Fire Ecology of Forests and Woodlands in Utah

Home , Acer grandidentatum, Cercocarpus ledifolius, Fire ecology, Lathyrus pauciflorus, Ponderosa Fire

United States Department of Agriculture Fire Ecology of Forests Forest Service Intermountain and Woodlands in Utah Research Station General Technical Report INT-287 Anne F. Bradley Nonan V. Noste June 1992 William C. Fischer THE AUTHORS CONTENTS Paae d . ANNE F. BRADLEY is currently a planninglappeals Introduction ...... 1 specialist for the Fisheries and Wildlife Management Format ...... 1 Staff of the Forest Service Pacific Southwest Region Nomenclature ...... 6 in San Francisco. CA . Her involvement with this report Relationships of Major Tree Species to Fire ...... 6 occurred while assigned as an ecologist in the Fire Quaking Aspen (Populus tremuloides) ...... 6 Effects: Prescribed Fire and Wildfire research work Ponderosa Pine (Pinus ponderosa) ...... 7 unit at the lntermountain Research Station. Intermoun- Douglas-f ir ( Pseudotsuga menziesir) ...... 7 tain Fire Sciences Laboratory. Missoula. MT . Anne Engelmann Spruce (Picea engelmannil) ...... 8 earned a B.A. degree in biology from Colorado College Lodgepole Pine (Pinus contorta) ...... 8 and an M.A. degree in botany from the University of Subalpine Fir (Abies lasiocarpa) ...... 8 Montana . Early work assignments included that of a White Fir (Abies concolor) ...... 9 naturalist for the National Park Service. and as a Blue Spruce (Picea pungens) ...... 9 biological technician and later as a botanist for the Western Bristlecone (Pinus longaeva) ...... 9 lntermountain Station . Limber Pine (Pinus flexilis) ...... 10 NONAN V . NOSTE (retired) was a forester. Inter- Gambel Oak (Quercus gambelil) ...... 10 mountain Research Station. lntermountain Fire Pinyon (Pinus edulis) and Singleleaf Pinyon Sciences Laboratory. Missoula. MT . During his Forest ( Pinus monophylla) ...... 1 0 Service career. Nonan was involved in fire control Utah Juniper (Juniperus osteosperma) ...... 11 research in Alaska; silviculture research in Wisconsin. Rocky Mountain Juniper and fire technology and fire effects and use research (Juniperus scopulorum) ...... 11 in Missoula . He earned B.S. and M.F. degrees in Undergrowth Response to Fire ...... 11 forestry from the University of Montana . Wildlife Response to Fire ...... 18 Fire Use Considerations ...... 30 WILLIAM C FISCHER is a research forester and . Fuels ...... 30 team leader for the Fire Effects work unit at the Predicting Fire Mortality ...... 32 lntermountain Research Station. lntermountain Fire Crown Damage and Insect Attack ...... 34 Sciences Laboratory. Missoula. MT . He is a graduate Frequency of Burning ...... 34 of Paul Smith's College and the University of Michigan Large Woody Debris ...... 34 (B.S., B.S.F. 1956). Prior to joining the staff at the Fire Heat Effects on Soil ...... 35 Sciences Laboratory. he was employed in a variety of Prescribed Fire Planning ...... 35 fire and resource management assignments with the Fire Group Zero: Miscellaneous Special Habitats ....35 Boise National Forest in Idaho . Scree ...... 35 Forested Rock ...... 35 RESEARCH SUMMARY Wet Meadow ...... 35 This report summarizes available information on fire Mountain Grassland ...... 36 as an ecological factor for forest habitat types and the Deciduous Riparian Communities ...... 36 unclassified pinyon-juniper and oak-maple woodlands Fire Group One: Pinyon-Juniper Woodlands ...... 36 occurring in Utah . Habitat types and the unclassified Vegetation ...... 36 vegetative communities are assigned to Fire Groups Forest Fuels ...... 37 based on fire's potential role in forest succession . Role of Fire ...... 38 For each Fire Group. the authors discuss (1) the Woodland Succession ...... 39 relationships of major tree species to fire. (2)forest Fire Management Considerations ...... 41 fuels. (3) the natural role of fire. (4)fire's hypothetical Fire Group Two: Montane Maple-Oak Woodlands ...41 role in forest succession. and (5) fire management Vegetation ...... 41 considerations . Fuels ...... 42

lntermountain Research Station 324 25th Street Ogden. UT 84401 Page Page Role of Fire ...... 43 Fire Group Eight: Habitat Types with Brushland Succession ...... 44 Persistent Lodgepole Pine ...... 79 Fire Management Considerations ...... 44 Habitat Types. Phases ...... 79 Fire Group Three: Ponderosa Pine Habitat Types ...45 Vegetation ...... 79 Habitat Type. Phase ...... 45 Forest Fuels ...... 79 Vegetation ...... 46 Role of Fire ...... 82 Forest Fuels ...... 47 Forest Succession ...... 85 Role of Fire ...... 48 Fire Management Considerations ...... 87 Forest Succession ...... 49 Fire Group Nine: Climax Stands Dominated by Fire Management Considerations ...... 52 Limber Pine or Western Bristlecone ...... 89 Fire Group Four: Drier Douglas-fir Habitat Types ....54 Habitat Types. Phases ...... 89 Habitat Types. Phases ...... 54 Vegetation ...... 89 Vegetation ...... 54 Forest Fuels ...... 90 Forest Fuels ...... 54 Role of Fire ...... 90 Role of Fire ...... 55 Forest Succession ...... 91 Forest Succession ...... 56 Fire Management Considerations ...... 91 Fire Management Considerations ...... 58 Fire Group Ten: Dry. Lower Subalpine Fire Group Five: Cool or Moist Douglas-fir Habitat Types ...... 92 Habitat Types ...... 59 Habitat Types. Phases ...... 92 Habitat Types, Phases ...... 59 Vegetation ...... 93 Vegetation ...... 59 Forest Fuels ...... ;...... 93 Forest Fuels ...... 59 Role of Fire ...... 94 Role of Fire ...... 59 Forest Succession ...... 94 Forest Succession ...... 61 Fire Management Considerations ...... 99 Fire Management Considerations ...... 64 Fire Group Eleven: Moist to Wet Subalpine Fire Group Six: White Fir and Blue Spruce Habitat Types ...... 99 Habitat Types (Mixed Conifer Types) ...... 64 Habitat or Community Types ...... 99 Habitat Types, Phases ...... 64 Vegetation ...... -99 Vegetation ...... Forest Fuels ...... 100 . Forest Fuels ...... Role of Fire ...... 100 Role of Fire ...... Forest Succession ...... 101 Forest Succession ...... Fire Management Considerations ...... 101 Fire Management Considerations ... Fire Group Twelve: Cold, Upper Subalpine Fire Group Seven: Aspen-Dominated Habitat Types ...... 102 and Community Types ...... 70 Habitat Types. Phases ...... 102 Stable Community Types (Probably Vegetation ...... 102 Climax Habitat Types) ...... 70 Forest Fuels ...... 102 Community Types (and Cover Types) Role of Fire ...... 102 Probably Seral to Coniferous Habitat Types ...... 70 Forest Succession ...... 103 Community Types Probably Grazing Fire Management Considerations ...... 104 Disclimaxes ...... 71 References ...... 104 Vegetation ...... ; ...... 71 Appendix A: Forest and Woodland Habitat Forest Fuels ...... : i. 71 and Community Types Assigned to Role of Fire ...... 72 Utah Fire Groups ...... 120 Forest Succession ...... 74 Appendix B: Common and Scientific Fire Management Considerations ...... 75 Names Mentioned in Text ...... 125

Fire Ecology of Forests an Woodlandsin Utah Anne F. Bradley Nonan V. Noste William C. Fischer

INTRODUCTION major topics presented in this report are organized into sections, described below. This report summarizes the available fire ecology and management information relating to forest Relationship of Major Tree Species to Fire- habitat types, montane oak-maple woodlands, and This section discusses each principal tree species in pinyon-juniper woodlands of Utah. Specifically, the Utah forests with regard to its resistance or suscep- report covers the Wasatch-Cache, Dixie, Fishlake, tibility to fire and its role as a successional compo- Manti-La Sal, Ashley, and Uinta National Forests nent of forest communities. Particular attention is and the Raft River Mountain portion of the Sawtooth given to special adaptations to fire, such as corky National Forest, but it is also applicable to the for- bark, serotinous cones, or seeds that require mineral ested portions of Zion and Bryce Canyon National soil for germination. Parks and Cedar Breaks National Monument. The Undergrowth Response to Fire-This section primary purpose of this report is to promote the un- summarizes the effect of fire on the response of im- derstanding of fire's role, particularly its influence portant grass, forb, and shrub species associated on succession in the forests, pinyon-juniper wood- with the major conifer species. Particular attention lands, and oak-maple brushlands of Utah. is given to fire-adaptive traits or survival strategies The habitat types recently described by Mauk that determine whether fire generally increases or and Henderson (1984), Youngblood and Mauk decreases species cover in the immediate postfire (19851, and to a limited extent the community types period. described by Padgett and others (1989) and by - Wildlife Response to Fire-This section con- Mueggler (1989) are assigned to 13 "Fire Groups" tains brief summaries of the general effects of fire on based on the response of dominant tree species to common Utah mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and fire and similarity of development in postfire succes- birds. Fire response of wildlife is largely inferred sion. In Utah, neither pinyon-juniper woodlands nor from expected changes in habitat as a result of fire. montane woodlands dominated by Gambel oak or bigtooth maple have been classified by habitat type. Fire Use Considerations-!t'his section summa- These woodlands therefore have been assigned to rizes cautions that apply to the use of fire for re- Fire Groups on the basis of cover type. Both pinyon- source management purposes. Emphasis is on effec- juniper and oak-maple cover large acreages in the tive use of fire, site protection, minimizing damage State. to residual stand, and wildlife habitat protection. The successional path taken by any given site fol- Fire Groups-The Fire Groups (FG's) are defined lowing fire depends on many yariables. The preburn with reference to "Coniferous Forest Habitat Types vegetation, size and severity;of the fire, topography, of Northern Utah" (Mauk and Henderson 1984), "Co- climate and soil, and chance all contribute to the niferous Forest Habitat Types of Central and South- process. Thus, a single habitat type may be a mem- ern Utah" (Youngblood and Mauk 1985), "Aspen ber of more than one Fire Group. The individual Community Types of the Intermountain Region" land manager must evaluate conditions on a site by (Mueggler 1989), and "Riparian Community Types site basis to determine the most likely results of fire. of Utah and Southeastern Idahon (Padgett and oth- The groups defined in this report are offered as a ers 1989). Generally, a habitat type or habitat type general guide, not a definitive treatment. phase is assigned to only one Fire Group. Where exceptions to this rule occur, the exception is noted Format and explained. The forest habitat types assigned to the Utah Fire Groups are listed in appendix A and This report is patterned after 'Fire Ecology of summarized in table 1. General descriptive litera- Montana'Forest Habitat Types East of the Conti- ture was used to identifjl pinyon-juniper woodlands nental Divide" (Fischer and Clayton 1983). The (FG 1) and oak-maple woodlands (FG 2), because Table 1-Summary of Utah habitat type Fire Groups (see appendix A for formal listing of habitat types)

Habltat type Habitat type Habltat type

FlRE GROUP ZERO PIPU/BERE PICONASC Misc. special habitats PIPUIJUCO PIENNACA PIENNASC FlRE GROUP ONE FlRE GROUP SEVEN Pinyon-juniper woodlands POTWAMAuPTAQ FlRE GROUP NINE POTRIAMAUTALL FORB PIFUBERE FlRE GROUP TWO POTRIAMAVTHFE PIFUCELE Montane maple-oak POTWAMAUCARU FlRE GROUP TEN FlRE GROUP THREE POTWAMAL-SYOR/TALL FORB ABLNACGL PIPOIARPA POTRIARTR ABLNBERE-CAGE P IPOIARNO POTRICARU ABLNBERE-JUCO P IPOICAGE POTRICARO ABLNBERE-PIEN PIPOICELE POTWFETH ABLNBERE-PIFL PIPOIFEID-ARPA POTIWALL FORB P IPOIFEID-ARTR ABLNBERE-PSME POTWJUCO/CAGE ABLAfBERE-RIM0 PIPOIFEID-FEID POTWJUCORUAR ABLNBERE-BERE PIPOIMUMO POTWPTAQ ABLNCAGE PIPOIPUTR POTRISARA AB LAJCARO PIPOIQUGQ-SYOR POTRISTCO ABLNCARU PIPOIQUGQ-QUGA POTWSYOWCARO PIPOISYOR ABLNJUCO POTWSYORICARU ABLNOSCH POTWSYOR/THFE FlRE GROUP FOUR ABLNPERA-PSME POTWSYOFUFETH PSMEIARPA ABLNPERE-PERA POTRISYOR/TALL FORB PSMEIBERE-CAGE ABLAIPHMA POTWVECA PSMEIBERE-PIP0 ABLAIRIMO-MEAR POTR-ABLNAMAL PSMEICELE ABLAIRIMO-PIC0 PSME/CEMO POTR-ABLNCAGE ABLNRIMO-THFE POTR-ABWCARO PSMEIQUGA ABLNRIMO-RIM0 POTR-ABLNJUCO PSMEISYOR ABLANACA POTR-ABLNSYORITHFE ABLANACA-PIEN FlRE GROUP FIVE POTR-ABLA/SYOR/TALL FORB ABLANAGL PSMEIACGL POTR-ABLNTALL FORB ABLANAMY PSMEIBEREJUCO POTR-ABCOIARPA ABLANASC-ARLA PSMEIBERE-SYOR POTR-ABCOIPOPR ABLANASC-CAGE PSMEIBERE-BERE POTR-ABCOISYOR ABLANASC-VASC PSMEICARU POTR-PIPU PSMEIOSCH-PAMY POTR-PIC0 FlRE GROUP ELEVEN PSMEIPHMA POTR-PICOICAGE ABLNACCO PSMEIPHMA-PAMY POTR-PSMEIAMAL AB WACRU FlRE GROUP SIX POTR-PSMVJUCO ABLAICACA ABCOIACGL POTWASMI ABLNSTAM ABCOIARPA POTWBRCA PIENIEQAR ABCOIBERE JUCO POTWJUCOIASMI PIENICALE P IPUIEQAR ABCOIBERE-SYOR FlRE GROUP EIGHT ABCOIBERE-BERE CONIFEWCOSE ABLANACA CONIFEWACCO ABCOICELE AB LANASC-VASC ABCONUCO PICO/ARUV FlRE GROUP TWELVE ABCOIOSCH PICO/BERE ABLNRIMO-TRSP ABCOIPHMA P ICOICACA ABLANASC-VASC ABCOIQUGA PICOICARO PIENIRIMO ABCOISYOR PICOIJUCO PIENNACA PIPUIAGSP PICONACA PIENNASC classification of these vegetation types in Utah is not Abies concolor, white fir (ABCO) complete. Abies lasiocarpa, subalpine fir (ABLA) Habitat types and community types are desig- Acer grandidentaturn, bigtooth or canyon maple nated in the standard format of "seriedtype-phase," (ACGR) in which "series" designates the potential climax Juniperus osteosperma, Utah juniper (JUOS) dominant tree, "type" designates a definitive under- Juniperus scopulorum, Rocky Mountain juniper growth species, and "phase" provides a further sub- (JUSC) division where needed. Picea engelmannii, Engelmann spruce (PIEN) Vegetation-Following the list of habitat types Picea pungens, blue spruce (PIPU) that comprise each Fire Group, we describe the Pinus contorta, lodgepole pine (PICO) characteristic overstory and undergrowth vegetation Pinus edulis, pinyon pine or two-needle pinyon for that Group. Climax and sera1 tree speciesare (PIED) identified. Pinus flexilk, limber pine (PIFL) Pinus longaeva, Western bristlecone (PILO) Forest Fuels-The fuels likely to occur in each Pinus monophylla, singleleaf pinyon (PIMO) Fire Group are characterized in this section. The Pinus ponderosa, ponderosa pine (PIPO) emphasis is on downed and dead woody fuels. Live Populus tremuloides, aspen (POTR) and standing dead fuels are also discussed where Pseudotsuga menziesii, Douglas-fir (PSME) they contribute significantly to fire hazard. To date, Quercus gambelii, Gambel oak (QUGA) there are no published summaries of fuel loadings by cover type or habitat type for coniferous forests Fire Severity-For the purpose of this report and woodlands in Utah. Consequently, if applicable, three levels of fire severity are recognized: low or fuel estimates fiom surrounding States are pre- cool, moderate, and high or severe. A low-severity or sented. For each Fire Group, we discuss the kind cool fire is one that has minimal impact on the site. and amount of dead, woody material likely to be It burns in surface fuels consuming only the litter, found on the forest floor. herbaceous fuels, and foliage and small twigs on woody undergrowth. Very little heat travels down- Role of Fire-Information on the ecology of the ward through the duff. A moderate fire burns in important trees, fuel characteristics, and the results surface fuels also but may involve a tree understory of fire history studies are integrated to describe the as well. It consumes litter, upper duff, understory historical (presettlement period, generally prior to plants, and foliage on understory trees. Individual the mid-1800's) role of fire in shaping the vegetative and groups of overstory trees may torch out if fuel composition of a particular Fire Group. This section ladders exist. A severe fire is one that burns through is mainly a literature review covering succession and the overstory and consumes large woody surface fire within the appropriate habitat types or plant fuels, or removes the entire duff layer, or both, over communities. much of the area. Heat from the fire impacts the Forest Succession-For each Fire Group, succes- upper soil layer and often consumes the incorpo- sional pathway flow charts represent a synthesis of rated soil organic matter. both knowledge and speculation about the effects of The amount of soil heating is critical to the sur- fire at several points in the life history of a stand. vival of tree roots and resprouting undergrowth spe- They illustrate the many possible influences fires of cies. Observing soil surface characteristics after fire varying severities have on stands of differing ages, can help make predictions of postburn plant re- densities, and species composition. The flow charts sponse more accurate. Ryan and Noste (1985) have follow the method suggested by Kessell and Fischer presented some easily observable soil and fuel char- (1981). < {. acteristics to determine the relative depth of char in How trees respond to fire often depends on their different vegetation types (table 2). size. Tree size classes used in our flow charts are: Fire Management Considerations-This sec- saplings-2 to 4 inches in diameter at breast height tion discusses how the preceding information can be (d.b.h.); small poles-trees 4 to 8 inches d.b.h.; large used to develop fire management plans that support poles-8 to 12 inches d.b.h. (Society of American land and resource management objectives. Sugges- Foresters, 1958). tions given are offered as an aid to decision making, The tree species names are symbolized in order to but for specific situations the manager must rely on simplify the diagrams and flow charts. The symbols personal experience to best determine how to use in- are defined as follows: formation presented in this document. Table 2-Visual character of ground char from observation of depth of burn1 (Ryan and Noste 1985)

char Site class Timberislash Shrub fields Grasslands Unburned The fire did not burn on the See timberlslash See timberlslash forest floor.

