjustments to Assistant and Associate Astronomers.
Table 7 Comparison of Scientific Staff Salaries
Rank NOAO STScI AURA Universities Astronomer/Professor $84,081 $95,320 $97,840 Associate Astronomer/Professor $57,091 $70,510 $66,000 Assistant Astronomer/Professor $48,500 $52,240 $56,800
Key staff changes this year include the appointment of Dave Silva to the position of Assistant Astronomer in the USGP program and the planned departure of Richard Elston to the University of Florida. Ron Probst has transferred from KPNO to CTIO for three years to assist with the commissioning of new infrared instrumentation and the tip/tilt secondary at the Blanco telescope. Jay Elias has transferred to Tucson to oversee the Gemini IRS and will return to CTIO when the project is completed. Recruitments in FY 1996 for an infrared astronomer at CTIO and for a second scientist for the USGP were unsuccessful. These positions will be re-advertised.
44 In addition, a number of tenured scientific staff accepted emeritus positions in FY 1996. These include Helmut Abt, Dave Crawford, Lloyd Wallace, Jack Zirker, and Olin Eggen (half time). Tom Kinman will join the emeritus staff in FY 1997.
The Appendix lists the members of the scientific staff, their recent publications, research plans for the coming year, and functional responsibilities.
VI. EDUCATIONAL OUTREACH
A. Educational Program
Effective in mid-March 1995, a half-time position of Education Officer was established to develop and obtain funding for a K-12 Educational Outreach program for NOAO. This position has been increased to 3/4 FTE for FY 1997. Outside funding (NASA Arizona Space Grant consortium) added another 1/2 FTE to the program through May 1996. NOAO has obtained funding for another student through this program during the next academic year.
It is the role of the Educational Outreach Office to make the science and scientists of NOAO accessible to the K-12 educational community. This is currently accomplished on three fronts: direct classroom involvement, development of instructional materials, and WWW distribution of science resources.
In addition, NOAO has established an Outreach Advisory Board (OAB) consisting of fifteen middle and high school science teachers from districts in the Tucson, Arizona, area. These teachers are receiving priority access to NOAO staff, data, and resources in return for advice on how NOAO can be effective in supporting K-12 science education. The OAB has begun work on writing classroom materials that make use of data from NOAO telescopes. NOAO anticipates providing real astronomical data and instructional materials in support of open- ended, research-based projects in middle and high school classrooms.
NOAO is seeking outside funding to host a teacher enhancement program focused on the use of astronomy in research-based science education. This is an expansion of the past year's work with the OAB and could be offered to middle and high school science teachers across the country. It is recognized that science education in this country is in need of reform, and indeed major (NSF-funded) systemic reform efforts are well underway. In order to learn science, students are now being encouraged to do science, and the use of real astronomical data in classrooms for open-ended research projects is an exciting way to engage students and teachers in the process of scientific inquiry. Data from NOAO telescopes would be provided over the Internet on a continuing basis, covering a pre-selected set of research topics perhaps including [1] search for novae in local group galaxies, with images provided by KPNO (and CTIO) telescopes, and [2] monitoring UV lines in the solar spectrum for variability (which has a tie-in to skin cancer awareness programs in progress at the UA Cancer Center). Providing the data is only one part of this large project. In addition, a successful program requires:
• teacher training for the datasets in use, promoting understanding of the science being done and the research environment of a scientific observatory;
45 • teacher training in use of educational technology, including accessing data via the Internet, and image processing tools used for analyzing the data;
• support from professional educators who have had success implementing research-based instruction within the existing classroom structure;
• a range of sample activities, which could be used once with an initial dataset, used on every new dataset, or as a springboard to original research activities; and
• support from educators and scientists, once participating teachers return to their home institutions. This could be done with e-mail and 800# support, booster training at regional teacher meetings, and by direct contact with astronomer mentors drawn from the large number of observers who use NOAO facilities.
NOAO will also receive funding through Project Astro, which is operated by the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, for the next three years. The goal of Project Astro is to bring professional and amateur astronomers into the classroom, using proven teaching techniques and learning modules, to achieve lasting improvements in the quality of science teaching. Suzanne Jacoby of NOAO has formed the Project Astro-Tucson coalition, which includes individuals from NOAO, Steward, the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, the Flandrau Science Center, the Tucson Amateur Astronomy Association, and the Sahuaro Girl Scout Council.
Within the funding provided from the NOAO budget, the education program will continue its existing activities. In more detail, these are:
1. Direct Classroom Involvement
NOAO staff members visit classrooms in local schools several times during a semester, presenting active learning exercises in planetary, stellar, and solar astronomy. Seed money for this effort came from a NASA IDEA Grant.
2. Development of Instructional Materials
a. Written modules for astronomers visiting classrooms are available and under development, based on our direct classroom involvement program.
b. OAB teachers are prototyping lesson plans using NOAO datasets, with initial emphasis on a search for novae in local group galaxies.
c. NOAO has received NASA funding for the development of classroom materials designed to teach science and math within the context of Hot Topics in Astronomy. This involves packaging a popular level article with accompanying classroom activities.
46 3. WWW Distribution of Science Resources
Materials developed by NOAO are available electronically through the K-12 Educational Outreach Activities link on the NOAO Home Page (URL http://www.noao.edu/). These include brochures about Astronomy as a Career and the instructional materials mentioned above. NOAO actively seeks institutions with quality resources who do not have the capability of disseminating them electronically, and offers to scan, format, and distribute the materials as they wish. An example of this service is the three brochure set of Sharing Science with Children Guides, produced (with NSF support) by the North Carolina Museum of Life and Science.
4. Outreach Advisory Board
This activity will continue, as it has been mutually beneficialto the participating teachers and to the NOAO EO program.
5. Undergraduate Education
The primary program for undergraduate students at NOAO is the NSF-funded Research Experiences for Undergraduates (REU). The annual budget has recently totaled $103K and funded approximately six summer research assistant positions at each of KPNO and NSO and four summer research positions at CTIO. This program is described in more detail in Section VI.C. As noted in that section, the CTIO program will not continue next year.
NSF has also provided funding for about ten trips per year so that undergraduates can accompany faculty advisors during observing runs on Kitt Peak.
6. Graduate Education
Through its research facilities, NOAO plays a major role in graduate education. About 120 students visit KPNO and CTIO each year. In addition, KPNO has recently offered a new program whereby NOAO provides room and board on the mountain for graduate students who wish to spend a month or so in residence supporting visiting astronomers. One visiting graduate student was assigned a week of observing time in order to obtain calibration data for astronomers who had previously obtained imaging data under non- photometric conditions and needed zero-point information. The graduate students who have spent time at Kitt Peak under this program have found it to be a very useful way to learn more about the use and calibration of astronomical instrumentation.
7. Educational Partnership Programs
NOAO hosts two to four students yearly through the NASA Space Grant Program and supports local educational programs including the Southern Arizona Regional Science and Engineering Fair, the Tucson Unified School District Professional Internship Program and Fourth R Program, the University of Arizona Women and Science Engineering Program, and the Pima Community College Occupational Education Shadowing Program.
47 B. Public Information
Beginning in the late 1980s, NOAO de-emphasized its programs in public outreach. It was clear at that time, given overall declines in budgets, that the NSF and many in the astronomical community viewed such programs as a luxury. Priorities within the NSF and in the community have now changed, and in any case NOAO staff feel an obligation to share what they do with the public.
NOAO provides information to the general public through three primary programs:
1. Press Releases and Other Interactions With the Media
NOAO issues press releases when the science warrants it. These releases are infrequent because NOAO believes they will receive more attention if they are restricted to subject matter that is either scientifically significant or of broad general interest. Major newspapers and astronomical publications such as Sky and Telescope are targeted. NOAO also supports frequent press visits to Kitt Peak for filming and in-depth stories for features. We will attempt to increase both the number and visibility of press releases based on NOAO observations during FY 1997.
2. Images
NOAO maintains a file of slides of astronomical objects. These are sold to the print media for use in articles, textbooks, etc. NOAO has recently begun to prepare slide sets accompanied by notes and captions for marketing by the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, which is one of the major sources of educational materials in astronomy. During FY 1997, we will reassess our approach to images and their distribution with the goal of making more effective use of electronic media.
3. Visitor Center
Approximately 100,000 tourists visit Kitt Peak each year. A visitor center is operated, a docent program to provide guided tours has recently been developed, and staff are installing a small telescope for visitor use and developing interactive displays, the latter projects being supported through donations.
C. Research Experience for Undergraduates
The Research Experiences for Undergraduates Program (REU) was established by the National Science Foundation (NSF) to attract students to careers in science and engineering by providing opportunities for undergraduates to participate in scientific research experiences. NOAO plans to provide funding for up to twelve summer research assistant positions assigned to the Kitt Peak National Observatory (KPNO) and the National Solar Observatory (NSO) from an award by the NSF for the 1997 NOAO REU Site Program. Program awards will cover salary and transportation expenses for the students. The 1996 NOAO REU Site Program award funded six KPNO and six NSO summer research positions.
In both 1995 and 1996, an NSF award for the REU program at CTIO funded four summer research assistant positions at NOAO facilities in La Serena, Chile. Funds have not been
48 requested for a 1997 REU Site Program at Cerro-Tololo Inter-American Observatory (CTIO) due to staffchanges. Eileen Friel, who was formerly in charge of this program, has moved to the NSF, and the current CTIO staffis too small to support this program.
The 1997 NOAO REU students will carry out collaborative research projects with scientists at NOAO research facilities on topics ranging from the nature and origin of solar and stellar activity to galaxies and cosmology. Students will be recruited for the program through the distribution of posters and applications to a broad spectrum of colleges and universities. Announcements will be sent to over 700 astronomy, physics, engineering, mathematics, and natural science departments throughout the United States and Puerto Rico. In an effort to attract students from underrepresented areas, primarily women and minorities, NOAO will utilize specific mailing lists, including the Historically Black College List generated by the NSFand a list of American Indian Science and Engineering Society affiliates. Applicants for REU positions will be evaluated through a review process that begins with a graded assessment of all candidates by a designated staff member based on quality of references, application content, and relevancy to NOAO projects. The evaluation will then be distributed to REU project advisors for individual selection of candidates. Staff members will be encouraged to consider strongly the background of each student in conjunction with their overall application grade and specific interest and aptitude for a project area. Staff members wishing to participate in the NOAO REU program submit proposals to division program coordinators. Selection is based on the scientific merit of the proposals and on their effectiveness in providinga wide range of research experiences for the participating students.
In Tucson, at the facilities of Kitt Peak National Observatory, REU students will be involved in a broad range of research topics including stars and stellar systems, galaxies, and cosmology. At the National Solar Observatory in Tucson, REU students will participate in a complementary program of the study of dynamo processes as they occur in the solar interior and solar-type stars. REU students at the National Solar Observatory on Sacramento Peak will join in an integrated research effort designed to develop models of the processes that lead to the build-up and release of energy in solar active regions.
NOAO makes a strong effort to offer REU projects where significant progress can be made during the summer and from which a publication is likely to result. While we have yet to select the specific projects for the REU program in FY 1997, a sample of REU projects in progress in FY 1996 will serve to indicate the diversity of opportunities offered to the students:
Development of software to enable queue scheduling.
Multi-color imaging of M31.
Analysis of the outer regions of M33 to search for non-stellar objects.
Development of on-line World-wide Web tools and services for IRAF.
Analysis of stellar jet interaction to gain insight into density variations around Herbig- Haro Objects 106/107.
49 • Data analysis and instrumentation development for the McMath-Pierce Seeing Improvement Project.
The REU students have an unparalleled opportunity to participate in original research with the NOAO scientific staff along with access to state-of-the-art instrumentation and extensive library collections for astrophysical research. Students and staff participate together in weekly scientific meetings and scheduled lectures, tours of various observatory sites and facilities, and weekend social events. Student Research Presentation sessions are held at each site to allow students the opportunity to give brief talks to NOAO scientific staff members on topics related to their research projects. To encourage students to present papers and posters based on their REU experience at scientific meetings and conferences, NOAO will retain a portion of the REU awards for travel assistance to such events after the close of the program.
While the NOAO REU students may work principally on one research project in close collaboration with a scientific staff member, the total programof lectures, observatory visits, and mutual interactions among the students and staff within the professional and social environment provided by NOAO will, in fact, serve to expose the REU student to not just one topic, but to may facets of modern astronomical research.
VII. COMPUTER SERVICES
A. NOAO - Tucson
The computer facilities in the Tucson office complex serve several general needs for NOAO- Tucson: data reduction and analysis for the scientific staff and visitors, general computingfor all staff members, infrastructure for dedicated computers and for PCs and workstations on staff members' desks, administrative computing, and IRAF development and support. Our distributed computing strategy for Tucson depends on a combination of central, shared facilities (provided and maintained by Central Computer Services—CCS) and a variety of desk top facilities including workstations, PCs, and X-Terminals (provided and maintained by the individual Observatories or Departments). Computing systems are networked together and linked to the computers on Kitt Peak and to the World-wide Web.
The central facilities maintained by CCS must provide an environment for data reduction and analysis of data taken at Kitt Peak by visitors and staff members. As the scientific workstation revolution of the past decade has proceeded and powerful computers have appeared on almost every scientist's desk, it is no surprise that fewer visitors utilize the CCS facilities. Nevertheless, a significant number still use these facilities to reduce and analyze their data in Tucson, especially for the largest and most challenging datasets. Moreover, with the planned arrival of new instruments such as the 8K x 8K mosaic and the IK x IK IR arrays on Kitt Peak in the next year, again outstripping individual workstation capabilities, CCS needs to upgrade the central facilities devoted to data reduction and analysis. Thus the machine Ursa will be upgraded during FY 1996 and FY 1997 to increase CPU speed, main memory capacity, and disk capacity at a cost of $60K.
An academic and scientific institution such as NOAO-Tucson must provide a set of computing services to its staff such as e-mail, document processing, scientific plotting packages and so on. These needs are met by providing sufficient servers and the infrastructure necessary to connect
50 these servers to several hundred terminals, X-Terminals, PCs, and workstations on the staff members' desk tops. Upgrading the infrastructure is ongoing as more and more computers are attached to the network, as more and more scientists and engineers need access to the computer facilities from their home computers, as servers need to be updated and upgraded to handle the load of moreand faster systems utilizing their services, etc. Infrastructure upgrades cost $30K in both FY 1996 and FY 1997.
Pursuant to a directive from the NOAO director and monitored by an ongoing working group, all future administrative software development at NOAO-Tucson will use PC hardware running Windows and the Microsoft Office software suite (Word, Excel, PowerPoint, and Access). Information from these databases will be made available (both internally and, when appropriate, externally) via the facilities of the World-wide Web (WWW).
B. KPNO - Kitt Peak
Computers on Kitt Peak serve three broad (but overlapping) functions: real-time control of the telescopes and instrumentation, data taking (including data reduction and initial analysis), and support for observing and operations of the Observatory. Continuing replacement and upgrading of these computers are driven by three factors: obsolescence, which implies high maintenance costs and lack of functionality (for example, the telescope control system at the 0.9-m telescope is over 15 years old and must be replaced unless the telescope is closed within the next year or so); new technology and improved techniques (for example, the 8K x 8K mosaic imager being developed by the NOAO Instrumentation Group will result in nightly data sets of the order of 30 GB); and changes in standards and approaches (for example, the gradual adoption of Gemini software and standards at KPNO). Furthermore, we strive to provide scientific computing facilities for use by visiting astronomers at the telescope that are comparable in speed and sophistication to the facilities at their home institutions.
At the 4-m telescope, new instrumentation and new standards are slowly converging to mandate a major revamping of the computer systems. KPNO is committed to evolving the overall control environment to one compatible with the Gemini Observatory Control System (OCS). Utilizing the OCS at the KPNO 4-m has several implications: the interface between OCS and the telescope/instrument control systems will be through EPICS (Experimental Physics and Industrial Control System); our existing data collection, archiving, reduction and analysis system (IRAF) must be adapted to use the OCS interfaces; and a "back end" database system must be created to store observing programs and other relevant data. In the short term, new instrumentation (such as the Mosaic Imager and OSU IRIS) will drive continuing upgrades of the computers devoted to data reduction and analysis.
During the latter part of FY 1996 and into FY 1997, our intention is to begin to develop an OCS compatible environment at the 4-m to run in parallel with the existing environment. In FY 1996, we purchased a VME crate to support the development in FY 1997 of an EPICS system to support status reporting and to control portions of the 4-m telescope. Towards this goal, we will utilize portions of the EPICS telescope control systems used at Keck and CFHT. In FY 1997, we will purchase a fast, multi-CPU Sun Workstation, which will support the development of the OCS software and eventually run the actual OCS software and become the home for the "back end" database. Finally, the telescope control system at the 4-m telescope will be modified during FY 1997 to support the removal of CAMAC hardware from the dome (with consequent savings of complexity and heat).
51 In FY 1996, the data taking computers at the 4-m were upgraded to faster computers with more capable i/o systems. More disk storage was also provided. In FY 1997, the network interconnecting the Suns at the 4-m will be changed from Ethernet (10 Mbps) to Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps) and a high capacity digital tape drive (either the new Exabyte "Mammoth" or Digital Linear Tape—each capable of 20-30 GB per cartridge) will be deployed. These latter two projects should substantially increase the data flow between computers (a definite bottleneck in the existing operations) and allow storage of very large datasets on a modest number of tape cartridges. In addition the old Exabyte 8200 tape drives will be upgraded to Exabyte 8505 drives.
At the WIYN, KPNO is investigating layering portions of the OCS onto the existing software to facilitate queue and service observing. The design of the OCS is optimized for scheduling and completing scientific programs and not just for scheduling individual objects to observe. Thus in FY 1997, a CPU card will be purchased for use as an EPICS system. Finally, the suite of KPNO- supported instrumentation at the WIYN will not change significantly during FY 1997, and no rcomputer upgrades will be required for that reason. However, an archiving system utilizing writable CD-ROMs, based on the very successful Save the Bits system, will be installed at the WIYN.
At the 2.1-m telescope, the Suns used for data acquisition were modestly upgraded during FY 1996 in preparation for the return of CCD imaging to this telescope. During FY 1997, we plan additional modest upgrades including upgrading the Sun used for CCD data acquisition and, as above, replacing Exabyte 8200 drives with 8505 drives.
At the 0.9-m, the Coude Feed, and the Burrell Schmidt telescopes, computer changes during FY 1996-1997 will be minimal. No new instrumentation is scheduled for these telescopes that will require new computer facilities and the existing computer facilities are adequate for the instrumentation currently deployed. Any possible future upgrades are on hold until the future of the "small" telescopes at KPNO is determined. In a similar vein, the obsolescent Telescope Control System (TCS) at the 0.9-m telescope will remain as-is through FY 1997.
The administrative facilities on Kitt Peak (supporting both KPNO and NSO) include computer facilities for staff and visitors not currently assigned to a telescope, the mountain-wide data archiving system ("Save the Bits"), and communications facilities that link the mountain network with NOAO-Tucson. During FY 1997, we plan to upgrade the Sun used for data archiving. Finally, there is a good possibility that the communications link between Tucson and Kitt Peak will be upgraded to a fiber connection or a 2 x Tl microwave link; communications gear to take advantage of this increased bandwidth will be acquired in FY 1997 when the link technology is settled.
C. CTIO - La Serena
The computer facilities in the La Serena offices consist of three main parts.
A group of four "public" computers, two SPARCStation 10-41's, and two older VME bus Suns are located in the main computer room. These machines are used for data reduction by visiting astronomers. They also act as central servers providing software, a substantial body of disk storage, and peripherals such as nine-track, Exabyte and DAT tape drives, and printers for the
52 network of scientific and engineering workstations. In addition, these machines provide facilities for general computing and network access for administrative and other non-scientific staff.
A total of 24 workstations are located on the desk tops of individual staff members. All members of the scientific staff now have individual workstations, which they use for data reduction and general scientific computing. These machines have some local disk storage, supplemented by shared access to larger amounts of scratch space on the central servers. Most of these workstations also have individual DAT drives, while other peripherals are available as a shared resource on the central servers. All members of the CTIO computer applications group and some of the engineering staff have desktop workstationsused in performing their functions.
Finally, thereare five laboratory machines: two used for Arcon development, one for support and maintenance of optical CCDs, one for support and maintenance of the IR detectors and instruments, and one for general electronics use.
All computer purchases at CTIO are made centrally. Most majoracquisitions are made using end of year money as onlya small amount of money is explicitly budgeted for computer purchases. In recent years several members of the scientific staff have obtained outside funding (mainly HST grants), part of which has been, or will be, used to upgrade their desk top workstations. At the end of FY 1996 and during FY 1997, we will replace as many as possible of the remaining old low-end desktop workstations at a cost of about$4K per machine. We also expect to replace the two main central servers with new machines (Ultra-Is) at a cost of about $19K per machine. This latter step is necessary in order to cope with the large images which will be generated by the LACCD mosaic imager, and later by the NOAO mosaic imager.
The two VME bus machines in La Serena are now very old and becoming obsolete. The cost of repair in the event of a major failure would greatly exceed the cost of their replacement by a much more capable machine. We plan to retire one of the two (it will not be replaced) and use it as a source of spares for the other in order to retain the capability of reading and writing 9-Track magnetic tapes without investing in an expensive SCSI bus based tape transport.
D. CTIO - Cerro Tololo
Data acquisition on Cerro Tololo is supported by a network of Sun computers located in the various domes.
At each of the 4-m, 1.5-m, and 0.9-m telescopes, two machines are available. The main data acquisition computer (currently a SPARCStation 10-41) is directly connected to the optical CCD (Arcon) and IR (Wildfire) controllers and is used both for the collection and the reduction and initial analysis of the data delivered by these devices. This machine has the bulk of the disk storage (typically 10-11 GB) and is equipped with both Exabyte and DAT tape drives. The secondary machines are older VME bus computers. They have a modest amount of local disk storage and also host nine-track magnetic tape transports. These machines are typically used for data reduction when more than one observer is present at the telescope. A single SPARCStation 10-41 is used at the Schmidt telescope for data acquisition with Arcon.
A further SPARCStation 10-41 fully equipped for data acquisition with Arcon is located in the Cerro Tololo electronics laboratory. This machine is used for test and maintenance work on the optical CCD systems and is also available as a hot spare for the other data acquisition computers.
53 Finally, an additional SPARCStation 10-30 and one low-end SPARCStation are used by the Cerro Tololo support staff for data reduction and general computing while a further low-end machine is available to visiting astronomers waiting between observing runs.
All these machines are connected to one another via a conventional Ethernet, to the USA by a satellite link, and to La Serena by a microwave link (see the communications discussion below). However, a policy decision has been taken that each of the data acquisition computers must be able to perform its basic role in stand-alone mode, so that a failure of one machine does not affect any of the others. A computer owned by the MACHO collaboration is also located on Cerro Tololo and makes use of the mountain Ethernet for network connectivity.
FY 1996 end of year funds are being used to purchase a smart hub in order to implement a sub net for the 4-m dome. This is necessary for operation of the LACCD mosaic imager, which makes heavy use of the network. It is also the first step towards installing fast lOOMb/s Ethernet within the dome. A similar local sub-net will be installed at the 1.5-m telescope during FY 1997, if funding permits. We anticipate that new UItra-170 computers will be purchased to serve as the primary data acquisition computers at the 4-m and possibly 1.5-m towards the end of FY 1997. However, this step requires converting to the Solaris operating system, and hence will only take place once the Arcon software has been ported to that environment. The existing SPARC-10/41s would be retained for use as data acquisition machines for the IR.
The VME bus auxiliary Suns are now very old. The cost of repair in the event of a major failure would greatly exceed the cost of their replacement by a mid-level SPARCStation, which would also offer substantially improved performance. However, in the meantime they do serve a useful though not critical role, providing a second Sun screen in each dome and also access to nine- track magnetic tape drives. Given the present funding situation, our intention is to simply allow these machines to fade away. With the declining use of nine-track tape, an adequate level of service would be retained if only one of these machines were kept running.
There are two rather different telescope control systems in use on Cerro Tololo. The 4-m telescope is controlled by a VME-bus based processor running software based on the VxWorks operating system. A major CTIO project for FY 1995-1997 is to upgrade the drives of the 4-m telescope following experience gained at KPNO. This project also involves changes to the telescope control computer and software. The 1.5-m computer is operated by a similar VME-bus processor but uses an earlier version of the TCP program based on the VRTEX operating system. A project is underway to convert the 1.5-m system to VxWorks, making it compatible with the 4-m system to the maximum possible extent. The 1-m and 0.9-m telescopes are operated by an aging and obsolete commercial TCS, which is a serious maintenance headache. We are currently investigating possible commercial replacements for this system in collaboration with the consortium that will take over operation of the 1-m telescope.
E. CTIO Communications
The microwave link between La Serena and Cerro Tololo suffered a catastrophic failure in November 1995. Rather than repair this home-brew system, a contract was signed with Entel to provide and maintain a microwave system supporting up to four El channels. Currently one channel is used for computer traffic, another provides telephone lines, and two are available for future upgrades. This should be adequate at least until Gemini comes on-line. It must, however,
54 be borne in mind that we may not obtain so favorable a deal from Entel when we seek to increase the bandwidth of the link or when the current contract comes up for renewal in FY 2001. A satellite link, purchased and maintained using NASA funding, provides a direct 56 Kbps link between Cerro Tololo and the Internet in the US. A 56 Kbps satellite link was state-of-the-art when it was installed in 1989 but is now showing its age and seems distressingly primitive. It is heavily used but is already too slow for the demands that users put on it. The load on this link will continue to increase as detector sizes grow and visitors become accustomed to the larger bandwidths routinely available in the US. Thecurrent bandwidth is really only satisfactory for e- mail. It is marginal for WWW access and quite insufficient for transmission of observers' data or for the proper support of assisted, service, and remote observing. As a result, observers are constantly asking for an improvement in its speed. Greater bandwidth is required immediately and much higher bandwidth will be needed to supportGemini operations.
At the present time, the cost per megabyte transmitted using terrestrial services is comparable to the current cost (to NASA) of CTIO's satellite connection. However, the costs for terrestrial links are falling as a result of the widespread installation of fiber optic cables. We thus anticipate that it will soon be practical to obtain a higher effective bandwidth by contracting with commercial vendors (who typically charge for traffic rather than via a fixed tariff for a dedicated line). However, the cost of this service will have to be paid directly from CTIO's budget rather than being invisibly provided as a free service by NASA.
In collaboration with the Universidad de Chile a (commercial) 64 Kbps link is being installed connecting the La Serena facilities to Cerro Calan and thence to REUNA, the Chilean Internet provider. This will help improve communications between CTIO and the Chilean universities, and will also provide a back-up connection to the US.
F. NSO - Sacramento Peak
The computer facilities at NSO/SP are in four areas: Main Lab, Evans Solar Facility, Hill Top, and the Vacuum Tower Telescope (VTT). The Main Lab facility is used for data reduction, analysis, and general computing for staff and visitors. The other facilities are located at telescopes and are mainly used for telescope control and data collection with limited data analysis.
1. Main Lab
To provide adequate computing capabilities within a constrained budget, NSO/SP has moved to a different computer/network architecture. Our plan over the last two years and for the future is to:
a. Upgrade our general-purpose computing environment from older workstations on desks to cost-effective multiprocessor compute/disk servers and workstations/X-Terminals.
b. Where possible, replace PCs with workstations/X-Terminals.
c. Standardize on PC architecture and specific Windows software where workstations/X- Terminals are not possible.
d. Connect all PCs and workstations/X-Terminals to our local network.
55 e. Purchase software that will allow centralized system administration of hardware and software.
The compute/disk servers will be connected by a high-speed network. The workstations/X- Terminals will be connected to the servers through an Ethernet switch. Each server will have 2-4 high-end CPUs, 512 MB memory, and 10-15 GB disk storage.
At the end of FY 1996, we expect to upgrade the Main Lab server, probably to a Sun Ultra 3000 with 2 x 167 MHz CPU, 256 MB memory and 20-30 GB disk. The next steps would include upgrading three SS10/20s to Ultra 2 systems; acquiring FDDI boards for these systems and an Ethernet switch; upgrading about ten SS4/10 systems to replace older Sparcstations; and buying software to centralize system administration.
2. Telescope Computers
The telescope computer systems were upgraded several years ago in anticipation of budget problems. This has paid off handsomely. The current systems meet or exceed the requirements for telescope control. New camera systems are coming on-line this year and next; data acquisition systems for these will be the next major purchases.
Needed enhancements at the telescopes include four display and A/D cards for data acquisition; two X-Terminals; two Exabyte drives; and a spare disk drive.
The telescopes now have five fast cameras with more in prospect. Data acquisition systems need to be purchased at a cost of about $17K per system. An associated problem is data storage for the camera systems and in the Main Lab for analysis. New tape technologies (such as DLT) are available which need to be acquired at a cost of about $13K per system.
G. NSO - Tucson
The NSO/Tucson anonymous FTP archive places a heavy demand on support resources. The data products available to the community consist of the daily Kitt Peak Vacuum Telescope (KPVT) images, Fourier Transform Spectrometer (FTS) atlases, and FTS data archives. During the previous year FTP accesses exceeded 26,000 file acquisitions, while WWW interrogations for the KPVT web pages exceeded 40,000 hits. The archive currently consists of 280 GB of data on nine-track, Exabytes, and CD-ROMs. There is an ongoing project to move all data to CD-ROM. To reduce the support needed to service these requests, NSO has purchased three CD-ROM jukeboxes with a total capacity of 300 disks to place the archive data from the FTS, KPVT, and Sac Peak on-line. We already have placed approximately 50 CDs (30 GB) of data online for FTP access. A proposal to the National Space Weather Program to accelerate the migration of data onto the CD-ROMs has been funded. Combining this with a small grant from the NASA Space Physics Data System, NSO will soon be in a position to increase rapidly the on-line holdings of its Digital Library. A proposal to NASA requesting programmer support to develop a user interface and search tool for the library will be submitted soon.
The administrative and support-staff computers at NSO/Tucson are primarily Macintosh platforms. These computers support the standard Microsoft software suite adopted by NOAO (Word, Excel, PowerPoint and Access) except for Access, for which we substitute the cross-
56 platform FileMaker database program. Microsoft DOS and Windows applications are supported by soft windows.
The only anticipated changes to NSO staff computing resources in FY 1997 are a few additional disks and Exabyte drives.
H. NSO - Kitt Peak
Like solar telescopes, solar Telescope Control Programs (TCPs) are typically specialized. For example, the TCP at the Kitt Peak Vacuum Telescope works on an auxiliary (pickoff) image; at the McMath-Pierce, the main image is used. The KPVT system is designed for smooth image scanning, the McMath-Pierce for stepwise scanning.
The TCPs at both NSO/KP telescopes need to be upgraded with modern hardware and software. The challenge is therefore to design a system that achieves maximum commonality between the two telescopes and with other NOAO systems, while allowing for the specialized requirements of each telescope and looking forward to SOLIS. A program is now underway that addresses that challenge.
The first targetis the PDP-11/FORTH/CAMAC system at the KPVT, which is beingupgraded to a VME/VX-Works system with distributed control. The upgrade of the TCP and spectrograph control program at the McMath-Pierce is patterned after the KPVT approach and is in the early stages of implementation. No major changes are scheduled for the KPVT data acquisition and reduction computers. At the McMath-Pierce, which hosts a wide and fluid complement of staff and visitor instruments, the data acquisition computer is typically associated with the instrument.
The FTS has recently been upgraded with a new A/D converter using commercial audio CD technology. This upgrade will greatly improve the maintainability of the system, and has allowed the use of sophisticated filtering software running on a Pentium-based PC.
I. IRAF
IRAF is an Image Reduction and Analysis Facility that is developed and distributed by NOAO. Early FY 1996 usage was estimated at over 4000 astronomers at over 1500 sites in 24 countries on seven continents. A significant increase in the number of users was seen toward the end of FY 1995 as a consequence of (1) the release of PC (Linux) and Dec Alpha versions of IRAF, and (2) easier access to IRAF distributions via CD-ROM, the Internet, and FTP mirror sites in England, Japan, and India.
IRAF is a highly portable software system for astronomical data acquisition, reduction, and analysis. It provides tools for general image processing, graphics, and visualization of small or large data sets. Usage of IRAF grows as new applications become available, including those for the NASA astrophysics community (e.g., HST, AXAF, EUVE), and as the cost of computers drops.
NOAO is working with the large NASA projects that rely on IRAF to assure that they support a fair share of base system development. In addition, NOAO has undertaken a cost-benefit analysis to assess the desirability of additional cost recovery from individual end users. IRAF is one of NOAO's most scientifically productive "facilities," with over 25% of all groundbased
57 observational papers in the major astronomical journals relying on IRAF to some degree. It also serves as the basis for CCD data acquisition and quick-look assessment at NOAO telescopes, and as the image analysis package for most NOAO staff science.
During FY 1997, IRAF development will continue with major effort going toward:
• Open IRAF to improve integration of IRAF and non-IRAF software via - multi-language programming support (e.g., C, FORTRAN) - direct access to standard data formats (FITS, TIFF) - host execution of IRAF tasks and scripts - distributed applications and network access to IRAF tasks
• New science applications/upgrades - Astrometry package - Data reduction support for CCD mosaics - Error vector support - Infrared data reductions - Ximtool image display upgrade to print/save/load images • CCD Mosaic specifics - New CCD automated reductions for the 8K x 8K mosaic - New Real-time display for immediate analysis of data while array is reading out - New image display to efficiently interact with and display/examine 8K x 8K images
• Data archive support - New database server - Network access to archival data
• Support for Gemini and NOAO observers - NOAO/Gemini unified image headers - Support for quick-look interaction with data at the telescope - Polaris transparency monitor to gauge photometric conditions • Updated platform support (e.g., Silicon Graphics, Hewlett Packard, Macintosh running Linux)
In addition, support for users around the world will continue to occupy about 25% of the IRAF group's effort.
VIII. FACILITIES MAINTENANCE
The issues relating to maintenance of the physical facilities operated by NOAO were outlined in the proposal to renew the cooperative agreement under which we operate. Renovation of the infrastructure was identified in the Bahcall report as its highest priority for groundbased astronomy. While the report focused on scientific facilities, telescopes can function effectively only if the supporting infrastructure and equipment are also maintained at modern levels of efficiency. New technologies are available for heating and cooling and for monitoring and controlling energy use that can dramatically lower operating costs. Failures of aging mechanical systems, such as occurred at the KPNO 4-m telescope this past year, can cost months of lost observing time. Adequate preventive maintenance combined with timely modifications of
58 equipment to ensure the continuing availability of spares is essential in order to limit the risk of catastrophic failure. New communications technologies offer the possibility of changing the way we observe, including more remote observing, and of enabling greater sharing of technical resources across the sites. Gemini, for example, is planning to have key engineering expertise available at only one or the other of its two sites, with support being provided to the other through high bandwidth links. This is an option that will become increasingly important for NOAO as major instrumentation is built in Tucson and sent to overseas sites. A continuing investment in the supporting facilities is required not only to maintain the existing buildings and equipment but also to implement upgraded technology.
NOAO has included in every long-range plan submitted over the past decade a list of deferred maintenance projects. NOAO has to date received no funding outside our basic operating budget to address these outstanding maintenance issues. NOAO notes that this stands in contrast to most other observatories. State appropriations to cover major repairs are often granted to university observatories, and the IRTF recently received one-time funding to upgrade the facility and improve image quality. In response to the Bahcall report, funds were made available to NRAO to repair the tracks at the VLA. It was intended to provide funding to NOAO for maintenance in a subsequentyear, but that funding becamethe victim of the perennial budgetcuts.
In the proposal to renew the cooperative agreement, NOAO identified a large number of outstanding maintenance issues at each of the sites; this list is repeated below with modifications based on work completed in FY 1996 and a reassessment of priorities. A description of each task is given in the renewal proposal, which also estimated that an annual expenditure of $650K per year would be required to correct all of the known problems and to maintain the observatories in a sound state of repair. In this plan, the budget for three of the four sites (CTIO, KPNO, and Tucson) contains about $125K each for maintenance, so that we have set aside about half the funds required to maintain the physical plant. A reassessment of the needs and budget at NSO is in progress. In addition, as partof the descoping of NOAO activities to match the current budget, the NOAO Director has asked all of the Associate Directors to reassess the maintenance requirements in their programs and to identify within their budgets the amount of money that will be required to address all but emergency situations. Each of the directors will then have the responsibility within his allocation for making normal repairs and dealing with repetitive and/or scheduled maintenance, such as repainting of domes and resurfacing of roads.
A. Cerro Tololo
CTIO expects to have approximately $125,000 available for these maintenance projects in FY 1997, and the above list is in order of priority so that substantial progress is likely on items 1-3. We intend to extend the fire-detection system installed in the 4-m in FY 1996 to some of the dormitories and to the smaller telescopes. As Phase II of the program at the 4-m Blanco telescope, we will begin the installation of an automated fire-fighting system.
The remaining safety item on the list is the installation of guard rails on the Cerro Tololo access road. In recent years we have installed 483 linear meters of guard rails in sectors of the greatest potential danger. In order to offer greater protection to people using the road, we have estimated that a further 10,200 m of guard rail are needed, at a cost of $US 27.50/linear meter ($44,155 per mile, total $300 K). Becauseof the expense of installing guard rails along the full road we are currently giving higher priority to support of a municipal observatory in Vicuna as part of the overall light-pollution control effort at CTIO, in the hope that this will
59 divert the increasing flow of tourists to Vicuna. There is, however, a danger that in fact this will heighten, rather than decrease interest in the trek to Tololo. We will assess what happens and attempt to respond accordingly. Unless and until funding becomes available for guard rails, we will continue to do what we can to improve safety on the access road through the road widening program for Gemini and through the judicial placement of additional safety
Summary
1. Fire detection/alarm system - small telescopes $ 20,000 2. Fire-fighting system - 4-m telescope 22,000 3. Vehicle fleet renovation 80,000 4. Water system, Tololo (pipeline) 20,000 5. Telescope 4-m repainting 15,000 6. Power House 25,000 7. Main access road to Tololo 300,000 Total funds required $482,000
B. KPNO
In FY 1996, administration of KPNO and Tucson Facilities was consolidated under a single management structure to reduce duplication of effort. This unified approach to the oversight of both facilities will result in reduced costs of operation and provide backup support between the two sites. In addition, an in-depth assessment of the Kitt Peak facilities was initiated to identify critical areas and ensure that limited maintenance funds are utilized most effectively. Based on that reassessment, we have modified the list of facilities maintenance items in the proposal to include four new items: energy conservation improvements, telecommunications systems expansion, upgrade of the4-mgenerator control system, andvisitor center modifications.
Summary
1. Utility (water/sewer/telephone) lines* $120,000 2. Dormitory/ADAupgrades 30,000 3. General building repairs/modifications * 90,000 4. Water system repairs ** 60,000 5. Energy conservation improvements * 55,000 6. Telecommunication system improvements * 350,000 7. Visitor Center modifications * 20,000 8. Replace Kitt Peakbus * 140,000 9. Upgrade 4-mgenerator control system ** 8,500 10. 4-mdome/building repairs 140,000 11. Roadrepairs 60,000 12. Propane system repairs ** 10,000 13. 4-m aluminizing tank enclosure 40,000 14. Materials storage 35,000
Total $1-158.500
60 * A portion of the work will be done with the FY 1997 budget. ** Will be completed in FY 1997.
The goal of the energy conservation program is to reduce utility costs. We plan to initiate a mountain-wide energy conservation program, which will incorporate the installation of energy efficient equipment, lighting, and HVAC systems. In addition to helping reduce energy costs, it is anticipated that our maintenance efforts will also be reduced through the replacement of obsolete equipment. Our initial efforts will focus upon areas that will generate a payback period of approximately seven years or less.
The current voice/data communication link between Tucson and Kitt Peak is approaching capacity and the existing PBX system (purchased in 1984) requires software and hardware upgrading. With the addition of new tenants and the implementation of new instrumentation, bandwidth requirements have increased. During FY 1996, we explored several options for upgrading the link; we are meeting at the end of FY 1996 with the other tenants on Kitt Peak to select one of these options. We expect the tenants to agree to upgrade the PBX and expand the bandwidth through the use of either a private microwave system or leasing additional capacity. We also hope to reduce operating costs, where possible, through integration of the Tucson and Kitt Peak systems. Because the tenants will pay for their share of any upgrades to telecommunications between Kitt Peak and Tucson, we have transferred this budget item to Kitt Peak from downtown Tucson. Therefore, the downtown cost estimates for maintenance are lower here than in the Cooperative Agreement proposal, while the Kitt Peak estimates are higher. The total of the two combined is similar to what was presented in the proposal.
Replacement of the dome shutter motor in FY 1996 focused attention on the operation of the 30-year-old generator and the difficulties involved in obtaining repair parts. The generator was found to be in good condition but the control systemis in need of replacement and upgrading to a newer more reliable version for which we can obtain spare parts.
The work at the Visitor Center is required to improve public safety, reduce operating costs, and enhance the public education efforts.
During FY 1997, the focus will be on upgrading and maintaining the basic infrastructure as well as on replacing outdated non-energy-efficient equipment. Many of the projects will be carried out over a number of years (building repairs and utility maintenance) or involve capital equipment (telecommunications and possibly the bus) that can be obtained through a lease, so that progress can be achieved in many areas with the limited ($125,000) budget available.
C. Tucson: Central Facilities and Operations
Central Facilities Operations (CFO) is responsible for providing all of the basic facility support services required for operation of the NOAO Tucson headquarters buildings. In addition, CFO has provided and will continue to provide limited architectural and civil engineering support to KPNO and NSO/Sac Peak.
During FY 1997, emphasis will be placed on energy management projects, basic maintenance of the facility, and replacement of equipment. Implementation of the multi-year energy management plan within the Tucson facility has significantly reduced the utility costs over the past 3 years. We have identified a number of additional modifications, including lighting
61 replacement and equipment upgrades, with payback periods of under seven years. These changes will be made as funds permit.
Summary
1. Telecommunication system improvements * $ 50,000 2. Energy management system * 50,000 3. ADA compliance modifications 50,000 4. Fire detection systems * 35,000 5. Building power modifications 40,000 6. Replace shuttle fleet * 30,000 7. General facility improvements and maintenance * 150,000
Total $405.000
* At least a portion of the work will be completed within the FY 1997 budget.
D. Sacramento Peak
During FY 1996, NSO/SP continued routine replacement of furnaces in the relocatable housing units, replaced the water and lpg lines in the trailer park area, completed the tasks required to update the sewage plant permit, replaced several power poles, installed a gas- chlorination system at the sewage plant, and began some tree thinning and cleanup around the peak to lessen the fire and wind danger. Also, several vehicles and pieces of equipment were replaced through the Department of Defense Property Reutilization Program.
Maintenance items which need attention are power line replacement, painting of all housing, reroofing of relocatables, underground storage tank upgrades, completion of pavement replacement and water/gas pipeline replacement, and reroofing of the RCA building. Several pieces of equipment and vehicles are also in need of replacement. During FY 1997, we expect to upgrade or replace the underground storage tank, paint and reroof most of the relocatables, replace at least one vehicle, and reroof the RCA building.
During FY 1996, approval was received to begin the construction on the Sunspot Astronomy and Visitor Center. The total budget for the project is $1.52M. Final plans for the project call for a 5000+ square foot building consisting of a museum, meeting room, and visitor conveniences. Construction began in April 1996; completion is expected in January 1997.
62 Summary of Observatory Facilities
1. Painting $ 50,000 2. Underground storage tank compliance 20,000 3. Visitor/Student trailer replacement 50,000 4. ADA compliance 55,000 5. Storage 40,000 6. Cloudcroft Facility RCA building Reroof 75,000 7. Vehicle/Equipment replacements 200,000 8. Visitor housing upgrades 25,000 9. Lighting upgrades 64,000 10. Underground utility replacement 35,000 11. Instrument shop equipment replacement 75,000
Total $689.000
Summary of Residential Facilities
12. Painting $ 75,000 13. Road repair/resurface 175,000 14. Reroof relocatable housing 65,000 15. Housing upgrades 75,000 16. Power line replacement 20,000
Total $410,000
E. NSO/KittPeak
NOAO facilities maintenance resources on Kitt Peak reside within the KPNO budget. NSO has a "floor" allocation of 2 FTE from these resources for the maintenance of the solar facilities on Kitt Peak. These 2 FTE cover routine electronic maintenance, custodial, housekeeping, painting, carpentry, plumbing, welding, electrical, and refrigeration, as well as general maintenance of the solar complex buildings and grounds. In FY 1996, these resources were applied to day-to-day maintenance of the solar facilities, as well as to larger scheduled maintenance activities such as aluminizing the mirrors in the KPVT and McMath- Pierce telescopes. The upgrade of the Telescope Control Systems at the two telescopes, now underway with a combination of NSO and NASA funds, will significantly reduce future maintenance demands in that area.
Historically, large maintenance activities, such as painting the exterior of the McMath-Pierce telescope, have been accomplished by one-time infusions of resources from NOAO. Part of the reassessment of maintenance at NSO will determine what budget is required for scheduled maintenance, including such items as repainting the McMath.
63 Summary
1. McMath-Pierce electrical upgrade $150,000 2. McMath-Pierce interior painting 50,000 3. Reroofing and sealing 25,000 4. McMath-Pierce energy management 25,000 5. McMath-Pierce fall protection 10,000 6. KPVT vacuum line cold-trap 2,500 7. Extend KPVT loading dock 2,500
Total $265.000
IX. CENTRAL SERVICES
NOAO has consolidated in Tucson the types of administrative support that companies normally provided through a "home office." Included are all financial management, the NOAO Director's office, and the space occupied by the above. The cost of this administrative support is 7 percent of the total budget, which as shown in the proposal to renew the cooperative agreement, is low relative to the costs of comparable activities in universities, industry, and federal research centers.
The staffing and activities of this "home office" are:
NOAO Director's Office Staffing includes the Director; Deputy Director, who is also in charge of the joint CTIO/KPNO instrument program; three administrative assistants; a half time manuscript specialist, who prepares the NOAO Newsletter and assists with proposals and other long documents; the receptionist at the front desk; and the head of the copy center, who is responsible for all major copying tasks and in- house maintenance of copying machines. We have examined the alternative of contracting outside for copying and also for handling outgoing mail; the contract costs were approximately twice what we spend doing the tasks in-house. This office currently supplies administrative support for the USGP as well as for the NOAO Director and Deputy.
Central Administrative Services (CAS) This office provides business management support to all sites, including human resources services for all US hires at all sites, payroll, procurement, contracting, accounts payable and receivable, property management, and general accounting for all actions in the US. In addition, this department handles shipping and receiving for Tucson and expedites shipments to Chile. The Gemini international project also relies on CAS for these same services.
Tucson Facilities The Tucson facilities staff is responsible for maintaining 136,123 square feet of space and for operating the shuttle fleet, which provides transportation and cargo service to and from Kitt Peak. As noted in the proposal to renew the cooperative agreement, we have benchmarked the staffing and costs of this activity against NCAR and against the Best-in-Class in the Benchmark II Report from the International Facilities Manager Association (Cooperative Agreement, Appendix 3-R). In every area, NOAO compares very favorably to these benchmarks, which is especially impressive given that our facilities are more than 30 years old and that the floor area is smaller than that at
64 NCAR. The benchmarks showthat certain economies of scale reduce the cost per square foot as the total area maintained increases. We have recently placed both Tucson and Kitt Peak facilities under common management.
In addition, the Tucson Facilities group provides support for all of the activities based in Tucson, including KPNO, Gemini, and NSO.
X. THE BUDGET
This budget has been prepared assuming that staffing will be set at the level of 403.4 for NSF- supported personnel. We have assumed that non-scientific salaries will increase by 3 percent and scientific salaries by 4 percent; the increase for scientific staff will be targeted toward Assistant and Associate Astronomers as part of an effort that will have to be continued in future years to correct the disparity in salaries (see Section V) between what NOAO is currently paying and what STScI and other AURA institutions pay. Market surveys indicate that a 3 percent adjustment in non-scientific staff salaries is likely to leave us about 4 percent behind what is paid locally for comparable work. The salary adjustments will occur on 1 October. We also have assumed that non-payroll expenditures will increase by 3 percent and that all peso costs will increase by 7 percent when those expenditures are converted to dollars. Chilean salaries are adjusted every three months for local inflation in accord with our contract with the union.
The staffing levels were justified in detail in the proposal to renew the cooperative agreement. We believe that the current staffing level is already at the minimum required to continue steady state operations of three telescopes at each of the two nighttime sites, where steady state operation includes maintenance and upgrades to the facilities as well as user support. Both nighttime sites have undertaken to reduce services at all but the three primary telescopes at each site. CTIO has announced that it will withdraw support for the 1.0-m telescope; KPNO has already closed the 1.3-m and has announced that it will continue to operate the 0.9-m, Burrell-Schmidt, and Coude Feed at minimal levels (i.e., without new instrumentation or any facilities upgrades) only until comparable capability (i.e., wide-field imaging) is available elsewhere. It is likely that the support for NSO is already below the level required for steady state operation of two sites, but that situation will be assessed more carefully during the coming year as part of the Academy review of the NSO program and as part of our own internal review of maintenance requirements.
In the proposal to renew the Cooperative Agreement, staffing in such areas as instrumentation, administration, and facilities maintenance was compared with external benchmarks and in all cases NOAO was found to be at or near what might be described as "best in class;" another interpretation is that we are already understaffed in these areas.
Since AURA is by policy committed to paying competitive salaries, if the budget for next year falls below the President's request, we will have to reduce staffing and programs yet farther in order to pay competitive salaries to those who remain.
Note that the budget for CTIO must increase by slightly more than $300,000 in FY 1997 relative to FY 1996 to cover peso inflation-even though the staff was reduced by about 15 percent in mid-FY 1996.
65 In the budget line labeled REU and Gemini Fellowship program, we have assumed that the Gemini fellowship program will continue to be funded at the level of $80,000 from the NOAO budget. We have assumed that REU funds at the level of $60,000 will be provided in addition to the base budget, as they have been in previous years.
The primary deficiency in the budget as presented is that facilities maintenance is underfunded by about a factor of 2 ($300,000) relative to what we believe is required for adequate maintenance of the buildings and other infrastructure at all four sites. There is also negligible funding for the acquisition of detectors. This is acceptable for FY 1997 because we plan to make a major purchase of optical CCDs in FY 1996 to equip two planned mosaic imagers. We also intend to obtain the next group of IR InSb arrays through participation in consortia, where we exchange advice, expertise, and characterization of detectors in our laboratory for working devices. However, this approach will not yield the best available detectors for NOAO since those contributing cash to the foundry runs normally get first choice of the detectors that are produced. We will have to correct the deficiencies in both facilities maintenance and the underfunding of the detector program in future years.
The budget is presented according to organizational units that are convenient for management purposes but does not reflect completely accurately where the funds are actually likely to be spent, particularly in the Tucson nighttime program. In Tucson, we are carrying out three major functions for the nighttime program-the operation of Kitt Peak mountain, the fabrication of instruments for CTIO, KPNO, and (under contract) Gemini, support of the USGP. In addition there are also such Tucson- or NOAO-wide functions as the library, photo lab, software development, education programs, and outreach. Since the available staff is too small to cover fully all of these programs all of the time, we have moved gradually to a project or matrix form of organization. Critical people are assigned to a project for the duration of that project, and then reassigned as different programs are initiated. The budgets reflect the home department, not the program component to which the individuals may be reassigned. For example, the instrumentation group includes 6 FTE who work for Kitt Peak on instrument maintenance and upgrades. These are not 6 identified individuals but rather 6 FTE with the range of experience required by the Kitt Peak program; it is not only difficult to provide the full range of expertise required for support, and upgrade both IR and optical instrumentation with six specific individuals, but also we have found that it is most effective to have the builders of instruments continue to provide some of the support while those instruments are in operation. Similarly, the IRAF programming group is managed as a single group, but the members are assigned tasks relating to user support on Kitt Peak and to providing the tools for the reduction of data from new instruments as well as to supporting continued system development. Two FTE maintenance personnel for NSO are budgeted under Kitt Peak, because again NSO requires a greater range of expertise than can be found in only two dedicated people. The scientific staff is currently, except for two people in the USGP, all funded through Kitt Peak but in practice about one-third of the staff has primary functional responsibility for tasks that lie outside Kitt Peak operations. All of the NSO infrastructure costs on Kitt Peak (utilities, dormitory and meal service, etc.) are contained within the Kitt Peak budget. The photo lab and library are also budgeted under Kitt Peak, although both are used by all of the scientific staff in Tucson; the reason for placing them under Kitt Peak is because the scientific oversight of these activities is provided by staff who have traditionally been assigned to Kitt Peak. The actual expenditures are recorded through the year on time cards except for the scientific staff, where we record only that portion of their time that is supported by soft money as opposed to NSF funds rather than tracking their time by specific projects.
If we reallocate the salary costs to the programs where they will most likely be expended during the coming year, then we would transfer five KPNO scientific staff to the instrument program; two KPNO scientific staff to NOAO functions; two KPNO technical staff to NSO; two IRAF staff to the
66 instrument program; one IRAF staff to KPNO; and six technical instrument staffto KPNO (the non- payroll for instrument upgrades is already in the KPNO budget). We have not attempted to attribute to NSO those portions of the library, photo lab, and Kitt Peak support such as utilities that represent the fraction ofthe effort devoted to the solar program; all ofthose items remain in the KPNO budget.
The costs of the various programs would then be modified as follows:
Table 8 Projected Expenditures at End of FY 1997
Program Program Plan Budget Estimated Expenditures at the End of FY 1997 KPNO 6,411,000 6,224,000 Instrument Program 2,455,000 2,566,000 NSO/Tucson & KP 1,741,000 1,876,000 NOAO Director's Office 619,000 710,000 IRAF 360,000 180,000
67
FY-1997 Provisional Program Plan 9/19/96 9:25 AM
TABLE I
FUNDING BY SOURCE (Amounts in Thousands)
Scientific Staffs Operations & Total Total Total Support Instrumentation Maintenance FY-1997' FY-19962 FY-1995 NSF FUNDING Observatory Operations Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory 1,780 501 4,864 7,145 7,145 6,747
Kitt Peak National Observatory 2,057 4,354 6,411 6,230 6,356
National Solar Observatory
Sun spot 638 279 1,434 2,351 2,398 2,601 USAF Support (535) (535) (530) (535) Tucson 748 491 534 1,773 1,999 1.544 NASA Support (32) (32) (32) (32)
US Gemini Program 506 506 560 349 US Gemini Program Managed Study 141
KPNO/CTIO Instrumentation Program 2,455 2,455 3,598 2,523
Global Oscillations Network Group 2,000 2,000 2,341 2,486
RISE 220 220 361 458
Central Offices Director's Office 619 619 581 517 Indirect Cost/Miscellaneous Credits (250) (250) (1,123) (1.260) REU & Gemini Fellowship Programs 141 141 197 176 Public Information & Education 192 192 227 198 Central Administrative Services 1,487 1,487 1,457 1,526 Central Facilities Operations 1,336 1,336 1,226 1.335 Central Computer Services 43 592 635 609 591 IRAF 360 360 306 344 Central Engineering & Technical Services 817 817 953 1,052 Observatory Restructuring 635
Management Fee 550 550 505 505
Total NSF Budget 5,946 16,322 27,481
Non-NSF Budget 567 3.161 Total Budget 28,748 28,998
STAFFING SCHEDULE (In Full Time Equivalents)
NSF Funded - Base Budget 264,02 412.64 443.73 Non-NSF Funded 23.40 25.00 Total 436.04
1ReseachExperience forUndergraduates (REU) funds ($62k)are provided inaddition to base budget 2 FY-1996 Program Plan, RevisionI FY-1997 Provisional Program Plan 9/19/96 9:25 AM
SUMMARY OF NSF FUNDING BY COST CATEGORY (Amounts in Thousands)
NSO US Gemini KPNO/CTIO Central Total Total Total CTIO KPNO Sunspot Tucson Project Office Inst Program GONG RISE Offices FY-1997 FY-1996 FY-1995 Personnel Costs 5,089 5,171 1,886 1,462 333 2,039 1,229 134 3,696 21,039 20,548 21,131 Supplies & Services 1,245 518 224 114 34 378 391 86 984 3,974 5,906 3,702 Utilities & Communications 363 307 196 439 1,305 1,266 1,319 Domestic Travel 43 124 23 52 77 14 20 66 419 467 392 Foreign Travel 131 75 3 14 26 3 151 11 414 433 327 Equipment 274 216 19 131 36 21 209 141 1,047 1,221 672 Management Fee 550 550 505 505 USAF & NASA Support (535) (32) (567) (562) (567) 7.145 6.411 1,816 1,741 506 2,455 2,000 220 5,887 28,181 29,784 27,481
STAFFING SCHEDULE (In Full Time Equivalents)
Scientists 14.00 22.00 7.00 7.50 2.00 1.00 5.00 59.50 62.50 62.00 Engineers & Scientific Programmers 18.00 10.02 4.00 4.00 1.00 14.00 12.50 14.00 77.52 76.25 77.25 Administrators & Supervisors 9.00 8.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 1.00 13.25 37.25 37.25 39.00 Clerical Workers 18.50 2.94 3.25 1.50 1.00 29.15 56 34 57.99 64.43 Technicians 27.00 23.50 9.00 7.00 20.00 8.00 1.00 6.75 102.25 106.50 114.80 Maintenance & Service Workers 31.00 22.60 10.15 6.75 70.50 72.15 86.25 Total 117.50 89.06 20.50 4.00 23.50 443.73 FY-1997 Provisional Program Plan 9/19/96 9:25 AM
TABLE III
SCIENTIFIC STAFF & SUPPORT (Amounts in Thousands)
NSO US Gemini Central Total Total Total CTIO KPNO Sunspot Tucson Project Office Offices FY-1997 FY-1996 FY-1995 Personnel Costs 1,452 1,821 608 703 333 104 5,021 4,433 5,033 Supplies & Services 47 108 14 19 34 80 302 493 269 Domestic Travel 6 55 13 16 77 167 171 117 Foreign Travel 56 46 3 10 26 141 169 116 Equipment 219 27 36 282 165 47 Total 1,780 2,057 638 748 506 184 5,913 5,431 5,582
STAFFING SCHEDULE (In Full Time Equivalents)
Scientists 13.00 21.00 7.00 6.50 2.00 0.50 50.00 52.00 52.50 Engineers & Scientific Programmers 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 Administrators & Supervisors 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 Clerical Workers 0.50 0.69 0.65 1.84 1.84 2.78 Technicians 1.00 1.00 1.50 Total 13.50 21.69 7.65 7.50 4.00 0.50 54.84 55.84 58.78 FY-1997 Provisional Program Plan 9/19/96 9:25 AM
TABLE IV
INSTRUMENTATION (Amounts in Thousands)
NSO KPNO/CTIO Total Total Total CTIO Sunspot Tucson Inst. Program GONG RISE FY-1997 FY-1996 FY-1995 Personnel Costs 384 217 311 2,039 1,229 134 4,314 4,720 4,862 Supplies & Services 117 62 61 378 391 86 1,095 2,628 1,764 Utilities & Communications 29 Domestic Travel 14 20 34 46 79 Foreign Travel 3 151 154 172 88 Equipment 119 21 209 349 522 360 Total 501 279 491 2,455 2,000 220 5,946 8,088 7,182
STAFFING SCHEDULE (In Full Time Equivalents)
Scientists 1.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 2.00 Engineers & Scientific Programmers 1.50 14.00 12.50 28.00 36.50 40.60 Administrators & Supervisors 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 Clerical Workers 1.50 1.00 2.50 2.50 1.00 Technicians 13.00 4.00 20.00 8.00 1.00 51.00 44.00 42.60 Total 13.00 4.00 35.50 2.00 84.50 87.00 87.20 FY-1997 Provisional Program Plan 9/19/96 9:25 AM
TABLE V
OPERATIONS & MAINTENANCE (Amounts in Thousands)
NSO Central Total Total Total CTIO KPNO Sunspot Tucson Offices FY-1997 FY-1996 FY-1995 Personnel Costs 3,253 3,350 1,061 448 3,592 11,704 11,395 11,236 Supplies & Services 1,081 410 148 34 904 2.577 2,785 1,669 Utilities & Communications 363 307 196 439 1.305 1,266 1,290 Domestic Travel 37 69 10 36 66 218 250 196 Foreign Travel 75 29 4 11 119 92 123 Equipment 55 189 19 12 141 416 534 265 Management Fee 550 550 505 505 USAF & NASA Support (535) (32) (567) (562) (567) Total 4,864 4,354 899 502 5,703 16,322 16.265 14,717
STAFFING SCHEDULE (In Full Time Equivalents)
Scientists 1.00 1.00 1.00 4.50 7.50 7.50 7.50 Engineers & Scientific Programmers 18.00 10.02 4.00 2.50 14.00 48.52 38.75 35.65 Administrators & Supervisors 9.00 8.00 3.00 2.00 13.25 35.25 35.25 37.00 Clerical Workers 18.00 2.25 2.60 29.15 52.00 53.65 60.65 Technicians 14.00 23.50 5.00 1.00 6.75 50.25 62.50 70.70 Maintenance & Service Workers 31.00 22.60 10.15 6.75 70.50 72.15 86.25 Total 91.00 67.37 24.75 6.50 74.40 264.02 269.80 297.75 FY-1997 Provisional Program Plan 9/19/96
TABLE VI
OPERATIONS & MAINTENANCE BY COST CATEGORY (Amounts in Thousands)
NSO Central Total Total Total CTIO KPNO Sunspot Tucson Offices FY-1997 FY-1996 FY-1995 Engineering & Technical Services 1,090 1,086 148 150 817 3,291 3,284 3,950
Telescope Operations 912 1,636 521 147 3,216 3,027 2,439
Mountain Operations 926 1,287 586 2,799 2,764 3,106
Central Facilities - Tucson/La Serena 940 1,336 2,276 2,292 2,477
Central Computer Services 592 592 550 540
IRAF 360 360 306 349
Administration1 996 345 179 237 1,856 3,613 3,872 3,424
Public Information & Education 192 192 227 235
Management Fee 550 550 505 505
USAF & NASA Support (535) (32) (567) (562) (567) Total O&M 4,864 4,354 899 502 5,703 16,322 16,265 16,458
STAFFING SCHEDULE (In Full Time Equivalents)
Engineering &Technical Services 13.00 11.50 2.00 2.00 9.75 38.25 38.25 50.05 Telescope Operations 21.00 24.50 7.00 2.50 55.00 57.40 50.50 Mountain Operations 23.00 25.60 11.75 60.35 62.75 70.65 Facilities 18.00 11.75 29.75 29.75 42.25 Central Computer Services 6.50 6.50 6.50 4.40 IRAF 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 Administration 16.00 5.77 4.00 2.00 33.25 61.02 62.00 69.40 Public Information & Education 7.15 7.15 7.15 4.50 Total 91.00 67.37 24.75 6.50 74.40 264.02 269.80 297.75
1 Includes supportforallDirectors' offices(NOAO. KPNO, CTIO, NSO), funds held by Directors and not yet allocatedto specific programs, recruitment and relocation, insurance, administrative services, freight to Chile, committee and observer travel support, and indirect costs and miscellaneous credits.. FY-1997 Provisional Program Plan 9/19/96 9:25 AM
TABLE VII
NON-NSF FUNDED PROGRAMS (Amounts in Thousands)
NSO Central Total Total Total CTIO KPNO Sunspot Tucson Offices FY-1997 FY-1996 FY-1995 Personnel Costs 1,494 504 Supplies & Services 535 32 567 1,477 957 Utilities & Communications 10 17 Domestic Travel 97 23 Foreign Travel 5 Equipment 83 11 Total 535 32 567 3,161 1,517
STAFFING SCHEDULE (In Full Time Equivalents)
Scientists 12.00 11.00 Engineers & Scientific Programmers 3.90 5.50 Technicians 7.50 7.50 Maintenance & Service Workers 1.00 Total 23.40 25.00
Appendix
CTIO Scientific Staff: Research Interests and Service Roles
Jack Baldwin Areas of Interest QSOs and Active Galaxies
Recent Research Results In collaboration with G.Ferland, K.Korista and D.Verner (Kentucky), R. Carswell (Cambridge, UK), R.Williams (STScI), M.Phillips (CTIO), and others, Baldwin has recently completed a pair of papers (ApJ, in press) about the luminous, narrow-lined QSO 0207-398. The emission line profiles in this object can be separated into three distinct components, for which it is possible to separately measure the electron density and ionizing flux. This permits the broad emission line region to be mapped out spatially by a new method which is complementary to previous techniques. In this particular QSO, there is a very dense component quite nearthe ionizing continuum source which we tentatively identify with the bloated atmospheres of main sequence stars. At the same distance there is a lessdense component which appears to be a wind which is being ablated off the stars by radiation pressure from the QSO nucleus. This scenario has been suggested many times before based on theoretical expectations of the presence of a dense star cluster feeding an accretion disk around the active nucleus, but this is the best observational evidence for this to date. However, Q0207-398 is an unusual object. This work led to an additional paper (ApJ 455, LI 19) by Baldwin, Ferland, Korista, and Verner which shows that in the typical cases all of the data are consistent with a broad emission line region which is just a random scatter of clouds at all positions relative to the nucleus and with a very wide range of densities. This chaotic picture is in contrast to previous models in which someunknown fine-tuning process was required to explainthe great similarity between most QSO spectra.