Some damage may occur to vegetation due to radiated or convected heat from adjacent areas.

Ten to 20 percent of the area within slash burns is commonly unburned.*

There is a wide range in the percent of unburned area within fires in natural fuels.

Light Leaf litter is charred or Leaf litter is charred or Litter is charred or ground consumed. consumed, and some leaf consumed, but some plant char structure is still discernible. parts are still discernible. Upper duff may be charred, but the duff layer is not The surface is predomi- Charring may extend slightly altered over the entire depth. . nantly black, although some into the soil surface, but gray ash may be present the mineral soil is not The surface generally appears immediately after the fire. otherwise altered. black immediately after the fire. Gray ash soon becomes Some plant parts may still Woody debris is partially burned. inconspicuous. be standing.

Some small twigs and much of the Charring may extend slightly Bases of plants are not branch wood remain. into soil surface where deeply burned and are still leaf litter is sparse, but recognizable. Logs are scorched or blackened the mineral soil is not but not charred. otherwise altered. Surface is predominantly black immediately after the Crumbled, rotten wood is Some leaves and small twigs burn, but this soon becomes scorched to partially burned. remain on the plants. Burns inconspicuous. are irregular and spotty. Light ground char commonly makes Burns may be spotty to up 0-1 00 percent of burned areas Less than 60 percent of the uniform, depending on the with natural fuels and 45-75 brush canopy is commonly continuity of the grass. percent of slash areas. consumed.

Moderate Litter is consumed.= Surface leaf litter is Litter is consumed, and the ground consumed. surface is covered with char Duff is deeply charred or con- gray or white ash immediately sumed but the underlying mineral Some charred litter may after the burn. soil is not visibly altered. remain but is sparse. Ash soon disappears, leaving Light-colored ash prevails Charring extends up to bare mineral soil. immediately after the fire. 0.5 inch into mineral soil but does not otherwise Charring extends slightly Woody debris is largely consumed. alter the mineral soil. into mineral soil, but the plant parts are no longer Some branch wood is present, but Gray or white ash is con- discernible, no plant parts no foliage or twigs remain. spicuous immediately after standing, and the bases of the burn, but this quickly plants are burned to ground Logs are deeply charred. disappears. level. (con.) Table 2 (Con.) Ground char Site class Timberfslash Shrub fields Grasslands Moderate ground char commonly Some charred stems remain Plant bases are obscured in occurs on 0-100 percent of on the plants, and these are the ash immediately after natural burned areas and 10-75 generally greater than 0.25- burning. percent on slash burns. 0.50 inch in diameter. Burns tend to be uniform. Trees with lateral roots in the Burns are more uniform than duff are often left on pedestals in previous classes. Moderate ground char is or topple. Burned-out stump generally limited to backing holes are common. Between 40 and 80 percent fires and fires burning of the brush canopy is during dry conditions. commonly consumed.

Deep Litter and duff are completely Leaf litter is completely Deep ground char is uncommon ground consumed, and the top layer consumed, leaving a fluffy due to short burnout time of char of mineral soil is visibly altered, white ash surface. grasses. often reddish. All organic matter is con- Surface consists of fluffy Structure of the surface soil sumed in the mineral soil white ash immediately after may be altered. to a depth of 0.5-1.0 the burn. This soon inch. This is underlain disappears leaving bare Below the colored zone 1 inch by a zone of black organic mineral soil. or more of the mineral soil is material. blackened from organic material Charring extends up to 0.5 that has been charred or Colloidal structure of the inch into soil. deposited by heat conducted surface mineral soil may downward. be altered. Soil structure is slightly altered (for consistency with Twigs and small branches are Large branches with main other fuel types, no citations completely consumed. stems are burned, and only specifically mention soil stubs greater than 0.5 alteration). Few large branches may remain, inch in diameter remain. but those are deeply charred. Deep ground char is generally limited to situations where Sound logs are deeply charred, heavy loadings on mesic and rotten logs are completely sites have burned under dry consumed. conditions and low wind.

Deep ground char occurs in scattered patches under slash concentrations or where logs or stumps produced prolonged, intense heat.

Deep ground char generally covers less than 10 percent of natural and slash,-areas. # One extreme case of 31 percent was reported in a slash burn.

In extreme cases, clinkers or fused soil may be present. These are generally restricted to areas where slash was piled. lVisual characteristics were developed from the following literature sources and combined for consistency: Bever 1954; Tarrant 1956; Dyrness and Youngberg 1957; Bentley and Fenner 1958; Daubenmire 1968; Morris 1970; Ralston and Hatchell 1971; Vogl 1974; Wells and others 1979. *The area coverage estimates for each of the ground char classes are ranges encountered in the literature and experienced by the authors. Obviously, any combination of depth of char classes is possible. The inclusion of these ranges points out the variability that may be enccuntered within a given fuel situation. %ome late-season fires have been observed to spread by glowing combustion in the duff, leaving the charred remains of the litter on top of the mineral soil and ash. This should not be confused with light ground char because temperature measurements indicate a considerable heat pulse is received by the mineral soil. Nomenclature 1980; Fischer and Bradley 1987; Fischer and Clayton 1983). The common names of trees and the scientific names of shrubs and herbaceous plants are used (Populustremuloides) throughout the text of the report. Corresponding Quaking Aspen scientific plant names and common names used Quaking aspen's response to fire can be examined in the text are listed in appendix B. Nomenclature from two perspectives: (1) the individual stems (or generally follows "Utah Flora" (Welsh and others suckers), which are not very resistant to fire, and 1987) except as otherwise noted. A major exception (2) the clone itself, which is very fire resistant. is the nomenclature for genera of perennial Triti- Individual stems have thin bark with a green pho- ceae, which follows Barkworth and Dewey (1985). tosynthetic layer. They are heat sensitive and easily Little (1979) is our authority for trees and for classi- killed by fire. If they are not killed outright a fire fying woody species as either trees or shrubs. Scien- can cause basal scarring that provides entry for fun- tific and common names of habitat types are as pre- gal diseases. With or without fire, the stems are sented in the habitat type classification source rather short-lived. Life span varies with area. In documents cited in the Introduction of this report. the Intermountain area, aspen maturity appears to take place in 80 to 100 years (Schier 1974), with RELATIONSHIPS OF WORTREE ages of 180 years or more attained in parts of SPECIES TO FIRE Wyoming and Utah (Gruel1 1990). This compares with a life expectancy of 50 to 70 years in the Colo- Wildfire has played a major role in forest succes- rado Front Range (Mitton and Grant 1980). As indi- sion throughout the Western United States, includ- vidual stems in a stand mature, growth slows and ing forests and woodlands in Utah. Lodgepole pine, stems become increasingly susceptible to disease for example, owes much of its widespread occurrence and insect attack. The age when this process begins to past fire. Without fire, Douglas-fir and white fir (60 to 100 years) may be related to site quality. would dominate many areas where ponderosa pine The aspen clone itself is very long lived. It may is now the prevalent overstory species. Periodic survive for many centuries, periodically sending fires rejunvenate decadent sera1 aspen stands. Fire up new suckers to replace stems that die. Suckers also favors Engelmann spruce at the expense of sub- originate from an extensive lateral root system. alpine fir (Wellner 1970). Most suckers are produced on roots within 3 to 4 Table 3 summarizes the relative fire resistance of inches (7 to 10 cmlof the soil surface. Following some of the principal conifers in Utah forests and a severe fire where killing heat penetrates into the woodlands. soil, some suckers may originate from roots down Much of the information cited below has been pre- to 12 inches (30.5 cm) below the surface (DeByle viously reported in other fire ecology reports (Crane 1991). 1982; Crane and Fischer 1986; Davis and others

Table 3-Relative fire resistance of some important conifers occurring in Utah (source: Flint 1925) Relative Thickness Tolerance inf lamma- Degree of bark of Root Resin in Branch Stand bility of Lichen of fire Species old trees habit old bark habit habit foliage growth resistance Ponderosa pine Very thick Deep Abundant Moderately Open Medium Medium Very high and open to light resistant Douglas-fir Very thick Deep Moderate Moderately Moderate High Heavy to Very low and dense to dense medium resistant Lodgepole pine Very thin Deep1 Abundant Moderately Open Medium Light Medium high and open Engelmann spruce Thin Shallow Moderate Low and dense Dense Medium Heavy Low Subalpine fir Very thin Shallow Moderate Very low Moderate High Medium Very low and dense to dense to heavy 'Lodgepole pine is generally deep rooted in well-drained, medium-textured soils. Root development is restricted by layers of coarse soils, impermeable layers, high water tables, or dense stand conditions (Pfister and Daubenmire 1975).