Future Research Plans Baldwin is currently spending most of 1996 on sabbatical leave at the Institute of Astronomy, Cambridge, UK, where his first priority is to complete a study of the nearby Seyfert 2 galaxy NGC 3393. This is one of the nearest and brightest Seyfert 2 galaxies, and therefore offers a particularly good opportunity to study the details of a narrow emission line region. Over the past several years Baldwin and collaborators have observed it using HST, VLA, and the CTIO telescopes. Baldwin will also analyze HST and ROSAT data on Q0207-398 (the QSO described in the preceding paragraph), and will begin working through a large body of images and long-slit spectra of Galactic H II regions, taken several years ago at CTIO with the aim of mapping out the detailed structure of the ionized gas.
Service Most (80%) of Baldwin's time for the past six years has been occupied by observatory duties, most notably a long program of improvements to the optics and thermal environment of the Blanco 4-m telescope. This has led to an improvement in the median image quality delivered by this telescope from 1.2 arcsec to 0.9 arcsec FWHM, and of the best images from 1.0 to 0.5 arcsec FWHM. This effort required Baldwin to spend 20-30 nights per year at the telescope making measurements and participating in the development of new equipment, and also to write an extensive amount of image analysis software because of a shortage of regular programmers for this activity. During much of this same period Baldwin was the Chairman of the CTIO Advisory Committee on Technical Resources, which oversees the allocation of instrumentation resources at the observatory. This job is also quite time consuming. Olin Eggen Areas of Interest Evolution of the Galaxy, Superclusters of Stars, Moving Groups of Stars
Recent Research Results Eggen continues his research into many aspects of the properties of superclusters of stars and moving groups, with the aim of understanding their demographics, dynamics, and metallicity—with the larger goal of understanding the history of stars after their formation and furthering our understanding of the evolution of the Galaxy itself. His most recent published work focuses on the long-standing puzzle of the nature of the blue stragglers.
Future Research Plans Eggen plans to use the amplitude of the Cepheid light curve as a third parameter in the basic period-luminosity relation for these stars.
Service Eggen substitutes, when needed, as chairman of the CTIO Time Assignment Committee. He also looks after the Library in La Serena. He is moving to a half-time position in October.
Richard Elston Areas of Interest Galaxy Evolution, Galaxy Formation, IR Instrumentation
Recent Research Results Elston has continued his work studying near-IR selected samples of galaxies, studying the evolution of early type galaxies at high redshift. The near-IR light of nearly all galaxies is dominated by normal giant stars. Thus, the near-IR colors and thus K corrections are nearly the same for all galaxy types. This ensures the same mix of galaxy types will be found at all redshifts and removes the bias of surveys at shorter wavelengths toward finding larger numbers of star forming galaxies at higher redshifts. The deepest current work is Elston and Eisenhardt's 4-m survey which covers 100 square arcminutes to a depth of K<22.5. They are using J-K colors to select early type galaxies at redshifts beyond 1.5. They have found about three galaxies per arcminute with J-K>2. This is the number of galaxies you would expect if nearly all normal early type galaxies were already formed by a redshift of about 2. Additionally, they find that nearly all galaxies have active star formation at z>1.5. These two results taken together imply that early type galaxies were well formed at z=2 but that they had residual star formation at the level of a few solar masses per year. Thus, it seems that they are seeing the residuals of the star formation episodes that formed early type galaxies. To study the history of star formation with galaxies to even higher redshift, they have been studying the abundance patterns within distant quasars. Elston and Hill have found strong optical Fe II emission suggesting super-solar Fe abundance in nearly all redshift 2 and 3 quasars. They have now extended this study out to redshifts of 4.5 using IR spectroscopy of the ratio of UV FeU emission to MgU[2800] (at z=4-4.7 the MgU lines are shifted into the H band). The ratio of Fe/Mg changes if the elemental enrichment is due to type la or type II supernovae with enrichment time scales of 109 and 107 years, respectively. Their data show little or no change in the ratio of FeJJ/Mgll in the broad line regions of these quasars, suggesting that star formation occurred IGyr before a redshift of 4.5. Elston, Bechtold, and Lowenthal have been searching for H-alpha emission associated with redshift 2 damped Lyman alpha absorbers-first using long slit spectroscopy and now with narrow-band imaging. Their long slit spectra survey of 8 quasars could detect systems with star formation rates as low as 10 solar masses a year. It found 2 candidate systems but could have missed many more because only a single slit position angle was used, and typical separations from the quasar line of sight were 2-3 arcseconds. Thus, they have now turned to narrow-band imaging using a tunable CVF to search for galaxies with star formation rates as low as 5 solar masses per year. In their first observing run with the CVF, they detected two galaxies with H-alpha fluxes that imply starformation rates of about 10 Mo/year, which may be characteristic of normal field galaxies at a redshift of 2.5.
Future Research Plans All of these programs will be continuing into the future. In the area of near-IR selected samples of field galaxies, Elston and collaborators are now obtaining deeper near-IR images of fields with excellent HST images so that they can look at the morphology of the faint near-IR selected galaxies. Elston and collaborators also have 12 orbits of HST time and ISO time to observe the red galaxy population. Elston is also working with collaborators to try to obtain Keck LowRes spectra of the faint near-IR selected galaxies to test whether the photometric redshifts are indeedcorrect. With work using the UV Fell bends in high redshift quasars nearly completed, Elston and Hill have observed all known distant quasars luminous enough to obtain good data. To extend this work will require observations of the optical Fell lines within the quasars in the region around 3 microns. This demanding observation is out of reach of current 4-m telescopes but could be carried out with the Gemini 8-m and the GERS when it is deployed in 1999. Elston and Bechtold plan to obtain detailed spectroscopy of the H-alpha emitting damped Lyman alpha absorbers they have found to determine if their spectra are excited by normal star formation and/or AGN and to determine their abundances, if they prove to be normal stellar HII regions. Finally, to understand the evolution of distant galaxies selected in luminosity limited samples requires a complete understanding of the galaxy luminosity function, sinceany indication of evolution is in fact a comparison of a model based on the luminosity function with the observed properties of distant galaxies. Current understanding is very poor because there is no known multivariate luminosity function that considers luminosity, surface brightness, and color. Hill and Elston will try to determine the multivariate luminosity function by obtaining redshifts for 10000 galaxies which have been selected in a deep CCD survey of 50 square degrees in the BVR and I bands.They will also extend this work to 2000A using UIT images.
Service Elston's primary area of observatory service has been supporting the infrared program at CTIO and within NOAO in general. Elston is currently heading the IR program at CTIO. During this time the CTIO instrumentation complement has been brought up to modern standards by offering both a 256x256 imagerand spectrometer. Elston has also been a vigorous advocate of cooperation between the Tucson IR group and CTIO, and the IR instrumentation program has blazed the way in cooperative projects between the Tucson ETS group and CTIO. Finally, this cooperation has led to NOAO involvement in the Gemini instrumentation program by way of the Gemini IRS project.
Observer support Elston has been responsible for supporting many of the IR users of CTIO. In the last two semesters, for example, he has supported observing on 140 nights including 33 startup nights. Beyond this he has also written the user manuals for the IRS and CIRIM. He has written IRAF script packages for reducing IR spectra, both straight and cross-dispersed, and IR imaging data; these scripts have been used by many visitors.
IRS upgrade Elston both conceived of, and was the project scientist for, the project to upgrade the CTIO IR spectrometer (IRS) to use a 256x256 InSb array. For this project, the array controller was fabricated and integrated into the IRS by the Tucson IR group. The upgraded ERS has been in use for nearly a year now, totaling 65 user nights. A second round of IRS upgrades is now being proposed by Elston to convert the IRS to f/14 so it can be used with the new CTIO 4-m tip-tilt secondary.
ill CIRIM Elston helped with the laboratory testing, commissioning and testing of the CTIO IR Imager (CIREM), totaling 9 engineering nights. CIRIM also benefited from the IRS upgrade program since the IRS upgrade installed KPNO WILDFIRE controllers at the CTIO 4-m and 1.5-m. This allowed us to change the array controller for CIRIM from an ARCON project (which was delaying the CIRIM deployment) to a rapidly deployed WILDFIRE controller produced by the KPNO IR group. CIRIM has been in use for nearly a year now during 96 user nights.
Innovative spectrometer concepts Elston conceived of, and was project scientist for, a project to implement a novel cross-dispersed grating for the CTIO IRS. This novel device will be described in a future PASP article and has served as a prototype for the cross disperser for the Gemini/CTIO IRS. Elston has also developed a design and located a supplier for a Si-immersed high resolution grating for the IRS, which will provide a resolution of 30,000. While this system has not been fabricated due to lack of funds, it will, we hope, be built in the future and will serve as a prototype for a high resolution grating for the future Gemini/CTIO IRS. Elston has also proposed a new generation ultra-high efficiency optical spectrometer (HEFAS) for the KPNO and CTIO 4-m telescopes. This concept has now become the basis of more detailed design studies.
F/14 tip-tilt secondary Elston is the project scientist of the CTIO project to construct an F/14 tip-tilt secondary for the CTIO 4-m. This project will provide a common focal ratio so that IR instruments can be shared both with KPNO and the Gemini 8-m telescopes. This project will also allow the secondary to be used in a tip-tilt image stabilization mode, extending the program to provide excellent image quality at the CTIO 4-m. The mirror is being fabricated in the NOAO Tucson optical shop using innovative CNC machining techniques to light-weight the blank. The mirror cell and installation mechanism is being designed and fabricated at CTIO following previous work on the KPNO 4-m F/15 secondary. The secondary is scheduled to be installed in the telescope in March 1996, and testing of the tip-tilt system will begin in June 1996.
Gemini IRS During Elston's first months in La Serena, he began working with Brooke Gregory to produce a conceptual design for a second generation IR spectrometer for CTIO. This design evolved into the one that was submitted to the Gemini project for Gemini's first generation IR spectrometer. Elston played a major role in both advocating this spectrometer concept and in the writing of the successful NOAO proposal to the Gemini project to build this instrument. This conceptual design was recently presented at the SPIE meeting in Orlando. Elston continues to work with the GIRS development team, which is based in Tucson, recently supplying information on observing strategies and means of keeping the program cost under control.
Standard stars The slow readout times and smaller well depth of current IR arrays makes existing standard stars too bright for current 4-m telescopes. Larger format arrays, better seeing, and 8-m telescopes will only compound this problem. Elias and Elston have a program to extend the CIT system to both fainter stars and a larger color baseline. This will provide CTIO and Gemini with IR standards for its array instruments.
Third Generation IR Imager Elston is leading the development of a proposal to construct a very wide field IR imager, which would be used for carrying out near-IR surveys. Such surveys will be critical to providing proper support for the Gemini 8-m telescope.
IV Multi-ObjectNear-IR Fiber Spectroscopy Elston, Probst, and Gregory are investigating the design of a novel fiber feed to couple the f/15 tip-tilt images to the long slit spectrometer of the Cryogenic Optical Bench. Such a system will make it possible to take simultaneous spectra of about 25 objects.
Committees Elston is a member of the CTIO ACTR committee, which oversees the allocation of engineering and technical resources at CTIO. Elston is also a member of the NOAO IPAC committee, which oversees the operation of the NOAO Instrumentation Project Group.
SOAR Telescope Elston is now serving as the SOAR project scientist for NOAO. Elston advocated the concept that the SOAR 4-m telescope should be optimized for high quality imaging in the near-IR and optical regions of the spectrum rather than for wide-field applications such as those being conducted at the Blanco 4-m telescope. This concept for the SOAR telescope now appears to be generally accepted by the SOAR partners.
Brooke Gregory Areas of Interest IR InstrumentatiomDevelopment and Operations, Management of Engineering Group (Engineering and Technical Resources)
Recent Results As a support scientist, Brooke Gregory is devoted 100% to observatory support activities. Recently, he participated in the definition of the design for the IRS spectrometer, which NOAO is building for the Gemini North telescope. A copy of the design will be constructed for the southern NOAO telescopes and Gemini South.
Future Plans Gregory will collaborate in the implementation of the new f/14.5 secondary for the Blanco 4-m telescope. Specifically, he will design and implement a new optical system for the conversion of the present IR spectrometer to work at the new f/ratio, thereby allowing the spectrometer the increased sensitivity made possible by the improved optical performance and tip-tilt capability that secondary will have. He is also planning a further upgrade to make use of the larger format Aladdin InSb detectors, which are expected to be available about a year later. Further in the future is the task of designing a wide field camera to complement the high resolution imaging capabilities of the current suite of instruments.
Service Gregory continues to devote about half his time to managing the Engineering and Technical Resources (ETS) group at CTIO. This management activity will take on new importance as ETS becomes a resource not just for CTIO but for Gemini South and SOAR.
Steve Heathcote Areas of Interest Star Formation, Herbig-Haro Objects, Supernovae and Novae
Recent Research Results Heathcote's recent research efforts have concentrated on the study of Herbig-Haro jets using high spatial resolution images obtained with the Hubble Space Telescope. It is now known that stars in the process of formation blow extremely powerful, often highly collimated winds. The collision of these highly supersonic outflows with gas surrounding the nascent star excites luminous shock waves, which we observe as a Herbig-Haro jet. These jets provide key information about the mechanisms at play in forming a star. In particular it is possible to measure how much mass the star is losing now and how the rate of mass loss has varied over the last few thousand years. Such jets are also valuable astrophysical laboratories for the study of shock physics and chemistry. The HST images recently obtained by Heathcote and collaborators, B. Reipurth (ESO), R. Schwartz (U. Missouri), J. Bally (U. Colorado), J. Morse (U.Colorado), P. Hartigan (Rice University), and J. Stone (U. Maryland) provide an unprecidentedly detailed view of two of the finest examples of such jets. These images provide the first clear evidence that shocks within these jets are excited by fluctuations in the velocity and direction of the outflow from the source. At the very high spatial resolution obtained with HST it is possible to study for the first time the structure of the zone behind these shocks. These images also provide new insights into the way in which jets sweep up material in their surroundings, helping to clear away the debris left behind after formation of the star.
Future Research Plans During the next year Heathcote will re-observe four HH jets already imaged with HST. The velocities of such jets are so high that motion is detectable over periods of only one or two years. Thus these second epoch images will supply crucial information on how the various shock waves move and how they change with time. Heathcote will also use the tip-tilt capability shortly to be added to the CTIO 4-m telescope to obtain infrared images of these jets. In the IR this system offers spatial resolution competitive with that obtained with HST, but with more than twice the collecting area. While the optical emission from an HH jet traces the strongest shock, molecular hydrogen emission in the IR probes the weaker shocks at the periphery of the jet. At IR wavelengths it is also possible to study the sections of the jet closer to the driving source, which is hidden from view in the optical by overlying extinction.
Service Heathcote is responsible for scientific oversight of CTIO's computer system and network and of the CTIO computer programming group. He also supervises the data reduction assistants in La Serena and on Cerro Tololo. During the past two years, Heathcote has been heavily involved in the software side of CTIO's Arcon CCD controllers. He is consequently closely involved with the development of the NOAO CCD mosaic imager, based on these controllers, which will be commissioned during 1996. Heathcote is also project scientist and manager for a multi-year project to upgrade the drives and control system for the CTIO 4-m telescope. Heathcote is a member of the Advisory Committee on Technical Resources at CTIO.
Tom Ingerson Areas of Interest Astronomical Instrumentation, Optics, Spectroscopy, Fiber Optics, Electronics, Computer Networking
Recent Research Results Ingerson is a Support Scientist whose work consists of developing and improving the instruments CTIO needs to maintain itself as a world-class facility with state-of-the-art equipment. In recent years, he has supervised the design, construction and installation of a fiber-fed, multiple object spectrograph, "Argus", and a Prime Focus Atmospheric Dispersion Correction optical system for the Blanco 4-m telescope. He has also implemented a bench-mounted echelle spectrograph for the 1.5-m telescope and a new system of stand-alone control for motors and other peripherals, which is gradually replacing the old control systems on all telescopes. For several years, he acted as project manager for the CTIO CCD Control system, "Arcon," and is now playing a major role in the thrust to build for CTIO an upgraded version of the
vi second-generation multipleobject spectrograph, "Hydra", which is now in use at the WIYN telescope on Kitt Peak.
Future Research Plans Currently Ingerson is on sabbatical leave at the Dominion Astrophysical Observatory in Victoria, BC and is using this opportunity to prepare himselfto aid CTIO in integrating itself with the Gemini project. This is the planned thrust of much of his activity for the next few years. While at the DAO, he has participated on Review Committees for the Gemini Multiple Object Spectrograph (GMOS) and the High Resolution Optical Spectrograph (HROS), which are the two primary Gemini optical instruments. He has also been working with the Canadian Astronomical Data Center (CADC) in Victoria, which is writing the Gemini Data Handling System (DHS). This is because of his interest in high speed communications and the smooth flow of astronomical data and commands between observer and telescope. He plans to continue active participation in all these projects as part of the effort to help CTIO make a smooth transition to a well-integrated Tololo-Pachon (Gemini) observatory system.
Service Ingerson's position is primarily one of service to the observatory ratherthan personal research. His job is to design and support instruments and to teach observers to use them. Observatory-wide, instruments must be integrated into systems that are reliable and maintainable. This is an especially challenging task with the limited resources available today. Old instruments need to be supported and astronomers educated on their use, while they are being replaced, upgraded, or phased out as appropriate. Reliable, well-integrated communication needs to be provided between all systems. All these areas are within Ingerson's expertise and are tasks in which he invests large fractions of his time. Finally, users must have the tools available to learn how to use instruments and prepare themselves as well as possible for an observing run in advance. For this purpose, Ingerson also acts as the supervisorof the CTIO Internet site which is now the primary method by which instruction and documentation is passed to prospective observers.
Michael Keane Areas of Interest Quasar Absorption Line Systems, High Redshift Galaxies, Intergalactic Medium; Stellar Populations, The Distance Scale, Galactic Structure; Astronomical Instrumentation
Recent Research Results Keane's research has emphasized the application of high resolution spectroscopy to the study of quasar absorption lines. Using high signal-to-noise, high resolution echelle spectra of the high redshift quasars PKS 2126-158 and UM 402 obtained with Keck/HIRES, Keane found that the distribution of Doppler (b) parameters for Ly-alpha forest lines is fairly narrow with a mean of 27 km/s. In contrast to previous studies, which were based on spectra with limited signal-to-noise, Keane found that while a few very narrow absorption lines (b < 20 km/s) are present in the forest region, such lines are actually quite rare and can be adequately explained by interloping metal systems. Keane was also able to show that many of the Lyman alpha features have corresponding, weak absorption due to metals. This result is consistent with the Lyman alpha forest being composed not of primordial material but of enriched gas with a metal abundance that is < 1/100 solar.
Future Research Plans While at CTIO, Keane expects to embark upon several new research areas over the next few years. The unifying theme of these projects will be to understand the properties and evolution of the objects and structures associated with quasar absorption line systems at both high and low redshifts. Keane is
vn undertaking a survey to identify bright quasars/AGN behind the Magellanic Clouds. The Magellanic Clouds and Stream have long been proposed as a local analogue for quasar absorption line systems seen at high redshift. A sample of bright, background quasars will permit the gaseous halos of the Clouds and their possible interaction with a galactic "corona" to be studied using ultraviolet spectra with HST. Inferences about the evolution of the metal absorption lines in quasars are based upon surveys of single ionic species in two, relatively non-overlapping redshift ranges. For z < 2.2, Mg II absorbers have a non- evolving co-moving number density. However, there is very strong evolution in the co-moving number of C rV absorbers from 2.0 < z < 4.0, such that by z = 4, the numbers of C IV systems are 10 times below no-evolution expectations. This suggests that some combination of changing ionization conditions and chemical content in the gas is occurring at redshifts z > 2. Establishing the behavior of the low ionization species traced by Mg II in the same redshift range where a high ionization tracer (C IV) exhibits strong evolution provides a new means for attempting to separate abundance from ionization effects. NOAO's latest generation of infrared spectrometers, the IRS at CTIO and CRSP at KPNO, are well suited for this program. With Elston (CTIO), Keane will be conducting a survey in the near-infrared for Mgll absorption in bright, high redshift quasars.
Service Keane's primary area of responsibility is the Cassegrain spectrographs on CTIO's 4-m and 1.5-m telescopes. Keane is currently supervising a modernization of the motor control systems for both the 4-m R-C and 4-m echelle spectrographs.
In the area of direct support to visiting astronomers, Keane writes and maintains manuals for the spectrographs, advises visiting astronomers on their options for instrument configuration, and assists with startup nights. Keane has also written instrument simulators for the spectrographs and maintains a database of current instrument performance, distributing this information via the World Wide Web. Keane also organizes the colloquium series at CTIO.
Mark M. Phillips Areas of Interest Supernovae, Observational Cosmology
Recent Research Results During the past few years, Phillips has concentrated his research on characterizing the optical spectroscopic and photometric characteristics of Type la (thermonuclear) supernova explosions, and using these events as cosmological standard candles. In collaboration with colleagues at CTIO and the University of Chile, he has recently finished an analysis of the Hubble diagram of -30 type la supernovae (SNe la) discovered during the course of the Calan/Tololo SN search, which was carried out at CTIO from 1990-1993. The main results of this study are: 1) confirmation of the dependence of the luminosities of SNe la on the initial rate of decline of the B light curve (an effect discovered by Phillips in 1993 from a smaller sample of nearby SNe la), 2) evidence for significant correlations between the absolute magnitudes (or decline rate of the B light curve) and the morphological type of the host galaxy, 3) calculation of a Hubble constant in the range H0 = 60-67 km/s/Mpc when the luminosity-decline rate relation is taken into account. Phillips has also worked with Nugent (U. Oklahoma) and several others in describing a spectroscopic sequence among SNe la based on systematic variation of several features seen in the near-maximum spectrum. This sequence is analogous to the above-described photometric sequence of SNe la, which shows a relationship between the peak brightness of a SN la and the shape of its B light curve. In addition, Phillips, Nugent, and collaborators were able to reproduce the major features of the sequence through a series of theoretical model calculations in which the only parameter varied was the effective temperature. Since the supernova is almost entirely powered by the radioactive
vm decay ofNi , the temperature differences are likely to be due to the total amount of Ni56 produced in the explosion.
Future Research Plans Phillips intends to focus most of his research over the next three years on two specific aspects of SNe la: determining the luminosity function and using SNe la to measure thespace motion of the Local Group as well as the deceleration parameter q0. These projects will require two different SN searches: 1) a search for SNe la in rich clusters of galaxies in the redshift range 0.3-0.7, and 2) a deeper search for SNe la at redshifts of z ~ 0.5. The cluster search will most likely be carried out with the Curtis Schmidt telescope (the same telescope used for the Calan/Tololo search) using CCD detectors instead of photographic plates, which should allow SNe la to be detected to high levels of completeness down to absolute magnitudes as faint as Mv = -18.5 + 51og(Ho/65). Among the questions to be pursued are the relative frequency of low-luminosity events (e.g., SNe 1987A and 1991bg) with respect to the more luminous "normal" SNe la, and the true slope and dispersion of the peak luminosity-decline rate relation. This same sample will also be used to provide an independent measurement of the space motion of the Local Group, which can be compared with the results of Lauer and Postman, who recently reported evidence that the inertial frame of Abell clusters with z < 0.05 is moving en masse at a speed of nearly 700 km/s with respect to the cosmic microwave background. The high-redshift SN search is currently being carried out with the 4-m telescope prime focus CCD camera and has already resulted in the discovery of -10 SNe la in the redshift range 0.3 < z < 0.7. The goal of this program is to obtain light curves and spectra for a sample of -30 SNela at z ~ 0.5, which should be sufficient to determine the value of q0 to a precision of+/- 0.1. This, in turn, will tell us whether theuniverse is infinite and will continue to expand forever, or whether theexpansion will eventually halt and theuniverse collapse in upon itself.
Service Phillips serves as the Assistant Director of CTIO, and hence plays a significant role in the administration and operation of the observatory. He is a member of IPAC, which is the oversight committee for the NOAO Instrumentation & Projects Group (IPG), and also interfaces with the ACTR (Advisory Committee on Technical Resources), which oversees the CTIO ETS instrumentation effort. Phillips is in charge of efforts at CTIO to control light pollution, is the telescope scheduler and a member of the CTIO telescope assignment committees, and also has the lead support responsibility for the low-dispersion spectrographs on the 4-m and 1.5-m telescopes.