6 In the Western United States, sexual reproduction to fire damage where crowded conditions result in by aspen is rare. Vegetative reproduction is stimu- slower diameter growth. Such trees do not develop lated by killing or the removal of the overstory their protective layer of insulative bark as early as stems in the clone. When stems are killed or re- do faster growing trees. They remain vulnerable to moved by fire, logging, or other disturbance, the cambium damage from ground fires longer than source of auxin is removed. Auxin, produced by their counterparts in open stands. The thick, over- apical buds, travels down the stem, and represses crowded foliage of young stands or thickets also ne- sucker formation on the roots. Fire in an aspen gates the fire-resisting characteristic of open, discon- clone has several effects. It releases sucker primor- tinuous crown foliage commonly found in this species. dia on roots from auxin inhibition, removes canopy Ponderosa pine seedling establishment is favored shade, and blackens the soil surface, which in- when fire removes the forest floor litter and grass creases heat absorption. Increased soil tempera- and exposes mineral soil. Fire resistance of the tures aid in sucker production. Some suckers are open, parklike stands is enhanced by generally light produced by undisturbed clones; however, most are fuel quantities. Heavy accumulations of litter at the generally suppressed and die in the shade of the base of trunks increase the intensity and duration of canopy. Suckers will survive around the periphery fire, often resulting in a fire scar or "cat face." Flam- of the stand and in gaps left by dying stems. Natu- mable resin deposits around wounds can make an ral thinning is common in young aspen stands be- individual tree susceptible to fire damage and can cause of shade intolerance. enlarge existing fire scars. Moderate fires can rejuvenate deteriorating aspen. Ponderosa pine is the most fire-resistant tree In the absence of fire, aspen may give way to coni- growing in Utah. As a result, it has a competitive fers or break up and revert to shrub- or grass- advantage over most other species when mixed dominated vegetation. Climax aspen respond to fire stands burn (Fire Groups Three, Four, and Six). similarly, but it is less clear how important fire is in the life of the clone. Climax aspen clones in Utah Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) may have dominated some Utah sites for a thousand years or more (Mueggler 1976). Fire relationships Mature Douglas-fir is a relatively fire-resistant in aspen-dominated communities are described in tree. Saplings, however, are vulnerable to surface Fire Group Seven. fires because of their thin, photosynthetically active bark, resin blisters, closely spaced flammable needles, Ponderosa Pine (Pinusponderosa) thin twigs, and bud scales. The moderately low and dense branching habit of saplings enables surface Ponderosa pine has many fire-resistant character- fires to carry into the crown layer. Older trees de- istics. Even seedlings and saplings are often able to velop a relatively unburnable, thick layer of insu- withstand fire. Seedlings and saplings can maintain lative corky bark that provides protection against themselves on sites with fire intervals as short as cool to moderately severe fires. Fire-resistant bark 6 years if fire severity is low. Development of insu- takes about 40 years to develop on moist (favorable) lative bark and meristems shielded by enclosing sites. This protection is often offset by a tendency to needles and thick bud scales contribute to the heat have branches closely spaced along the length of the resistance of pole-sized and larger trees. bole. The development of "gum cracks" in the lower Propagation of fire into the crown of trees pole- trunk that streak the bark with resin can provide a sized or greater, growing in relatively open stands mechanism for serious fire injury. (dry sites), is unusual because of three factors. Douglas-fir often occurs in open stands, but it also First, the tendency of ponderofa pine to self-prune grows in dense stands with continuous fuels under- lower branches keeps the foliage separated from neath. Dense sapling thickets can form an almost burning surface fuels. Second, the open, loosely ar- continuous layer of flammable foliage about 10 to ranged foliage does not lend itself to combustion or 26 ft (3 to 8 m) above ground that will support wind- the propagation of flames. Third, the thick bark is driven crown fires. Even small thickets of saplings relatively unburnable and does not easily carry fire up provide a route by which surface fires can reach the the bole or support residual burning. Resin accumula- crowns of mature trees. tions, however, can make the bark more flammable. As with ponderosa pine, heavy fuel accumulations On moist ponderosa pine sites, Douglas-fir or at the base of the trees increase the probability of white fir ofken form dense unders tories, which may fire injury. Resin deposits often contribute to the act as fuel ladders that carry surface fires to the enlargement of old fire scars during subsequent overstory. Crown fires are, consequently, more fires. The effects of fire on Utah Douglas-fir commu- frequent on moist sites than they are on dry sites. nities are discussed in Fire Groups Four and Five. Understory ponderosa pine may be more susceptible Engelmann Spruce (Picea lodgepole pine stands are composed of trees contain- engelmannii) ing both serotinous (closed) and nonserotinous (open) cones. The ratio of serotinous to nonserotinous Engelmann spruce is easily killed by fire. The cones seems to be related to the fire frequency for dead, dry, flammable lower limbs, low-growing the site-the higher the fire frequency the greater canopy, and thin bark contribute to the species' the proportion of serotinous cones. If fire does not vulnerability. The shallow root system is readily occur for a long period of time, even stands that are injured by fire burning through the duff. Large old mostly serotinous will gradually become dominated spruce may occasionally survive one or more light by open-coned trees as serotinous trees die out. fires, but deep accumulations of resinous needle lit- A temperature of 113 OF (45 "C)is usually re- ter around their bases usually make them particu- quired to melt the resin that binds the scales of a larly susceptible to fire damage. Survivors are often serotinous cone. Heat fiom a fire is about the only subjected to successful attack by wood-destroying way such temperatures will occur in the crown of a fungi that easily enter through fire wounds. The standing lodgepole pine. Large quantities of highly high susceptibility of spruce to fire damage is miti- viable seed are theref0i.e available to regenerate a gated in part by the generally cool and moist sites site following a stand-destroying fire. where it grows. Aside from serotinous cones, other silvical charac- Spruce is not an aggressive pioneer. It is a moder- teristics that contribute to lodgepole pine's success ate seeder, but seed viability is rated good and the in dominating a recently burned site are: vitality persistent (Alexander and Sheppard 1984). 1. Early seed production. Cones bearing viable Seedlings can survive on a wide variety of seedbeds. seed are produced by trees as young as 5 years in Initial establishment and early growth of seedlings open stands and by trees 15 to 20 years old in more may be slow, but it is usually good when encouraged heavily stocked stands. This feature not only allows by shade and abundant moisture. Spruce seedlings relatively young stands to regenerate a site follow- can occur as members of a fire-initiated stand with ing fire, but also the seed from open cones on re- lodgepole pine. Spruce's shade tolerance allows it to cently regenerated lodgepole can fill in voids left by establish and grow beneath a lodgepole pine canopy. the original postfire seeding from serotinous cones. On sites where it is the indicated climax species, spruce eventually dominates the stand, but it takes 2. Prolific seed production. Good cone crops occur a long period without any fire before this can occur. at 1- to 3-year intervals, with light crops intervening. Restocking takes place more quickly if some 3. High seed viability. Viable seed has been found spruce trees survive within the burn than if regen- in 80-year-old serotinous cones. eration is dependent on seed from trees at the edge of a burn. Pockets of spruce regeneration often be- 4. High survival and rapid growth. High seedling come established around such sunriving seed trees survival and rapid early growth are characteristic of up to a distance of 300 fi (90 m), the effective seed- lodgepole, especially on mineral soil seedbeds ex- ing distance for spruce. One hundred to 150 years posed to full sunlight. after establishment, stand regeneration diminishes Lodgepole pine's success in revegetating a site due to insufficient sunlight at ground level and to following fire oRen results in dense, overstocked accumulating duff. At this point on most sites, the stands. Such stands are susceptible to stagnation, more tolerant subalpine fir begins to dominate in snow breakage, windthrow, dwarf mistletoe (Arceu- the understory. Fire Groups Ten, Eleven, and thobium americanum) infestation, and mountain Twelve describe the role of fire in the subalpine pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) attack. The environments where Engelmann spruce is a climax combined effect of these factors is extreme buildup species. of dead woody fuel on the forest floor. Thus, the stage is set for another stand-destroying wildfire. Lodgepole Pine (Pinus contorts) Lodgepole pine occurs in Fire Groups Three, Five, Eight, Ten, and Eleven. Individual mature lodgepole pine trees are moderately resistant to surface fires. Lodgepole's thin bark makes it susceptible to death from cambium Subalpine Fir (Abies lasiocarpa) heating. Lodgepole pine is unique, however, in its Subalpine fir is the least fire-resistant conifer in ability to perpetuate itself on a site despite fire. Utah because of its thin bark, resin blisters, low and Indeed, on most sites where lodgepole grows, fire dense branching habit, and moderate-to-high stand is necessary for the species' continued dominance. density in mature forests. As a result, fire most of- Lodgepole pine's key fire survival attribute is ten acts as a stand-replacement agent when it burns cone serotiny. Although there are exceptions, most through a subalpine fir forest. Even relatively cool ground fires can kill the cambium or spread into the Blue Spruce (Piceapungens) ground-hugging branches and from there up into the crown. Blue spruce is easily killed by fires. Its thin bark Subalpine fir may begin producing cones when (0.75 to 1.5 inches or 2 to 3.8 cm thick at maturity) only 20 years old, but maximum seed production is is evidently insufficient to protect the cambium, by dominant trees 150 to 200 years old. Subalpine even from low-severity fires (Preston 1940). In fir has the ability to germinate and survive on a addition, blue spruce is slow to self-prune lower fairly wide range of seedbeds. branches and the foliage is dense, allowing surface Subalpine fir can occur in a fire-initiated stand fires to crown. Despite its shallow root system, blue with Douglas-fir, lodgepole pine, and other seral spruce is windfirm and may resist wind better than species because it germinates successfully on a fire- other spruces in fire-opened stands. prepared seedbed. But subalpine fir usually re- Blue spruce is a good to prolific seeder, with full mains a slower growing, minor component domi- cone crops occurring every 2 or 3 years. Seed pro- nated by less-tolerant species. duction begins at approximately 20 years and peaks Subalpine fir can exist better under low light con- between 50 and 150 years. Most seed falls within ditions than most associated species. Engelmann 300 ft (91 m) of the upwind timber edge. Most natu- spruce will, however, often grow faster than subal- ral germination takes place on mineral soil. Over- pine fir where light intensity exceeds 50 percent of head light with side shade favors seedling develop- full sunlight. Subalpine fir is shade tolerant and is ment (Fechner 1985). the indicated climax species on many sites contain- Blue spruce is the least shade tolerant and most ing lodgepole pine. Where a seed source exists, the drought tolerant spruce. It appears to be slightly fir will invade and grow in the understory of lodge- more tolerant than Douglas-fir in Utah. It is less pole stands. Given a long enough fire-free period, tolerant than subalpine fir or white fir. On some subalpine fir will overtop lodgepole pine on Fire sites where it is considered the climax dominant, Group Ten and Eleven sites, where it is the indi- it may share dominance with Engelmann spruce. cated climax, as well dominating timberline Group Sites where blue spruce is the indicated climax are Twelve sites, where it is the major seral and climax often moist. It is commonly a member of riparian species. communities and frequently borders wet meadows. It is also climax on dry sites with calcareous parent material. With different soils, these more xeric sites White Fir (Abies concolor) would most likely be dominated by Douglas-fir. On White fir is easily killed or injured by fire when sites between these moisture extremes it acts as a it is young, but it becomes more fire resistant as it seral species in Utah (Youngblood and Mauk 1985). grows older. Young trees have thin, smooth bark Blue spruce may be climax or a major seral species with resin blisters. As the tree matures, the bark in relation to white fir in Fire Group Six, or a climax becomes thick (4 to 7 inches; 10 to 18 cm) and deeply species on a few sites included in Fire Groups Ten furrowed. Counterbalancing the good insulation and Eleven. provided by the bark is a tendency for the tree to retain low branches, providing a fuel ladder into the Western Bristlecone (Pinus longaeva) dense crown. Moderately shallow roots and heavy lichen growth on the branches also contribute to Fire plays a minor role in the the environments white fir's only moderate fire resistance. where western bristlecone is the climax dominant. White fir is one of the most shade tolerant species Because fire rarely enters bristlecone stands, little is in Utah. Only subalpine firand Engelmann spruce known about its relative fire resistance. It has thin are more tolerant. At lower~elevations,white fir is bark and a low, branching, dense crown, suggesting often the indicated climax on moister sites. Douglas- low fire resistance. Western bristlecone grows on fir is frequently associated with white fir. Because dry ridges and exposed slopes, mainly on dolomitic of its great longevity, it is often a late seral to climax or limestone soils. It occurs on sites above the eleva- codominant. tional ranges of ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, and White fir may occur in a fire-initiated stand, but subalpine fir, up to timberline. On these harsh environmental extremes and winter kill often ham- sites, the trees grow in scattered or open groves, per its direct establishment in open areas. Its early and there is little undergrowth to carry fire. growth is slow, and it will normally be a minor early Bristlecone is a very slow growing, intolerant spe- seral component on sites in Fire Group Six, where it cies, and reproduction is sparse. Its seeds are often is the indicated climax. White fir may also occur as cached by Clark's nutcracker, and its most success- a seral species in Fire Group Ten. ful reproduction comes from cached seed. Its smaller size and the presence of a wing allow bristlecone seed to be dispersed by wind for short Limber pine is a climax species in Fire Group Nine distances as well (Ahlenslager 198713). and may occur as a seral species in Fire Groups There is a relatively large number of shrub and Three, Four, Six, and Ten. herbaceous species that may be associated with bristlecone across its range in Utah. This diversity Gambel Oak (Quercus gambelii) has made habitat type classification difficult (Youngblood and Mauk 1985). As of yet habitat Gambel oak acts as an overstory climax dominant types have not been identified. Sites where bristle- or an important understory species associated with cone is dominant, or codominant with limber pine, ponderosa pine, bigtooth maple, Douglas-fir, white are described in Fire Group Nine. fir, pinyon, or juniper. Gambel oak seedlings are rare. Acorns may be dispersed by birds or small Limber Pine (Pinus flexilis) mammals or may be carried away from the parent clone by water or gravity. Most of the acorns that The degree of stem scorch usually determines the are produced are eaten by birds, mammals, or in- extent of fire injury to limber pines. Young trees sects. Vegetative reproduction is the main means are killed by any fire that scorches their stems. The of regenerating the species. bark of young limber pine is too thin to prevent cam- Individual stems of Gambel oak are not particu- bium injury, even from a cool fire. 'Older trees are larly fire resistant. Stems are often short and small better able to withstand stem scorch from low-severity in diameter. Crowns are frequently within the fires because the bark around the base of mature reach of flames carried by understory fuels. Never- trees is often 2 inches (5 cm) thick. The needles of theless, a clone or thicket of Gambel oak is very fire limber pine form into tight clusters around the ter- resistant. The majority of the plant's biomass is pro- minal buds. This shields the buds from heat associ- tected below the ground and comprises a complex of ated with crown scorch. rhizomes and lignotubers with many dormant buds In many climax Utah limber pine stands, fire (Tiedemann and others 1987). Because of this, plays a relatively minor role. Limber pine is a fre- Gambel oak resprouts vigorously following fire. It quent codominant with bristlecone on extremely dry, is capable of sending up multiple shoots from its un- unproductive sites. Fuels are scarce and fires infre- derground organs soon after fire has removed above- quent. Where limber pine is seral to other conifers, ground stems. Fire temporarily reduces cover and conditions are more productive, and the effects of height of oak clones but increases stem density. The fire more important. most common effect of fire on oak is to stimulate Keown (1977) conducted prescribed fire studies in suckering, thicken existing stands, and encourage central Montana limber pine stands. Study results the merging of scattered clumps (Brown 1958). indicated a strong relationship between fuel type, Gambel oak occurs as the climax dominant in Fire fire severity, and fire injury to limber pine. On sites Group Two, and is an important species in Fire where grass was the primary fuel and where trees Groups Three, Five, and Six. were present as scattered individuals or open stands, fire severity was low and limber pine mortality was Pinyon (Pinus edulis) and Singleleaf only about 20 percent. In similar situations with a dense shrub understory (primarily Potentilla Pinyon (Pinus monophylla) fruticosa) fire severity was high and limber pine Pinyon pine trees are most vulnerable to fire when mortality often reached 80 percent. Fires in they are small (under 4 fk [1.2 m] tall). Mature trees grassland- or shrubland-forest transition zones were are short with open crowns, but they do not self- the most severe. Limber pines in these transition prune their dead branches. The accumulated fuel in zones were often less than 10 ft (3 m) tall, with the crowns and the relative flammability of the foli- lower branches intermingled with ground fuels. age make individual trees susceptible to fire. Stand Keown's study was conducted in a limber pine/ structure, however, has a greater impact on fire sus- bunchgrass vegetation type having much higher fine ceptibility than characteristics of the tree itself. fuel loadings than can be expected on climax limber Trees may be scattered to dense and have varying pine sites. The results may apply to more produc- amounts of undergrowth. Open stands of trees on tive sites where limber pine is a seral species. sites with large amounts of fine grass fuel are the Limber pine is not dependent on fire to provide most flammable. favorable seedbed. Seed is distributed mainly by Seeds of pinyon pines are heavy and wingless. the Clark's nutcracker, which caches the large pine They are not dispersed by wind. Instead, they are seeds for future consumption. Although nutcrackers collected and cached by pinyon jays, Clark's nut- often cache seed on recent burns, they may also do crackers, and other birds. Seedlings emerge from so in undisturbed areas. unrecovered caches. Adult trees are drought tolerant, but seedlings require "nurse plantsn- that support limited undergrowth. When surface shrubs, Utah junipers, or mature pinyons-to pro- fuels are sparse, fire damage is minimal. tect them from excessive drying and heating. Be- Rocky Mountain juniper occurs in Fire Groups cause of typically unfavorable site conditions, Three, Four, Five, and Six. pinyons are among the slowest growing pines. Pin- yon reaches sexual maturity at about 25 years and UNDERGROWTH RESPONSE TO FIRE singleleaf pinyon at 35 years. Peak seed production may not be reached until trees are 160 to 200 years Many of the common shrubs and herbaceous old, and good cone crops occur at infrequent inter- plants that grow in Utah forests and woodlands can vals (Evans 1988). renew themselves from plant parts that survive fire. Pinyons are coclimax species with Utah juniper Other plants are quite susceptible to fire-kill and of- in Fire Group One. They occur as occasional sera1 ten must reestablish or colonize from off-site seed associates in Fire Group Three. sources in unburned areas within or immediately adjacent to the burned area. Utah Juniper (Juniperus osteospenna) Stickney (1982) described the process of postfire plant succession following fire in Northern Rocky Utah juniper is least fire resistant as a small tree Mountain forests. The processes and management (under 4 ft [1.2 m] in height). Trees become more implications are essentially the same for forests in fire resistant as they get larger. Larger trees have Utah: thicker bark, and their foliage is farther above the ... the severity of the disturbance treatment directly ground. Mature trees can generally survive low- affects the representation of the survivor component severity fires. Mortality occurs when 60 percent or in the postfire vegetation. Since survivors derive from more of the crown is scorched (Jameson 1966). The plants already established at the time of disturbance, sparse hels associated with juniper rarely produce it is possible, by pretreatment inventory, to determine enough heat to kill larger trees. The trees them- the potential composition for the survivor component. selves contribute to the lack of fuel by producing For this reason it also follows that forest stands with phenolic compounds that can inhibit grass growth little undergrowth vegetation could be expected to (Jameson 1970). have a sparse or limited survivor component following Utah junipers begin to produce seed when they are disturbance. In addition, if the survivor component is about 30 years old. They establish best where nurse composed mostly of shade-tolerant climax-like species the rate of survivor recovery can be expected to be shrubs or snags provide some shade. Seed is dis- slow. Nearly all of our native forest shrub species are persed mostly by birds and other animals. Seedlings capable of surviving burning, and they can therefore typically form clumps beneath bird-perching trees be expected to function as survivors. A majority of the and along fencelines. predisturbance forest herb species also demonstrated Utah juniper is a climax dominant or codominant the ability to survive fire, particularly those species in Fire Group One. It may also occur as a minor se- with underground stems (rhizome) or rootcrowns ral species in Fire Group Three. (caudex). As a generalization, the more severe the fire treatment to vegetation, the less the survivor component. In the drier, more open forest types this Rocky Mountain Juniper (Juniperus usually results in a reduction of amount, but not major scopulorum) changes in composition. However, in the moister forest types, where the undergrowth is made up of more Young juniper trees are easily killed by fire prima- mesic shade-tolerant species, marked changes in rily because of their small size, thin bark, and com- postfire composition can occur as increasing severity pact crown. Fire has long beeh recognized as a means reduces survivor representation. to control juniper because it does not resprout. ORen The severity of disturbance treatment (particularly young trees are killed just by scorching the crown and fire) influences the potential for colonizer presence in stem. two ways: (1)the degree of severity creates the char- As juniper ages, the bark thickens and the crown acter of the ground surface on which colonizer seed- develops a bushy, open habit. A hot fire can kill or lings germinate, and (2) it activates onsite stored severely damage such a tree, but the same tree may seed. Generalizing, the more severe the disturbance survive a cool fire. Low, spreading branches can treatment the more favorable the site becomes for colonizers. As the extent of exposed mineral soil in- provide a route for fire to enter the crown thereby creases, the ground surface becomes more favorable increasing the potential for damage. Often large ju- as a site for germination and establishment of colo- nipers will survive a number of fires (four to six). nizer plants. Increases in treatment severity also fa- The different effects of fire on young and old juni- vor germination of ground-stored seeds by increasing per trees are largely a function of the site. The spe- their exposure to light or heat. cies commonly occupies dry, subhumid environments Predicting the occurrence of colonizers in post- the most common offsite colonizer species likely to disturbance vegetation is much less certain than pre- occur. dicting for su&vors, but knowledge of the previous Table 4 summarizes plant response to fire for succession history can provide the potential composition of residual colonizers. Locally this information is some species that occur in Utah forests. The fire re- often available from an adjacent or nearby clearcut. sponse information is generalized. Plant response to Least predictable is the offsite colonizer component, fire depends on many factors, including soil and duff' for its occurrence is dependent on the timing of the moisture, plant vigor and phenological state, and the disturbance to the availability and dispersal of offsite severity of the fire, especially in terms of the amount airborne seed. Even in this case reference to local of heat that travels downward through the duff and clearcuts can provide some idea of the composition for . upper layer of soil.

Table 4-Summary of postfire survival strategy and fire response information of some plant species occurring in forests in Utah forests and woodlands. (Sources: Ahlenslager 1988, 1986; Armour and others 1984; Bradley 1986a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h, 1984; Britton and others 1983; Crane 1991,1990a,bl 1989a,b; Crane and others 1983; Daubenmire and Daubenmire 1968; Fischer 1986a,b; Freedman 1983; Fulbright 1987; Hickerson 1986a,b,c; Hironaka and others 1983; Holifield t 987a,b; Keown 1978; Klemmedson and Smith 1964; Kramer 1984; Lotan and others 1981; Lyon 1971, 1966; Lyon and Stickney 1976; McLean 1969; McMurray 1987a,b,c,d,e, 1986a,b,c,d,e; Miller 1977; Morgan and Neuenschwander 1988a,b, 1985; Mueggler 1965; Noste 1985; Noste and Tirmenstein 1990; Rowe 1983; Snyder 1991h; Stickney 1981 ; Tirmenstein 1990a,b,c, 1989a,b, 1988a,b, 1987a,b,c,d,e,f,g, 1986; Uchytil 1989a,b,c; Viereck and Dyrness 1979; Viereck and Schandelmeir 1980; Volland and Dell 1981; Walkup 1991; Winkler 1987a,b,c,d,e; Woodard 1977; Wright 1980, 1978, 1972; Wright and Bailey 1980; Wright and others 1979; Zager 1980; Zimmerman 1979; Zimmerman 1991)

Species Fire survival strategy Comments on fire response SHRUBS AND SMALL TREES: Acer glabrum Sprouts from surviving crown or caudex. Usually increases following fire. Rocky Mountain maple Survival and response may be reduced by hot surface fire. Alnus incana Sprouts from surviving root crown or Increased density because multiple Thinleaf alder caudex; off-site seed dispersal by stems arise from each burned plant. wind and water. Late summer burns are immediately colonized by fall seed crop. Amelanchier alnifolia Sprouts vigorously from surviving, Usually survives even severe fires Serviceberry root crown and rhizomes. especially if soil is moist at time of fire. Coverage may decrease and frequency increase following fire. Arctostaphylos patula Sprouts from dormant buds in root Can withstand repeated burning. Greenleaf manzanita burl; or from fire-simulated germination New sprouts may appear in 10 days of dormant residual seeds in the soil. to 3 weeks.