Ronald G. Probst Areas of Interest Star Forming Regions, Low Mass Stars, Infrared Imaging Instrumentation
Recent Research Results Infrared astronomy has been largely technology driven. Over the past decade, NOAO's deployment of sensitive, large format infrared detector arrays in robust and flexible imaging systems has brought an immense increase in scientific capability to the astronomical community. A part of Probst's research has been to apply this capability to the study of photodissociation regions: the boundary layers between hot, thin, ionized gas and cold, dense, molecular material. These layers are associated with stellar birth, as hot young stars carve holes in their natal dust clouds; and stellar death, when radiation from newly exposed inner portions of a star interacts with material ejected earlier from its outer layers. One of the best techniques for tracing these regions is imaging in the 2.12 |lm line of molecular hydrogen. The morphology itself offers insight into the processes at work, and quantitative measurement of radiation at this wavelength is a guide to the energy exchange. While on sabbatical at CTIO, Probst has assembled a special purpose small telescope and coupled it to a facility IR camera equipped with custom filters. This
IX permits imaging of H2 emission over an area the size of the full Moon in a single picture, a unique and powerful capability for mapping extended faint structure. Probst has applied this technique to the molecular cloud in which the Orion Nebula is imbedded in order to trace the complex H2 morphology of this nearby region of massive star formation. He has also extended this work to H2 imaging of star forming regions in the Large Magellanic Cloud with the CTIO 1.5-m telescope. Use of a large telescope on a more distant object enables comparisons at the same linear scales. A surprising result is the complex and extensive H2 morphology of the 30 Dor region, a more energetic region of star formation than Orion which serves as a stepping stone to the "starburst" phenomenon seen in more distant galaxies.
Future Research Plans Probst plans to follow up this work with additional infrared imaging and spectroscopy of star forming regions in the Large Magellanic Cloud. Higher spatial resolution provided by larger telescopes, together with IR adaptive optics soon to be implemented at CTIO, will improve the morphological understanding of the 30 Dor H2 complex. Imaging in other infrared lines, made possible in part by the deployment of new detectors, will enable determination of dust extinction. This helps to disentangle the actual three- dimensional structure of this star forming region. H2 emission can be induced by the impact of a shock front on neutral material, or as fluorescence caused by radiation of the appropriate wavelength. Infrared spectroscopy will allow discrimination between these much different physical mechanisms by measurement of H2 line strengths. It may also be possible to infer the neutral hydrogen content of the LMC directly, a fundamental and poorly understood parameter for study of the star formation process in an environment much different from our own surroundings in the Galaxy. Together with Monica Rubio (U. of Chile) as principal investigator, Probst will use the SEST telescope at ESO for high resolution millimeter wave maps to trace the spatial and density structure of cold molecular gas around 30 Dor.
Service Probst's staff position as a Support Scientist requires him to spend the bulk of his time in service activities. As a member of the KPNO Infrared Group, he has been centrally involved in the development and deployment of infrared imaging systems over the past ten years. This involves close interaction with engineering staff during design and construction, in order to deliver a scientifically capable, technically maintainable, astronomer friendly instrument; and with scientific users at the telescope, so that they may get the most out of an instrument's capabilities. His most recent, multiyear endeavor has been as Project Scientist for the Cryogenic Optical Bench (COB), an advanced imager with multiple spatial and spectral filtering capabilities. After bringing this instrument from conceptual design through construction to deployment at the focal plane as a facility instrument, Probst was Project Scientist for its upgrade to high spatial resolution capability in the Diffraction Limited IR Imager (DLIRIM) project. As part of a rebalancing of instrumental resources between CTIO and KPNO, COB will be upgraded to a larger detector and redeployed permanently at CTIO, where it will serve as the science sensor in a tip-tilt adaptive optics system on the 4-m telescope. Probst will accompany the instrument to Chile, transferring to the CTIO staff for a three year period. He will be responsible for bringing this combination on-line as a user facility. As a part of his continuing support of facility IR instruments, Probst provides assistance to potential observers in the preparation of technically competent proposals and does feasibility review on all IR imaging proposals received in our biannual cycle. In addition to his service in the Infrared Group, Probst recognized the benefits to be gained from a systematic, mountain-wide program of collimation and related optical work on facility telescopes. He therefore created the position of "Optics Scientist" and served in this role for two years, coordinating engineering and mountain technical staff in the improvement of delivered image quality at all KPNO focal planes. This initial effort led to the creation of a new scientific staff position with enlarged responsibilities, subsequently filled by C. Claver. Finally, while on sabbatical at CTIO, Probst has been working with operations staff to prepare the infrastructure necessary for receipt, maintenance, and operation of COB and other large infrared instruments which will be deployed there. Robert A. Schommer Areas of Interest Stellar Populations, Magellanic Clouds, Cosmology
Recent Research Results Schommer is working with the Calan/Tololo supernova group in the study of the Hubble diagram, using SNe la to measure H0. Current best estimates give H0 in the mid-60s, somewhat higher than Sandage's recent result, and thus argue for a somewhat younger universe. Schommer is studying old star clusters in the Large Magellanic Cloud and in M33 with HubbleSpace Telescope (HST) data. Deep photometry for central clusters is being used to measure the age and search for the oldest population in the LMC. In the local group spiral M33, photometry and horizontal branch morphologies for 10 old clusters are being obtained to evaluate the difference between the halo of this local group spiral and that of our own Galaxy; in particular, the "second parameter" is being examined to see if these very different halos might have similar formation processes.
Future Research Plans Future work on the old populations of Local Group galaxies will include studies of field populations in the outer regions of the LMC, using photometry, abundances and velocities, with both ground-based and HST data. A study of NGC121, an old cluster in the Small Magellanic Cloud, is also being planned. As a member of the high-z supernova team, Schommer is searching for SNe at redshifts of -0.5. Last year the record for the highest redshift SNe la was established by this group (z=0.48); this year to date 7 SNe with redshifts between 0.4 and 0.6 have been found and confirmed. They intend to derive a measure of the deceleration parameter, q0, from these data, and thus measure the geometry and age of the universe.
Service Schommer's extensive service activities currently include chair of the CTIO Advisory Committee on Technical Resources (ACTR); he is thus an ex-officio member of NOAO's EPAC (central instrument planning group). Schommer is working on plans to coordinate the CTIO technical and support staff with that expected for the Gemini project effort in Chile. He is working on operations plans for CTIO with the expected additions of Gemini South and SOAR to the telescope mix. He remains in charge of small telescope improvements, currently focusing on the 0.9-m and 1.5-m. He is the staff contact and coordinator for the MACHO project, which uses time on the CTIO 0.9-m. He has served as CTIO member of several Gemini committees, including the optical instrument working group, and served on the conceptual design review committee for the Gemini multiple object spectrograph (GMOS). He co- organized the 4th ESO/CTIO workshop (on the Galactic Center) during March 1996 in La Serena.
Malcolm Smith Areas of Interest Quasars, Active Galactic Nuclei, Faint Red Objects at High Galactic Latitude
Recent Research Results Smith has begun a number of complementary, collaborative surveys aimed at discovery of quasars at z>5 and characterization of the quasar luminosity function at such redshifts. This research has the goal of clarifying the controversial question of the evolution of the luminosity function of quasars at early epochs in the universe; an estimate of the time which elapsed between the big bang and the time when quasars "switched on" should prove relevant to an understanding of the early formation of galaxies. This is a long-term project involving extensive calibration work, surveys, and data reduction. Smith is working on this problem with groups from Ohio State University, Pomona College, Maria Mitchell College, and the University of Michigan. The surveys with the Blanco 4-m and Schmidt telescopes are
XI based on selecting such high-redshift quasars by means of their very red (Gunn-Thuan) g-i colors and blue i-z colors. This project is now proceeding well as a result of the program of improvements to the image quality at the 4-m. Smith has been working with Athey (Pomona College) and Friel (Maria Mitchell)—participant and organizer of the NSF REU program at Cerro Tololo—to set up calibrations of the Gunn-Thuan filter system in the south and apply it to deep observations of a single 1/16 degree field near NGC300. No quasars have been found at this early stage of that deep survey.
Future Research Plans Smith, Kennefick (OSU), Osmer (OSU), Friel (Maria Mitchell), and Athey (Pomona College) are using the CCD camera at the Curtis Schmidt telescope on Tololo in conjunction with a digitized version of the second Palomar Observatory Sky Survey (POSS IT). Data obtained in r, g, and i from POSS U by Kennefick are being augmented by 1 sq. deg. Curtis Schmidt CCD frames obtained through a z filter. In this way, it will be possible to cover several hundred degrees of sky, and the probability will be high of discovering at least one or two quasars even if the co-moving space density turns down sharply beyond z>3 as some researchers believe. If no quasars are discovered, the resulting limits will rule out some current models that postulate that at least the most luminous quasars continue to exist at essentially constant co-moving space density out to redshifts 4 or 5.
Service Smith has, of course, multiple service duties as director of CTIO. He has been initiating the renewal of CTIO into an international observatory centered around support of the 8-m Gemini South telescope and two complementary 4-m telescopes—the Blanco and SOAR telescopes; this program is described in more detail in NOAO's renewal proposal. In addition he has initiated and participated in an extensive program to combat light pollution in Chile; he is also introducing a greater degree of "privatization" in the operation of the smaller telescopes at CTIO. He has worked closely with NOAO Tucson in encouraging collaboration in the production of large instruments for Gemini and the NOAO telescopes. The most recent detailed external review of these activities at CTIO is given in the 1995 report by the Observatories' Visiting Committee.
Nicholas B. Suntzeff Areas of Interest Stellar Populations, Globular Clusters, Stellar Chemical Abundances, Galactic Structure, Magellanic Clouds, Supernovae, Large-Scale Structure, Astronomical Site Characteristics
Recent Research Results Suntzeff, in collaboration with Phillips, Schommer, and the rest of the Calan/Tololo supernovae project, has continued his long-term study of supernovae. The first phase of the Calan/Tololo project has been finished, and over 50 supernovae (SNe) were discovered out to z=0.12. We have used the Type la subsample of these SNe to measure the local structure of the universe. The Tololo group has shown that a Type la event can be used to measure relative distances accurate to about 6%. Of particular interest is the measurement of the local rate of universal expansion (the Hubble constant) with respect to the SNe reference frame. The distant SNe overcome the problem associated with local, non-cosmological flows affecting the perceived expansion rate of the universe. The SNe results, coupled with HST-based distance calibrations to nearby galaxies that have hosted SNe (published by Saha, Sandage, and collaborators), show that the Hubble constant is near 65 km/sec/Mpc with an error dominated by the distance to the local calibrators, not the SNe reference frame. The Calan/Tololo group also finds that the reference frame for the universal expansion is directed towards the dipole defined by the microwave signal measured by the COBE satellite. In stellar astronomy, Suntzeff is working with T.D. Kinman at KPNO to measure the spatial and kinematical structure of the Galactic halo. This study will provide clues as to the origin of the
xn halo, and ultimately, the origin of the Milky Way Galaxy. Suntzeff, in collaboration with Schommer, Walker, and others, is also pursuing a similar project in the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds. They seek to find the original population of the stars in the Clouds to study the age and kinematics of the oldest stars, in order to compare the galaxian formation of these close satellite galaxies with the formation of our Galaxy.
Future Research Plans The future research for Suntzeff will concentrate on using new samples of supernovae to measure physical properties of supernovae explosions and to measure the local geometry of the universe. In collaboration with Phillips, Schommer, and others, he will start a new search for supernovae at CTIO, concentrating on galaxy clusters out to z=0.1. This search will attempt to find up to 100 SNe to establish the natural population of supernova explosions. These data will be a key to understanding the explosion mechanism for Type la events (which is still unknown) and estimating the intrinsic luminosity spread in the range of Type la explosions. This latter property is extremely important to tie down, since many modern studies of the local rate of expansion and the geometry of the universe rely on a detailed knowledge of the range of SNe luminosities.
Another CTIO collaboration seeks to measure q0, the local geometry of the universe. One of the outstanding questions of cosmology is the local curvature of the universe. The Calan/Tololo team has shown that the Type la SNe are such good standard candles that a simple comparison of SNe events at z=0.5 with local events can be used to measure the q0 geometry factor to better than 20% if roughly 25 SNe can be discovered. The CTIO group is spearheading an international campaign of astronomers at CfA, University of Washington, the MSSSO in Australia, and in Chile to discover a distant sample of supernovae to measure q0. A by-product of this survey will be a list of variable stars, which Suntzeff will use to continue his Galactic structure studies with Kinman, Cook (LLNL), and Schmidt (MSSSO), with the goal of measuring Galactic structure based on field stars out to 100kpc.
Service Suntzeff will continue in a multi-faceted program of service to CTIO. He is in charge of the Argus and bench-mounted echelle instruments. He is actively participating in the upgrade of the Argus fiber system to a Hydra system similar to that at the WIYN telescope, which will increase the number of objects that can be observed by a factor of six. He will work with John Filhaber to try to bring significant improvements in image quality to the smaller telescopes, using the knowledge gained during the 4-m telescope image improvement campaign. Suntzeff will continue to be in charge of the basic site monitoring at CTIO, includingthe seeing telescopethat is now routinely measuring the CTIO site seeing. He will also work with Gemini to begin a permanent monitoring for the Pachon site, in order to build up environmental and seeing data prior to the inauguration of the Gemini South telescope. Suntzeff will continue to serve on the CTIO TAC and ACTR committees.
Alistair Walker Areas of Interest Stellar Populations, Magellanic Clouds, Distance Scale, Stellar Photometry
Recent Research Results Walker, with J. Nemec (York University) has completed an analysis of extensive photometry of the RR Lyrae variables in the galactic globular cluster IC 4499. The work allows direct comparisons between the observational properties of these old, evolved, low-mass stars and predictions from evolutionary and pulsation theory.
xui Walker, with H. Smith (Michigan State) and N. Silbermann (IPAC), is completing the analysis of CCD photometry of a one-degree square field in the Small Magellanic Cloud, obtained with the Curtis Schmidt telescope. This field contains many short-period Cepheids, and the program is aimed particularly at defining the structure of the faint end of the Cepheid Period-Luminosity relation in the HR diagram.
A photometric investigation into the stellar populations present in the local group dwarf spheroidal galaxy, Tucana, from ground-based and Cycle 4 HST observations (P.I., P. Seitzer, U. Michigan) has been completed. Walker analyzed all the ground-based and the HST PC observations. The galaxy shows a single, early epoch of star formation and is metal-poor. Tucana is unique in the Local Group by virtue of its remoteness from any luminous group member and thus its properties are important in the evaluating the effect of interactions between LG members upon their stellar content and evolution.
Future Research Plans Walker is a member of two teams (one as P.I.) awarded HST WFPC2 time in Cycles 5 and 6 for stellar population studies in the Magellanic Clouds. The first program will determine ages and abundances for several old or probably old clusters in the inner regions of the Large Magellanic Cloud. The second program will study the oldest Small Magellanic Cloud cluster and two distant field regions, one in each Cloud. Extensive ground-based observations with the CTIO 4-m and 1.5-m telescopes are integral parts of each program. This work will allow the early star formation history of the Magellanic Clouds to be deciphered, and the results will bear directly on our ideas on the early formation and subsequent evolution of galaxies in general. A collaboration led by D. Terndrup (OSU), with R. Peterson (UCSD), E. Sadler (AAO), and Walker, is beginning a search in galactic bulge fields (photometry, spectroscopy) for hot evolved stars in the hope of identifying the origin of the copious UV flux in old, metal-rich populations in other galaxies.
Service Walker is currently responsible for the Blanco 4-m telescope, and in particular is supervising the on-going program of optical and thermal tests, together with managing the upgrades work in these areas. These efforts are now mostly aimed at optimizing image quality at prime focus, maintaining the now excellent image quality in general, and improving the understanding of the causes of the present 0.5 arcsec image quality floor at the f/8 focus.
Walker directs and coordinates CCD operations and upgrades, supervises the operation of the CCD laboratory, and is responsible for optical imaging programs on all telescopes. He is responsible for the Schmidt telescope and has managed the projects that have automated the wide-field imager at that telescope. He is the CTIO scientist liaison with NOAO Tucson on the production of the NOAO 8K x 8K imager and is project scientist for most projects involving production and implementation of the Arcon CCD controllers. He is organizing the long-term visits to CTIO of the Bell Labs mosaic imager LACCD, and possibly the STScI Advanced Camera.
Walker is a member of ACTR (CTIO Advisory Committee for Technical Resources) and has served as a member of the US Gemini Science Advisory Committee since 1994. On two occasions he has represented the US on the Gemini Science Committee and has recently been named as CTIO observer at the GSC. He is a member of the American Astronomical Society, the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, and the Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers.
xiv Appendix
Tucson Nighttime Scientific Staff: Research Interests and Service Roles
Helmut A. Abt Areas of Interest Double Stars, Stellar Rotation, Stellar Characteristics, Publication Practices in Astronomy
Recent Research Results Abt and his collaborators have recently studied how double stars are formed. Others have found that the classical mechanism (subdivision of a star that is spinning too rapidly) does not form double stars, but rather stars with disks. Abt's work shows that three-body interactions within star clusters gives double stars with the characteristics seen in young and old clusters and seems to be the primary mechanism.
Future Research Plans Abt is concerned about the maximum ages of Trapezium systems. Those contain three or more stars with roughly equal separations between the stars. They are dynamically unstable and will evolve into hierarchical systems, e.g., a close pair and a distant third star or pair. But how long does that take? A study with C. J. Corbally of 268 possible systems should indicate the maximum age of Trapezium systems and a preliminary value is 1010 years.
Service The 9% growth per year of The Astrophysical Journal has gradually absorbed most of Editor-in-Chief Abt's time. The Journal now publishes 25,000 pages of original research each year, and it is planned to have it available on-line in 1997. But Abt has reorganized the Journal structure so that the overseeing of the reviewing is now done mostly (90%) by 12 Scientific Editors elsewhere in the country. In addition Abt has been of service to the LAU (Nominating Committee, President Commission 26), Van Biesbroeck Award for unselfish service to astronomy (President), AAS Investment Advisory Committee (member), Y. C. Cheng Award for outstanding research by an astronomer in China (founder), etc.
Taft Armandroff Areas of Interest Stellar Populations in the Galaxy and Nearby Galaxies; Globular Clusters; Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxies
Recent Research Results Armandroff has been studying the mass-to-light ratios of dwarf spheroidal galaxies. A number of these systems show anomalously high mass-to-light ratios. If this is to be explained by the presence of dark matter, these data rule out neutrinos as the primary dark matter component based on phase space density constraints, imply very high dark matter densities that must guide our thinking on the primordial density fluctuation spectrum, and force the consideration of galaxy formation schemes in which dark matter dominates. Armandroff, Olszewski (Steward), and Pryor (Rutgers) have studied the two galaxies with the apparently highest mass-to-light ratios: Draco and Ursa Minor. In their first paper (Armandroff, Olszewski, and Pryor; November 1995 A.J.) a large new set of radial velocities is presented for stars in both galaxies, in which some of the stars approach the tidal radii of Draco and Ursa Minor and the majority of the stars have been observed at more than one epoch. Using the Hydra multi-fiber spectrograph on the KPNO 4-m, velocities were obtained of about 100 member giants in each galaxy, the largest samples of velocities available for any dwarf spheroidal. These radial velocities confirm the large velocity dispersions (about 10 km/s) previously measured from much smaller samples of stars in these
xv galaxies. Combining these velocities with the most sophisticated mass models available for these galaxies yields mass-to-light ratios in the range 55 to 90. Their second paper (Olszewski, Pryor, and Armandroff; February 1996 A.J.) addresses the effects of binaries on the measured velocity dispersions. They use the large database of radial velocities in Ursa Minor and Draco to search for binary stars and to infer the binary frequency. Of the 118 stars in this sample with multiple observations, six are velocity variables. Monte Carlo simulations that mimic the observations are used to determine the efficiency with which the observations find binary stars. The best estimate of the binary frequency for stars near the turnoff in Draco and UMi is 0.2-0.3 per decade of period. A number of numerical experiments were performed to assess the effect of binaries on the measured velocity dispersions of dwarf spheroidal galaxies. The first set of experiments is based on the observed scatter in the individual velocity measurements for the multiply observed Draco and UMi stars. The second set of experiments is based on a model binary population, normalized by the observed binary frequency in Draco and UMi. They conclude that binary stars have had no significant effect on the measured velocity dispersion and inferred mass-to-light ratio of any dwarf spheroidal galaxy.
Future Research Plans Armandroff has been studying the dwarf spheroidals around M31 (in collaboration with Da Costa, Caldwell, and Seitzer). This was motivated by the opportunity to increase the number of galaxies defining the properties of dwarf spheroidals and by the fact that the somewhat different environment of the M31 dwarfs compared to those of the Galaxy allows a first look at how dwarf spheroidal properties change with environment. WFPC2 images of one such galaxy, And I, are being analyzed in order to construct a color-magnitude diagram that will reveal for the first time the morphology of the horizontal branch (HB) in this system. The dSph companions to the Galaxy show a large diversity of HB types, and many show redder HBs than would be expected from their generally low metal abundances. This trend of red Hbs despite low abundances, seen in both Galactic dSphs and in most outer Galactic halo globular clusters, is often taken as an indication that these objects formed later than the inner Galactic halo. It is therefore of considerable interest to see if the And I, II, and III dSph galaxies, which are in the outer halo of M31, show this same effect. Subsidiary results that will follow from this project include comparisons of HB and giant-branch-tip distances and estimates of internal abundance dispersions free from the complications caused by AGB contamination on the upper giant branch. WFPC2 images of a second M31 dwarf spheroidal, And II, are expected shortly.
Service Armandroff serves as project scientist for the NOAO optical/UV instrumentation program. In this capacity, he coordinates all optical instrumentation development efforts and serves as a member of IPAC. The modification of Hydra and the Bench Spectrograph for optimal use at the WIYN telescope has represented a major part of Armandroffs service effort. Armandroff is a member of the team developing the Large Mosaic CCD Imager for KPNO and CTIO. He leads the effort to replace the camera in the GoldCam spectrometer with one of higher efficiency, better image quality and wider field. Armandroff participated in a group studying a Hydra clone for CTIO, and he led a group studying the need for, and parameters of, new high-efficiency low-to-moderate resolution optical spectrographs for the KPNO and CTIO 4-m's. In addition, Armandroff serves as a staff contact for Low-to-Moderate Resolution Spectroscopy and Multi-Fiber Spectroscopy. He also serves on the "Kitchen Cabinet" for KPNO operations.
xvi Samuel C. Barden Areas of Interest Stellar Physics and Dynamics, Binary Stars, Spectroscopic Instrumentation
Recent Research Results Barden has recently focused his scientific activity on the search for binary stars among globular clusters. The determination of the fraction of binary stars in a globular cluster is important for understanding how globular clusters dynamically evolve (e.g., why they don't have collapsed cores). The study of such binary populations will also provide insight into the dynamic evolution of the binaries themselves when in a dense stellar cluster where interactions with neighboring stars are quite frequent. Barden's preliminary results on binaries in M71, in collaboration with Taft Armandroff (NOAO) and Tad Pryor (Rutgers), suggest a binary fraction comparable in size to that for field stars near the Sun. This is much higher than originally anticipated but is in line with some recent results by other investigators. Barden and collaborators are currently working on the M13 cluster, which has significantly different cluster properties than M71. Expectations suggest a lower M13 binary fraction. Only one of the several required epochs of observations has been obtained so far for the Ml3 sample. Barden and collaborators are also attempting to do follow-up observations of the M71 binary sample from which they hope to derive binary orbital parameters.
On another front, Barden has joined with Caty Pilachowski (NOAO), Mark Giampapa (NOAO), Frank Hill (NOAO), Christoph Keller (NOAO), and Jack Harvey (NOAO) in a concerted effort to search for acoustic (p-mode) oscillations in solar-like stars. This group is using an equivalent width technique in which oscillations should show up with a signal of about 30 parts per million and which appears to be the most promising technique for detecting these elusive oscillations. The detection and evaluation of p-mode oscillations on stars (similar to the 5-minute oscillations of the Sun) are important for constraining stellar evolutionary theory. Most of modern astrophysics, including the distance scale to the galaxies and the ages of stellar clusters, relies on our knowledge of the fundamental parameters of stars. Measurement of the fundamental p-mode oscillations provides significant leverage on the age and mass of stars when coupled with temperature, luminosity, and the star's metallicity. Barden, et al. have just started observing stars in such a manner, and preliminary analysis is still underway.
Future Research Plans Barden will carry forward his study of M13 and M71 binary stars. Detection of binaries in M13 will take 2 to 3 more epochs of observing over the next couple of years, while follow-up observations of the detected binaries may require baseline observations of several years to derive the desired orbital parameters. The search for stellar oscillations (asteroseismology) is a tedious and time consuming project requiring long runs and extensive data analysis. The group, in which Barden is involved, is in the process of organizing a community-wide effort (called Stellar Oscillations Network Group or SONG) to search for and observe p-mode oscillations in solar-type stars. The goals of SONG are to explore and define observing techniques, develop required instrumentation, coordinate observing efforts, and implement a worldwide network not unlike the GONG network currently studying oscillations in the Sun. Such an effort could easily span the next 5-10 years and involve international collaborations.
Service Project Scientist for Hydra—which involves nearly daily activity working with team members and interfacing with the community regarding questions about the instrument. Hydra is a multi-object spectrograph, which was recently put into operation at the WIYN telescope. There are now plans underway to build a similar instrument for CTIO, and Barden will serve as co-project scientist with Bob Schommer from CTIO. The WIYN version will require Barden's continued support for smooth operation and user support. The CTIO project will require effort over the next 3 years to build and deliver a working instrument for use on the Blanco 4-meter telescope.
xvn High Resolution Spectroscopy Scientist-Bardtn is listed as the scientist in charge of KPNO's high resolution spectrographs, which include the 4-meter echelle and the coude spectrograph. He is responsible for fielding some of the user questions regarding the operation and scientific capabilities of those instruments.
Coude Feed Telescope Scientist - Barden has responsibility for scientific oversight of the Coude Feed telescope, which feeds the coude spectrograph and is capable of resolving powers approaching 250,000. This instrument is unique, but it is suffering from a small telescope aperture (0.9 meters) and the threat of closure due to decreasing operational funds at KPNO. Barden is in charge of scheduling the Coude Feed telescope twice each year in cooperation with Dick Joyce (NOAO), who puts the overall KPNO telescope schedule together.
Barden is forming a community-based committee to evaluate the scientific objectives that require high spectral resolution. This committee will provide both near-term and long-term recommendations future instrumentation needed to achieve the scientific objectives. It is Barden's hope that such a report will provide a blueprint for continued NOAO support for high resolution spectroscopy.
KPNO Filter Scientist-Barden is the scientist in charge of the KPNO filter collection. Duties include screening of outside filter requests (typically a few per month) and the solicitation and specification of new filter and replacement filter acquisition.
Committees—Bardtn currently serves on the "Kitchen Cabinet," which provides counsel to Sidney Wolff concerning KPNO operations.
Miscellaneous Instrumentation Efforts--Barden is involved in some additional instrument development efforts. This currently includes conceptual ideas for a "high efficiency spectrograph," which KPNO is considering as a potential replacement for the aging R-C spectrograph at the Mayall 4-meter. Barden is exploring new technology gratings and optics in an attempt to simplify and enhance the spectrograph's efficiency. Barden also has a laboratory for the evaluation of fiber optics. He has the ability to measure spectral transmission and focal ratio degradation of fibers that will be used in NOAO instrumentation. He also has the responsibility of assembling the fiber heads for the Hydra instruments (WIYN and CTIO). Barden also occasionally serves as a consultant for university level instrument development. He has led two conferences on astronomical applications of fiber optics.
Michael J.S. Belton Areas of Interest Planetary Science, Comets, Asteroids, Jupiter System
Recent Research Results Belton's recent work has been in exploring the composition, structure, spatial distribution, and stability of the satellite lo's atmosphere using observations made with the Hubble Space Telescope and the IRAM antenna. Working with E. Lellouch (Meudon Observatory) and D. Strobel (JHU), this group discovered and characterized two mm lines of the SO molecule, a photochemical decomposition product, on the satellite in addition to making further line shape and line shift observations that characterize the state of the primary atmospheric gas S02. With P. Sartoretti, a postdoctoral appointee at KPNO, Belton assisted in the interpretation of UV images of Io that, together with the IRAM mm spectroscopy, help determine the complex spatial distribution of the atmosphere. Belton plans to extend this cooperative work to clarify the nature of lo's dynamic atmosphere, with the goal of finding the primary volcanic sources and tracing another possible atmospheric sink with a search for SO2. Future observations on
xvin HST and ERAM have already been scheduled to accomplish this. In about a year it should be possible to measure the spatial distribution of the mm-lines over the surface using mm-interferometric techniques. Other current research topics that Belton is engaged in are the discovery and implications of the asteroidal satellite 1993 (243)1 Dactyl and the determination of the global physical properties of 243 Ida based on observations that he was responsible for from the Galileo spacecraft.
Future Research Plans Belton plans to expand his investigations of the satellite Io from a purely Earth-based study to one that involves observations from the Galileo spacecraft (he is the leader of the Imaging Science experiment), and possibly also with the Hat Creek interferometer (with Imke dePater, UC Berkeley). The goal is to improve our knowledge of volcanic plume dynamics and to characterize the sources and sinks of the primary atmospheric gas, S02. In addition to this, he is planning a set of ground-based observations (as part of an international campaign) to determine the precise rotation state of comet Hale-Bopp. Understanding this property of the comet's nucleus is an essential prerequisite for diagnosing the information content in a wide variety of other ground-based observations. In addition to these tasks Belton is also involved in several other cometary and Jupiter system projects. Some of these stem from his leadership of the Galileo imaging team and others from participation in Hubble Space Telescope projects already granted time. These include an investigation of the partially gravitationally bound radial structure of Chiron's atmosphere (with K. Meech, Univ. of Hawaii), an investigation of the composition of the Pele plume on Io (with Melissa McGrath, STScI), and an investigation into the development and dissipation of atmospheric features in Jupiter's atmosphere (with RetaBeebe, NMSU).