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi May sprout from a root crown or caudex; Susceptible to fire-kill. Will survive Kinnikinnick regeneration from stolons more some low-severity fires when duff common. May have somewhat fire is moist and therefore not consumed resistant seeds stored in soil. by fire. May invade burned area from unburned patches. Artemisia anbuscula Off-site wind dispersal seed. Recovery may take within 2 to 5 Low sagebrush years on favorable sites. Artemisia nova Wind-dispersed off-site seed. Recovery hastened by seed from Black sagebrush on-site survivors. Artemisia tridentata Wind-dispersed seed. Subspecies Very susceptible to fire-kill. Recovery Big sagebrush vaseyana stores seed in the soil, is hastened when a good crop exists which germinates as a result of before burning. fire-induced heating. Ceanothus greggii Germination of heat stimulated Hot, late growing-season fires Desert ceanothus viable on-site seed in soil. produce most effective response. (con.) Table 4 (Con.)

Species Fire survival strategy Comments on flre response Ceanothus velutinus Soil-stored seed germinates Usually increases rapidly and Snowbrush ceanothus following heat treatment. Also dramatically. Can dominate site sprouts from root crowns and within 2 to 11 years. roots following a cool fire. Cercocarpus ledifolius Weak sprouter; off -site wind- Seriously damaged by severe fires. Curlleaf mountain- dispersed seed. Seeds need mineral soil to germinate. mahogany Cercocatpus montanus Sprouts vigorously from root crown Resprouts vigorously and rapidly alderleaf mountain- or caudex; wind-dispersed seed. after most fires. mahogany Chrysothamnus nauseosus Resprouts from buds at or near the Severe fires may kill plants; prolific Rubber rabbitbrush soil surface; wind-borne seed. wind-borne seed recolonizes burns quickly. Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Resprouts from buds just below Resprouts vigorously after fire but Viscid rabbitbrush the surface; numerous wind-borne may be killed by severe fires. Post- seeds. fire production low 1-3 years, then large increases in cover. Reduced competition on burned sites stimulates prolific seed production.

Clematis columbiana Sprouts from surviving root crowns. Poorly documented. Columbia clematis Cornus sericea Sprouts from surviving roots or Generally increases. Will survive Red-osier dogwood stolons (runners) and from base all but severe fires that remove of aerial stems. duff and cause extended heating of upper soil. Gutierrezia sarothrae Usually regenerates from off-site Often increases as a result of Broom snakeweed wind-dispersed seed; weak sprouter. rapid seedling establishment. Holodiscus dumosus Off-site wind-dispersed seed; possibly Response poorly documented. Mountain spray soil-stored seed or sprouts from sur- H. discolor increases by prolific viving root crown. Poorly documented. sprouting.

Juniperus communis Long viability on-site seed and Very susceptible to fire-kill. Seed Common juniper bird-dispersed off -site seed. requires long germination period.

Junberus horizontalis Fire activated on-site seed in soil Fire response poorly documented. Creeping juniper and off -site animal-carried seed. Linnaea borealis Sprouts from surviving root crown Susceptible to fire-kill. May Twin-flower located just below soil surface. survive some cool fires where Fibrous roots and (runners) at duff is moist and not consumed. :b soil surface. Can invade burned area from unburned patches. Lonicera utahensis Sprouts from surviving root crown. Often a reduction in cover and Utah honeysuckle frequency following fire. Mahonia repens Sprouts from surviving rhizomes, Moderately resistant to fire-kill. Oregon-grape which grow 0.5 to 2 inches (1.5 to Usually survive all but severe 5 cm) below soil surface. fires that remove duff and cause extended heating of upper soil. Pachis tim a myrsinites Sprouts from surviving root crown Moderately resistant to fire-kill. Mountain lover and from buds along taproot. Usually survives low to moderate severity fires that do not consume the duff and heat soil excessively. Usually increases. (con.) Table 4 (Con.)

Specles Fire survlval strategy Comments on fire response Physocarpus malvaceus Sprouts from surviving root crown Fire resistant. Resprouts well Mallow-leaved ninebark or horizontal rhizomes. although spreading may be somewhat delayed. Potentilla fruticosa Sprouts from surviving root crown. Susceptible to fire-kill, but may Shrubby cinquefoil survive low to moderate fires. Prunus virginiana Sprouts from surviving root crown; Usually increases coverage following Chokecherry occasionally from rhizomes; also, fire. on-site seed. Purshia mexicana Reported separately as a strong May take decades to reestablish var. stansburiana sprouter and as a nonsprouter. a site after fire. Cliff rose

Purs hia tridentata A weak sprouter; surviving root crown Very susceptible to fire-kill, especially Bitterbrush or caudex. Rodent-dispersed seed and in summer and fall. Decumbent seed caches located on burned areas. growth form frequently sprouts, columnar form does so only weakly. Spring burns enhance sprouting, fall burns are best for regeneration by seed.

Ribes aureum Sprouts from surviving rhizomes; Resprouts best after low- to Golden currant germination of heat-stimulated on-site moderate-severity fires. seed. Ribes cereum A weak sprouter from root crown. Susceptible to fire-kill. Seldom Wax currant Germination from heat-stimulated survives severe fire. Regeneration on-site seed. is favored by short duration low- severity fires. Ribes lacustre Sprouts from surviving root crown Resistant to fire-kill. Usually Swamp black gooseberry and rhizomes. Also on-site fire increases even after a severe fire. scarified seed. Seedlings may establish after low- or moderate-severity fires. Ribes montigenum Sprouts from surviving root crown or Fire response poorly documented. Gooseberry currant caudex; germination of heat-stimulated on-site seed. Ribes viscosissimum A weak sprouter, soil-stored seed may Susceptible to fire-kill. Relatively Sticky currant require heat treatment. shade intolerant. May contribute substantially to postfire revegetation.

Rosa gymnocarpa Sprouts from surviving root crowns. Baldhip rose Rosa woodsii Sprouts from surviving root crowns. Some ecotypes can spread by root Woods rose sprouting. Rubus parviflorus Sprouts from surviving rhizomes Enhanced by fire. Spreads Thimbleberry and root crown; seedlings from soil- vigorously from rhizomes; rapid stored and possible bird-dispensed recovery after fire. . seed. Salix scouleriana Multiple sprouts from root crown. Resprouts vigorously even after Scouler willow Also off-side wind-dispersed seed. severe fire. Seeds germinate rapidly on moist burned sites. Sambucus racemosa Sprouts from rhizomes and root crown. Seed germination may be extensive; Red elderberry Germination of fire-activated on-site response may decline with repeated seed in soil. burning. (con .) Table 4 (Con.)

Species Fire survival strategy Comments on fire response Shepherdia canadensis Sprouts from surviving root crown Moderately resistant to fire-kill. Soapberry and from buds along taproot. Will usually survive cool to moderately severe fires that fail to consume duff. Sobus scopulina Sprouts from deep-seated rhizomes. Resprouts vigorously after fire. Rocky Mountain ash Symphoricapos albus Sprouts vigorously from underground Increases; survives low- to Common snowberry rhizomes and from root crown or moderate-severity fires; may caudex. produce fruit first postfire year. Symphoricapos longiflorus Sprouts from on-site surviving root Response poorly documented. Long-flower snowberry crown and rhizomes. Symphoricarpos oreophilus Sprouts from buds on root crowns Has been described as a weak mountain snowberry and rhizomes; root crown sprouts sprouter. May take several years originate from bud at 1 inch below the to achieve preburn cover. soil surface. Vaccinium caespitosum Sprouts from shallow rhizomes; off-site Sprouts may quickly reoccupy a site Dwarf huckleberry animal-transported seed. after low- to moderate-severity fire. Vaccinium globulare Sprouts from dense network of shallow Moderately resistant to fire-kill. Dampwoods blueberry and deep rhizomes. Will usually survive cool to moderately severe fires. Preburn cover may be attained within 3 to 5 years. Vaccinium myrtillus Sprouts from root crown of caudex May be virtually eliminated from Dwarf bilberry and from extended network of a site by severe fire. underground rhizomes. Vaccinium scoparium Sprouts from surviving rhizomes, Moderately resistant to fire-kill. Grouseberry which grow in duff layer or at Will usually survive cool to moderately surface of soil. severe fires that fail to consume the lower layer of duff. GRASSES: Agropyron cristatum Low flammability growth habit; Varies with season and fire severity; Fairway or crested deep underground stems. growth may be favored by late wheatgrass summer fire. Spring fires can cause decreased yields for several years. Bouteloua gracilis On-site surviving rhizomes which Variable response. Blue grama may be stimulated by fire. Bromus tectorum Large soil seed reserves; variable Individual plants susceptible to Cheatgrass germination seasons; relatively high heat-kill. Surviving seeds germinate heat resistance of seed. at various times during the year-fall, late winter, spring. Early summer burns before seed falls are more effective for controlling cheatgrass than midsummer and fall burns. Calamagrostis canadensis Invader, winddisseminated seed; Increases on wet to moist postfire Bluejoint reedgrass also an enduring sprouter. sites. Calamagrostis rubescens Sprouts from surviving rhizomes Moderately resistant to fire-kill. Pinegrass which grow within the top 2 inches Will usually survive cool to (5 cm) of soil. moderately severe fires that do not completely consume duff. Burned areas are often successfully invaded by pinegrass. (con .) Table 4 (Con.)

Species Fire survival strategy Comments on fire response Carex geyeri Sprouts from surviving rhizomes. Invades burned areas and forms Elk sedge dense stands. Often increases following fire. Carex rossii Seed stored in duff or soil which Increased coverage usually results Ross sedge germinates when heat treated. following most fires severe enough Sprouts from surviving rhizomes. to heat but not completely consume duff. Often increases. Elymus elymoides Sprouts from surviving growing Resprouts after most fires. Squirreltail points. Animal-dispersed seed. Elymus glauca On-site surviving root crown or caudex; Seedlings establish and develop Blue wildrye on-site seed may survive some fires. rapidly on burned sites. Festuca ovina var. ingrata Seed germination and survival of Susceptible to fire-kill. Response Idaho fescue residual plant. will vary with severity of fire and physiological state of plant. Can be seriously harmed by hot summer and fall fires. Only slightly damaged during spring or fall when soil moisture is high. Festuca thurberii On-site surviving root crown; Response may be poor where Thurber fescue off-site wind-dispersed seed. accumulated litter results in severe soil heating. Hilaria jamesii On-site surviving rhizomes. Can reestablish within 2 years. Galleta Koeleria cristata Seed germination and residual Susceptible to fire-kill. Response Prairie junegrass plant survival. will vary according to fire severity and physiological state of plant. Leucopoa kingii On-site surviving rhizomes; Often increases following fire. Spike fescue off -site wind-dispersed seed. Leymus salinus On-site surviving root crown and Poorly documented. Salina wildrye rhizomes. Pascopyrum smithii On-site surviving rhizomes; growth Increases in abundance and Western wheatgrass habit discourages adverse surface density. heating. Poa fendleriana On-site surviving root crown or Generally recover from most fires Muttongrass caudex, and underground rhizomes. in 1 to 3 years. Can be damaged by spring fires after growth has started. Produces heavy seed crop following fire. Poa secunda On-site surviving root crown or Cover may increase; older, Sandberg bluegrass caudex; growth habit discourages pedastaled plants may be adverse surface heating. susceptible to damage. Pseudoroegneria spicata Seed germination and some sprouts Usually not seriously damaged by Bluebunch wheatgrass from surviving growing points. fire. Response depends on severity of fire and physiological state of plant. Damage will be greatest following dry year. Stipa comata Animal-dispersed seed. Some Susceptible to fire-kill. If above- Needle and thread resprouting. eground stems consumed, plant usually dies. (con. ) Table 4 (Con.)

Species Fire survival strategy Comments on fire response Stipa hymenoides Off-site seed; growth habit Secondary colonizer; recovery Indian ricegrass discourages surface heating. seed dependent. Slow to increase; 2 to 4 years for recovery. Can survive early spring fires. Stba lettermanii Off-side seed. Recovery of surviving plants slow. Letterman needlegrass Efficient seedling establishment speeds recovery. FORBS: Achilles millefolium Sprouts from extensive rhizomes. Survives most fires, can increase Milfoil yarrow cover rapidly. Actaea rubra Sprouts from thick underground Vigorous growing sprouts may occur baneberry caudex; off-site animal-transported the first year after fire. seed. Arnica cordifolia Sprouts from surviving rhizomes, Susceptible to fire-kiil. Shoots Heartleaf arnica which creep laterally from 0.4 to produce small crowns within the 0.8 inch (1 to 2 cm) below soil. duff. These are easily killed by all but cool fires, which occur when duff is moist. May rapidly invade burned area via wind-borne seed. Arnica latifolia Sprouts from laterally creeping Susceptible to fire-kill. Will usual!y Broadleaf arnica rhizomes. survive cool to moderately severe fires. May exhibit rapid initial regrowth accompanied by heavy flowering and seedling establishment. Astragalus miser Sprouts from buds along surviving Resistant to fire-kill. Can regenerate Weedy milkvetch taproot, which may be 2 to 8 inches from taproot even when entire plant (5 to 20 cm) below root crown. crown is destroyed. Can send up shoots and set seed the first year. May increase dramatically following fire. Poisonous to sheep and cattle. Balsamorhiza sagittata Regrowth from surviving thick Will survive even the most severe Arrowlead balsamroot caudex. fire. Increases in frequency and density after fire. Disporum trachycaipum Rhizomes. Disporum hookeri is initially Fairy bell decreased by fire but recovers to preburn levels relatively rapidly. Dracocephalum parviflorum Residual seed in duff. Dramatic increase following fire. American dragon head Decreases after second year. Epilobium angustifolium , Wind-blown seed and sprouts from Needs mineral soil to establish, Fireweed . rhizomes. can persist vegetatively and flower the first summer following a fire. Large increase following fire. Equisetum arvense Spreading rhizomes and wind-dispersed Frequency unchanged or increased Meadow horsetail propagules. after fire. Especially favored by moist mineral soil exposure. Fragaria virginiana Sprouts from surviving stolons Susceptible to fire-kill. Will Mountain ,strawberry (runners) at or just below soil often survive cool fires that do surface. not consume duff because of high duff moisture content. (con.) Table 4 (Con.)

Species Fire survival strategy Comments on fire response

Galium friflorum Sprouts from surviving rhizomes. Susceptible to fire-kill. Usually Sweet-scentedbedstraw a sharp decrease following severe

fire. Can increase following ' spring and fall fires. Osmorhiza chilensis Short shallow roots; barbed, Moderately fire-resistant; Mountain sweetroot animal-dispersed seeds. temporary increase after fire. Pferidium aquilinum Well adapted; profusely sprouts New sprouts are more vigorous Bracken fern from surviving rhizomes; off-site and produce more spores in fire wind carried spores. created openings. Sprouting slowe( following summer fire. Pyrola secunda Sprouts from surviving rhizomes, ~usd~tibleto fire-kill. Secund wintergreen which grow mostly in the duff or Coverage frequently reduced at soil surface. following fire. May survive cool fires when duff moisture is high. Senecio sfreptanthifolius Nonrhizomatous, regenerates from Manyface groundsel off-site seed. Smilacina racemosa Sprouts from surviving stout Moderately resistant to fire-kill. False Solomon-seal creeping rhizomes. May be killed by severe fires that remove duff and heat soil excessively. Usually maintains prefire frequency. Smilacina sfellata Sprouts from surviving creeping Moderately resistant to fire-kill. Starry false- rhizomes. May be killed by fires that remove Solomon seal duff and heat upper soil. Frequency often reduced following fire. Sfreptopus amplexifolius Extensively rhizomatous. Decreased by fire. Clasping twisted-stalk

WILDLIFE RESPONSE TO FIRE fire-adapted, and fire-dependent. These classes are described as follows (Kramp and other 1983). The effects of fire on wildlife are mainly secondary Fire-intolerant species decrease in abundance af- effects. Fire creates, destroys, enhances, or deter fire and are present only in areas characterized grades wildlife habitat (food supply, cover, shelter, by very low fire frequency and severity. Character- physical environment), thereby causing changes in istic Utah species include the hermit thrush, red- the subsequent occurrence and abundance of animal breasted nuthatch, and brown creeper, which are species on a burned area (fig. 1). Table 5 lists the closely associated with closed canopy forests. These probable effects of fire on some mammals, reptiles, birds prefer a dense nesting and foraging cover but and amphibians in Utah forests and woodlands. do not use fire-opened habitat. The indicated fire effects are inferred either from Fire-impervious bird species are unaffected by fire; habitat requirements or from studies conducted on they neither increase nor decrease because of fire. specific wildfire or prescribed fire areas. A major Bird species whose niche incorporates successional problem in attempting any generalization about the and climax community types may be expected to effects of fire on wildlife is the variation in fire in- show the highest flexibility in response to fire. tensity, duration, frequency, location, shape, extent, Fire-adapted species are associated with habitat season, fuels, site, and soils (Lyon and others 1978). that is characterized by recurring fires of various se- Bird species' response to fire has been hypoth- verity. These species, however, are not dependent esized by Kramp and others (1983) using a classifi- on fire-influenced habitat. Fire-adapted species may cation suggested by Walter (1977). also occupy areas with the same frequency-severity Four fire response categories are recognized in ratio as fire-intolerant species. Fire-adapted birds this classification: fire-intolerant, fire-impervious, include those that use both dense canopy areas and CLEARCUT HERBACEOUS GRASSES, MATURE TREES, LOGGING & GROWTH TREE SEEDLINGS, LESS HERBACEOUS COMPLETE & SAPLINGS, GROWTH BURN BRUSH

MOUSE MlCROTlNES 0 SHREWS

RABBITS a SNOWSHOE a PORCUPINE

SUCCESSION Figure 1-Small mammals found in the successional stages after clearcut logging and burning (Ream and Gruell 1980).

Table 5-Probable effects of fire on some Utah mammals, reptiles, and amphibians (major sources: Bernard and Brown 1977; Crane and Fischer 1986; Fischer and Bradley 1987; Snyder 1991a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i; Thomas 1979; Verner and Bass 1980) Species Habitat considerations Fire effects INSECTIVORA (insect eaters): Masked shrew Prefers moist situations in forest May be temporarily eliminated from Sorex cinereus or open. Requires a mat of ground severe burns where duff and ground vegetation for cover; stumps, logs, cover are absent. Some direct slash piles for nest sites. mortality of nestlings possible. Merriam's shrew Prefers arid regions, mostly in May be temporarily reduced or i Sorex merriami bunchgrass, sagebrush, and open eliminated where ground vegetation woodland. Eats insects and small and debris are consumed by fire. animals. Vagrant shrew Prefers streamsides, marshes and May be temporarily eliminated from Sorex vagrans bogs, but also occurs in moist soil; severe burns where duff, ground mat of ground vegetation or debris cover, and debris are absent. Some for cover. Stumps, rotten logs for direct mortality of nestlings possible. feeding and nesting. Dusky 'shrew Habitats include coniferous forest, Adversely impacted by fires that Sorex obscurus marsh, and dry hillsides. Nests in consume surface debris. stumps, bogs, and debris. (con.) Table 5 (Con.)

Species Habitat considerations Fire effects Water shrew Prefers riparian areas at middle and May be eliminated from severely Sorex palustris high elevations. Requires small, burned areas where duff and stream- cold streams, and wet areas with side cover have been removed. protected banks and ground cover. CHIROPTERA (bats): Little brown myotis Common in forest and at the forest Severe fires may destroy roosting Myotis lucifugus edge. Requires snags and tree holes and breeding sites. Relatively for roosting and for maternity colony impervious to cool and moderate sites. fires. Long-eared myotis Occurs in coniferous woodland as well Severe fires may destroy roosting My otis evotis as in spruce-fir zone. Uses snags and breeding sites; otherwise and tree holes for roosting and for relatively impervious to fire. breeding colonies. Fringe-tailed myotis Prefers open coniferous woodlands, Relatively unaffected by most fires. Myotis thysanodes desert scrub;-and grassy meadows; near streams or ponds. Roosts in crevices, caves, tunnels, and buildings. Small-footed myotis Most common in ponderosa pine zone. Severe fires may destroy roosting Myotis subulatus May use hollow trees and snags for and breeding sites but have little roosting and breeding. impact on populations. Long-legged myotis Prefers open coniferous forests. Severe fires may destroy roosting Myotis volans May use tree cavities for roosting and breeding sites but have little

and breeding. - - impact on populations. Silver-haired bat Feeds in openings and adjacent to Severe fires may destroy roosting Lasionycteris noctivagrans mature forest. Roosts in tree and breeding sites. Relatively foliage; uses hollow trees and impervious to fire. snags for breeding. Big brown bat Common over grassy meadows surrounded Severe fires may reduce breeding Eptesicus fucus by ponderosa pine. Roosts and breeds and roosting sites. Relatively in hollow trees and snags. impervious to fire. Hoary bat Prefers wooded areas and trees with Severe fires can destroy roosting Lasiurus cinereus dense foliage for roosting and and breeding sites. Cool fires breeding. have little effect on populations. Red bat Roosts in trees or shrubs near or on Fire may destroy roosting sites and Lasiurus borealis the ground. Hunts in evening along some feeding areas. water courses or among trees. Townsend's big-eared bat May be found in forests up through Relatively impervious to fire. Plecotus to wnsendi spruce-fir zone. Not a tree user. Pallid bat Occasionally frequents ponderosa pine Roost trees may be damaged by fire. Antrozous pallidus forests; mostly deserts and grasslands. Roosts in caves, rocks, and trees. Eats insects. Brazilian free-tailed bat Common in pinyon-juniper (PJ) Relatively unaffected by most fires. Tadarida braziliensis woodland. Feeds on moths. Roosts in caves, buildings. LAGOMORPHA (pikas, hares, and rabbits): Pika Prefers high-altitude talus slopes Relatively impervious to fire. Ochotona princeps adjacent to forest openings Severe fire may create favorable containing grasses and forbs. forest openings with abundant grass-forb food supply. (con .) Table 5 (Con.)

Species Habitat conslderations Fire effects Pygmy rabbit Habitat includes dense rabbitbrush Minimal chance of adverse impact Sylvilagus idahoensis and sagebrush. Burrows beneath from fire since animal is in large dense sagebrush. burrow during daylight. Mountain cottontail Prefers dense, shrubby undergrowth Temporarily eliminated from Sylvilagus nuttalli and pole-sized trees for cover. severe burns but reoccupies as Uses downed logs for cover and nest shrub cover increases. Will sites. continue to use less than severe burns. Desert cottontail Habitat includes PJforest edge. Young may be susceptible to fire Sylvilagus audubonii Nest for young built in ground kill if in nest when fire occurs. depression. May use abandoned Fire in dense trees may create burrows of other animals. preferred habitat. Snowshoe hare Prefers dense shrubs in forest Temporarily eliminated from severe Lepus americanus openings or under pole-sized trees burns. Populations may increase for food and cover. Uses downed dramatically as shrubs resprout and logs for cover and nest sites. dominate the area. Will continue to use many less than severe burns. White-tailed jackrabbit Prefers early grass-forb May increase where fire removes Lepus townsendi successional stages. overstory and creates meadow-type habitat. Black-tailed jackrabbit Common in grassland, sagebrush, and Fire can create a preferred food Lepus californicus ponderosa pine forest edge. Prefers supply. open areas with scattered shrubs. Eats succulent green vegetation. RODENTIA (gnawing mammals): Least chipmunk Present in high mountain coniferous Temporarily decreases following Eutamias minimus forests. Requires open areas with severe fire that reduces cover. stumps, downed logs, and shrubs or Returns first season after fire and other high vegetation for cover. usually abundant by third postfire year. Yellowpine chipmunk Prefers shrub, seedling, and sapling Recent burns with stumps and shrubs Eutamias amoenus stages of forest succession. Usually are favored habitat, especially as abundant in open ponderosa pine seed and fruit producing annuals forests and edges. Needs shelter of become available. downed logs, debris, or shrubs. Often burrows under downed logs and stumps.

Cliff chipmunk Range includes PJand conifer . Relatively impervious to fire. Eutamias dorsalis woodlands. Occupies sparsely vegetated rocky slopes. / Colorado chipmunk c Occupies areas of rock withinopen Relatively impervious to fire. Eutamias guadrivittatus conifer forests such as ponderosa pine; PJ; mixed'conifer. Uinta chipmunk Frequents ponderosa pine forest and Hot surface fire may consume Eutamias umbrinus up through the subalpine. Nests in desirable ground debris. burrows, hollow logs, and in rock crevices. Yellow-bellied marmot Prefers rocky outcrops or talus Relatively impervious to fire. Marmota fla viven tris slopes; forest openings up through Benefits from fire-created spruce-fir zone. Uses downed logs openings dominated by grass and for cover; burrows under tree roots. forbs. Feeds on green grass and forbs. (con.) Table 5 (Con.)

S~ecies Habitat considerations Fire effects - White-tailed antelope PJ, woodlands included in preferred Relatively impervious to fire. ground squirrel habitats. Burrows beneath large Fire may result in immediate Ammospermophilus leucurus shrub, tree, or rock. Eats insects, reduction of food supply but then small animals, and seeds. an increase. Uinta ground squirrel Prefers moist habitats with lush May increase dramatically on areas Citellus armatus vegetation and soft soil; subalpine where fire has killed overstory; meadows; forest edges. may be favored by increased light and temperature as well as increase in herbaceous growth. Belding ground squirrel Generally restricted to mountain Benefits from fire-created openings Citellus beldingi meadows and early successional that produce abundant herbaceous stages in ponderosa pine, lodgepole undergrowth. pine, and Douglas-fir forests. Nests underground; requires friable soil. Feeds on grasses, forbs, seeds, bulbs, etc. Thirteen-lined ground Prefers grassland, brushy edges and Relatively impervious to most fires squirrel some ponderosa pine woodlands on except for loss of cover. Citellus tridecemlineatus friable soil. Conceals burrow with grass or shrubs. Eats seeds, weeds, and insects. Spotted ground squirrel Habitat includes open pine forest Relatively impervious to most fires Citellus spilosoma with dry sandy soil. Burrows under except for loss of cover. shrubs or rocks. Feeds on seed, green vegetation, and insects. Rock squirrel Frequents broken terrain, rocky Hot fires that consume den trees or Citellus variegatus canyons, and slopes. Dens under down logs and surface cover have rocks or in hollow trees. Eats adverse effect. mites, seeds, fruit, eggs, and insects. Golden-mantled Widespread from ponderosa pine Generally increases on recently ground squirrel forest to alpine meadows. Most burned areas due to increased Citellus la teralis abundant in open forests lacking a abundance of forbs, providing dense undergrowth or understory. adequate escape cover exists. Needs downed logs, stumps, or rocks for cover. Burrows for shelter. Abed's squirrel Resides in ponderosa pine forest. Hot fires that scorch tree crowns Sciurus aberti Nests in tree crown and eats pine or kill trees remove nesting cones, pine cambium, mushrooms, habitat and food supply. berries, roots, and green vegetation. Red (pine) squirrel Found in late successional forests. Essentially eliminated following Tamiasciurus hudsonicus Nests in tree cavities and branches. stand-replacing fires. Cavities in Feeds on conifer seeds, nuts, bird fire-killed trees may be used for eggs, and fungi. Uses downed logs dens but only if surrounded by live for cover. trees. Northern flying squirrel Prefers a mature forest. Requires Same as for red squirrel except may Glaucomys sabrinus snags and trees with nest cavities. forage for fungi in recent burns. Also requires an abundance of downed logs. Feeds on conifer seed, serviceberries, and mushrooms. Southern picket gopher Frequents pine (and oak) forests Relatively impervious to most fires Thomomys unbrinus with shallow, rocky soil. except as it affects availability of roots, tubers, surface herbs, and other preferred foods. (con.) Table 5 (Con.)

Species Habitat considerations Fire effects

Northern pocket gopher Prefers disturbed areas of secondary Population densities usually Thomomys talpoides vegetative growth; also pine forests, increase on areas burned by fires alpine parks, and meadows. Occurs that open canopy and disturb the mostly in deep sandy soils but also in soil resulting in undergrowth of clay and gravelly soils. Requires an early successional forbs and herbaceous food source, especially grasses. annual forbs. Silky pocket mouse Preferred habitats include loose Impervious to most fires except Perognathus flavus sandy soils in open P-J woodlands. for temporary reduction in food Burrows under yucca, cactus, or low supply. Fire creates preferred shrubs. Eats seed. open habitat. Apache pocket mouse Preferred habitats include loose Impervious to most fires except Perognathus apache sandy soils in open PJ woodlands. for temporary reduction in food Burrows under yucca, cactus, or low supply. Fire creates preferred shrubs. Eats seed. open habitat. Little pocket mouse Habitat includes P-J woodlands Relatively impervious to fire. Perognathus longimembris containing medium to large openings. Fire may create habitat by opening Seed eater. canopy of dense stands of P-J. Great Basin pocket mouse Habitat includes P-J woodlands Fires that kill trees and tall Perognathus paws and chaparral with friable soils. shrubs create favorable habitat. Prefers grass-forb stage of succession. Burrows under shrubs. Seed and insect eater. Great Basin kangaroo rat Prefers low, hot valleys and rocky Moderate to severe fires can create Dipodomys ordii slopes including P-J woodlands. preferred grass-forb successional Eats green vegetation and seed. stage. Beaver Requires streams or lakes bordered Usually increases following fires Castor canadensis by stands of aspen, alder, birch, that initiate a successional sequence poplars, or willow for food and that includes aspen as an inter- building materials. mediate stage. Western harvest mouse Generally restricted to grass-forb Generally favored by fires that Reithrodontomys megalotis stages on all habitat types. Usually result in establishment of nests on ground but sometimes in seed-producing annual plants. woodpecker holes. Eats seeds and fruit of grass and shrubs. Canyon mouse Generally restricted to rocky Relatively impervious to most Peromyscus crinitus habitats; arid conditions, warm, dry fires. canyons, or the base of cliff faces in PJ zone. Nests among rocks or in a burrow beneath rocks. 1 I Deer mouse Ubiquitous. Occurs in most Populations reduce immediately Peromyscus maniculatus successional stages of most habitat following fire but significantly types. Nests in burrows, trees, and increase as soon as rain settles stumps. Uses downed logs for the ash. Most abundant small nesting sites and cover. mammal on severely burned areas. Brush mouse Prefers arid and semiarid rough, Moderate to severe fires that Peromyscus boylii rocky plateaus, mesas, and canyons consume undergrowth and forest primarily in PJstands or rocky floor debris destroy habitat. hillsides with stands of evergreen Fires that scorch or kill crowns oak and other shrubs; likes dense adversely impact food supply. undergrowth. Nests under rocks and other debris. Eats pine nuts, acorns, seeds, and berries. (con.) Table 5 (Con.)

Species Habitat conslderatlons Fire effects Pinyon mouse Occupies PJ woodland in rocky Fires that kill trees and remove Peromyscus truei areas and brushy places. Nests in surface cover destroy habitat and hollow branches of junipers or food source. among rocks. Eats seeds and nuts. Rock mouse Occupies areas of broken rock, on Stand-destroying fires adversely Peromyscus difficilis cliffs, canyon walls, and on foothills; affect food supply. usually in PJand oak woodlands and sometimes ponderosa pine. White-throated woodrat Habitat includes mixed conifers and Relatively impervious to most Meotoma albk~ula PJ woodlands. Burrows at base of fires. Severe fire can destroy shrub or cactus or under rocks. habitat and food supply. Diet includes cactus. Desert woodrat Habitat includes P-J woodlands and Relatively impervious to fire Neotoma lepida chaparral. Den is under rocks, on except as it affects food supply. ground, or along cliffs. Eats seeds, acorns, cactus, or fruit. Stephen's woodrat Occupies rocky areas in the P-J Relatively impervious to fire Neotorna stephensi zone. Nest often made from juniper except as it affects occupied branches. nests and food supply. Mexican woodrat Habitat is mixed conifer forest, PJ Severe fire destroys habitat and Neotoma mexicana woodlands, and rocky sites with food supply. Hot surface fire scrub oak or mountain mahogany. destroys nest and nest sites. Constructs nest of sticks and debris, in crevices, under logs or tree roots, and in deserted buildings. Eats acorns, nuts, seeds, fruits, mushrooms, or cactus. Bushy-tailed woodrat Prefers rocky situations. Dens in Relatively impervious to fires Neotoma cinerea rock crevices; sometimes in hollow that occur in high-elevation rocky logs. Gathers conifer seed, berries, habitat. Usually not abundant on fungi, twigs, shoots, and green recent burns. vegetation. Southern red-backed Prefers mesic areas within coniferous Usually eliminated from severely mouse (boreal red- forests that contain abundance of burned areas within 1 year after backed vole) large debris on forest floor and fire. If overstory trees are Clethrionomys gapperi undergrowth of shrubs and herbs. present and survive, favorable Feeds on conifer seed, bark, fungi, habitat may return in 7 or more and green vegetation. A coniferous years after the fire. overhead tree canopy is preferred. Heather vole Prefers open grassy areas and forest Benefits from forest openings and Phenacomys intermedius openings, but also riparian zones. early successional undergrowth that Nests under rocks, stumps, or other result from moderate to severe debris on forest floor. Often found fires. Severe surface fires may in association with huckleberry. destroy nesting habitat. Meadow vole Requires a mat of ground cover for Usually eliminated from severe Microtus pennsylvanicus runways, palatable herbs, conifer burns where surface organic layer seed, and moisture. Uses downed is absent. The wet nature of logs for cover and nest sites. preferred habitat tends to resist Usually found near streamside. fire. Montane vole Habitat includes wet areas and Benefits from fire-created openings Microtus montanus mountain meadows within a relatively that support an undergrowth of broad elevational range. Forages grasses, sedges, and other wet site on ground for succulent stems and forbs. leaves of grasses and forbs. Constructs underground burrows. (con.) Table 5 (Con.)