Service Belton's service activities are primarily in the planetary astronomy community where he is Chair of the NASA IRTF Management and Operational Working Group and Chair of the NASA/Keck Observatory Management and Operations Working Group. In addition he serves on the Solar System Exploration "Roadmap" planninggroup, the NASA Planetary Astronomy Committee, and on the NASASmall Bodies Science Working Group. He recently chaired the proposal review process for the United States participation in the ESA Rosetta Mission and is active in the NASA Planetary Astronomy proposal review process. Recently he was a member of visiting committees to the Lowell and the McDonald Observatories. Within NOAO he provides appraisals and advice to the Director on planetary astronomy observing proposals. He has also sponsored two successful IDEA education outreach programs at NOAO.
Bruce Bohannan Areas of Interest Stellar Spectroscopy, Structure and Evolution of Massive Stars, Astrophysical Instrumentation and Data Reduction
Recent Research Results Bohannan's research centers on observational studies of the evolution of massive stars. Massive stars, through radiation, mass loss, and supernovae explosions, are significant to the chemical element evolution and kinetic energy of their parent galaxies and, because of their high luminosity, are readily observed to great distance in the Milky Way and in other galaxies. The evolution of these stars is poorly understood because models are not readily connected to simple spectral morphology. Bohannan and his colleagues have used the measurement of basic stellar properties (temperature, gravity, mass, mass loss rate, and surface element abundances) to define the evolutionary path of massive stars and to make connections between various stages of massive star evolution, which are most readily observed as morphological differences. For example, recently P.A. Crowther (University College, London) and Bohannan (1996, submitted to Astronomy & Astrophysics) concluded that a direct evolutionary connection may exist between certain hot, massive stars (those classified as 08 lafpe) and a later stage of
xix stellar evolution (low excitation WN stars) without an intermediate stage of rapid and unstable evolution (commonly known as Luminous Blue Variables), a conclusion which is contrary to current evolutionary theory and suggestive that an additional process (e.g., mixing) brings core processed material to the surface.
Future Research Plans Similar investigations of stars in the Galactic Center and in other galaxies provide critical diagnostics of stellar evolution because they can examine the effect of different stellar environments on stellar evolution. Such studies depend on infrared observations because of extreme interstellar absorption (the Galactic Center) and severe crowding of stellar images (other galaxies). The ER diagnostics are being developed with Crowther and tested through a set of spectral line profiles recently obtained at CTIO and analyzed with Hillier model atmospheres. The next stage will be to analyze a set of Of and WN stars in the Large Magellanic Cloud, to be followed by observations of stars in the Galactic Center thought to be of similar spectral morphology. The final step would be to undertake a similar study of stars in M33, research which requires a moderate resolution IR spectrometer combined with an image compensation system to provide high spatial resolution (e.g., tip-tilt and fast focus). En work with E. L. Fitzpatrick, Bohannan will be completing abundance analyses of B supergiants in the Large Magellanic Cloud. These stars, somewhat less massive than the O-type stars studied with Crowther, exhibit a range of CNO abundances, an observation indicating that a significant fraction of these stars have evolved through the red supergiant stage and have returned to the blue supergiant region with core processed material now in their atmospheres. This latter conclusion is also not consistent with models of massive star evolution, and mixing may need to be invoked to bring the processed material to the surface; mixing has not yet been included in model calculations in sufficient detail to enable a comparison with observations. The results of these studies will contribute significantly to defining future theoretical modeling.
Service As Assistant Director for Operations and Projects, Bohannan has day-to-day and long-range supervisory responsibility for all KPNO mountain-based activities, including electronic and computer maintenance, and instrument and observing support for astronomers using KPNO telescopes. Personnel reporting to him also provide electronic maintenance for the National Solar Observatory site on Kitt Peak. He works with Tucson-based engineering personnel on telescope and instrument improvement projects. Major projects in the past year include thermal control of the 4-meter primary mirror, a number of "re- engineering projects" to address the management and operation of NOAO/KPNO as it adjusts to level or declining budgets, and training of NOAO personnel to operate and maintain the WIYN telescope. Major activities for the coming year include continuing work on improving the optical performance of the 4-meter telescope and coordination of work on the thermal control system of the 4-meter dome.
Charles F. Claver Areas of Interest Stellar Ages, White Dwarf Structure and Evolution, Stellar Photometry, Optical Instrumentation
Recent Research Results Claver's research focuses on obtaining an independent estimate of the Universe's age and, as a by product of doing so, resolve the apparent discrepancy between the expansion age and the main-sequence age of the oldest stars we see - the globular clusters. The age dating technique Claver uses exploits the relatively simple physics found in the cooling remnants of stellar evolution - white dwarf stars. The age of a white dwarf is directly related to its luminosity, and any reasonable estimates for the age of the Universe still allow for the oldest white dwarfs to be visible. Therefore, a census of white dwarfs according to their brighteness - called a luminosity function - in any stellar population will show an abrupt cutoff at low
xx luminosities that is dependent on the population's age. Claver has used this fact and observations of white dwarfs in the open clusters Praesepe and NGC 752 to show the white dwarf and main-sequence ages are in good agreement up to 3 billion years old. If the agreement persists at older ages so that we can be confident in the ages of the globular cluster, then the current estimate of Hubble's constant does not allow for a simple inflationary cosmology and a more complex one is demanded. Otherwise, if the agreement breaks down beyond ages of 3 billion years, we must be suspect of the estimates of stellar ages and re evaluate the state of stellar evolution calculations. To date all estimates of the white dwarf luminosity function for the Galaxy's disk suffer from poor statistics at their faint ends and prevent us from fully utilizing the excellent clocks offered to us by white dwarf stars. Thus, age estimates for the Galactic disk from these luminosity functions range from 8-13 billion years, which is not precise enough to help resolve the age dilemma. As part of Claver's thesis work he has developed a method for identifying cool white dwarf candidates from photometry alone. With his technique Claver has initiated a deep photometric survey to search for cool white dwarfs in the field. To date Claver's survey has covered enough area to improve the number statistics in the cool part of the disk white dwarf luminosity function by a factor of 3-5 over previous estimates.
Future Research Plans Over the next several observing seasons Claver's plans are to continue spectroscopic follow-up observations with WIYN Hydra of his cool white dwarf photometric survey. The cool white dwarfs identified will be used to redefine the cool part of the white dwarf luminosity function (WDLF). These data are important not only for estimating the Galaxy's age, but also for placing an observational constraint on the importance of phase separation of a carbon-oxygen mixture in crystallization of white dwarf cores. Phase separation, if it happens, releases additional energy into the white dwarf core further delaying the cooling process beyond the delay caused by the release of latent heat. The exact nature of white dwarf crystallization causes observable features in the WDLF and has a large effect on the inferred white dwarf cooling ages. He will also work toward increasing the area of his survey in order to increase the detection sensitivity of older, cooler white dwarfs belonging to the Galactic Halo. Also, Claver plans to extend his work on calibrating the stellar chronology in star clusters to ages older than 3 billion years. Specifically, he plans to search for and identify the oldest white dwarfs in the clusters M67 and NGC 188 in the North and IC 4651 and NGC 3680 in the south using both ground- and space-based telescopes. These clusters will extend the calibration to roughly 8 billion years, which is sufficient to constrain the source of the present differences in the Universe's expansion age and its oldest stars.
Service Within the Kitt Peak Scientific Staff Claver holds the title of Imaging Scientist. As part of his service activities he has begun a coherent comprehensive look at the imaging quality produced by Kitt Peak telescopes with the aim of having all Kitt Peak telescopes deliver the excellent seeing of which the site is capable. To this end, Claver has taken on the responsibility of overseeing and maintaining optical alignment of Kitt Peak telescopes, as well as debugging problems when they occur. Claver also contributes to Kitt Peak service by being a staff contact and providing some of the start-ups for visiting direct imaging observers. As a member of the 4-m imaging improvement group, Claver is investigating the performance of the 4-m primary support system to determine if and where significant improvements can be made in the delivered image quality of this valuable telescope. He is also participating in critical design reviews of the new wide field 4-m Prime-Focus Corrector and Mosaic project. In addition, Claver has initiated a study of high frequency image motion at WIYN. Analysis of these data by Claver and others is providing essential information for the development of an Adaptive Optics program for WIYN.
xxi Stephane Courteau Areas of Interest Cosmology, Large-Scale Structure, Galaxy Formation and Dynamics, Stellar Populations, Dust in Galaxies
Recent Research Results Courteau's current research focuses on the formation and distribution of galactic and cosmological structures in the Universe. Using NOAO optical and infrared images, he recently showed that the formation process for spiral galaxies has probably taken place over a relatively long and continuous time interval and did not occur in a rapid sequence as suggested by many "collapse" models. Courteau has recently shown how his observations of hundreds of galaxies support predictions for "secular" evolution models in late-type spirals. Mass models for these galaxies have also served to constrain the structure of dark matter halos. He and collaborator Broeils (Stockholm) have shown that the disk mass-to-light ratio correlates weakly with total luminosity but more strongly with the mass of the stellar disk. This finding contradicts the hypothesis of a universal halo for galaxies and clusters of galaxies. Courteau also just completed an extensive compilation of cosmological "peculiar" velocities for more than 3000 galaxies (the largest so far). These velocities measure the residual motion of galaxies once a universal expansion is subtracted out. Their study provides a critical test for current debates about the density of the Universe and the way initial galaxy perturbations were seeded in the early Universe.
Future Research Plans Work for the next two years includes getting high-resolution spectra of the central regions of nearby spiral galaxies to test the concept of stellar population mixtures across the bulge and disk in galaxies other than our own. These observations will provide new clues and stringent constraints about the process of galaxy formation. Courteau is also engaged in a new NOAO-supported "all-sky" cosmological study to determine accurately the velocity dipole of spiral galaxies in our vicinity. These new measurements will be used in conjunction with previous peculiar velocity studies (see above) to provide full sampling homogeneity over the whole sky, which is critical for measuring the moments of the nearby galaxies' velocity field. Data collection will start in April 1996 and should be completed within two years. Courteau and Faber (UCSC) are also planning a study of galaxy dynamics and stellar populations in distant spiral galaxies. For this, they developed a new technique to compare convolved rotation linewidths at high-redshift with resolved rotation curves for nearby galaxies. Their new data will address the change in the mass spectrum of spiral galaxies as a function of time.
Service In addition to contributing to the weekly seminar programs, Courteau serves as imaging specialist at the KPNO 0.9-m and 2.1-m telescopes. This involves reviewing observing proposals for direct imaging and helping new observers get started and maximize their scientific output on these telescopes. Courteau has also helped the IR team prepare a new IREM instrument manual. He also participates in the NOAO Education Outreach program and delivers lectures on various topics of astronomy in Tucson high schools.
Arjun Dey Areas of Interest Active Galaxies, Galaxy Evolution, Observational Cosmology
Recent Research Results Dey is an NOAO postdoctoral fellow. His primary research interests are the evolution of galaxies and active galactic nuclei, and observational cosmology. He has recently demonstrated that the UV continuum emission from high-redshift radio galaxies is largely non-stellar in origin, and that these radio galaxies harbor hidden quasar nuclei. This result provides strong support for unification theories of
xxn AGNs (i.e., that radio galaxies are quasars, whose beamed radiation is directed in the plane of the sky rather than towards us). In addition, he and his collaborators are studying the stellarcontent and ages of high-redshift galaxies; they have recently discovered a 3.5 Gyr old galaxy at a redshift of z=1.55, which provides a strong constraint on the cosmological parameters.
Future Research Plans During the next 3 years, Dey will continue to investigate the stellar content of distant galaxies in order to determine the earliest epoch of galaxy formation. Although the observed optical emission from radio galaxies is non-stellar, the infrared radiation is most likely dominated by starlight, and Dey will investigate the infrared properties of high redshift radio galaxies with the aim of utilizing these luminous galaxies as cosmological probes. Dey's future research will also be directed at understanding the formation and evolution of massive galaxies. There is growing evidence that young galaxies may be dust enshrouded, and he will investigate the properties of a newly discovered population of very red galaxies. Finally, he will also study the importance of dust in distant, powerful AGN.
Service Dey helps new visiting observers acquaint themselves with the telescopes, and assists them in using the facility instruments effectively and efficiently.
David S. De Young Areas of Interest Active Galaxies, Galaxy Clusters, Galaxy Evolution, Hydrodynamics
Recent Research Results Jet Induced Star Formation in Galaxy Clusters Clusters of galaxies are the largest gravitationally bound objects in the Universe. In addition to containinghundreds of galaxies, these objects are also filled with non-luminous dark matter and hot x-ray emitting gas; the mass of these two components is comparable to or greater than that of the constituent galaxies. It has long been known that the hot gas will cool over the age of the cluster and fall to the center, but a severe problem with this idea is that no evidence has been found for the stars that would form from this cooling inflow. Recent observations of several clusters have found an excess of blue light, which is coincident with radio emission from jets emanating from an active galaxy in the center of the cluster. This blue light could come from massive young stars, and De Young has done a detailed calculation of how the shocks associated with the radio jet could trigger star formation in the surrounding intracluster medium near the galaxy. Good agreement is obtained with observations, both with regard to the color and luminosity of the light. The significance of this result is that this young stellar population will inject copious amounts of energy into the intracluster medium via supernovae and stellar winds, and this energy together with that injected by the jet can reheat the cool infalling gas, thus slowing the overall inflow and reducing the amount of mass that must be accounted for in the centers of clusters.
Mass Entrainment in Young Stellar Outflows Very young stars are known to lose mass at a high rate during the earliest stages of their formation, either in the form of stellar winds or in highly collimated jets, which commonly produce bright knots (Herbig- Haro objects). Often associated with these jets are slower, less well collimated outflows of molecular gas, and it is not clear if these are also produced by the young star or are a by-product of the jet flow. If the former, then our ideas of star formation and early stellar evolution must include a mechanism for both slow molecular outflow and higher speed jet outflow. In order to address this issue, De Young has examined the interaction of stellar jets and their environment. In particular he has developed a theoretical description for mass entrainment and momentum transfer in the very complex and turbulent boundary layer between a jet and its surroundings. These calculations provide a minimum estimate of
xxin the mass and momentum transfer, and they show that under most conditions a major portion of the jet momentum is transferred to the ambient medium. Hence the molecular outflows are likely to be derived from the more fundamental jet outflow.
Future Research Plans Galaxy Evolution In collaboration with Colin Norman (STScI), De Young plans an investigation of the fate of hot, metal rich gas that is injected into galactic halos by OB associations and supernova remnants. It has been widely conjectured, but never demonstrated, that this debris causes the halo gas to cool and condense into clouds which then settle back into the galactic disk. This is the essential assumption of the "closed box" models of galaxy evolution which have been used for the last two decades. In order to see if this model has any credibility, one needs a firm calculation that answers the following questions: Is the hot debris, when mixed (or not) with the halo gas, thermally unstable? If so, is the instability damped or does it proceed to the nonlinear regime? Does the instability form dense sheets, filaments, or clouds? Do these objects then persist and become gravitationally bound? This project requires complex and accurate modeling of the thermal conductivity in the context of time dependent numerical hydrodynamics, and the requisite algorithms are being developed. In a related project with Tim Heckman (JHU) and Crystal Martin (UA), an extended study of mass loss from dwarf galaxies due to starburst activity is being initiated. The issue is that of possible recollapse of an inflated ISM in the galaxy versus complete dispersal of the ISM due to energy injection from the starburst event, and the object is to reproduce the observed low metallicities in these objects together with their observed stellar populations. Critical parameters are the degree of central concentration of the starburst, the ellipticity of the ISM distribution, the filling factor of cold dense gas, and the metallicity of the ambient ISM. The solution will require realistic modeling of a two phase ISM with radiative cooling, and the numerical algorithms are now in hand to do this.
Service Activities De Young's service activities to NOAO include acting as Chairman of the two KPNO telescope Time Allocation Committees, membership on the NOAO EPAC Committee, membership on the WIYN Board of Directors, membership on the WIYN Scientific Advisory Committee, membership on the NOAO Management Committee, supervisor of the NOAO Tucson library, member or chairman of ad hoc KPNO Personnel and Post Doctoral Selection Committees, Chairman of the AURA Strategic Planning Committee, co-author of the AURA education and outreach proposal to the NSF, membership on the AURA interim team for the SOFIA proposal, and membership on various ad hoc NOAO committees such as NOAO 2000 and the AURA sponsored Albuquerque Workshop. In the past De Young has served as Associate Director of KPNO and as Associate Director of NOAO for KPNO. In addition, De Young has carried out extensive numerical modeling of airflow over Mauna Kea and Cerro Pachon in order to facilitate site selection for the Gemini Project, and he has done numerical simulations of airflow in telescope enclosures and around mirror cells to assist the Gemini project in enclosure and telescope design. He is currently using similar methods to evaluate the effects of large scale venting of the KPNO 4-m enclosure and to investigate "mirror seeing" as a function of the temperature difference between a mirror and the surrounding air. De Young also serves on the Board of Trustees of the Aspen Center for Physics and on the Executive and Steering Committees of the San Diego Supercomputer Center.
xxiv Jonathan Elias Areas of Interest Star Formation and Evolution, Magellanic Clouds
Recent Research Results Elias's most recent research project has been an investigation of stellar mass loss in the Magellanic Clouds. In the later stages of their evolution, stars become red giants and lose mass. As material flows out from the star, it cools and dust forms. The dust is detectable at infrared wavelengths; if there is enough of it, it will also hide the star itself from view. The abundance of dust in the circumstellar material and the rate and velocity of mass loss may all depend on the abundance of heavy elements in the star losing mass - but it is not known in which ways. In order to see what actually happens, it is necessary to compare observations of stars with different heavy element abundances. As stars in the Magellanic Clouds have lower abundances than similar stars in the Galaxy, and since these galaxies are close enough for individual starsto be readily observable, they provide a useful basis for comparison.
Future Research Plans Elias's work to date shows that the data are consistent with the hypothesis that only the amount of dust depends on the heavy element abundance, and that the two are directly proportional, while the overall mass loss rate is insensitive to abundance variations. Other workers suggest, though, that mass loss rates should be lower in stars with lower heavy element abundances. Few Magallanic Cloud mass-losing stars have been identified, especially in the Small Magellanic Cloud, so the evidence does not strongly favor one hypothesis over the other. Elias will be obtaining data from the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO) on selected regions of the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds. The new data will provide much larger samples of mass-losing stars than have been available up to now, and should settle the issue.
Service Elias's primary service activities during the last year have been in several areas. He began serving officially as project scientist for the Gemini Near-Infrared Spectrometer (GNIRS) in March 1995, and transferred from Chile to Tucson in January 1996 as a consequence. This position also entails service on the Gemini Infrared Instrumentation Science Working Group. In addition, he was one of the three scientific staff members responsible for the CTIO infrared program up until his departure. He also acted as the CTIO telescope scheduler, and was a member of the CTIO Time Allocation Committee, the CTIO Advisory Committee on Technical Resources (which provides scientific oversight of the CTIO instrumentation program) and the NOAO Instrument Projects Advisory Committee (which performs similar functions for NOAO as a whole). His membership on EPAC has continued after his transfer to Tucson. He has also been involved with review of CTIO's cost structures.
Ian Gatley Areas of Interest Star Formation, Galactic Center, Planetary Nebulae
Recent Research Results Over the past few years Gatley and his collaborators have studied the structure of Planetary Nebulae by observing infrared emission lines from the hydrogen molecule, which probe directly the neutral part of the mass loss envelope and are crucial in understanding the three dimensional shape of planetaries. Highly symmetric targets like the famous Ring Nebula seem obviously to be spherical, yet this work has shown it likely that they're not! The Ring Nebula is actually bipolar (shaped like a dumbbell), viewed by chance along its axis of symmetry. A large survey of planetaries suggests that the mere presence of molecular hydrogen emission in the spectrum of a planetary is sufficient evidence that the nebula is bipolar. Recently the bright and apparently amorphous object Hubble 12 provided an interesting test of this unifying hypothesis; a new and deeper exposure was rewarded by the discovery of a previously
xxv unknown bipolar envelope. Evidently the physical conditions required to shelter the fragile hydrogen molecules against dissociation in the envelopes of planetary nebula are only found in the denser "waistline" of the bipolar variety.
Future Research Plans Gatley plans to continue his studies of the Galactic center using newly constructed instrumentation at KPNO that delivers higher spatial and spectral resolution. The Diffraction Limited Enfrared Imaging experiment (DLIRIM) begun last year demonstrated the possibility of using the 4-m Mayall telescope to obtain images with diffraction limited cores at wavelengths of 3 and 4 microns. In the Galactic center DLIRIM will offer an unprecedented view of the stellar cluster at the Galactic nucleus, and will allow high resolution imaging of the ionized gas in the 4.05 micron Brackett alpha line of atomic hydrogen. Complementary high spectral resolution studies of the gas motion will be performed with the cryogenic grating spectrometer, Phoenix, which will deliver a velocity resolution of 3 km/sec. Together, these next generation observations will provide important new insights into the physical processes occurring in the nucleus of our Galaxy and refine our understanding of the nature of the "central engine".
Service Contributor to Educational Outreach Program: taught in local schools, demonstrated "Making a Comet", created infrared slide set for Astronomical Society of the Pacific. Scientific oversight of Photolab. Service observer for DLEREM experiment. Member of AURA SOFIA proposal team, IPAC, KPNO Telescope Time Assignment Committee (TAC), External Advisory Committee of Center for Astrophysical Research in Antarctica (CARA). Chair of NOAO Infrared Steering Committee. Advocate for ER astronomy in reviews, meetings, and seminars. Scientific oversight of Aladdin Detector Development. Project Scientist for: COB Shift-And-Add, Aladdin Controller, SQIID Upgrade, COB Upgrade, CTIO IRS Clone, EPICS Lab, ER R&D Program, and GRASP. Promoted GRASP/MOSAIC collaboration with OSU.
Richard Green Areas of Interest Active Galactic Nuclei, Quasar Absorption Line Systems, Galaxy Nuclear Dynamics
Recent Research Results Near-UV echelle data from the 4-meter have been acquired for studying metal-line and Lyman alpha absorption systems observed in lines of sight to distant quasars. Recent analysis of spectra of the quasars MC3 1331+170 and B2 1225+317 by York, Green and their collaborators shows that the pattern of abundances of the chemical elements can be used to model the star formation history of the absorbers. Some differences are seen when compared to the fossil record of abundances in the oldest stars in the Galaxy. Osmer, Hall, Liu and Green are pursuing a multi-color survey of about a square degree of sky at high galactic latitudes, that is complete to near 23rd magnitude in V. Recent papers address the evolution of the quasar and Seyfert galaxy luminosity functions. The low surface density of high-redshift objects confirms earlier work that there was a "quasar epoch" around z=2 prior to which the density of observable objects was significantly lower. In addition, Liu's thesis supervised by Green will address the frequency of star formation episodes through the incidence of E+A galaxies and the evolution of star- formation rate in elliptical galaxies, based on a color-selected sample from the same imaging database. Green's participation in the Hubble Space Telescope Medium Deep Survey Key Project has led to papers by thesis student V. Sarajedini and team collaborators on the incidence of stellar nuclei in faint field galaxies. The goal is to define the evolution of the faint end of the Seyfert nucleus luminosity function.
xxvi Future Research Plans During the next Agreement period, Green will concentrate on research related to two NASA orbital instruments, for which he has served for more than ten years on the instrument definition teams. The first program is based on data from STIS, the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph, currently scheduled for deployment in February, 1997. Green leads the GTO team's internal key project on galaxy nuclear dynamics. The goal will be to analyze spectra with high spatial resolution to determine the demographics of BlackHoles in the nuclei of ellipticals and othernon-active galaxies. The next program is that of FUSE, the Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer satellite. The team's goal is to measure the primordial deuterium to hydrogen ratio as a diagnostic of physical conditions in the nucleosynthesis phase of the Hot Big Bang. Since deuterium is easily destroyed in stellar fusion reactions, we must extrapolate the D/H ratio as a function of metallicity of absorbing gas, which reflects the degree of modification of primordial abundances by stellar processing.
Service Responsibilities as Deputy Director: • Ability to back up NOAO Director Example: Tasks as Acting Director in November 1995 NSF ACAST meeting - attendance as observer for NOAO issues Initiation of planning for risk of reduced FY 1996 budget, including KPNO AURA Solar Subcommittee Meeting follow-up Meetings with AURA Management during Gemini Board visit Funds management during government shutdown PR and observer alert for impact of failure of KPNO 4-m dome shutter Planning for Observatories Visiting Committee visit to CTIO Work with AURA Executive Committee on revisions to Restructuring Proposal
• Management of Nighttime Instrumentation Program for CTIO/KPNO Chair of Instrument Projects Advisory Committee - priority planning and resource management group composed of scientific staff from both sites
Frequent interaction with engineering group managers and project scientists
Enforcement of schedule and budget requirements on projects
Management interface to international Gemini Project in support of USGP for Gemini IR instrumentation program (arrays, controllers, spectrograph) being carried out at NOAO
• Development of collaborative partnerships for new telescopes and instruments Concluded MOU with L&F Industries and Hughes Danbury Optical Systems for production of commercial 2.4-meter telescope line
Management negotiation with Ohio State University for production of shared IR imager and spectrograph for KPNO
Representative of NOAO for Brazilian national review of SOAR Project
NOAO Administrative WIYN Board Member
NOAO interface for Edgar O. Smith Telescope Observatory development on Kitt Peak
xxvn Supervision of NOAO/Tucson nighttime postdocs (both NSF and grant-supported) Performance Reviews Critique ofjob applications Selection of new hires
Kenneth Hinkle Areas of Interest Circumstellar and Interstellar Matter, Molecular Spectroscopy, Peculiar Stars, Instrumentation
Recent Research Results Hinkle has been active in exploiting the 1-5 micron infrared to search for a variety of molecules. During the last few years, he collaborated with a group of NSO astronomers and P. Bernath (Univ. of Waterloo) to detect water on the Sun. The water lines observed span the 2-5 micron region. He also detected carbon monoxide at a wavelength of 2.3 microns in the very evolved star FG Sagittae. FG Sagittae had been considered a prototype rapidly evolving red giant. The detection of carbon monoxide is consistent with this star's evolution into a peculiar group of carbon-rich obscured stars, the R CrB stars. Carbon monoxide has also been utilized by Hinkle and C. Barnbaum (NRAO) to measure the radial velocities of a large number of late-type carbon-rich stars. Hinkle, in collaboration with S. Ridgway (NOAO) and T. Tsuji and K. Ohnaka (U. Tokyo) used the 4 micron SiO bands to measure silicon abundances in cool stars. Hinkle also worked with L. Wallace (KPNO, emeritus) on atlases of spectra in the 1-5 micron region. Recently, Hinkle, Wallace, and Livingston (NSO) published a book on the 1-5 micron spectrum of the bright K giant Arcturus. This atlas is intended as a roadmap for future researchers. Hinkle and Wallace also completed two papers on 2.0-2.5 micron spectra of stars from spectral types O-M. These papers are intended to provide information for spectral classification. This work will be especially important in understanding the nature of very young stars. Hinkle also produced several papers on astronomical instrumentation. These papers are on infrared spectroscopy using infrared array detectors. One of the papers, with NOAO engineers Drake and Ellis, pioneers the use of large silicon optics in infrared instrumentation.
Future Research Plans Hinkle is the principal investigator on a high resolution infrared spectrograph (Phoenix). This instrument is scheduled for first light in 1996, and will have much greater sensitivity than previously available on any infrared instrument of this spectral resolution. Using Phoenix, Hinkle and Bernath plan to extend their search for previously undetected circumstellar organic molecules. Previous searches indicate that the pure carbon chain C7 should be easily detectable. Symmetric organic molecules of interest in the early solar system, for example ethane and allene, should also be detectable. Hinkle also plans to use the Phoenix spectrograph to explore the velocity structure and ionization structure of the circumstellar shells of post-AGB stars. These shells show considerable spatial structure and are intermediate between the complex spatial structure of planetary nebula and the simple geometry of AGB mass loss. Hinkle also plans to extend his work on interacting late-type binary systems. Visual spectroscopy of interacting binaries is confused by (hot) emission from the accretion disk. The 1.5-2.5 micron infrared is the ideal spectral region to measure the velocity of the red star in these systems. With Joyce (KPNO) and F. Fekel (Tenn. State), he has started a project at the Coude Feed to observe about a dozen symbiotic systems with the NICMAS detector. The 1.6 micron spectra of these symbiotics will be observed on a roughly quarterly basis for three years. The first goal is to characterize the nature of the variable star in the system. Typical late-type giants in interacting binaries have orbits of about 2 years. Systems with Mira variables should have longer orbital periods. Masses for the red giant and white dwarf should ultimately
xxvin be obtainable. One of the motivations behind this project is to extend the object list using Phoenix to much more interesting related objects, for instance massive binary systems too highly reddened to be observed in the optical. Hinkle, R. Joyce (KPNO), and C. Sneden (U.T.) are also investigating mass loss in metal poor giants by observing the He I 10830 line with NICMAS on the Coude Feed. Hinkle is also working on the infrared spectra of RV Tauri variables with K. Pollard (SAAO). This work focuses on the phase dependent behaviorof molecularfeatures (including H20) in these yellow supergiants. With T. Lebzelter and J. Hron (Vienna), Hinkle is working on a series of papers on pulsation driven velocity changes in Mira, SRa, and SRb variables.
Service Hinkle's main service activity has been as project scientist for the Phoenix spectrograph. This project started in 1991 and has accounted for nearly full-time effort by Hinkle since then. The Phoenix project is a major observatory contribution to the community. Phoenix will allow high resolution (R=100,000) spectroscopy in the 1-5 micron infrared to much fainter limiting magnitudes than previously possible. Phoenix will ultimately serve a larger community than Kitt Peak. Current plans envisage use of this instrument or a clone at CTIO and with Gemini as well as on Kitt Peak. Hinkle has done a large part of the program management for Phoenix, has provided the astronomical input, and has resolved many engineering and optical design issues. Hinkle did the optical assembly and oversaw the mechanical assembly. Hinkle will be in charge of the instrumental check out during the next year. In addition, during the past two years Hinkle supported the 4-meter FTS. Hinkle also maintains FTS spectra dating back to 1976 in an archive. Spectra are available upon request. Hinkle and collaborators have recently published atlases based on this archive so that the material is more readily available to the community. With Joyce and M. Skrutski (U. Mass), Hinkle has placed a NICMOS array in the Coude Feed telescope. This array extends the useful operating range of this instrument into the 1.0-1.8 micron region. Hinkle also serves on the Gemini infrared instrumentation working group.