------Species Habitat conslderaGns Fire effects Longtail vole Widespread in wet mountain meadows Use increases with removal of tree Microtus longicaudus and forest edge, often near streams. canopy especially on moist north Requires a grass-sedge-forbfood slopes. source. Less restricted to runways and dense grass than other Microtus. Mexican vole Herb-filledopenings in ponderosa Generally impervious to most fires Microtus mexicanus pine and mixed conifer forests. unless caught out of burrow during Nests underground in summer and fire. probably above ground in winter. Creates runways and burrows through the grass cover. Water vole Restricted to alpine marshes, willow- Relatively impervious to fire. Arvimla richardsoni lined streambanks, and grass and sedge Severe fire that removes streamside areas of the alpine and subalpine forests. cover may result in temporary loss Nests under roots, stumps, and logs. of habitat. Muskrat Occupies cattail marshes, banks of Periodic fire retains marshes in a Ondatra zibethicus ponds, lakes, or slow-moving streams. subclimax state and removes Requires a source of succulent unfavorable vegetation that crowds grasses.or sedges, or other aquatic out useful plants. vegetation. Western jumping mouse Requires a well-developed extensive Generally eliminated from severe Zapus princeps herbaceous layer along edge of rivers, burns that lack the required streams, lakes, or other wet areas vegetative cover. and moist soil. Uses downed logs for cover and nest sites. Eats seed, grass, and forbs. Porcupine Prefers medium and old-age conifer Use of severely burned areas Erethizon dorsatum stands of less than 70 percent crown curtailed especially if overstory closure and containing shrubs and is killed. May continue to use herbs. Uses hollow logs and tree light and moderate burns. cavities for dens. CARNIVORA (flesh-eaters): Coyote Widespread occurrence in most habitats Increased use of burned areas that Canis la trans and most successional stages. Uses support abundant small mammal hollow logs or stumps for dens. Preys populations. on mice. Gray wolf Highly adaptable but probably Probable increased use of burned Canis lupus restricted to wilderness forests. areas that support an abundant Preys on other mammals. population of prey species. Red fox Prefers open areas in or near forest. Benefits from fires that create Vulpes vulpes Uses hollow stumps and logs for dens. favorable habitat for small mammal Food includes berries, insects, birds, prey species, especially those that rodents, squirrels, rabbits, and other enhance snowshoe hare populations. small mammals. Black bear Prefers mature forests mixed with shrub- Benefits from abundant regeneration Ursus americanus fields and meadows. Omnivorous. Re- of berry-producing shrubs following quires windfalls, excavated holes, or fire. Severe fires may destroy uprooted or hollow trees for den sites. favorable den sites. Ringtail Prefers open forest, riparian deciduous Fire may remove den trees and Bassariscus astutus forest, and woodlands. Dens in hollow forest floor habitat for prey trees, under rocks, in caves, or rock animals. crevices. Feeds primarily on rodents; some birds, reptiles, fruit, and insects. (con.) Table 5 (Con.)

Species Habitat considerations Fire effects

Raccoon Very adaptable to environmental Relatively impervious to fire Procyon lotor change; in riparian situations; along because of mobility and wide marshes, streams, and lakes. Uses ecological amplitude. hollow trees and downed logs for dens. Omnivorous. Marten A forest dweller;' requires relatively Eliminated from severely burned Martes americana dense climax or near-climax situation. stands. Benefits from vegetative Uses tree or snag cavities and hollow mosaics resulting from periodic stumps for nest sites. Food includes small fires because of increased tree squirrels, chipmunks, mice, food supply. Burns containing berries, and insects. adequate cover may be used for feeding during summer and fall. Fisher Prefers forest of large trees with many Preferred habitat is adversely Martes pennanti windfalls and downed logs. Nests affected by severe fire. Benefits in tree holes, hollow logs, and snags. from increase in prey species on Eats squirrels, porcupines, woodrats, burns adjacent to favorable mice, rabbits, insects, and berries. habitat. Adapts better to early successional stages than marten. Ermine Prefers mature dense forest for Adversely affected by severe fire (shorttail weasel) breeding and resting; meadows or that removes ground debris or kills Mustela erminea other forest openings for hunting. overstory trees. Benefits from Dens often located in hollow logs and increased biomass of prey species snags. Voles are an important prey; that usually results on fire-created also mice, shrews, and chipmunks. grass-forb successional stages. Longtailed weasel Ubiquitous--common in most habitats. Benefits from increased biomass of Mustela frenata Prefers open areas and young pole prey species that usually results stands. Den sites include logs, stumps, on recently burned areas. and snags. A major predator of voles and mice. Also feeds on gophers, birds, insects, and vegetation. Mink May occur in any habitat containing Relatively impervious to most Mustela vison fish-supporting marshes, lakes, and fires. May be adversely affected streams. Hollow logs and tree stumps where fire removes streamside cover along streams may be used for den and debris. sites. Badger Grass-forb stages of conifer forest Benefits from fires that result in Taxidea taxus succession is a preferred habitat. grass-forb successional stages Likes deep, friable soil for burrowing because of the abundant rodent and rodent capturing. populations that are often present. Western spotted skunk Habitat includes rocky and brushy Moderate to severe fires may Spilogale gracilis areas in woodlands and chaparral. temporarily impact den sites and Prefers seedling-sapling stage. Den food supply. sites include rock outcrops, ground burrows, hollow logs, stumps, snags, or brush piles. Eats mostly insects and small rodents, also reptiles, amphibians, birds, eggs, and plant matter. Striped skunk Prefers early successional stages of Relatively impervious to fire. Mephitis mephitis forest but may be found in all stages Benefits from increased biomass and cover types. Uses hollow logs, of prey species that usually occur stumps, and snags for den sites. Food on severe burns. includes large insects and small rodents. (con.) Table 5 (Con.)

-- -- Species Habitat considerations Fire effects - - - - - River otter Occurs along streams, marshes, and Essentially impervious to fire. Lutra canadensis lakes. Dens in bank. Aquatic. Severe fires may destroy essential escape cover along streams, thereby adversely affecting use. Mountain lion Found throughout all habitat types Often flourishes on recently burned (cougar, puma) and successional stages. Highly areas due to increased prey Felis concolor mobile. Hunts deer, hares, rodents, availability. and porcupines. Lynx Primarily in dense coniferous forests Benefits from fire-initiated shrub Felis lynx at higher elevations. May den in stages of succession that support hollow logs. Snowshoe hare is an large populations of snowshoe hare. important prey species. Bobcat Found in most habitats and successional Relatively impervious to fire. Lynx rufus stages; shrub-sapling stages being espe- Benefits from any fire-induced cially desirable. May establish den under increase in availability of prey large logs or in hollow logs. Preys on species. rodents, reptiles, and invertebrates. ARTIODACTYLA (even-hoof ed mammals): Elk Prefers semiopen forest but with areas Severe burns usually experience Cervus canadensis of dense cover for shelter. Requires a decline in first-year use; then an food supply of grass, forbs, and increase as preferred browse species shrubs, especially Scouler willow, become available. Moderate fires in maple, serviceberry, redstem, and forest may remove ground debris and chokecherry. other obstructions to movement. Mule deer Occupies a wide range of habitats Fire may improve winter nutrition Odocoileus hemionus including open montane and subalpine in grassland and mountain shrub coniferous forest; forest edges, wood- communities by increasing the lands, and shrubfields. Shrub-seedling amount of green grasses. Often sapling stage of succession preferred. a decline in use during the first Needs trees and shrubs for winter postburn year and then an increase range. Preferred food includes tender in subsequent years. Where new growth of palatable shrubs- antelope bitterbrush is an impor- ceanothus, cherry, mountain- tant winter range species, moderate mahogany, bitterbrush; many to severe fires may be detrimental. forbs and some grasses. Whitetail deer Prefers dense forest; rough, open Fire-initiated early successional Odocoileus virginianus shrublands; thickets along streams stages supporting new growth of and woodlands. Diet includes shrubs, grasses, forbs, and shrubs provide twigs, fungi, grasses, and forbs. a preferred food source. Moose Prefers subclimax forests with lakes Fires that result in abundant aspen Alces alces and swamps. Ideal habitat includes a and willow regeneration create a mosaic of numerous age classes and preferred habitat. Optimal success- distribution of aspen and associated ional stage occurs from 11 to 30 trees and shrubs within the wintering years following a severe fire. range. Bighorn sheep Preferred habitat characterized by Canopy removal by fire may yield (mountain sheep) rugged rocky mountain slopes with increased productivity of Ovis canadensis sparse trees and adjacent to alpine undergrowth and makes available meadows. Feeds on alpine shrubs and more open habitat, thereby forbs in summer; shrubs and perennial dispersing populations and reducing grasses in winter. incidence of lungworm infections. Fire may retard successional advance of alpine grasslands and (con.) Table 5 (Con.)

Species Habitat considerations Fire effects Bighorn sheep (Con.) improve productivity and palat- ability of important forage species. Fire can improve nutrition in mountain shrublands by increasing availability of green grass. CAUDATA (salamanders): Tiger salamander Found in and near pools, ponds, lmpervious to fire except for minor Abystoma tigrinurn lakes, and streams. Adults sometimes direct mortality in severe fire burrow in decayed logs in damp situations. forest situations. SALlENTlA (frogs and toads): Bullfrog inhabits lakes, marshes, pools, ponds, Relatively impervious to fire. Rana catesbeiana reseryoirs, and streams. Hides under debris at water's edge. Spotted frog Highly aquatic. Impervious to fire. Rana pretiosa Leopard frog Stays around water. In summer it Generally impervious to fire. Some Rana pipiens inhabits swamps, grassy woodland, or direct mortality possible from short-grass meadows. fast-spreading surface fire. Canyon tree frog Found near streams in ponderosa pine Relatively impervious to most fires Hyla arenicolor and riparian forest zones. although severe fire can destroy favorable forest floor habitat. Chorus frog Occupies high grasslands and mountain Relatively impervious to fire Pseudacris triseriata forests, inhabits marshes, meadows, because of wet habitat. lake margins, and grassy pools. Usually found on the ground or in low plants. Great Basin spadefoot Favorable habitat extends from PJ Relatively unaffected by fire. Scaphiopus intermontanus woodlands into spruce-fir forest in Utah. Lives in underground burrow during dry weather. Feeds on insects near open water. Breeds in open water. Boreal toad Found in or near water. Burrows in Relatively impervious to fire, (western toad) loose soil. Breeds in open water. Bufo boreas Feeds on insects. CHELONIA (turtles): Painted turtle Highly aquatic. Basks near the water lmpervious to fire. Chrysemys picta on mudbanks, rocks, and logs. SQUAMATA (snakes and lizards): Collared lizard May inhabit evergreen woodland with Crotaphytus collaris scattered rock and sparse undergrowth. Leopard lizard Habitat includes densely covered Gambelia wislizeni forest stands. Feeds on lizards, insects, spiders, rodents, seeds, and blossoms. Eastern fence lizard its many habitats include woodland Fires that consume forest floor Sceloporus undulatus and conifer forest. Finds refuge in vegetation and debris can destroy trees, shrubs, logs, rodent burrows, favorable habitat conditions. and rocks. Diet includes insects, spiders, snails, and other small animals. (con.) Table 5 (Con.)

Species Habitat considerations Fire effects Sagebrush lizard Favors sagebrush but also occurs in Fires that consume forest floor Sceloporus graciosus PJ woodland and ponderosa pine vegetation and debris can destroy forest. Likes scattered low shrubs favorable habitat conditions. on fine, gravelly soil. Eats insects, spiders, ticks, snails, and other small animals. Northern tree lizard Generally restricted to boulders, Unfavorable impacted by stand- Urosaurus ornatus canyon walls, and cliffs in oak, pine, destroying fires. PJ. Also alder and cottonwood in riparian areas. Usually on boulders, shrubs, and trees, rarely on ground. Eats insects and arthropods. Western skink Found in woodland and forest with Severe surface fires will reduce Eurneves skiltonianus dense vegetation. Inhabits rocky cover and food supply. streamsides, dry grassy hillsides, forest openings, and meadows. Hides under logs and bark. Diet includes moths, beetles, crickets, grasshoppers, and spiders. Plateau whiptail Common in PJ, oak, and ponderosa pine. Severe fire may result in some Cnernidophorus velos Prefer lower mountain elevations near direct mortality. Generally streams. Diet includes insects and benefits from f ire-created other small animals. openings. Western whiptail Found in openings; avoids dense Severe fire may result in some Cnemidophoru tigris vegetation. Prefers open woodlands direct mortality. Generally and warmer parts of the forest. Eats benefits from fire-created insects and other small animals on openings within its range. the ground. Rubber boa Found near streams and meadows in Severe surface fire can remove (Rocky Mountain boa) all forest types; prefers pole to mature cover and temporarily reduce Charins bottae stands. Uses rotting logs, and bark of abundance of prey species. fallen and standing dead trees for hiding. Feeds on rodents, insects, and lizards on forest floor. Racer Inhabits open woodlands, wooded ravines, Surface fire may adversely affect 1 /I - (western yellow-bellied and thickets. Diet includes lizards, food supply. Severe fire can fi; L racer) frogs, small rodents, snakes, and create preferred early successional g? Coluber constrictor insects. habitat. Striped whipsnake Habitat includes P-J, pine-oak, fir, Severe surface fire may temporarily

?. Mastimphis taeniatus and willows especially along streams. remove prey species. r@- :'. Forages in rocks, rodent burrows,

T and in trees and shrubs. Eats i lizards, rodents, birds, and insects. Corn snake Found along stream and river bottoms, Direct mortality can result from Elaphe guttata on rocky wooded hillsides, and in fast-moving fires. Severe surface conifer forest. Forages on ground fire also remove prey species and and hides in rodent burrows, under cover. logs, rocks, and other debris. Eats rodents, lizards, birds, and frogs. Gopher snake Highly adaptable species; occupies a Relatively impervious to fire (bullsnake) variety of habitats. Mainly hunts on because of wide ecological Pituophis melanoleucus surface for small mammals. amplitude. (con .) Table 5 (Con.)

Species Habitat considerations Fire effects Common kingsnake Varied habitats include conifer Severe, fast-spreading fire can Lampropeltis getulus forest, woodland, and chaparral. cause direct mortality. Surface Highly adapted ground dweller and fires result in removal of hiding burrow hunter, but also forages in and foraging cover and trees and shrubs. Diet includes temporarily reduce prey species. snakes (rattlers), lizards, frogs, birds, eggs, and small animals. Inhabits areas with rock outcrops and clumps of vegetation, under rotting logs, debris, and rocks.

Common garter snake Widely distributed in many different Impervious to fire. (red-sided garter snake; habitats which include a water source. valley garter snake) Diet largely aquatic but includes Thamnophis sirtalis small mammals. . Western terrestrial Found in all successional stages of Relatively impervious to fire garter snake all habitat types near permanent or because of its tendency to be Thamnophis elegans intermittent streams and ponds. close to water.

Western rattlesnake Highly variable habitats, including Relatively impervious to fire except Crotalus viridis open woodlands to mountain forests. for possible direct mortality in Often found in rock outcrops. Hunts severe surface fire situations. on surface for rodents, ground Such fires may also cause a tem- squirrels, and mice. porary reduction in prey species.

openings; a predator such as the sharp-shinned Fuels hawk is an example. Such birds benefit by increased hunting success in recent burns, but gener- Estimates of surface fuel loadings are required to ally depend on unburned habitat for nesting sites. accurately predict fire behavior. This information Fire-dependent species are associated with fire- serves as input to mathematical models of fire dependent and fire-adapted plant communities. spread and intensity such as FIREMOD (Albini When fire frequency decreases, these plant commu-. 1976) and BEHAVE (Burgan 1987; Burgan and nities shift to fire-neutral or fire-intolerant types, Rothermel 1984). Uses of fuel loading information and fire-dependent species are unable to persist. include fire danger rating and fire behavior predic- The blue grouse may be a Utah example. The bird tion for fire dispatching, presuppression planning, depends on medium to large fire-created forest open- and fuel management (Brown and Bevins 1986). ings with shrub-grass-forb vegetation for breeding Published fuel data for Utah forests and wood- adjacent to dense foliage conifers for roosting and lands are scant. Brown and Bevins (1986) describe hooting. fuel loadings for fire groups similar to those pre- Table 6 presents the hypothesized fire tolerance sented herein. Figure 2 shows the range of loading of some Utah bird species. by fuel category for fire groups described for Montana (Fischer and Bradley 1987; Fischer and FIRE USE CONSIDERATIONS Clayton 1983). As indicated in figure 2, the variation of fuel loading and associated potential fire be- Applications of fire ecology information are de- havior within a group is probably large when com- scribed at the end of each Fire Group discussion. pared to measurements between groups. When The possible use of fire to accomplish certain re- knowledge of potential fire behavior for a particular source management objectives is suggested. The fol- site is needed, site-specific fuel estimates or mea- lowing fire use considerations apply generally to all surements must be made. Fire Groups. Table 6-Hypothesized fire tolerance in some Utah birds (adapted from Kramp and others 1983)'

Fire intolerant Fife Impervious Fire adapted Fire dependent Ash-throated flycatcher American crow American kestrel Blue grouse Bewick's wren American robin American robin House wren Black-capped chickadee2 Black-billed magpie Black-headed grosbeak Mourning dove Black-throated gray warbler Black vulture Blue grosbeak Sandhill crane Blue-gray gnatcatcher Blue-winged teal Blue-winged teal Wild turkey Brewer's sparrow Brown-headed cowbird Brewer's sparrow Brown creeper Canada goose Canada goose Burrowing owl Cedar waxwing Cassin's kingbird Bushtit Clark's nutcracker Clark's nutcracker Cassin's finch2 Cliff swallow Cliff swallow Chipping sparrow Common raven Common nighthawk Golden-crowned kinglet Common snipe Cooper's hawk Grasshopper sparrow Eastern kingbird Dark-eyed junco Great horned owl European starling Downy woodpecker Hammond's flycatcher Gadwall Fox sparrow Hermit thrush Great blue heron Gambel's quail Mountain chickadee2 Greater roadrunner Hairy woodpecker Goshawk Green-tailed towhee House wren Horned lark Lark bunting Killdeer Northern harrier Loggerhead shrike Lark sparrow Pine siskin MacGillivray's warbler Lazuli bunting Pygmy nuthatch Mallard Mallard Red-breasted nut hatch2 Mourning dove Mountain bluebird Red crossbill Northern flicker Northern flicker Ruby-crowned kinglet Northern pintail Northern harrier Rufous-sided towhee2 Red-winged blackbird Northern pintail Sharp-shinned hawk Snowy egret Poor-will Solitary vireo Song sparrow Purple martin Western flycatcher Steller's jay Rufous-sided towhee Western tanage? Townsend's solitaire Savanah sparrow White-crowned sparrow2 Turkey vulture Snowy egret White-throated sparrow Three-toed woodpecker Yellow-rumped warble? Tree swallow Yellow warbler Vesper sparrow Violet-green swallow Western bluebird Western kingbird Western meadowlark Western screech owl Western wood pewee Wild turkey Williamson's sapsucker Yellow-bellied sapsucker 'Assignment of a species to one or Tore categories is based, in most cases, on limited data and opinion. Definitions in the text of each category should be read carefully. ii. =Breedingcover negatively impacted by fire, foraging use made of burned areas.