George Jacoby Areas of Interest Galaxy Distances, Dynamics, and Chemical Compositions, Planetary Nebulae
Recent Research Results Jacoby developed a method based on the brightnesses of planetary nebulae to measure the distances to galaxies. Using the KPNO 4-m telescope, he recently extended this method to 4 spiral galaxies (M96, M101, NGC 300, and M51) where a comparison to the well-known Cepheid method is possible, and thereby demonstrated that planetary nebulae yield distances accurate to about 6%. His results from recent analyses of nearly 20 galaxies indicate that the Hubble Constant is about 80 km/s/Mpc. In a related project, he has identified over 300 planetary nebulae in the giant Virgo elliptical galaxy M87 for the purpose of measuring the motions of several hundred stars. From these it is possible to map out the three-dimensional distribution of matter and identify the presence and location of any dark matter. Motions will be measured in the next few months using the Hydra multifiber spectrometer on the WIYN telescope. Prior work on giant ellipticals (Cen A, M86, NGC 1399, NGC 3379) has shown that each galaxy has unique dynamical properties: some have complex rotational and triaxial motions, some have dark matter, and others appear to have simple motions with no evidence for dark matter. A similar project is underway for our own Milky Way Galaxy, where Jacoby found 100 new planetary nebulae in its central 500 pc. Velocities have been measured for 15 of these, and many of the remaining objects will be observed at ESO shortly. Jacoby has just completed a survey for planetary nebulae in the Milky Way globular cluster system. Earlier investigators have failed to find any nebulae, but Jacoby found one object in NGC 6441, and a potential second nebula in the small cluster Pal 6. A preliminary analysis of the abundances in NGC 6441 indicate that the stars in the cluster are deficient in oxygen, an element that controls, to some degree, the rate of burning in the stellar core. The low oxygen abundance, if
xxix confirmed, implies that the stars in this globular cluster are older than previously thought, perhaps by 2 billion years.
Future Research Plans The observation and analysis of planetary nebula motions in galaxies is of growing interest because there is no better way to measure the stellar velocities. There are many candidate galaxies, and no physical trends have surfaced yet among the few galaxies that have been observed. This technique also applies to the bulges and disks of spiral galaxies. Jacoby and collaborators have accumulated velocities for over 800 nebulae in the nearby Andromeda galaxy, and the analysis is underway. Preliminary results show that the bulge of the galaxy is rotationally supported. Also, there are about 10 times fewer stars in the galaxy halo that produce planetary nebulae than initially thought, possibly evidence for either a very low mass or a very old halo. The observations of the Galactic center nebulae will help define the motions of stars in the central "bar" of our Galaxy, as well as flagging any nebulae that originated in the halo of our Galaxy but are presently passing near the Galactic nucleus; already, two very fast moving candidates have been identified as possible halo visitors. The spectra of the Galactic center nebulae also will allow Jacoby to determine the chemical compositions of the nebulae, from which the composition of their progenitor stars follows. That, in turn, provides an alternative means to measuring the chemical composition in a region of our Galaxy where abundances traditionally have been very hard to measure due to intervening dust. Our Galaxy is not the only difficult place to measure chemical compositions; for decades, there has been suspicion of gradients in the compositions of stars in elliptical galaxies based on the increasing blue color of the integrated light from those stars as one looks outward from the center. There is no direct way to measure those compositions. Planetary nebulae, however, by virtue of concentrating their energy into a few key emission lines, allow measurement of the compositions. The techniques for observing extragalactic nebulae are well known and have been tested recently in the center of the Andromeda galaxy using the Kitt Peak 4-m telescope in a multi-slit configuration. The same approach, using the Gemini telescopes, will allow a direct measurement of the compositions of nebulae (and therefore the stars) in distant elliptical galaxies for the first time.
Service Jacoby's service responsibilities fall into 2 primary areas: software and telescope instrumentation. He is the project scientist for the IRAF program, setting priorities and giving scientific direction to the project, interfacing between the programmers and the users, NOAO management, and outside organizations interested in the project (STScI, AXAF, EUVE). Jacoby serves as the telescope scientist for the 0.9-m telescope on Kitt Peak, providing user support for the telescope and its two instruments: a wide-field CCD camera and a CCD photometer. In addition, he is the project scientist for the new optical correctors being built for the 4-m and 0.9-m that are required to provide the very wide fields of views (50' and 80', respectively) needed by the NOAO CCD Mosaic camera. As the primary scientist for CCD imaging at Kitt Peak, Jacoby is involved with setting specifications for adaptive optics development work, optical filter purchases, detector testing, authoring manuals, and working with visiting astronomers to collect and reduce their imaging data. In other areas, Jacoby serves as the backup Kitt Peak director for Sidney Wolff when she is on travel, serves on the Kitt Peak advisory panel "Kitchen Cabinet," and on personnel committees as needed. Jacoby has additional community service responsibilities as a member of the scientific organizing committees for the annual Astronomical Data Analysis and Software Systems conference, and the IAU Symposia on Planetary Nebulae.
xxx Buell T. Jannuzi Areas of Interest Observational Cosmology, Quasar Absorption Lines, Active Galactic Nuclei and Radio Galaxies (Unification Schemes), Polarimetry, High Throughput Spectrographs, and WideField Optical and IR Instrumentation for LargeSurveys
Recent Research Results Jannuzi's current research activities are mainly in two areas: 1) the study of the properties of the inter- galactic medium and the gaseous content of the Universe as probes of the formation and evolution of structure in the Universe, and 2) the study of the properties of active galactic nuclei (AGN) with particular focus on observational tests of AGN unification schemes. Jannuzi is currently involved in two major surveys which together allow an investigation of the relationship between low redshift Lyman- alphaabsorbers (absorption by neutral atomic hydrogen) and individual, groups, and clusters of galaxies. Understanding the relationship of the absorbers to other larger scale structures is important because the Lyman-alpha absorbers are a unique population of objects which are observable from redshifts of zero to over 4, i.e., over most of the age of the Universe. Understanding how they relate to large scale structures at low redshift will allow the absorbers to be a probe for the evolution of such structures for most of the lifetime of the Universe. Jannuzi is currently the coordinator of the team of researchers that used the Faint Object Spectrograph of the Hubble Space Telescope to obtain ultra-violet spectra of 89 quasars. These data are currently being analyzed and will yield a very large catalogue of low redshift quasar absorption lines. The most recent results from this survey include evidence for clustering of some low redshift Lyman-alpha absorbers near metal line systems and for a change in the nature of the evolution of the number of these systems as a function of redshift from near the beginning of the Universe (z=4.5) to the present (z=0). Jannuzi is also leading a team of groundbased observers mapping the distribution of galaxies in the fields of the same quasars observed as part of the Key Project. Using the WIYN telescope and its Hydra spectrograph as well as the KPNO 4-m, CFH, and Palomar telescopes, over 600 galaxy redshifts have so far been obtained over 10 quasar fields. The redshifts obtained to date have already allowed the identification of "walls" and clusters of galaxies in the foreground of the quasars observed with HST, and analysis is in progress to compare the distribution of galaxies with the gas causing absorption in the ultra-violet spectra. Jannuzi also continues to study the nature of AGN. In particular he and Richard Elston (CTIO) have recently completed a program of groundbased imaging polarimetry of high redshift radio galaxies that demonstrated that the observed objects contained hidden AGN, which are only detectable by the spatially extended highly polarized radiation they produce as the hidden nuclear emission is scattered into the observer's line of sight by dust in and around the host galaxy of the AGN.
Future Research Plans Jannuzi plans to complete both the HST Quasar Absorption Line survey and the galaxy redshift survey of the same fields over the next two years. While the observational aspects of these surveys are nearly complete, adequately analyzing these data will take many months. Jannuzi hopes to extend the comparison of absorbers and galaxies to higher redshifts once he has access to the larger groundbased telescopes needed for such observations, namely the Gemini 8-m telescopes scheduled for completion at the turn of the century. Jannuzi continues to conduct several programs related to understanding AGN. He and collaborators are in the middle of conducting HST imaging observations of the host galaxies of a small sample of BL Lacertae objects. Groundbased observations of BL Lacs are dominated by the relativistically beamed radiation produced by "jets" of material moving along the line of sight of the observer. The HST images provide a measurement of the star light from the host galaxy. The goal is to identify an isotropic tracer of the population of galaxies containing BL Lacs. This would then allow the identification of other objects which are intrinsically the same, but that do not have their jets pointed toward Earth. In particular, it would test the hypothesis that some radio galaxies are intrinsically the same types of objects as BL Lacs. Jannuzi is also involved in several collaborations making additional
xxxi groundbased and HST studies of normal quasars, radio galaxies, and high redshift galaxies, and these efforts will continue.
Service Jannuzi serves as the instrument scientist for all of KPNO's low to moderate resolution spectrographs. These include the R-C spectrograph and the Cryogenic camera used on the 4-m and the GoldCam spectrograph used on the 2.1-m. These spectrographs, together with Hydra on the WEYN telescope, are the workhorses for the spectroscopic activities on Kitt Peak. He is responsible for keeping the calibration measurements of these spectrographs up to date and in conducting T&E runs with the spectrographs to make sure they are operating effectively. Jannuzi is also the first point of contact for proposers interested in learning about the spectroscopic capabilities of KPNO. He assists proposers in choosing the right combination of telescope and instrument for their programs, and works with those granted time to optimize their observing strategy. Jannuzi has been working with other members of the scientific and support staff to update the available documentation on the spectrographs. Most recently, a general guide on low to moderate resolution spectroscopy at KPNO was completed and made available to the community via the World Wide Web. Jannuzi is also the Scientific Coordinator for the NSF funded Research Experience for Undergraduates program held each summer at KPNO. In addition to serving on various internal committees (e.g., search committees for new staff hires) and external committees (current member of the U.S. Gemini Project Office Scientific Advisory Committee), Jannuzi is currently involved with several other members of the staff in the preliminary development of a low cost, very high throughput (over 60% telescope plus instrument) low resolution spectrograph. Such a spectrograph would be a testbed for several new technology ideas that might be suitable for future Gemini telescope instruments. While this spectrograph would be useful for a wide variety of scientific applications, Jannuzi is particularly interested in using it to assist in the optical identification of sources detected in several large NSF-funded sky surveys at radio (the VLA FIRST survey) and optical wavelengths (the Sloan Digital Sky Survey) as well as the ROSAT all sky survey at X-ray wavelengths. Jannuzi is also working with Richard Elston of CTIO on ways NOAO can support scientifically the productivity of the Gemini telescopes by developing complementary scientific capabilities at KPNO and CTIO.
Richard R. Joyce Areas of Interest Late-type Stars; Mass Loss; Infrared Detector and Instrumentation Development
Recent Research Results Joyce has completed an infrared spectroscopic survey of a sample of faint carbon stars near both Galactic poles. Because carbon giants are very luminous, with sharp optical spectral bands which make radial velocity measurements possible for faint stars, they are excellent candidates for kinematic studies of the outer Galactic halo. One complication has been the identification of carbon dwarf stars (nearby main- sequence dwarfs which have been enriched with carbon by mass transfer from a now-evolved binary companion) whose optical spectra at modest resolution are sufficiently similar to those of carbon giants to cause confusion between the two. The infrared spectroscopy shows that those stars known to be carbon dwarfs (from their high proper motion) show weak or barely detectable (depending on metallicity) absorption in the first overtone of CO at 2.3 microns, whereas virtually all the other stars in the survey displayed the much stronger CO bands characteristic of giants. These results support the suggestion of Green, et al. (1992, Ap. J. 400. 659) that near-infrared broadband photometry, which is more feasible than infrared spectroscopy or proper-motion measurements for these faint stars, may provide an effective luminosity discriminant. As part of a multi-band collaboration, Joyce has also obtained infrared spectra (0.9 - 2.5 microns) of the binary object that may be associated with the Soft Gamma-ray Repeater 1900+14. The two heavily-reddened objects, separated by 3 arcsec, have virtually identical energy distributions, suggesting that the extinction must be interstellar and that the two objects are M5
xxxn supergiants at a distance of 12- 15 kpc, on the other side of the Galaxy. While this is highly unusual, it does not by itself connote an association (other than positional coincidence) with the gamma ray emission, which is conventionally believed to result from mass accretion onto a highly-condensed object such as a neutron staror black hole. If such an object lies in proximity to one of the two stars, one might expect to see subtle differences in their spectra. One such anomaly is observed in the moderate-resolution (700) infrared spectra: while the two stars have virtually indistinguishable spectra in the 1.5-1.8 micron range (which includes several atomic lines and the CO second-overtone absorption bands), there is a significant difference in the depth of the CO first-overtone absorption bands at 2.3 microns, possibly the result of hot circumstellar dust filling in the absorption lines in one of the stars. With the completion of the high-resolution (100000) infrared spectrograph Phoenix, observation of individual CO lines can verify such a hypothesis or detect an anomalous radial velocity which might result from a massive component in proximity to one of the two stars.
Future Research Plans Future research plans include the use of high-resolution infrared spectroscopy, largely with the new facility spectrograph Phoenix, for a variety of stellar studies. Three primaryfactors can dictate the use of infrared spectroscopy as a diagnostic tool: 1) high extinction in the visual may preclude spectroscopy; 2) dynamic events such as mass transfer in binaries may produce visual emission, which confuses the optical spectra; 3) the physical process produces spectral effects only in the infrared. Examples of these follow. The Soft Gamma Repeater 1900+14, which suffers 19 mag of visual extinction, is much more amenable to radial velocity studies in the infrared, and the manifestation of a thin hot dust shell may be apparent only in the CO absorption lines at 2.3 microns. An example of the second category is a collaborative project involving Joyce, K. Hinkle (NOAO), and F. Fekel (Tenn. St. Univ.) to determine orbits of symbiotic stars from their infrared spectra. These systems are interacting binaries in which one star is a cool giant and the other a hot main sequence star or white dwarf. Orbital determinations from optical spectra have been problematic, since these spectra are often dominated by the continuumfrom the energetic and irregular mass flows associated with the stellar interaction. The infrared spectrum, on the other hand, is almost completely that of the cool giant, and an unambiguous velocity determination of one of the stellar components is possible. This projecthas already been initiated, utilizing the University of Massachusetts NICMASS IR camera to observe the CO bands in the 1.6 micron region. The results would not only confirm that symbiotics are mass-transfer binaries, but given the constraints on the mass of a white dwarf secondary, could yield accurate masses for cool giants over a range of evolutionary stages. The third category is exemplified by a recently-initiated project involving Joyce, Hinkle, and C. Sneden (Univ. of Texas) to observe the He I line at 1.083 microns in metal-poor giant stars. These stars may be considered analogs to the red giants in globular clusters. One such star has been reported in the literature to show a 1.083 microns feature indicative of a high-speed (> 90 km/s) wind. Since this velocity exceeds the escape velocity from globular clusters, the presence of such high-speed winds from metal-poorfield stars would suggest a mass loss mechanism for globular cluster giants which could expel matter from the cluster itself and plausibly explain the observed low density of the interstellar medium in globular clusters.
Service As a Support Scientist, a significant fraction of Joyce's time is spent in providing observing support to visiting observers using the facility instruments CRSP and IREM, as well as visitor ER instrumentation such as the 2MASS prototype camera and the NICMASS IR camera being offered as a shared-risk instrument at the Coude Feed. This includes direct support such as checking out the instruments after installation, providing instruction to observers, off-line support in providing advice to prospective observers, and assistance with data reduction. Joyce is the capability scientist for infrared spectroscopy with CRSP and COB, as well as co-instrument scientist on the new major infrared instruments PHOENIX (a high-resolution IR spectrograph) and GRASP (the next-generation ER imaging
xxxm spectrograph). During 1995-1996, he is also the instrument scientist for the ER imager IREM. As telescope scientist for the KPNO 1.3-m telescope, he has coordinated the evaluation of this facility by the Two Micron All-Sky Survey (2MASS) project as a possible Northern Hemisphere platform. For a number of years he has assisted in the scheduling of the Kitt Peak telescopes and is assuming this duty completely beginning Spring 1996. Other service areas include serving on the Infrared Group, KPNO Advisory, ALPS++ Definition, and KPNO Safety Committees, and being the editor for the KPNO section of the NOAO Newsletter.
Tom Kinman Areas of Interest Galactic Structure, Galactic Halo, Horizontal Branch Stars
Recent Research Results The Galactic Halo contains the oldest stars in the Galaxy. It is a matter of great current interest whether this halo formed in a monolithic collapse or by the gradual accretion of dwarf stellar systems. Probably both of these happened, and the very recent discovery of the Sagittarius dwarf in the process of disruption is direct evidence of the accretion process. The presence of ordered motion among halo stars is a sign that these stars have been fairly recently acquired by the Galaxy because the motions would be randomized within a fraction of the Galactic lifetime. Kinman [in collaboration with Pier (USNO), Suntzeff (CTIO), Harmer and Valdes (KPNO) and Hanson, Klemola, and Kraft (UCSC)] has studied the kinematics of RR Lyrae stars and Blue Horizontal Branch stars which are known to belong to the halo. In the direction of the North Galactic Pole, Kinman finds that there is a pronounced streaming towards us of the stars that are more than about 5 kpc from the Galactic plane. This streaming is of the order of 50 km/sec superposed on random motions of more than 100 km/sec. The nearer halo stars have a smaller random motion which is to be expected if these nearer stars belong to a more flattened system (as recently deduced by Kinman, Suntzeff, and Kraft). The stars used in this work were discovered with the Case Burrell Schmidt at Kitt Peak. Photometry was obtained with the 0.9-m and 1.3-m telescopes and radial velocities with the 2.1-m and 4-m telescopes. Streaming of comparable magnitude and sign has also been found in a much smaller field near the NGP by Majewski using KPNO telescopes. The new work shows that the ordered motion is found over much larger volumes of space comprising tens of cubic kiloparsecs.
Future Research Plans Kinman plans to extend the current work on the kinematics of halo stars to a larger area near the North Galactic Pole so that the area where the streaming occurs may be properly delineated. This involves the photometric evaluation of candidate halo stars as well as the determination of their radial velocities. A proposal [with Cacciari and Bragaglia (Bologna)] has been submitted to an Italian consortium to obtain proper motions for these stars from the new GSC2 catalog. Other sources of proper motions will be sought. En addition to the fields at the North Galactic Pole, fields at the Anticenter are being studied where streaming appears to be absent. Kinman will continue his work on isolating samples of halo stars in the solar neighborhood. The Blue Horizontal Branch stars require extensive study because of the possibility of confusing them with other A stars. High dispersion spectra are therefore being taken at the KPNO Coude Feed and ESO CAT by Kinman, Harmer, Bragaglia, and Cacciari. IUE spectra are also being analyzed. The final aim of this study is to determine Galactic orbits for these stars [with Allen (UNAM)] to see if there is any correlation between orbital elements and the physical properties of these stars.
Service Kinman is telescope scientist for the Burrell Schmidt. This telescope was formerly a photographic survey telescope. It is now solely used with a CCD camera at its Newtonian focus, which gives a field of about
xxxiv one square degree. Unlike larger Schmidt telescopes, the Burrell Schmidt can be used with a wide range of objective prisms; the addition of the 2K CCD makes it a unique instrument. The conversion from a photographic telescope was made with minimal cost and almost entirely at the instigation and with the help of members of the KPNO staff. Kinman is KPNO scientist in charge of measuring instruments (for photographic plates). Although less used than formerly, these instruments are still needed for the study of large survey plates. The preservation of such equipment is important because the KPNO instruments constitute a valuable user-friendly asset. Such equipment is decreasingly available in university departments. Kinman is on the library committee and advises the Librarian on a day-to-day basis with particular reference to the Kitt Peak mountain library and related matters.
Tod R. Lauer Areas of Interest Cosmology, Large Scale Structure of the Universe, Evolution of the Universe, Distance Scale, Structure of Galaxies, Dense Stellar System, Black Holes in Galactic Nuclei, Stellar Populations
Recent Research Results Lauer and his collaborator, Marc Postman (STScI), measured the motion of our Galaxy with respect to distant clusters of galaxies and found that the local universe is adrift with respect to the rest of the universe. The volume of space surveyed by Lauer and Postman is enormous-over one billion light years in diameter. The Lauer-Postman flow result says that the galaxies within this volume are speeding at 700 km/s towards some distant and very massive concentration of galaxies. This work has challenged all existing theories of galaxy formation by requiring galaxies to be contained in larger and more massive aggregates than was previously believed to be the case. In separate work, Lauer has led a group of collaborators in using the Hubble Space Telescope to study the central structure of galaxies. Lauer and collaborators have shown that central density of stars is higher than was previously believed, thus requiring revisions to understanding how the central portions of galaxies, and the massive black holes that they host, have formed.
Future Research Plans Lauer and Postman, with Michael Strauss (Princeton), are in the process of probing even deeper into the universe to look for an end to the large mass flows that they discovered with their first survey. Results from this survey may challenge theoretical work on the formation of structure in the universe even further. Lauer and Postman, with John Hoessel (Wisconsin) and William Oegerle (JHU), are also working on a project to explore the evolution of large scale structure over the age of the universe. This project uses KPNO 4-m CCD images to identify extremely faint galaxies over a large area of sky. We are seeing many of these galaxies at a time when the universe was at half of its present age; thus we can learn how they organized into clusters and other large structures at that time, and how these structures evolved over the time since then. Lastly, Lauer and his collaborators are continuing a large program to use the Hubble Space Telescope to perform a "census" of the prevalence and properties of massive black holes in the nuclei of nearby galaxies.
Service Lauer serves the NOAO user community, KPNO operations, and the larger astronomical community in a variety of ways. Lauer's major responsibility is as editor of the NOAO Newsletter. This publication serves as the primary means by which NOAO communicates to the astronomical community. Lauer has organized it to make the information more accessible, as well as to highlight the leading nature of the scientific work that is being done with NOAO facilities. Lauer also works to maintain the scientific environment of NOAO, jointly running a colloquium series with Steward Observatory as well as an informal seminar series. Lauer chairs the postdoctoral fellowship search and serves on faculty search
xxxv committees. Lauer further supports the KPNO research program by serving on the Time Allocation Committee. Lauer is involved with observatory operations directly as the 2.1-m telescope scientist, serving to maintain and upgrade the research performance of this telescope. Lauer is visible nationally through a variety of service activities for the Hubble Space Telescope. He is a member of the WFPC-I team and was responsible for calibration of the instrument, as well as demonstrating its usefulness for imaging research after the discovery of spherical aberration. Recently Lauer has chaired the HST Users Committee, which represents the astronomical community to STScI and the Space Telescope project at Goddard Spaceflight Center.
Roger Lynds Areas of Interest Galaxy Evolution and Cosmology
Recent Research Results Lynds has been engaged in two types of projects bearing on the subject of star formation histories of galaxies. One approach has been to study the photometric characteristics of galaxies revealed in long- exposure images obtained with the Hubble Space Telescope. The aim is to develop evidence of a higher incidence of star formation at great distances and early epochs in the lifetime of the Universe. In particular, are we beginning to see galaxies in their first phase of star formation when we go to very early epochs? At the other end of the distance scale, Lynds has been working on local galaxies dominated by current star formation. The goal has been to determine whether or not there are any galaxies at the current epoch which are undergoing their very first phase of star formation. One galaxy, VIE-Zw-403, a very blue, dwarf galaxy, was originally thought to be an entirely new galaxy. However, Hubble Space Telescope observations reveal that there is a smoothly distributed, evolved population of stars in which the star forming regions are embedded. Another galaxy, I-Zw-18, has seemed to be an even more promising example of an entirely new galaxy. It is somewhat more distant than VEI-Zw-403 so that only the supergiants and blue main sequence stars are resolved, but Lynds has found evidence that there is a substructure of unresolved red stars which likely represent the giant branch of an evolved population of stars. The conclusion may very well be that, at the current epoch, star formation only occurs within the gravitational potential wells of galaxies of older stars.
Future Research Plans Lynds's future research is expected to continue along much the same lines. He hopes to develop evidence of a relationship between the abundance of heavy elements in star-forming regions and the mass of neutral hydrogen clouds in which the host galaxy may be embedded. One might expect that if such hydrogen clouds are essentially primordial, having few if any heavy elements, any stars formed from such material would reflect that fact.
Service Lynds has been an active member of the observatory Safety Committee and is one of the instrument scientists for the 4-Meter Prime Focus CCD Camera.
Philip Massey Areas of Interest: Massive Star Evolution, Star Formation, Resolvable Galaxies
Recent Research Results Massey's research is primarily aimed at understanding the formation and evolution of massive (>10 M0) stars. Using the best ground-based and space-based instruments, he has been investigating the stellar content of star-forming regions in the Magellanic Clouds, the Milky Way, and the more distant members
xxxvi of the Local Group. His recent work has established that the masses of the highest mass stars and the slopes of the initial mass functions (EMFs) are the same in OB associations of the Magellanic Clouds and MilkyWay, despite the factor of 20 difference in metallicities between these systems. (This demonstrates that radiation pressure on grains must not limit the mass of the highest mass star that can form.) He has also found that an appreciable fraction (approximately 50%) of massive stars form in the field, born of smaller, more modest star-forming events than those that produce large clusters and associations. However, the slope of the initial mass function is considerably steeper for these stars, meaning that proportionately fewer of the very massive stars are being born in these small star-forming events. Since massive stars are responsible for much of the chemical enrichment of the Galaxy (the carbon in your body was all produced within the cores of massive stars), understanding massive star formation and evolution has significance for understanding the chemical enrichment of galaxies, including our own.
Future Research Plans Massey's future research includes studying the massive star content of the R136 cluster in the 30 Doradus nebula in the Large Magellanic Cloud. Oncethought to be a supermassive star, Hubble Space Telescope (HST) images have revealed that this is actually a cluster containing hundreds of massive stars in a very dense cluster. With time assigned later this year on HST, Massey and collaborator Deidre Hunter (Lowell Observatory) will be obtaining spectroscopy of 80-90 stars in order to determine the stellar content directly. As suggested above, one might expect that such a dense region has a flatter EMF (proportionally more very massivestars) than a normal OB association or cluster. Massey's primary goal over the next few years is to establish empirically the mass range of objects that evolve to various types of Wolf-Rayet stars (a type of massive star that is in the last stages of its life), and to understand how this changes with metallicity. He plans to determine this by investigating the top of the H-R diagram in coeval populations in the Magellanic Clouds, M 33, and M 31, for which he has determined the Wolf- Rayet and red supergiantpopulations. This involves optical spectroscopy with the 4-m and WIYN, plus UBV imaging with the Hubble Space Telescope.
Service Massey's service responsibilities include: (a) 4-m Telescope Scientist. As such, Massey is responsible for seeing that the 4-m is used to maximum scientific advantage, including identification of maintenance problems and software issues, overseeing the monthly Testing & Evaluation time scheduled on the telescope, and working towards improving the delivered image quality at this premier facility. (b) overseeing the electronic submission of observing time proposals. This includes updating the LaTeX form to include the latest instrumentation lists and coordinating the various facets of the twice-a-year submission process. (c) facility scientist for direct imaging and low-to-moderate resolution spectroscopy. Along with other staff members, Massey answers visitor queries pertaining to the CCD cameras at the 4-m, 2.1-m, 0.9-m, and Burrell Schmidt telescopes, as well as general spectroscopy issues. (d) user documentation. Massey has written and continues to update the visitor manuals for the CCD data-taking software, the direct imaging (CCD) manual, the low-to-moderate resolution spectroscopy manual, and the operation manuals for the 0.9-m telescope and Burrell Schmidt, as well as data reduction guides for crowded field photometry, CCD reductions, and spectroscopic reductions. (e) fiber-positioner HYDRA commissioning at WEYN. This year Massey was responsible for determining the plate scale and radial distortion terms needed in order to commission the fiber positioner at the new 3.5-m WIYN telescope. Massey also wrote and maintains the software for computing the optimal assignment of fibers to objects with this instrument.
xxxvn K. Michael Merrill Areas of Interest Star Formation, Young Stellar Objects, Interstellar Medium, Circumstellar Envelopes, Late Stellar Evolution, Infrared Instrumentation, Data Acquisition and Reduction
Recent Research Results Merrill and Gatley have been studying the complex distribution of gas and dust within active star forming complexes using emission lines from atomic and molecular hydrogen at 2 and 4 microns and fluorescent emission from dust grains at 3.3 microns as probes of the ionized and molecular gas and particulates, respectively. Detailed images within a range of spectral lines are constructed by moving the telescope along the axis perpendicular to the slit during successive exposures, stepping the spectrograph slit across the target field to build up a two dimensional image a line (slit width) at a time. Images within any spectral line can later be extracted from the resulting three dimensional data cube. Observations of S106, an isolated region of active star formation, reveals that the dense molecular torus associated with the formation of OB stars, seen outlined in molecular hydrogen emission, persists quite close to the star and modulates the flow of ionizing radiation throughout the region. Several distinct outflows of gas, both bipolar and unipolar, can be seen in the ionized emission lines of iron and hydrogen. In collaboration with Kastner, Weintraub, Gatley, and Probst, Merrill has extended the discovery of bipolar symmetry in four classic ring-like planetary nebulae (NGC 7027, NGC 6720, NGC 6772, NGC 6781) into a survey of 60 nebulae using the 2.122 micron molecular hydrogen (H2) emission line as a probe of the underlying morphology of the circumnebular environment. They confirm the remarkable notion that the detection of molecular hydrogen emission from a PNe uniquely signals the bipolar structure of that PNe. PNe with no evidence of axi-symmetric structure were not detected. The molecular hydrogen bright waist/torus is presumably the remnant of a molecular-rich circumstellar disk that predates the production of a PN. Since such nebulae appear to be preferentially found at lower galactic latitudes, they are likely to have larger progenitor masses than the more widely distributed PNe without detectable emission. It appears that for massive stars, molecular disks/toroids are present at both ends of stellar evolution and strongly influence the interaction of such stars with their environs. The implications of this apparently symbiotic relationship between star and disk merit further attention.