For broad-scale applications, physical properties Fire may be relatively infrequent in a number of such as loading may not be as important as fuel Utah Fire Groups because of sparse fuel or high moisture and the condition of live vegetation to moisture content. Fine fuels are frequently light in predict fire behavior. These are largely related to pinyon-juniper (FG I), oak-maple brush (FG 21, and elevation, aspect, and season (Brown and Bevins limber pine-bristlecone (FG 9) stands. In other 1986). Habitat types, and therefore fire groups, re- types, fine fuels may be sufficient but rarely be dry flect elevation, aspect, and length of fire season on enough to burn. This may be true of aspen (FG 7) a site. To .:thisextent-they may be useful for fire be- and all the Fire Groups dominated by subalpine fir havior prediction efforts. or Engelmann spruce (FG's 10,11, and 12). 4 0 I 1111111 1 1111 1111 1111lllI ll1?ll 24678910 11 2467891011 246 7891011 2 4 6 7 8 91011 I I I I 1 I -0-1 INCH HERB LITTER SHRUB FUEL CATEGORIES AND FIRE GROUPS

Key to numbers representing Montana Fire Groups. Utah 8 = Dry, lower subalpine habitat types (Utah FG10) Fire Groups roughly equivalent to these groups are in 9 = Moist, lower subalpine habitat types (Utah FG11) parentheses. 10 = Cold, moist upper subalpine and timberline habitat types (Utah FG12) 2 = Warm, dry ponderosa pine habitat types (Utah FG3) 11 = Moist grand fir, western redcedar, and western hemlock 4 = Warm, dry Douglas-fir habitat types (Utah FG4) habitat types (equivalent does not occur in Utah) 6 = Moist Douglas-fir habitat types (Utah FG5) 7 = Cool habitat types usually dominated by lodgepole pine (Utah FG8) Figure 2-Fuel loading estimates for Montana Fire Groups. Plotted points represent mean fuel loading of selected fuel categories for fire ecology groups and locations. Variation within fire groups is shown by lines connecting different locations. Fire Groups are represented by one to three locations.

Lodgepole pine-dominated stands (FG8) may suffer results from the effects of a combination of fire- from both a lack of fine fuels and year-round high induced injuries. Trees of different species and sizes fuel moistures. Fine fuels can be significantly re- vary in their resistance to fire damage. Tall trees duced by grazing or increased greatly by the pres- are likely to have a large proportion of their foliage ence of highly flammable annual grasses, such as above scorch height and often have thicker bark, as Bromus tectorum. Overall fire hazard in many Utah well. forest and woodland types may be relatively low. Reinhardt and Ryan (1988) have combined the fac- Nevertheless, prolonged dry, windy weather can cre- tors that affect tree mortality and developed a series ate very hazardous conditions in most fire groups. of nomograms to relate tree characteristics and types More flammable types often spread fire to stands of potential fire damage to help managers estimate that would not ordinarily ignite easily. tree mortality after prescribed underburning. They give the following example for use of the nomograms Predicting Fire Mortality (refer to figure 3): To use the mortality nomogram, choose an acceptable Fire can damage trees in several ways: crown level of mortality (e.g. 20 percent or a 0.2 probability damage, including bud kill and foliage mortality, of mortality). Acceptable mortality will depend on the bole damage, cambial damage, and. root damage (es- value of the trees and the objectives of the fire. Suc- pecially in shallow-rooted species). Mortality of'ten cessful underburning involves choosing and staying within a reasonable level of mortality.. . . Once an ac- necessary to do so. In this example, bark thickness ceptable level of mortality has been chosen for a par- of a 17-inch (43.2-cm) Douglas-fir is seen to be about ticular species, the nomogram can be used to develop 1.1 inches (2.8 cm). Continue the line straight up un- a burning prescription ... . Consider a shelterwood til it intersects the target mortality rate curve (0.2). harvest with Douglas-fir leave trees averaging 17 At this point, turn a right angle again, to the right. inches (43.2 cm)in diameter, 100 ft (13.1 m) tall, This time, when passing from the upper left to the with a crown ratio of 0.5. Entering the nomogram at upper right quadrant, it is possible to read off crown the lower left at observed tree diameter, draw a hori- volume scorched (percent). This example shows that zontal line until you intersect the correct species line. a little more than 40 percent of the crown volume of Then turn a right angle and draw a line straight up. these trees may be scorched without exceeding the When the line crosses the edge of the lower left box, target mortality of 20 percent. bark thickness can be read, if desired, but it is not Refer to the original document for further instruction.

20% mortality

.5 crown ratio, 40% crown scorch

0 0.50 1.00 1 SO 2.00 0 25 50 75 100 Bark Thickness. in Tree Length Scorched, %

5 .DF, 17 in

100 ft tree

60 ft crown height

0 25 50 75 100 Bark Thickness, in Tree Length Scorched, %

Figure 3-Nomogram to estimate tree mortality after prescribed underburning (Reinhardt and Ryan 1988). For a description of its use, see text. Crown Damage and Insect Attack regimes. If the management objective is to retain or restore a particular mix of species or age classes, Care must be taken when burning in forest stands investigation of the historic fire frequency is a good to prevent or minimize scorching the crowns of re- starting point. In some cases, enhancement of valu- sidual overstory trees. Heavy fuel accumulations able plant species rather than reproduction of the or slash concentrated near the base of overstory historic landscape is the goal. Here, individual spe- trees may require scattering or other treatment to cies' response to various fire frequencies should be avoid lethal cambium heating. Reduced vigor re- considered. For example, burning semiarid foothill sulting from excessive crown scorch, cambium dam- sites at the historic intervals of 5 to 20 years may be age, or both can increase susceptibility to bark excessive on mule deer winter ranges because shrub beetle attack and tree mortality. For example, the production is a major objective (Gruel1 1990). relationships between crown defoliation and mortality caused by the western pine beetle in ponderosa pine have been generalized as follows (Stevens and Large Woody Debris Hall 1960): Fire is frequently used to reduce woody he1 build- Percentage Percentage of trees up on forest sites. Fire plays an important role in defoliation killed by beetles recycling nutrients locked up in dead plant materials, especially in cold, dry environments where decay takes place very slowly. But a fire prescription should never be written so as to remove all woody debris from a site. Organic matter in the soil releases nutrients and enhances aeration and water The season in which a fire occurs is an important retention. Material that results from decaying large factor influencing tree mortality and the occurrence, logs acts as a reservoir for mycorrhizae and nitrogen- duration, and severity of a potential beetle attack on fixing bacteria, which can then reinoculate the site fire-weakened trees. The result of crown scorching after fire or other disturbance. The importance of is usually more severe during the active growth pe- woody debris increases on droughty or otherwise riod early in the summer than later when growth harsh sites. Harvey and others (1987) recommend has slowed, terminal buds have formed, and a food leaving between 11 and 16 tonslacre (24 and 36 met- reserve is being accumulated (Wagener 1955, 1961). ric tonshectare) to retain productivity on forest Likewise, crown scorching that occurs in early sites. spring, before or immediately after bud burst, often Scattered large logs left on a site also retard soil results in minimum damage to the tree. movement and provide shade for seedlings. The Prescribed burning of understory vegetation and more tolerant tree species such as subalpine fir or dead surface fuels can be carried out without serious Engelmann spruce will not successfully regenerate threat of subsequent damage by bark beetles pro- without at least partial shade. In addition, only as vided the overstory trees are not severely scorched much mineral soil should be bared as is necessary to (Fischer 1980). If accidental scorching does occur, obtain desired stocking. Quantities of organic mat- and bark beetle activity is detected, prompt removal ter in excess of the above requirements can be con- of the severely scorched trees will reduce the prob- sidered undesirable, especially on dry sites. Excess ability of subsequent damage to healthy green trees. buildup of fuels can set the stage for severe wildfires If scorching occurs outside the active growth period, that may result in an extreme reduction of the soil's scorched trees may recover and regain lost vigor. organic reserves. This may take 3 years, but signs of recovery should A final reason for leaving moderate amounts of be visible during the first growing season that fol- large-diameter woody debris scattered on the site lows scorching. following logging and burning is to supply food and cover for wildlife. Many small mammals that reside Frequency of Burning in Utah forests rely on forest floor debris for cover and nesting sites. Rotten logs are often important The consequences of too frequent fire on forest foraging sites for both mammals and birds. Logs, sites may include loss of seed source or regenerating for example, are important feeding sites for pileated roots and rhizomes, loss of nutrients, invasion by woodpeckers. noxious weed species, and a decline in site fertility. Woodpeckers and other cavity-nesting birds (and Suppression of fire can result in hazardous fuel load- mammals) also require snags, preferably scattered ings, lack of regeneration, lowered understory and patches of snags, for nesting sites (McClelland and overstory diversity, and stand decadence. Plant Frissell 1975; McClelland and others 1979). communities have evolved under differing fire The need to retain moderate amounts of scattered, Scree large-diameter woody debris should not preclude slash disposal. Untreated logging slash represents The term "scree" refers to slopes covered with a significant fire hazard on most sites; usually dead loose rock fragments, usually lying near the maxi- wood greatly exceeds that of the pretreatment situa- mum possible angle of repose so that any distur- tion. This increased hazard will exist for at least 3 bance causes minor rock slides down the face of the to 5 years, even with a maximum compaction effect slope. Scree slopes may be treeless or they may sup- from winter snows. port scattered trees with sparse undergrowth. Usu- Logging slash, as well as large accumulations of ally scree communities are regarded as special envi- deadfall in untreated stands, can affect elk behavior ronments where the vegetation is in an uneasy and movement. Elk use may be diminished when equilibrium with the unstable substrate. slash inside a treatment unit exceeds 1.5 ft (0.5 m) The discontinuous fuel oRen makes scree slopes in depth and dead and down material outside the unburnable. Individual trees or islands of vegeta- opening exceeds 1.5 ft (0.5 m) (Boss and others 1983). tion may ignite, but fire spread is limited. A severe wind-driven fire could pass over the intervening open spaces and destroy a scree community, but this Heat Effects on Soil rarely happens. Due to the harsh environment, Properly applied, prescribed fire has a low risk of these sites do not revegetate well, and revegetation causing long-term adverse effects on the fertility of following a fire can take a very long time. the most common Utah soils. The effect on natu- rally infertile soils is, however, unclear and should Forested Rock be monitored. The intense heat and ashes resulting from burning bulldozer-piled slash can affect regen- Forested rock is usually a very steep canyon wall eration success on the area occupied by the piles. or mountainside composed of rock outcrops, cliffs, Size of piles should be kept small, and burning and occasional clumps of trees clinging to ledges and should be deferred to periods of relatively high fuel crevices. Forested rock is especially prominent and soil moisture (Holdorf 1982). along canyons and in rugged upper subalpine areas near timberline. These sites bear a certain similarity to scree sites, but the substrate is solid and cli- Prescribed Fire Planning max species frequently become established. From a fire management perspective, a successful Surface fires do not burn well because of the verti- prescribed fire is one that is executed safely, burns cal and horizontal discontinuity of ground fuels. under control, accomplishes the prescribed treat- The probability of crown fires depends on the den- ment, and attains the land and resource manage- sity and arrangement of trees on the rock face. In ment objectives for the area involved. Successful some cases the islands of vegetation are so widely prescribed burning requires planning. Such plan- scattered as to be almost immune to wildfire. In ning should be based on the following factors other cases, a continuity of foliage from the base to (Fischer 1978): the top of a cliff can occur. Each tree forms a ladder into the lower branches of the next higher tree 1. Physical and biological characteristics of the upslope. In such cases crown fires can occur over site to be treated. ground that would not support a less severe surface 2. Land and resource management objectives for fire. the site to be treated. Revegetation of rocky sites proceeds at a rate char- 3. Known relationships between preburn environ- acteristic of the site and depends on the severity of mental factors, expected fite behavior, and probable the fire, the age and depth of the soil on ledges and fire effects. in pockets of rock, erosion if any, and the availability 4. The existing art and science of applying fire to of seeds. a site. 5. Previous experience from similar treatments on similar sites. Wet Meadow A meadow is an opening in the forest that is char- FIRE GROUP ZERO: acterized by herbaceous vegetation and abundant MISCELLANEOUS SPECIAL moisture. Subirrigation is common during at least HABITATS some part of the growing season. Mountain meadows are frequently too wet to burn during the fire Fire:Group Zero is a miscellaneous collection of season. In midsummer, larger wet meadows often habitats that neither form a widespread vegtative act as natural firebreaks, but during the late sum- zone nor fit into the Utah habitat type classifications. mer and early fall they may carry grass fires. In some situations, especially when meadows are domi- because of the moist soil conditions. Many species, nated by grass, they may burn early in the spring such as willow, are able to resprout afier top re- following snowmelt and prior to greenup. moval. Cottonwood, willow, alder, and maple have Streamside meadows may gradually become drier airborne seeds that can invade from some distance. in the course of succession from a hydric to a mesic Some upland species, particularly blue spruce and condition. The buildup of organic material and aspen, may intermingle with strictly riparian veg- trapped sediments from the flowing water, combined etation. The fire ecology of moist-site conifers is de- with a possible deepening of the streambed and low- scribed in Fire Group Eleven. Aspen is discussed in ering of the water table, can leave former meadows Fire Group Seven. in an intermediate condition between wet meadow and grassland. In some such sites the meadow be- FIRE GROUP ONE: PINYON-JUNIPER comes bordered by fire-maintained grassland. The WOODLANDS absence of fire has allowed conifers to invade meadows where they would not normally be found. Vegetation Habitat types for juniper or pinyon climax sites Mountain Grassland have not yet been identified for Utah. Fire Group A mountain grassland (or grassy bald) is a grass- One consists of all stands dominated by pinyon, juni- covered opening within an otherwise continuous co- per, or both at climax. Further refinement may be niferous forest. Mountain grasslands may act as possible when habitat typing is completed. firebreaks and can be maintained as grassland by The pinyon-juniper type extends over an area of light fires, but usually their fire ecology is less obvi- more than 24,000 square miles (62,400 km2)in the ous. In the Bighorn Mountains of Wyoming, Despain mountain foothills and plateaus of Utah. Pinyon, (1973) found boundaries between grassland and or two-needle pinyon (Welch and others 1987), domi- forest that he attributed to topography and soils. nates in the central and eastern region. Singleleaf Daubenmire (1943) suggested that soil factors might pinyon, a typical Great Basin species, is the domi- cause permanent mountain grasslands. It is also nant in the mountains west of the Wasatch Range possible that these are natural grasslands that have and the central plateaus. Occurring alone or as a little potential for forest development. Caution is in- codominant with both pinyons is Utah juniper. dicated in management of stands adjacent to moun- Scattered individuals of Rocky Mountain juniper tain grasslands until conditions responsible for their are widespread but do not form extensive stands. perpetuation are determined. Pinyon-juniper woodlands commonly lie immediately below the montane forest zone. Most often, Deciduous Riparian Communities this is dominated by ponderosa pine. Douglas-fir, limber pine, or lodgepole pine stands may also occa- Deciduous riparian communities are composed of sionally be found adjacent to woodlands. Along the sites dominated by deciduous trees, shrubs, or her- Wasatch Front and in some southern mountains, baceous vegetation adjacent to seasonal or perennial pinyon-juniper woodlands are bordered at their up- free-flowing streams or open bodies of water. They per limit by mountain shrub communities that re- are often found in a narrow strip along drainage bot- place the usual ponderosa pine belt (see Fire Group 2). toms or between streambeds and upland forest veg- In mountains adjacent to desert, like the Abajos, etation. Overstory dominants include cottonwoods, grasslands may form a zone above the pygmy conifer aspen, willows, maples (including boxelder), and al- woodlands where hot, desiccating winds prevent the ders. The understory may be lush and includes a establishment of trees. At their lower boundaries, diverse assemblage of forb and grarninoid species pinyon-juniper woodlands most often grade into (Padgett and others 1989). shrublands or grasslands. Sagebrush communities The effects of fire in these communities have been are particularly common (fig. 4). little studied. Although riparian communities are Stand composition varies with climatic and topo- productive and frequently have large amounts of live graphic location. Juniper has a wider ecological am- and dead woody fuels, moist conditions generally in- plitude than pinyon and dominates lower or more hibit fire spread. Leaf litter decomposes more rap- xeric sites. More moderate higher elevation sites fa- idly than conifer needles, and dry fine fuels may be vor pinyon in climax communities. Because of the relatively scarce. Wind-driven fires originating in wide distribution of the type, the mix of species surrounding forests can carry in riparian communi- making up the undergrowth is not constant. In gen- I i ties during extended droughty weather. Such severe eral, the trend is for shrubs and cool season grasses fires destroy trees and top-kill shrubs. Reinvasion to prevail in the northern and western parts of the of burned areas should take place soon after fire State. Stands to the south and east have increasingly Figure &Utah juniper encroaching into a sagebrush grassland on the Paunsaugunt Plateau. Fire can set back plant succession in grass or shrublands with adequate fuels.