Future Research Plans Merrill and Gatley have recently discovered a striking correlation between the results of two very different approaches to the study of the ionized gas in the Galactic center. Specifically, the dynamical model by Lacy, et al. 1991 (ApJ 380, L71), based on observations of the neon 12.8 micron line, isolates a one-armed Keplerian spiral structure that is also prominent in Merrill and Gatley's images of the reddening of the ionized gas, based on KPNO 1.3-meter COB Brackett alpha and gamma emission line images. They will deploy capabilities unique to KPNO to study the "central engine" buried within the Galactic center, which is otherwise hidden from conventional optical techniques by massive extinction. Observations at both high angular resolution to get spatial details (provided by the DLIRIM real-time shift-and-add facility, which produces diffraction-limited images at the 4-m telescope) and high spectral resolution to get the kinematics (provided by the Phoenix spectrograph) will be required to extract the truth from the tangle in the Galactic center. These observations will significantly improve the database for ionized gas kinematics and star counts, providing a stringent test for the nature of the "central engine". Furthermore, because the Lacy spiral shows up as a distinct feature at a characteristic value in the extinction map, one can confidently predict that the kinematic profiles at Brackett alpha and Brackett gamma will show differential extinction, which will make it possible to tie the kinematic and the imaging experiments together. Following the SQIID upgrade and the deployment of the Grasp four channel IR imager/spectrograph, Merrill will resume his pioneering study of regions of active star formation, which have awaited the wider field of view, higher sensitivity, and relative stability which have been designed into these systems. The unprecedented ability to survey large regions with absolutely registered JHKL
xxxvm imaging and to produce spectral line images simultaneously across the JHKL atmospheric windows will give renewed impetus to our understanding of the star formation process, which had heretofore been stalled by the complexity of the observations and the attendant data reduction required to sample adequately the full luminosity range over a FOV measured in tens of arc minutes in the presence of heavy, patchy extinction. Statistically significant star counts, with derived mass and luminosity functions, and the detailed distribution of the attendant gas and dust will all be amenable to careful study for regions of star formation covering a wide range in distance and total mass.
Service As an Infrared Imaging Scientist at KPNO, Merrill is responsible for the oversight of the IR cameras and associated visitorsupport at KPNO, including instrument set-ups and observer checkouts, and is the point of contact on performance issues for both proposers and the TAC during the proposal cycle. As the responsible scientist for user support of IR data reductions, Merrill advises observers, develops data reduction scripts, and interacts with the IRAF programming group to improve and extend ER specific capabilities within IRAF. Merrill has written an independent, widely distributed and readily available IRAF package, the "SQIED package", tailored for the reduction of ER photometric and spectral imaging. The suite of IRAF scripts includes tools for same-night "quick look" processing for timely assessmentof observations. Merrill supported the recent COB real-time shift-and-add facility, a.k.a., DLIRIM, which delivered diffraction limited 3 to 5 micron images at the 4-m telescope, as staff observer, providing near real-time quick-look data products for planning subsequent observations, and creating and distributing the data products to the Pis. As a member of the IR Steering Committee, Merrill is actively involved in planning future NOAO IR instrumentation and upgrades to current instrumentation, providing a systems level approach which includes the intended telescope, the instrument, the array and its controller, data acquisition, and observing technique as part of an integrated deployment plan. Merrill is directly involved with the Aladdin IR array R&D effort, the next generation NOAO and Gemini Array Controller projects, and is Project Scientist for the KPNO SQIED upgrade to 512x512 InSb. Actively involved with the shake-down and deployment of new IR instrumentation (SQEED, COB, DLEREM in turn), Merrill will assist with the delivery of the Phoenix spectrograph as a user instrument. Merrill is an advisor to Gemini on site and enclosure issues and ER instrumentation-detectors, array controllers, limiting performance, and observation techniques. Merrill has been an active participant in outreach activities within the local schools (including teaching classes and coaching Science Olympiad teams) and at scientific meetings.
Catherine A. Pilachowski Areas of Interest Stellar Compositions, Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis, the Origin of the Elements in the Milky Way
Recent Research Results Pilachowski has recently completed two studies of the composition of the globular cluster M13. The first, with T. Armandroff, is a measurement of the average abundance of oxygen in low luminosity giants in the cluster. Pilachowski and Armandroff used the Hydra fiber positioner on the Mayall 4-m telescope to obtain spectra of 40 stars with similar temperature and luminosity, near 5300K and Mv=1.6. The average spectrum of all 40 stars together allows a precise estimate of the average abundance of oxygen in the cluster. Pilachowski and Armandroff found that oxygen is not enriched in these stars, as is typical of field stars of similar metal abundance. Their results suggest either that M13 was formed without the usual excess of oxygen or that the oxygen is destroyed by nuclear reactions inside the stars at a much earlier phase of stellar evolution than previously predicted. In a second study with Hydra, Pilachowski, C. Sneden (University of Texas at Austin and NOAO), R. P. Kraft (Univ. Calif, at Santa Cruz), and E. Langer (Colorado College) determined the abundances of sodium and magnesium in a large sample of giants covering nearly three magnitudes of the M13 giant branch (a factor of more than 10 in brightness).
xxxix They found clear evidence for the occurrence of hydrogen burning via the NeNa cycle in these stars, as well as evidence that the material had also been subjected to hydrogen burning via the MgAl cycle. Combined with other data, Pilachowski, Sneden, Kraft, and Langer have shown that several hydrogen burning chains are necessary to explain the variations of the carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sodium, aluminum, and magnesium abundances within the cluster, and that the degree of hydrogen burning varies in a stochastic manner from star to star. They attribute the variation in hydrogen burning possibly to different rates of rotation, and note that these advanced hydrogen burning chains must be occurring at relatively early evolutionary phases.
Future Research Plans Pilachowski is collaborating with S. Barden (KPNO), M. Giampapa (NSO), F. Hill (NSO), C. Keller (NSO), and J. Harvey (NSO) in a new program to detect and study acoustic oscillations in stars similar to the Sun. Asteroseismology allows us to obtain quantitative information on the internal structure of stars, to compare stellar models to real stars in substantially more detail than now possible, to explore the behavior of matter under conditions which cannot be achieved on Earth, and to confront the discrepancy between stellar ages and the cosmological age from a new perspective. The goal is to characterize fully the oscillation spectrum of stars of astrophysical interest, including most especially stars in clusters, and observations on 4-m class telescopes will be needed to obtain sufficient signals to determine oscillation frequencies. This is a difficult observational program, requiring extensive and continuous series of observations. Such data can be obtained from the ground by combining existing moderate to large aperture telescopes around the globe into a network. En FY96 the group began several experiments to develop techniques to obtain precise measurements of absorption lines of the hydrogen Balmer series, looking for minute changes in the strength of the lines due to oscillations. Data reduction and analysis are underway. The group has also begun to work with astronomers outside NOAO to organize a community-based program to work towards the establishment of a worldwide network.
Service Pilachowski has served NOAO and the astronomical community in diverse ways during the current fiscal year, and expects to continue her active service in FY97. She serves on the WIYN Board of Directors and as Secretary to the WIYN Corporation. She has served on numerous internal personnel review committees. She has worked actively to develop undergraduate and graduate research and training programs, and to improve the exchange of information between NOAO and its nighttime community via the Joint Users Committee, the NOAO Electronic Forum, and the "Observing at KPNO" brochure. She has developed instrument "setup" programs for WIYN/Hydra, the 4-m R-C and echelle spectrographs, Goldcam, and the coude spectrograph, which will soon be available to users, and is assisting M. Giampapa to move the NSO solar-stellar program to KPNO following its closure at the McMath-Pierce telescope. She has actively served the broader community, serving on numerous advisory committees and review boards. She is active in public and educational outreach, often visiting schools and giving public lectures.
Stephen T. Ridgway Areas of Interest Stars, Stellar Evolution; High Resolution and Infrared Observing Techniques
Recent Research Results With collaborators from Wyoming, Ridgway has developed a new interferometric imaging technique and used it to measure the diameters of a group of stars with greatly improved resolution and accuracy. The results lead to an accurate determination of the brightness of stars of the same temperature but different size. These measurements distinguish between stars in which simple physics applies (balance of pressure and gravity) and those in which turbulence and convection dominate. Similar measurement techniques
xl will beextended over thenext decade to obtain detailed images of thesurfaces of distant stars, improving the comparative study of the Sun and other stars, leading to improved understanding of both. Ridgway and collaborators from NOAO, Massachusetts, and Grenoble have applied new imaging techniques to the study of a group of young stars in Orion. These observations have resolved a long-standing puzzle about the brightness of individual stars in this region. The stars were long believed to have an excessive luminosity. The new observations show that numerous additional stars hidden behind thick dust clouds are also contributing energy in this region. At present it is not understood whether stars in a cluster form in a burst or sequentially. Though much additional work is needed, the distribution of these and other hidden stars in Orion may be a key to resolving this question.
Future Research Plans Ridgway will continue his contract work with the CHARA Array project to build an array of seven 1-m telescopes on Mt. Wilson and will continue to collaborate with U.S. and French groups to develop high resolution interferometric techniques at prototype facilities in Arizona. He will work on the application of these methods to more precise measurements of stars, with a goal of detecting phenomena in which classical physical models of stars do not apply.
Service The Center for High Angular Resolution Astronomy at Georgia State University has contracted with NOAO to provide technical services in support of the CHARA large, optical-infrared telescope array. Under contract, Ridgway is serving CHARA with the title Technical Manager and Co-PL The telescope and enclosure designs have been carried out by NOAO staff under Ridgway's direction. He is also leading the facility definition effort. Ridgway has served on numerous NASA committees and working groups, especially in the areas of high angular resolution and computing. Until recently he chaired the Space Interferometry Science Working Group, and early this year he served on a Blue Ribbon Panel in a review of NASA strategy for detection of extra-solar planets. In support of the development of optical interferometry in the U.S., Ridgway has collaborated with researchers at the University of Wyoming, University of Massachusetts, and Harvard-Smithsonian on the implementation of prototype instruments in Wyoming and Arizona. In addition, he has a long-standing collaboration with astronomers at the Observatory of Paris which brought a series of French sponsored instrument development programs to Tucson. Ridgway has served as PI of development of a number of infrared imaging systems, developing and implementing interferometric and adaptive optics techniques for very high resolution. In 1990 Ridgway initiated the International Interferometry Newsletter, which he edited, published, and distributed until 1994, at which time it was converted to a World Wide Web site (http://heracles.jpl.nasa.gov:8100/~shaklan/olbin) in collaboration with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Ridgway has served a number of management roles at NOAO, including manager of Computer Services until 1991, representative on the IRAF Technical Working Group until 1996, and various personnel, policy, and planning committees. He has participated in Gemini committees on high angular and spectral resolution techniques, and he chaired the Gemini Adaptive Optics Committee during the preparation of the Gemini AO plan.
Ata Sarajedini Areas of Interest Stellar Populations, Globular Clusters, Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxies
Recent Research Results The overall theme of Sarajedini's research since arriving at NOAO has been uncovering the formation chronology of the Local Group, the cluster of galaxies in which the Milky Way resides. This also includes the Andromeda galaxy (M31), the spiral galaxy in the constellation of Triangulum (M33), the Magellanic Clouds, and about a dozen smaller galaxies. He has been studying the characteristics of the
xli globular star clusters in these systems in order to gain insight into the formation history and chemical enrichment history of the galaxies where they reside. One of the more interesting Local Group galaxies he has investigated is the recently discovered Sagittarius dwarf. It contains four globular clusters of its own, and Sarajedini has focused his research on three of them. These clusters appear to have had a chemical enrichment history that is very different from the majority of Galactic globular clusters. En addition, the Sagittarius dwarf galaxy itself has undergone several epochs of star formation leading to two chemically distinct subpopulations. Coupled with the unusual morphology of this galaxy, these results point to a rather complex formation history for this galaxy.
Future Research Plans Sarajedini's future research includes extensive use of groundbased and orbiting telescopes to further his study of the Local Group stellar populations. He is currently using Hubble Space Telescope (HST) to investigate the globular clusters in M31 and M33. Plans are also in place to apply HST to further studies of the Sagittarius dwarf galaxy. The next unexplored frontier will include the highly obscured clusters near the Galactic bulge and disk. These globular clusters are hidden behind thick layers of interstellar dust and gas. Sarajedini plans to use the NICMOS instrument on HST to uncover these clusters and explore their ages. After that, the Gemini 8-m telescopes can be used to obtain infrared spectra of stars in these systems in order to facilitate more detailed chemical abundance studies.
Service Sarajedini is currently the instrument scientist for CCDPhot, the CCD photometer used on the 0.9-m telescope. This instrument is used to obtain high precision photometry of stars for use in deriving various astrophysical parameters. He is also serving as the staff contact for imaging programs on the 0.9-m and 4-m telescopes. Astronomers who have questions about their observing runs rely on their staff contacts to guide them in optimizing their observing strategies.
Nigel Sharp Areas of Interest Double Galaxies, Large Scale Structure, Emission-line Regions
Recent Research Results Sharp showed last year that we could successfully derive the physical conditions in emission-line regions using careful narrow-band imaging (a project sparked by D. De Young). Most studies use spectroscopy, which provides a more accurate measurement of densities, pressures and temperatures, but makes it hard to study spatial variations. Theoretical models produce spatial structure with some uncertainty about the magnitudes of physical quantities. Imaging the way Sharp and De Young have done it makes it possible to a) obtain data under less than ideal sky conditions, b) compare with theoretical models in ways more appropriate to those models, and c) use a smaller aperture telescope.
Future Research Plans Sharp will continue the study of emission regions using data already in hand. The results of this analysis will show whether the work should be expanded with further observations, or if the current success was fortuitous. Sharp's double galaxy studies currently include an atlas of mixed morphology pairs, almost in publication, as well as the continuing dynamical analysis of variously defined subsets. The goal is to compare and contrast current dynamical analysis techniques with the hope of finding areas for improvement. These will continue. A collaborative book project (with Bill Keel and Igor Karachentsev) has been under discussion for some time: perhaps this will be the period that sees progress. Sharp also plans to complete a study of the internal dynamics of the active galaxy NGC 3310.
xlii Service Sharp's principal duties are in computer support. He is the system managerand consultant for all NOAO computers running VMS or Digital Unix (OSF/1), and for the subset of Sun workstations comprising the Scientists' Workstation Network (running a mixture of SunOS4 and Solaris operating systems). Responsibilities include the hardware, the operating system software, and the user software, including installing, upgrading, and consulting on use. Thiscovers any software used by any staff member. Sharp acts as co-Postmaster for the NOAO-wide e-mail system. He also handles small programming projects for members of staff and for system use (such as the film recorder and the video disk recorders). Sharp provides image services for staff and projects, such as the WEYN first light pictures used at the dedication, and some of NOAO's World Wide Web pages. He works with NOAO's educational activities, providing responses to public and professional requests (text, pictures, or both, as required - sometimes even video), as well as images for the Public Information Office collection, which are available for purchase. He has also been working with the Visitor Center docent program and the outreach advisory board of local teachers.
David Silva Areas of Interest Extragalactic Stellar Populations, Elliptical Galaxies
Recent Research Results Silva concentrates on questions concerning how elliptical galaxies form and evolve. His two most interesting recent results concern the ages of ellipticals and the distribution of interstellar dust within ellipticals. First, it has been argued that the ellipticals that have recently merged with smaller galaxies have more young stars than ellipticals that have not recently undergone merger events. Silva and G. Bothun (Oregon) will shortly argue in the Astronomical Journal that this conclusion is faulty, and at most, only 10% of the stars in merger ellipticals are significantly younger than stars in non-merger ellipticals. This result suggests that although ellipticals may merge with other galaxies throughout their entire lifetime, most of their stars must have formed when the universe was only 40% or less of its current age. This project was based on infrared imaging obtained with the NOAI infrared cameras. Second, it has long been observed that the centers of ellipticals are redder than their outer regions at optical wavelengths. Since stars with more iron are redder than stars with less iron but equal in mass and temperature, it has long been assumed that the stars at the centers of elliptical galaxies must have more iron than stars in their outer regions. However, it is also true that optical stellar light becomes redder when it passes through interstellar dust and that the more dust it passes through, the redder it gets. Silva and M. Wise (MET) have recently argued in the Astrophysical Journal that the color gradients observed in elliptical galaxies may not be indicative of relative iron amount changes at all. Rather, these color gradients may be tracing the relative amount of dust, i.e., the centers of elliptical galaxies may be more "dusty" than their outer regions. This hypothesis should be testable using the Infrared Satellite Observatory (ISO) recently placed in Earth orbit by the European Space Agency (ESA).
Future Research Plans Over the next several years, Silva plans to continue investigating the stellar populations of elliptical galaxies. First, he wants to test his conclusions about mergers and the stellar ages of elliptical galaxies by observing galaxies in clusters, where the merger rate is expected to be higher. More mergers with galaxies that contain more gas might produce a larger fraction of young stars than observed by Silva and Bothun in elliptical galaxies in non-cluster environments. Second, he wants to characterize the ages and elemental abundances of the coolest stars in the centers of elliptical galaxies using infrared spectroscopy. Several of the galaxies in his imaging survey had very red cores at infrared wavelengths, suggesting either a significant number of young stars, very high iron content, or a large amount of dust. Spectra obtained at infrared wavelengths should be able to distinguish between these possibilities. Third, Silva
xlm will continue an ongoing study of how spectral line variations between the centers of ellipticals and their outer regions differ at optical and infrared wavelengths. Preliminary work in this area by Silva with his collaborators R. Elston (NOAO/CTIO), T. Boroson (NOAO/USGPO), and M. Rich (Columbia) showed that infrared gradients were much weaker than optical gradients. This suggests that optical line gradients may be more driven by age and/or relative elemental abundance ratios than previously assumed. Higher spectral resolution observations of more galaxies are needed to confirm and investigate this result. Finally, Silva is contemplating the formation of an internal NOAO working group to create a comprehensive digital stellar spectral library at infrared wavelengths. Such a library does not currently exist, yet would be enormously valuable to both theorists creating models of stars and galaxies and observers trying to interpret their infrared data. This will be particularly important for users of the new, infrared optimized Gemini telescopes, scheduled for initial science operations early in the next decade.
Service Silva's recent service activities have mostly revolved around Kitt Peak's newest telescope, the 3.5-m WIYN telescope. Since June 1993, he has served as the WIYN Project Scientist/Manager, providing oversight for the group building and commissioning the WEYN telescope. En addition to this responsibility, Silva became the WEYN Project Manager in July 1994, leading the team which commissioned WIYN and prepared it for scientific operations. In this role, he was responsible for managing all aspects of the project including scheduling, budgeting, and personnel. WIYN began science operations in July 1995 and has consistently delivered the best images of any telescope on Kitt Peak, achieving a median delivered image size of 0.8 arcsecs FWHM. As the NOAO WIYN Queue Scientist, Silva is also leading the team which is developing and executing the NOAO WIYN Queue Observing Experiment, an investigation of how matching observing conditions (e.g., weather) to observing programs could increase science throughput. This experiment is testing operations paradigms expected to be used by Gemini. Silva also participates in several Kitt Peak committees, including the KP Kitchen Cabinet (an advisory group on KP operations), the KP Software Oversight Committee (managing KP software priorities), and the KP WIYN Active Optics Upgrade Working Group (investigating avenues for bringing adaptive optics techniques to WIYN to improve its already exquisite delivered image quality). With G. Jacoby, Silva is leading an effort to deploy systems on Kitt Peak which will provide real-time information about cloud cover and atmospheric transparency.
Francisco Valdes Areas of Interest Cosmology, Gravitational Lensing, Stellar Spectroscopy, Astronomical Software
Recent Research Results Recent work has centered on spectroscopy of a very broad sample of stars of various spectral types, temperatures, and abundances. This collection of stellar spectra will form a unique library, since it covers a larger variety of stars at higher resolution than any existing collection; the atlas will be made available to the astronomical community and public at large. The research use of this library will be for modeling stellar populations in galaxies and for developing software that will be able to determine the temperature, mass, and composition of stars from large future spectroscopic surveys.
Future Research Plans The observations and preparation of the library of stellar spectra is a multi-year project. Valdes also will be involved in a project to develop new galaxy classification software. The observations used in this project include nearby galaxies and the most distant galaxies imaged by the Hubble Space Telescope.
xliv Service Valdes is responsible for the development of forefront astronomical software for CCD and spectroscopic astronomical data. This software involves new techniques as well as complex programs to deal with the increasingly complex astronomical data produced by advanced astronomical instruments. The end- product is to extract the maximum astronomical information from the observations made at the telescopes. The software is required by users of NOAO instruments as well as other observatories in the United States and abroad. Support of this software involves assisting astronomers in the application of the programs and consultation about the best methods to use. This assistance is given to many NOAO staff, visitors, and astronomers from smaller institutions.
Lloyd Wallace Areas of Interest Stellar and Planetary Atmospheres, Radiative Transfer, Minor Constituents in the Earth's Atmosphere, Composition of Sunspots
Recent Research Results Wallace has found that absorption by very hot water vapor is the dominant source of opacity in the infrared sunspot spectrum. Water vapor forms in the sunspots because of the relatively low temperature but its dominance in matters of heat transfer had not been appreciated. Wallace has also completed detailed studies of bright stars in the infrared spectrum from 2.0 to 2.5 microns. These map more completely than before the development of atomic and molecular absorbers with changes in stellar luminosity and temperature. Notable are the complications revealed - features thought to be due to calcium and sodium alone are actually complex blends with titanium, scandium and vanadium.
Future Research Plans Wallace will analyze solar spectra gathered by Livingston (NSO) to determine the variation of minor constituents in the earth's atmosphere over the last decade. The technique allows the determination of the total amount in the atmosphere and not just that accessible to analysis at the earth's surface. This allows the tracking of hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride, products of chlorofluorocarbon decomposition, as well as carbon monoxide and dioxide. Wallace also plans to extend his analysis of the sunspot spectrum from the infrared into the visible. This part of the spectrum is very complex and known to be dominated by iron hydride and titanium oxide. He plans to track out the contribution of these two and search the residual for oxides and hydrides of other metals including chromium, vanadium and
Service Wallace assists in writing the observing schedule for Kitt Peak, serves on the Library committee, as safety officer on Kitt Peak, and as special advisor on administrative matters.
xlv
Appendix
NSO Scientific Staff: Research Interests and Service Roles
Richard Altrock Areas of Interest Studies of the long- and short-term variation of the solar corona.
Altrock (USAF/PL) will work on solar-cycle studies of the solar corona, using data from the SP Emission-Line Coronal Photometer (ELCP). This will include investigation of the variation of activity and rotation as a function of latitude and various periodicities in activity. Efforts to understand the implications of and to refine knowledge of overlapping solar cycles as observed in the corona will be continued. Studies of the variation of FeXEV and FeX coronal flux and their relationship to other global solar parameters will be performed. ELCP data will be searched for transients, and correlations with chromospheric, upper-corona (from space-based instruments), and possibly solar-wind and geomagnetic data will be investigated. Investigations of the spatial and temporal variations of coronal temperature will continue. Correlations will be performed on East-limb ELCP Ca XV intensities and flare intensities of associated active regions during their disk passage. Studies of the relationship of coronal hole properties to solar wind speed will be carried out.
Altrock tracks the effects of pollution on Sac Peak skies. He is a member of a new NASA working group, The Thermosphere, Thermal Environment and Solar Conditions Working Group of the Space Environment and Effects Program. He was also the manager of the Emission-Line Coronal Photometer (ELCP) synoptic program. He supervised TimHenry, data assistant and programmer for this project. He continued to manage the CORONALERTS worldwide alerting system for unusual activity in the solar corona. Daily data products continued to be faxed to the NOAA Space Environment Services Center and the Air Force 50' Weather Squadron. Altrock participated in AURA activities such as membership on the NSO/SP Telescope Allocation Committee, maintaining the NSO/SP meetings bulletin boards (hardcopy and electronic) and providing coronal data to the community on the NSO/SP anonymous FTP site and automatically by email. He responded to several requests for data, analyses and techniques from outside agencies. He continued to supply coronal data to NOAA for publication in Solar Geophysical Data.
Karatholuvu Balasubramaniam Areas of Interest Solar activity evolution, stokes polarimetry, solar mass ejections, near-IR magnetometry.
Balasubramaniam (USAF/PL) will analyze data acquired during the past maximum observational data campaigns to seek velocity and magnetic field characteristics of active region evolution in support of the solar activity modeling initiative. This includes data obtained with the Narrow-Band Filter and the Advanced Stokes Polarimeter. He will also work on the large-scale flow patterns of the Sun, seeking velocity driver signatures leading to solar mass ejections.
Balasubramaniam is actively involved in the Research Experience for Undergraduates Program and the Summer Research Assistant Program at NSO/Sac Peak. He has organized two international workshops at Sac Peak. He has contributed towards functional assessment of the operation of the Hilltop/Evans facilities for future directional needs. On occasion, he advises non-NSO users on observing at NSO/SP facilities. He teaches astronomy and planetary physics courses in the evenings, at the New Mexico State University, Alamogordo.
xlvi Balasubramaniam will be project scientist for the AF/ISOON network. He will be involved in the planning and execution of the prototype and the subsequent field models of the Air Force ISOON network. His tasks will include areas such as polarization module, polarization analysis, instrumental polarization characteristics, magnetic field derivation; Fabry-Perot (FP) spectral line/wavelength calibration, FP tuning bench tests at VTT; FP scattered light, spectrally and spatially; dark-current, gain table and gain calibration for CCD, specifically polarization; Forecast-Center display and analysis software, science analysis; testing of other software handles and connectivity; complete documentation coordination for the entire project. Much of the expertise in these areas overlaps with the interests of SOLIS.
Balasubramaniam will be working towards the construction and characterization and verification of the AF IR vector magnetograph system at the VTT.
Balasubramaniam is expected to be involved in a SOHO observational project to calibrate the SOHO/MDI magnetograms in collaboration with J. Todd Hoeksema of Stanford, using the ASP/VTT as a reference. He also plans to use the SOHO/UVCS instrument in conjunction with the NSO/SP coronograph for coronal density and emission diagnostics.
Jacques Beckers Areas of Interest Astronomical telescopes and instrumentation, adaptive optics, interferometers, solar physics.
Douglas Braun Areas of Interest Helioseismology.
Sydney D'Silva Areas of Interest MHD studies of the structure and evolution of magnetic fields inside the solar convection zone. Theoretical helioseismic investigation of local, subsurface flows and fields.
Michael Dulick Areas of Interest Molecular spectroscopy, high-resolution Fourier TransformSpectrometry, study of molecules of astrophysical interest.
Dulick plans to use the McMath FTS to record laboratory spectra of these diatomics in the infrared and visible to aid in the assignment of sunspot spectra. A significant portion of the analysis will entail the development of an effective internuclear potential model for the electronic states of transition-metal diatomics in order to utilize information derived from low-temperaturelaboratory spectra in predicting the high-temperature spectra of sunspots. Dulick will also participate in projects to upgrade the detectors and data collection system for the FTS, and in collaboration with F. Hill (National Solar Observatory) to convert the FTS to an imaging spectrometer.
Dulick serves as the NSO FTS Instrument Scientist for visiting investigators funded under the NSF Chemistry grant for Laboratory Fourier Transform Spectroscopy, with specific duties that include providing assistance in the experimental design and setup and the instructional use of the instrument.
xlvii Richard Dunn Areas of Interest Image restoration, instrumentation.
Dunn plans to continue his work on the solaradaptive optics program. He will consult on the upgrade to the Solar Observing Optical Network (SOON).
Yuhong Fan Areas of Interest Solar MHD; dynamics and structure of active region flux tubes; sunspot seismology.
Mark Giampapa Areas of Interest Stellar dynamos, stellarcycles and magnetic activity; asteroseismology.
Giampapa will analyze WIYN/Hydra observations of Ca II H and K emission as part of the first phase of a survey of the numerous solar analogs in the galactic open cluster M67. The first set of observations was just obtained; Giampapa has been allocated additional WEYN telescope time to complete the initial survey of activity among the solar-type stars in this solar-age and solar-metallicity cluster. In this way, the mean level and the range of cycle-modulated chromospheric emission in this cluster can be determined. By doing so, Giampapa expects to delineate the range of potential amplitudes of the solar cycle, including the fraction of time stars like the Sun may spend in Maunder-minimum episodes. This refers to a period of prolonged quiescence in solar activity that apparently coincided with a lowering of the mean global temperature of the Earth during A. D. 1645-1715. This project is a necessary prelude to the implementation of a long-term program at a 4-m class facility to study the cycle and rotational properties of stellar counterparts of our own Sun. A long-term program, if implemented at a large aperture facility, would yield all the possible modes of the solar cycle.
M. Giampapa and V. Andretta (NASA/GSFC) will complete their reduction and analysis of the joint helium 1083.0 and 587.6 nm data they obtained during FY96. This unique dataset, obtained with the McMath-Pierce solar-stellar spectrograph and the KPNO coude feed and NICMASS infrared array, is the first simultaneous acquisition of stellar spectra that includes these important line diagnostics of magnetic activity. The results will be used to estimate the filling factor of magnetic active regions on solar-type stars, following the recent models published by Andretta & Giampapa (1995). Giampapa will continue to investigate the feasibility of programs in asteroseismology using KPNO facilities. This collaborative effort involving NSO/Tucson and KPNO scientific staff has already yielded some tantalizing preliminary results on at least one object, the G subgiant star alpha Tri. In particular, excess power was seen at 650 microhertz, near the predicted frequency for this object. Further analysis is being performed by Giampapa and collaborators to confirm the reality of this feature. Meanwhile, additional data for two other objects have been obtained, and more observing campaigns are being planned. The efforts in stellar seismology are natural extensions of the GONG program. Finally, Giampapa will continue his studies of stellar coronal structure, and its relationship to stellar dynamos and angular momentum evolution in late-type stars, via his approved programs of ROSAT HRI and EUVE spectrometer observations.
Giampapa serves as the Science Branch Chief for the Tucson site of the National Solar Observatory. In this role, he has overview responsibilities for the scientific and instrument development activities at NSO/T. M. Giampapa is chairman of the Tucson site Project Review Committee (PRC) and serves as a member of the full NSO PRC. Giampapa also serves on the NSO/Kitt Peak TAC where he advises on
xlviii proposals for the use of the solar-stellar spectrograph at the McMath-Pierce facility. In this regard, plans to renew the nighttime program at the McMath-Pierce using outside funding contributions from members of the planetary and stellar communities have been implemented. In related activities, M. Giampapa joined a committee to review the specifications for the Gemini-South high resolution spectrograph. His work on this committee is in the context of the research needs of solar-stellar astrophysics and the search for extra-solar planets using Doppler spectroscopy. In collaboration with C. Pilachowski and S. Barden (KPNO), M. Giampapa is a member of a review committee that is charged with assessing the needs and capabilities in the area of ground-based, high-resolution spectroscopy at KPNO.
Other activities include educational outreach through participation in the REU program and through teaching a class (in Laboratory Astronomy) to non-science majors at the University of Arizona. In addition, M. Giampapa serves as a member of the editorial boards for the journals Solar Physics and Vistas in Astronomy. Giampapa serves on the board for the Global Network of Automated Telescopes (GNAT, Inc.). This organizational entity was established to facilitate the implementation of a world wide network of small aperture, robotic telescopes that would provide photometry to a wide range of astronomical programs.
Yeming Gu Areas of Interest Helioseismology and numerical analysis.
Gu's research program for FY 1997 will concentrate on the development of data reduction and analysis algorithms for high-resolution imaged helioseismology in support of the Solar Oscillations Envestigation experiment on the ESA/NASA SOHO spacecraft (in collaboration with J. Leibacher and F. Hill). He will also continue his work on the application of stochastic radiative transfer to the solar atmosphere (in collaboration with J. Jefferies and C. Lindsey).
Gu will continue to serve on the Solar Data Archive Committee. He will keep in touch with the solar physics group at the Physics Department of the University of Arizona and maintain relations and collaborations with scientists at the Yunnan Observatory in China.
Jack Harvey Areas of Interest Solar magnetic and velocity fields, solar cycle, helioseismology, asteroseismology, instrumentation.
Helioseismology is a technique used to study the solar interior. Until recently, only the globally-averaged properties of the solar interior could be deduced from helioseismology. New helioseismic techniques have now been introduced which produced the first images of the localized structures beneath the solar surface. J. Harvey has worked with T. Duvall, S. D'Silva, S. Jefferies, and J. Schou using one of the new techniques to provide observational confirmation of a theoretical prediction of strong downflows surrounding sunspots. It had long been a mystery what holds sunspots together; the postulated and now observed downflows help to solve that mystery.
During the next three years, Harvey will concentrate on reducing and analyzing helioseismology data from the GONG network, from previous observing runs at South Pole, and from the SOI7MDI project onboard SOHO. This work is in collaboration with S. Jefferies (Bartol), T. Duvall Jr. (NASA), and Y. Osaki and H. Shibahashi (U. Tokyo). He is working as a member of a group to explore the possibility of establishing a network of instruments to do seismology of other solar-like stars. As solar activity rises toward a maximum expected in 2000, he will also continue to use the 10830 filtergraph and
xlix spectromagnetograph instruments installed on Kitt Peak. His research goals for these facilities are to obtain a better description of the characteristics and evolution of polar and intranetwork magnetic fields, and to define the properties of the near-surface signatures of large-scale coronal mass ejections.
Harvey performs observatory service as Chair of the NSO/KP telescope time allocation committee, Instrument Scientist for the GONG project, Telescope Scientist for the KP Vacuum Telescope, and Project Scientist for the 10830 filtergraph and KPVT telescope control system upgrade projects. He is working on the development of a proposal to replace all of NSO's synoptic observing facilities (SOLIS). He serves outside of NOAO as a member of the NASA Solar Management Operations Working Group, the NASA Mechanisms of Solar Variability Working Group, and the Organizing Committee of EAU Commission 10. He is also assisting with editing of the journal Solar Physics.
Karen Harvey Areas of Interest Solar cycle, magnetic fields, active regions, ephemeral regions, coronal bright points, coronal holes, solar irradiance.
K. Harvey (SPRC) will continue her research in four primary areas: (1) Collaborative studies with the Soft X-ray Telescope onboard Yohkoh. Of primary interest is the study of x-ray bright points and their association with the evolution of the underlying photospheric magnetic field and with their chromospheric counterparts, observed in He I 1083 nm, Call K, and H-alpha. Additional research areas will be the comparison of coronal holes observed in He I 1083 nm with those in soft x-rays, the large- scale X-ray arcades that form after the eruption of a filament and their association with chromospheric structures and coronal hole changes, and a collaboration with the SWICs Ulysses team comparing the behaviorand characteristics of magnetic field and He I 1083 nm, and X-ray structures with the properties of events seen by this Ulysses instrument. (2) Estimating the contribution of ephemeral regions to the large-scale poloidal field and determining better the dependence of the tilt of their magnetic axes on latitude. (3) The study of the configuration and evolution of the large-scale magnetic field patterns that lead to the formation of filaments and filament channels; comparison of filaments channels observed in He I 1083 nm with observations such as in H-alpha, soft X-rays. (4) determining the relative contributions of activity structures to the variability of solar irradiance of time scales of days to a solar cycle: includes the continued development of algorithms to separate various structures, such as plage, sunspots, active network, network and the quiet atmosphere, using NSO/KP full-disk magnetograms, used as input by HAO colleagues in producing synthetic spectral images based on appropriate solar atmospheric models.
Frank Hill Areas of Interest Helioseismology, asteroseismology, the fluid dynamics of the solar convection zone, and the solar activity cycle.
Hill plans to continue his studies of the velocity and magnetic fields in the outer solar convection zone using several different data sets, including those from GONG, SOHO/Solar Oscillations Investigation, Taiwanese Oscillation Network, Mt. Wilson, and the NSO High-L Helioseismometer (HLH). Synoptic observations obtained with the HLH over the course of a solar cycle will be used to study the temporal evolution of the flows in the outer solar convection zone. En collaboration with researchers at Stanford University, the University of Southern California, the Astrophysical Institute of the Canaries, the University of Colorado, and the University of Cambridge, he will continue to develop methods to infer the horizontal velocity field in the solar convection zone. Hill is working in collaboration with scientists at the Universities of Colorado and Hawaii to infer sub-surface magnetic fields from the shapes of the ring diagrams. Studies of flows associated with magnetic helicity and active longitudes will also be made. Hill will continue the development of methods to determine the parameters of the structures (peaks, ridges, rings) that are the signature of the solar oscillations in multi-dimensional power spectra, a fundamental and pervasive problem in helioseismology. Hill will complete an analysis of the resolution and noise in the internal velocity field as inferred from ring diagram analysis of data from various instrumental scenarios. Hill will also continue improving the GONG data reduction pipeline to reduce systematic errors resulting from the data processing. He is now working on analyzing the GONG data to obtain information on the horizontal component of the oscillatory velocity field. This will increase our understanding of the physics underlying the oscillations. Hill will use the GONG data to develop inversion methods and to infer the internal solar rotation rate. Hill will also continue work on the development of a solar data archive, and on a concept for an imaging Fourier Transform Spectrometer. En collaboration with other NOAO staff, Hill will develop observational and data analysis techniques for asteroseismology, in particular the equivalent width and Doppler shift methods. Hill will also participate in the organization of the Stellar Oscillation Network Group (SONG) project.
Hill serves as the GONG Data Scientist, the NSO Fourier Transform Spectrometer (FTS) Instrument Scientist, and the NSO Digital Library Scientist. He typically supervises six staff, currently two scientists, one graduate student, two programmers, and one data technician. Hill is a member of the NOAO Stellar Oscillation Network Group (SONG) Steering Committee, the LAU Commission 12 Organizing Committee, the ERIS helioseismology network Scientific Committee, and the NASA Space Physics Data System Solar Physics Discipline Team. Hill is a member of the NSO Telescope Allocation Committee, the Project Review Committee (PRC), and the Mountain Operations Working Group. Hill is the Co-Principle Envestigator on the Astronomy Education IDEA grant, and developed an educational module on helioseismology for K-3 students. He led one of the GONG deployment teams, obtains synoptic observations at the KPVT when necessary, and is currently leading projects to upgrade the FTS ADC, and to study an imaging FTS concept. He is responsible for the NSO/Kitt Peak Web pages and anonymous FTP site.
Robert Howard Areas of Interest Observational study of surface active-region and sunspot orientations and velocities as diagnostics of sub-surface conditions related to the dynamo process in the Sun.
Howard will continue studies of surface characteristics of solar active regions as diagnostics of sub surface flux tube dynamics. This work promises to shed light on the dynamo process that is believed to operate near the base of the convection zone. These studies are being carried out in part in collaboration with P. Gilman (HAO) and K. R. Sivaraman (Indian Institute of Astrophysics). This project involves the analysis of measurements of the positions and areas of all of the sunspots on the daily Kodaikanal (India) white-light, full-disk photographs of the Sun, which started in 1906. Analysis of these data, in conjunction with similar data from Mount Wilson, measured several years ago, will continue during the next year. Rotation rates and meridional motions of these spots will be examined and the results from the observations at the two sites will be compared. Other work by Howard utilizes the Mount Wilson sunspot data set and the Mount Wilson magnetic active region data set, put together by Howard several years ago. These studies will center on effects, such as the Coriolis force and magnetic tension in the subsurface flux loops, that govern the orientations and motions of the magnetic field lines that emerge to form active regions.
Howard provides editorial assistance for all NSO documents (quarterly reports, newsletter input, etc.) As a service to the community, he serves as co-editor of the journal Solar Physics.
li Stuart Jefferies Areas of Interest Helioseismology and image restoration .
Harrison Jones Areas of Interest Structure, evolution, and measurement of solar magnetic fields; structure of the chromosphere and transition region.
Jones (NASA/GSFC) will expand current studies of the formation of the He I triplet series resonance line at 1083 nm with V. Andretta using spectromagnetograph and rocket EUV observations to include new observations both at NSO/SP and NSO/KPin collaboration with Matt Penn and new spacecraft data from SOHO. Jones will continue participation in NSO's SOLVE initiative through analysis of multi dimensional spectromagnetograph data to understand the origins of variations in bolometric solar irradiance. Jones has developed new objective multiscale techniques for finding and quantifying polarity inversion lines in solar magnetograms and will apply this to the study of the solar-cycle variation of magnetic field morphology. Jones has also developed a new technique, multiscale regularization, for quantifying "optical flow", i.e. the movement of magnetic features in sequences of magnetograms, and will apply this technique to the study of active-region evolution using NSO/KPVT, GONG, and SOHO/MDI magnetograms. Jones will also continue to participate in the joint NASA/NSO instrumentation program for the NSO/KP Vacuum Telescope, which includes initial observations with a new 1083 nm video filtergraph and magnetograph and installation of a CCD-based guider and image- motion compensator.
Jones is project leader for continued development of spectromagnetograph software and co-leader with J. Harvey on development of the 1083 nm Video Filtergraph/Magnetograph as well as a fast image motion compensator for the KPVT. Jones serves as the Tucson "Partner" representative on the NSO management committee as well as on the Project Review Committee.
Stephen Keil Areas of Interest Solar atmospheric dynamics and active region development, predicting solar variability and its effects on the Earth.
Keil (USAF/PL) will continue his collaboration with K. Balasubramaniam, Z. Mikic and D. Schnack (SAIC), and G. van Hoven (UCI), to use data on active region evolution collected during the previous solar maximum to analyze and model pre-activity dynamics with a goal of developing predictive algorithms.
Keil and Balasubramaniam will complete a narrow-band tunable filter that operates from 1 to 1.7 micron. The filter will be used at the VTT to make high-resolution vector magnetograms in conjunction with the HAO/NSO Advanced Stokes Polarimeter. The goal of this project is to develop a simplified vector magnetograph that can be used in an operational mode. The ASP observations will be used to accurately calibrate the vector field accuracy of the filter system.
He is serving as the project scientist for the development of a Solar Mass Ejection Imager capable of imaging mass propagating through the interplanetary medium toward the Earth.
Keil is responsible for the NSO-REU and SRA programs. He serves on the PRC to review projects and helps visiting astronomers with the narrow-band filter and spectrographs at the VTT. Keil is in charge of the K-line synoptic program at NSO/SP which collects and distributes Ca EI K-line data on a quasi-daily basis. Keil represents the Air Force program within NSO.
Christoph Keller Areas of Interest Solar magnetic fields (observations and interpretation), high-precision imaging polarimetry (visible and near-infrared), image reconstruction techniques (speckle imaging and phase-diversity) large telescope design, detector development (polarimetry, hyper-spectral imager), asteroseismology.
Keller will use the McMath-Pierce telescopes to investigate solar magnetic fields in the quiet Sun, in particular weak and turbulent fields, by using the Zurich Imaging Stokes Polarimeter I and IE and the Near-Infrared Magnetographs (NEM) 1 and 2. The new NEM 2 instrument will be used to get extensive vector magnetic field data. Collaborative studies in the optical, radio, UV, and X-ray regimes will provide new hints on the three-dimensional structure of the quiet Sun from the photosphere to the corona. Further observations of scattering polarization will be used to deduce spatial and temporal variations of the turbulent magnetic field of the Sun. Apart from solar work, Keller will participate in the Stellar Oscillations Network Group (SONG) to observe stellar oscillations. He will also intensify his detector developments to build a wavelength-sensitive array detector based on organic molecules in liquid helium.
Keller is the telescope scientist for the McMath-Pierce telescopes. He provides observing support at the McMath-Pierce facility, is involved in the design and implementation of new instruments such as the Near-Infrared Magnetograph 2, the design of Solar Optical Long-term Investigations of the Sun (SOLIS), and the design of CLEAR.
Jeffrey Kuhn Areas of Interest Helioseismology, infrared solar physics, instrumentation, astrophysics.
Kuhn will continue working with the RISE/PSPT photometry experiment. Operational data from the prototype system at Sac Peak will be augmented by data from the working Rome OAR instrument during the next year. The MDI/SOI experiment will soon be fully operational and, as a co-investigator on this experiment, Kuhn is working on the photometry data from MDI/SOI to study p-mode oscillations and to look for g-modes. A program to obtain infrared coronal spectra from the Evans Solar Facility continues. As resources become available, a new IR camera and narrow-band imaging system will be constructed. Efforts continue on the study of a large reflecting coronagraph (CLEAR).
Kuhn serves as the project scientist for the community PSPT instruments. He also serves on the site TAC and the PRC, as well as being the primary support contact for all IR observations at NSO/SP.
John Leibacher Areas of Interest Helioseismology and atmosphericdynamics.
Leibacher will be devoting the majority of his efforts to assuring GONG's technical and scientific success. He will also continue work on techniques of time series analysis and chromospheric oscillations. Ideas about the observational signature of the convective excitation of p-mode oscillations and the detection of gravity modes will be pursued with data from GONG as well as the SOI/MDI onboard the SOHO spacecraft.
liii Leibacher serves as the director of the Global Oscillation Network Group program. He also co- supervises one Ph.D. candidate and serves on the editorial board of the journal Solar Physics, on NASA's Space Science Advisory Committee, the AAS Solar Physics Division's Hale Prize Committee, and the Goddard Space Flight Center's Space Sciences Visiting Committee.
Haosheng Lin Areas of Interest Solar irradiance variations, infrared measurements of solar magnetic fields.
H. Lin will continue to work on the construction and implementation of the Precision Solar Photometric Telescope (PSPT) for the RISE project. Lin completed the PSPT prototype, and installed it at Observatory of Rome in Italy in 1996. Daily high photometric precision full-disk data in the Ca EI K wavlength, and in the blue continuum at 4096 A are now available to solar community. Lin expects to implement the second PSPT during 1997. This is the beginning of the process to build up a database spanning over a solar cycle for the studies of the total solar irradiance variations observed from satellite experiments. En the short term, Lin is interested in usingthesedata for the studyof the energy balance of active regions; the continuum contrast of the faculae and network elements; and to search for brightness structures that may be related to large scale flow on the Sun.
Lin also plans to continue his work on infrared measurements of solar magnetic fields. Lin constructed a polarization analyser that is tunable from 1 to 2 micron, and integrated it with the ER array system at Sac Peak. This new ER capability at Sac Peak now allows us to measure solar magnetic field over a broad range of solar features. Lin used this new ER polarimeter to obtain new data on the intranetwork magnetic fields, simultaneous photopheric and chromospheric level vector magnetic fields using the Fe I 15648 A and He I 10830 A lines, and filament magnetic field using also the He I 10830 A line. He will continue to explore the potential of this new instrument, including coronal mangetic field measurement using the infrared Fe XIII line at 10746 A and 10797 A lines.
Charles Lindsey Areas of Interest Local helioseismology, infrared solar physics.
C. Lindsey (SPRC), D. Braun (SPRC) and S. Jefferies (Bartol) have been getting interesting results from their program in local helioseismology. This research is based on the Bartol-NSO-NASA South Pole Observations of 1987, 1988 and 1990 and proposes to use p-modes that appear in the data to detect subsurface magnetic structure. They have developed a computational technique called Doppler knife- edge diagnostics that are sensitive to horizontal Doppler flows. Their computations show strong evidence of subsurface outflows surrounding active regions extending tens of thousands of kilometers outside of the regions. These flows have velocities of 200-400 km/sec, are mostly at depths of several thousand kilometers, and evolve rapidly with time. Lindsey, Braun and Jefferies are planning a program of holographic computations to explore the possibility of locating magnetic structure deep within the solar interior by its Doppler signature, if such structure is moving with respect to the ambient medium.
J. Jefferies, C. Lindsey and post-doc Y. Gu are working on a project to model inhomogeneous chromospheric structure based on theoretical work originally developed by Lindsey and Jefferies to treat LTE radiative transfer in inhomogeneous media. They are now creating inhomogeneous models to match the extensive limb-profile observations in the submillimeter and near-millimeter continua by Lindsey,
liv Jefferies and other colleagues at the Kuiper Airborne Observatory (KAO) and the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope (JCMT) on Mauna Kea.
C. Lindsey and D. Rabin have been involved in a program by T. A. Clark (U. Calgary) to determine the limb profile of infrared CO lines at 4.5 urn. The program is based largely on observations of the nearly annular solar eclipse made on 1994 May 10 at the McMath Solar Telescope, in which the line profiles were determined as a function of height by lunar occultation. The program yielded 0.1-arcsecond (75 km) height resolution and showed the lines to be truncated to heights considerably lower than previously thought, leading to the conclusion that the chromospheric medium contains no substantial component cool enough to support CO formation above about 1,200 km.
Lindsey serves as the NSO/KP supervisor for the REU student research program. He organizes the NSO/KP weekly scientific luncheon and often serves as an NSO host for NOAO's Public Evening. He is involved with the NOAO Educational Outreach Program, gives talks and demonstrations at schools, and works individually with students interested in astronomy or solar research.
Donald Neidig Areas of Interest Solar activity (especially flares), flare optical spectral analysis, flare high-energy emissions, instrument development, and the development of solar flare prediction methods and algorithms.
Neidig (USAF/PL) will continue in collaborative efforts to establish a unified understanding of flares and large-scale phenomena that are linked to coronal manifestations of solar activity; for example, the relationships between flares, Moreton waves, coronal mass ejections and particle acceleration; also, the flare "nimbus" phenomenon will be investigated. Predictive capabilities will be emphasized, making use of a statistical base of parameters derived from vector magnetograms. Work will begin on the Phase A study for CLEAR, including the capability of the latter instrument to detect orbital debris. Efforts to complete the instrumentation and science planning for the SWATH mission will continue as funds allow. Studies of on-orbit detection of space debris, using coronagraphs in space, will be undertaken. The Multiband Patrol will be tested and brought on line. D. Neidig will continue to assist in providing data acquired by NSO to outside users.
Laurence November Areas of Interest Solar polarimetry, polarization optics and solar convection.
Matthew Penn Areas of Interest Infrared solar coronal observations, instrumentation.
Penn will be investigating the solar He I 1083 nm line to measure velocities and magnetic fields in the upper solar chromosphere. He will work with Harvey and Jones to take science data with the new KP Helium Filtergraph/Magnetograph. These data, along with spectral observations of the line, will be used in conjunction with data from the SoHO satellite to study the line formation and the dynamics of the solar atmosphere (with Jones and Andretta (NASA)). Penn is involved in two coronal joint-observing programs with Mason and Young from Cambridge. SoHO observations from Mason and Young will be combined with NSO observations from Penn to study the electron density in the solar corona, and to investigate temperature changes in active solar coronal loops. Finally, with Kuhn, analysis of 1994 eclipse data will progress, and plans for future eclipse observations will be made.
Penn serves as an observer at the KPVT, collecting synoptic magnetic and He I 1083 nm observations 6-7 days per month. He is also a liason between SoHO scientists at NASA/GSFC and NSO.
Douglas Rabin Areas of Interest Magnetic fields and infrared solar physics.
Rabin will study the structure of solar magnetic fields in the photosphere, the temperature-minimum region, and the chromosphere. His primary scientific goals are, first, to characterize the spatial and statistical properties of magnetic flux concentrations in the photosphere; and second, to begin to understand the transition between the spatially intermittent photospheric magnetic field and the space filling field above the chromosphere. The Near Infrared Magnetographs (NIM-1 and NEM-2) will be the primary tools for studying the photospheric field. NEM-1 is a spectrograph-based, true-field magnetometer employing highly Zeeman-sensitive Fe 1 lines near 1565 nm. NEM-2 uses the same lines but is based on a Fabry-Perot etalon and complements NEM-1 by emphasizing spatial properties. Rabin and several collaborators will study the spatial structure of the atmospheric layers immediately above the photosphere - the temperature-minimum region and the low chromosphere - using rovibrational lines of carbon monoxide near 4870 nm. These "layers" are interesting precisely because they are now known (partly as a result of CO studies) to be strongly inhomogeneous both in space and time. Rabin will apply for guest investigator status on the SOHO satellite in order to use ultraviolet spectra in conjunction with CO data to further probe the structure of the upper atmosphere. Rabin will pursue upgrading NSO's infrared imaging capabilities using large-format Aladdin arrays.
Rabin served as actingdirector of NSO through September 1996. He leads the solar infrared program on Kitt Peak and is PI of the NASA-supported Near Infrared Magnetograph projects. He serves on the Telescope Allocation and NSO/Kitt Peak Project Review committees.
Richard Radick Areas of Interest High-resolution solar imaging and interferometry; solar and stellar variability.
Radick (USAF/PL) will continue to work with R. Dunn and T. Rimmele on improving the optical performance of the VTT at Sac Peak. This includes the characterization of the optical aberrations of the VTT and their correction through a combination of thermal control, refiguring, and active compensation techniques. The latter will use a low-bandwidth active optics system based on a 97-element deformable mirror purchased in FY96 from Xinetics, Inc. He will also further pursue interests in extended source wavefront sensing, aperture masking techniques, and interferometry, all aimed at improving the resolution of solar imagery. He will continue his studies of solar and stellar variability, focusing on long (greater than 10-year) time series observations of variability among solar analogue stars, with the aim of using such stellar observations to improve our understanding of the possible range of solar variability.
lvi Thomas Rimmele Areas of Interest Adaptive optics, small-scale magnetic fields, active region dynamics, helioseismology.
Rimmele is involved in the adaptive optics program at NSO. En particular, he is developing techniques for wavefront sensing for extended objects. Working with the Air Force Phillips Lab, he will implement an active optics system at the VTT/SP in order to correct optical aberrations that vary on slow time scales. The corrective element is a commercial product purchased from Xinetics. The Xinetics deformable mirror will also serve as a test bed for the further development of adaptive optics. Rimmele will also be involved in joint observations with the SOHO satellite involving European partners. They will observe the dynamics of active regions at different layers in the solar atmosphere, including photosphere, chromosphere, and corona. Rimmele will continue his efforts to perform observations at the highest spatial resolution, using frame selection techniques, in order to study the properties and the dynamics of small-scale magnetic elements.
Rimmele is working with R. Radick and R. Dunn on improving optical performance of the VTT/SP. During good seeing, the image quality at the VTT is limited by optical performance. Extensive efforts to test and evaluate the performance of optical components of the VTT showed that the entrance window and a turret flat are the main source of optical aberrations. As a result, a new cooling system, keeping the optical figure of the entrance window stable to better than 0.1 wave, was implemented, and the turret flat is currently being refigured. Rimmele also is PI of the Mark II Correlation Tracker project. The correlation tracker will provide tip-tilt correction at the VTT and the McMath-Pierce. The project will be finished in FY 1996. Rimmele serves as the PI for the fast CCD camera project at NSO/SP. The fast CCD system allows frame selection based on the image contrast; during the past year some remarkable high resolution images were recorded with this system. Rimmele is Co-I for the CLEAR design study.
George Simon Areas of Interest Magnetic fields, convection, and oscillations.
Simon will spend FY97 on sabbatical. He has received one-year's salary and a $100,000 research grant as the award for being selected as one of the first six Phillips Lab Fellows in February 1996. He will probably spend this time analyzing data from the SOHO SOI/MDI experiment, from GONG, and collaborating on theoretical work at the University of Cambridge in England, with Prof. Nigel O. Weiss, FRS. The work will probably concentrate on solar magnetoconvection studies, both observational and theoretical. Final plans are unknown at this time (June 1996).
Raymond Smartt Areas of Interest Coronal and prominence dynamics; instrumentation.
Smartt will continue with the analysis of coronal loop interactions (CLI). Specifically, the detailed development of typical CLI events in the FeXEV (530.3nm) and FeX (637.4nm) coronal lines, as observed with the NSO/SP 20-cm Emission-Line Coronagraph, and that of the associated H-alpha emission, will be analyzed further. These data can provide important clues about the complex heating and cooling processes, and magnetic field changes, that occur during a CLI. Joint experiments to investige CLI in EUV lines are planned with the CDS instrument of SOHO using many lines from FeEX through FeXVI. These studies should allow the cooling process to be followed in more detail in terms of
lvn both temperature and density. In addition, the availability of emission lines from more highly ionized iron might allow the maximum temperature in a CLI to be estimated directly. Work will continue on the mirror-objective coronagraph (MAC) program, specifically in the further development of the second prototype, MACII, and the design and construction of MACEH, based on a 60-cm diameter, super- polished objective mirror.
Smartt is a member of the NSO Scientific Personnel Committee, the NSO/SP Telescope Allocation Committee, and the core planning group for the Sunspot Science Museum. He is responsible for the in- house reflecting coronagraph (Mirror Advanced Coronagraph) program (USAF funded), and is a Co- Investigator on the CLEAR proposal. He is actively working on the development of a tunable, narrow band, liquid-crystal Fabry-Perot etalon. He is a Co-I on the LASCO instrument of SOHO, as well as on two planned SOHO experiments. Finally, he is a member of the NSO Project Review Committee and continues to provide assistance, both directly, and as a consultant, on various aspects of optical instrumentation refurbishment and development at NSO/SP.
Clifford Toner Areas of Interest Global and local helioseismology, and image restoration.
Toner plans to continue work on testing the GONG data reduction pipeline to quantify any errors resulting from the data processing. He expects to be involved with updating/modifying some of the algorithms as we gain more experience about the network. He also plans to analyze some of the data products to determine which of the six sites would be best suited for the proposed GONG extension. Toner will continue work on image restoration techniques in collaboration with S. Jefferies (Bartol) and T. Duvall, Jr. (NASA). One of his goals for the image restoration research is to develop a method for combining the GONG network data at the image level, rather than at the SHT level as is currently being done. This will allow him to use the GONG data for local helioseismic studies.
Toner performs observatory service as Assistant Data Scientist for the GONG project.
John Varsik Areas of Interest Magnetic fields, solar oscillation, instrumentation.
Varsik will be working on a project to explore the possiblity of basal chromospheric heating within supergranule cells by the acoustic events observed by P. Goode (NJIT), Rimmele, and their collaborators. The basal chromosphere is a concept primarily developed by the Utrecht group (Schrijver, Zwann, and others) as a way of reconciling flux-flux relations in late-type stars of varying degrees of chromospheric and coronal activity. The basal chromosphere represents a level of chromospheric heating that would be present even if magnetic heating is absent, as may be the case during a Maunder minimum, for example. Varsik will also continue a collaboration with P. Wilson (Univ. of Sydney) on the long term behavior of the solar polar magnetic fields, using high-resolution magnetograms from the Big Bear Solar Observatory.
Varsik has begun work on a study of the effects of airborne dust at Sacramento Peak and Apache Point Observatory, using data from a laser particle counter. The particle counts will be compared with meteorological data and coronal sky brightness measurements. These data will be used to characterize the Sacramento Peak site for the CLEAR proposal, and also to obtain an estimate of how great an effort
ivin will be needed to maintain the cleanliness of the CLEAR optics. Varsik has also assumed responsibility for arranging colloquia at Sacramento Peak.
Martin Woodard (Bartol) Areas of Interest Solar structure, helioseismology.
Woodard has been developing a theoretical understanding of various analytical tools used in local helioseismology. En particular, he has been trying to gauge the importance of strong, localized absorption of acoustic waves, such as we believe occurs in sunspots, on helio-tomographic measurements. With Stuart Jefferies, he is continuing the investigation of solar interior rotation, by analyzing the helioseismology data taken at the geographic South Pole.
Woodard expects to do more helioseismology, expanding the horizon of research to include the solar chromosphere, while at the same time pursuing "bread-and-butter" topics, such as solar interior rotation and the effects of the sunspot cycle. To this end, he and Jefferies have submitted a proposal to the NSF for long-term funding. Woodard expects to continue his interest in local helioseismology (the seismic study of local structures like sunspots and magnetically active regions) and mode physics by becoming involved in the analysis of data from the GONG and SOHO helioseismology projects.
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