greater amounts of warm season grasses. This metric tonska) (Wright and others 1979). Approxi- change results from the larger proportion of annual mately 600 to 700 lblacre (0.7 to 0.8 metric tonska) precipitation that falls during the growing season as of fine surface fuels are required to sustain surface one moves to the southeast (West 1984). fires (Jameson 1987). The productivity of under- Pinyon-juniper woodlands in Utah have a variety story vegetation is reduced as stands mature and of shrub species associated with them, including the canopy closes. Pinyon-juniper stands most likely Amelanchier alnifolia, Artemisia arbuscula, A. nova, to burn by wildfire have small scattered trees with A. tridentata, Ceanothus greggii, Cercocarpus abundant herbaceous fuel between the trees, or have led ifolius, C. montanus, Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus, dense, mature trees capable of carrying crown fire Purshia mexicana var. stansburiana, P. tridentata, during dry, windy conditions. Such stands are often and Symphoricarpos longiflorus. Widespread gram- located just below the ponderosa pine type, Stands inoids in the type are Bouteloua gracilis, Bromus of moderate tree density where overstory competi- tectorum, Elymus elymoides, Festuca ovina var. tion reduces the herbaceous fuel, and the trees arizonica, l? ovina var. ingrata, Hilaria jamesii, themselves are more widely spaced, are very un- Koeleria macrant ha, Oryzopsis hymenoides, likely to burn (Jameson 1987). Pascopyrum smithii, Poa secunda (including Closed pinyon-juniper stands do not have under- P. nevadensis), Pseudoroegneria spicata, and Stipa story shrubs to carry a surface fire, and do not burn comata. Forbs are less abundant in this type. until conditions are met to carry a crown fire. Cen- Balsamorhiza sagittata and several species of tral Texas sites with greater than 5.46 tondacre Phlox, Cryptantha, Aster, and Solidago may be (12.24 metric tonsha) of fine fuel were found to de- found scattered in stands (Isaacson 1966). velop a heat sufficient to kill Ashe juniper trees greater than 12.1ft (3.7 m) tall. Many pinyon- Forest Fuels juniper sites in the Great Basin are not productive enough to produce this amount of fine fuel (fig. 5), Fine surface fuels in many open pinyon-juniper particularly if they have an overstory of trees stands range from 600 to 1,000 lblacre (0.7 to 1.1 (Bunting 1987). Trees taller than 4 ft (1.2 m) in Figure 5-Mature pinyon-juniper stands often have scant fine fuels. Such stands do not carry fire except during periods of severe fire weather, particularly high winds (Abajo ~ountains,southern itah). open pinyon-juniper are difficult to kill unless there Role of Fire are heavy accumulations of fine fuel beneath the trees. In the pinyon-juniper type, fire opens stands, in- Pinyon pine burns more readily than juniper. creases diversity and productivity in understory spe- This may be due to inherent flammability of the foli- cies, and creates a mosaic of stands of different sizes age, or the tendency of pinyon to inhabit more mesic and ages across the landscape. It also maintains the sites, so that understory fuels and tree density are boundary between woodlands and adjacent shrub or greater and fire spreads more rapidly. Stands burn grasslands. In the presettlement era, fire was a rela- better as the proportion of pinyon to juniper in- tively common event. SpecXc fire history studies ere creases. Even-aged, healthy pinyon-juniper stands few, but some estimates are available. Leopold (1924) less than 100 years old are less apt to spread fire suggested that fire occurred at intervals of 10 to 30 compared to old or otherwise decadent stands that years in Arizona. Evidence of past fire was common open up and permit an increase in fine surface fuels. in climax western juniper stands Sites with good growth of cheatgrass (Bromus of southwestern Idaho. On four study sites, fire-free tectorum) are at higher risk for large fires. Barber intervals were 23, 18,8, and 11 years between the and Josephson (1987) reported greater fire spread years 1840 and 1910-the decades with the most re- after several years of good precipitation had in- liable fire history information (Burkhardt and creased cheatgrass yields. Tumbleweeds accumu- Tisdale 1976). Moir (1982) believed that Mexican lated at the base of trees can significantly increase pinyon stands in the Chisos Mountains of Texas fire intensity around individual trees (Wright and could be maintained in a "naturaln condition by fires others 1979). Livestock grazing reduces fine herba- occurring every 50 years or so. Because pygmy coni- ceous fuels and lowers fire probability and fire fer woodlands inhabit areas that frequently experi- severity. ence drought, climate, as well as fire, affects the successional development of stands. Pinyon pines FIRE SUCCESSION IN SOUTHWESTERN COLORADO and juniper bear good seed crops only every 2 to 5 years and require exceptional moisture conditions Climax pinyon-juniper forest after germination for large numbers of seedlings to + establish. On xeric sites, fire may never have been as important an influence as climatic fluctuations in T governing the rate of tree invasion of shrubland or Skeleton forest and bare soil grassland because of the lack of undergrowth to act as fuel. Moister, more productive sites probably had Annual+ stage more extensive and frequent fires when droughty periods occurred (Jameson 1987). Perennial grasdforb+ stage Grazing also has interacted with fire and climate to shape the woodlands. Great Basin pinyon-juniper 4 stands have been used for grazing livestock for over Shrub stage 100 years. Southwestern sites may have been grazed for as long as 400 years. Grazing has reduced her- Shrublopen tree stage baceous cover significantly on most sites. Fire occurrence and extent has been severely limited by the Climax pinyon--juniper forest removal of the fine fuels. This and past fire control policies have contributed to the current pattern of FlRE SUCCESSION IN WESTERN UTAH juniper and pinyon encroachment into formerly treeless areas. It has been estimated that up to 50 per- Juniper woodland cent of the area now occupied by pinyon or juniper stands in the Great Basin is of relatively recent ori- t Fire gin, the oldest trees being 125 years old (Tausch and others 1981). Skeleton forest (dead trees) and bare soil Woodland Succession Annualt stage Where juniper and pinyon occur together, juniper generally establishes first on the site because of its Perennial grass/forb stage greater drought and insolation tolerance. But juniper, as well as pinyon, is generally dependent on Perennial grass/forblshrub+ stage shrubs and residual trees to act as "nurse plants" to protect vulnerable seedlings from excessive heat and Perennial grass/forblshrub/young4 juniper stage drying. Factors that influence the pattern of succession after fire include past use history (particularly Shrubtjuniper+ stage grazing), site factors, moisture regime, stand age when disturbed, fire severity, presence of residual Juniper +woodland trees, and the presence of animal dispersal agents. The seeds of pinyon and juniper are heavy and do not disperse by wind. Birds such as Clark's nut- Figure 6-General postfire successional patterns in pinyon-juniper woodlands (Evans cracker, pinyon jay, and Steller's jay cache pinyon 1988). seeds and thus distribute it from its site of origin. A variety of other birds disseAinate juniper seed along fencelines or in clumps beneath perches. herbaceous perennial plants. In many stands herbs Mammals also carry seed. Without animal dispersal, are succeeded by shrubs (B). Whether perennials it is difficult for trees to expand into new areas. are still present depends on site conditions and The general successional pattern followed after preburn stand age. Older, closed stands may be fire in pygmy woodlands is illustrated in figure 6 devoid of undergrowth and residual rhizomes and (from Evans 1988). Erdman (1970) suggested a time rootcrowns needed to regenerate shrubs and herbs. sequence for successional events on the Mesa Verde Regrowth success of perennial species will then de- in southwestern Colorado (fig. 7). pend on outside seed sources. Some on-site seed The hypothetical role of fire in succession is illus- may be stored in the soil, but the seedbank declines trated in figure 8 (subsequent letters in this section with stand age (Koniak and Everett 1982). Stands refer to fig. 8). The initial stand (A) following a dominated by annuals may experience a slow rate of crown fire may be dominated by annuals or residual succession back to woodland condition because of the CLIMAX lack of nurse plants. Because of their greater Pinyon-juniper forest drought tolerance, junipers are generally the first trees to reinvade a burned area (C). Pinyon seedlings follow, using the junipers as nurse plants (D). FIRE It takes about 30 years for seedlings and saplings to years be evident on a site. Seedlings and saplings- - of both species can be eliminated by fire of any severity. In Skeleton forest and bare soil 70 or 80 years, the site is dominated by pole-sized trees (E). Stands are typically multiaged in appear- ance. If a good seedcrop is followed by several years Annual stage of especially favorable moisture and temperature conditions, a dense, more or less even-aged stand Perennial grass/forb stage may develop. Pole-sized stands are susceptible to fire. At this stage of development, however, the stand structure is usually open. Low-severity fires Shrub stage should leave at least scattered individuals (Fl). A mature stand (F)consists of juniper and variable 4 amounts of pinyon. On drier sites, stands may be Shrublopen tree stage pure juniper. More favorable locations support a mixture of the two species. Pinyon pines begin bearing good seedcrops at approximately 75 to 100 years CLIMAX of age, but do not reach maximum production until Pinyon -juniper forest trees are about 160 to 200 years old. Where both juniper and pine are present, pinyon begins to domi- Figure 7-A suggested timeline of nate the overstory in the mature stand. Most of the su&essional stages for pinyon-juniper woodlands on Mesa Verde, CO understory trees will also be pinyon. Low-severity (Erdman 1970). fires in a mature stand will remove trees in the

LEGEND Succeoslon In absence of fire ---+ Response lo fire Scattered, mature trees Low Cool or llght rurlace lire wlseedlinQs b Mod. Flre ol moderate severlty aaplings Severe Hot atand-replacemer)t Ilre

Figure &Hypothetical fire-related successional pathways for Fire Group One. understory and a few overstory trees. Moderate little influence on the undergrowth. Closed stands fires remove more of the overstory, particularly pin- had few live shrubs and were extremely difficult to yon. Where stands are closed or dense, the under- burn out of fire season. growth declines significantly by the mature state. Sparse ground fuels make burning into closed Fires become less and less common as the fuels stands of pinyon and juniper relatively safe (Barber needed to sustain their spread become more scarce. and Josephson 1987). In Nevada, observed fuel con- Where pinyon occurs, it tends to dominate climax sumption by prescribed fires was similar whether stands (G), sharing the overstory with a few old juni- fires carried well or only the immediate ignition area per. Stand-replacement fires are possible when fire burned, suggesting that mostly fine fuel was being invades from adjacent sites under the influence of consumed. Closed pinyon-juniper stands are ex- wind and flammable vegetation, such as big tremely difficult to burn out of the fire season, while sagebrush. many successful prescribed fires are conducted in scattered pinyon-juniper communities, which often Fire Management Considerations include sagebrush as a major fuel (Bunting 1987). Burning at intervals of 30 years or less can pre- Pinyon-juniper woodlands provide fuelwood, posts vent tree invasion into neighboring shrubland. The and poles, pinyon nuts, browse and forage for live- earlier in the invasion process burning is done the stock and wildlife, and recreational opportunities. more successful it is likely to be. But burning early As the population of the Intermountain region con- in succession also means burning more frequently. tinues to grow, the value of these commodities will An interval must be chosen that will effectively re- also increase. duce tree cover but will maintain desirable under- Many pinyon and juniper stands have been under growth species (Bunting 1987). Table 7 shows the "custodialn management, that is, little or no effort potential response of some common undergrowth has been made to manipulate vegetation to preserve species to different fire intervals. or enhance resource values because of inaccessibility Many degraded woodland stands are dominated or cost. The future productivity of these stands is at by cheatgrass. Fires hot enough to remove litter and risk as they become more dense and important browse the seed stored in it can give managers a window of or forage species die out (Doughty 1987). Fire can opportunity the first year &er burning to plant more be used as a relatively inexpensive tool to maintain desirable perennial species (Evans 1988). or renew site productivity and to create a diversity In a study of two species of mistletoe that infest of stand ages and densities across the landscape to pinyon and juniper in Grand Canyon National Park, optimize resource values. AZ, fire was the most limiting factor on the mistle- Specific guidelines for burning pinyon-juniper- toe, and mistletoes and their hosts appeared to be in shrub sites were presented by Bruner and Klebenow equilibrium (Kilgore 1981). Removal by burning of (1979). They found that the success of a burn could all pinyon slash larger than 3 inches (8 cm) during be predicted accurately by adding together the maxi- harvest will usually prevent pinyon ips (Ips confuszu) mum windspeed in miles per hour, the air tempera- populations from reaching epidemic proportions ture in degrees Fahrenheit, and the percentage of (Meeuwig and Bassett 1983). vegetation cover. If the number obtained was less than 110, fires would not burn. If it was greater FIRE GROUP TWO: MONTANE than 130, fires were too hazardous to light. Scores between 110 and 125 produced fires that needed MAPLE-OAK WOODLAND continual retorching, and numbers between 126 and Vegetation 130 produced fires that sprea$ unaided and burned clean. In general, burning success varied with cover Fire Group Two is made up of montane communi- class as follows (Blackburn and Tueller 1970): ties where Gambel oak or bigtooth maple is considered the climax or long-term sera1 dominant or Percent codominant species. Habitat type classifications canopy cover Cover class are not available for these sites. Preliminary classi- 0 - 2 open fication of Gambel oak-dominated communities of 2-9 dispersed southwestern Colorado has been attempted 9 - 23 scattered (Steinhoff 1978,1979). Steinhoff suggests that 23 - 35 dense many pure oak stands are "temporary climax" 35+ closed stands, that is, they may have the potential to sup- Scattered and dense stands burned best in the port ponderosa pine but are unlikely to do so for at nonfire season. Open and dispersed stands were not least 500 years. These stands could be managed like chosen as good candidates because trees exerted "true" climax Gambel oak. A Quercus gambeliil Table 7-Scenario of plant response to varying fire intervals relative to current conditions in western juniper communities in the Owyhee Mountains of southwestern Idaho1 (Bunting 1987) Average fire recurrence (years) <10 25 50 100 Shrubs: Arfemisia tridentata ssp. vaseyana -2 Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus + Juniperus occidentalis - Purshia tridentata - Grasses: Agropyron spicatud Festuca idahoensis Sitanion hystri2 Stipa occidentalk Stipa thurberiana Forbs: Agoseris spp. + 0 - - Balsamorhiza sagittata + + 0 - Crepis spp. + 0 - - Lupinus spp. + + 0 - 'This region receives greater than 8.9 inches (350 mm) annual precipitation and is over 5,850 ft (1,500 m) in elevation. *Symbols indicate that in the long term this species will: - = decrease, 0 = not change, or + = increase in abundance under this fire interval as compared to the current status. 3Nomenclature as originally published.

Symphoricarpos oreophilus (Gambel oaWmountain Amelanchier alnifolia, Artemisia tridentata, snowberry) habitat type has been identified in cen- Cercocarpus ledifolius, C. montanus, Chryso- tral Colorado (Hoffman and Alexander 1980, 1983). thamnus viscidiflorus, Mahonia repens, Pachystima There has been some initial characterization of myrsinities, Physotarpus malvaceous, Prunus vir- shrub communities in central Utah (Hayward 1948; giniana, Purshia tridentata, Rosa woodsii, and Kunzler and others 1981; Ream 1964). The fire ecol- Symphoricarpos oreophilus. Herbaceous vegetation ogy described here is necessarily general and awaits is often depauperate, especially in dense stands. further refinement based on completed habitat type Graminoids that commonly occur in more open classification. A description of the fire ecology of . stands are Agropyron cristatum, Bromus tectorum, sites where Gambel oak is codominant with ponde- Carex hoodii, Elymus glaucus, Poa pratensis, rosa pine can be found in Fire Group Three. Pseudoroegneria spicata, and Thinopyrum inter- Maple-oak woodlands usually occur between 5,500 medium ssp. intermedium. Typical forbs are Allium and 7,800 ft (1,676 and 2,377 m) in Utah. They form acuminatum, Balsamorhiza sagittata, Galium a belt between the warmer and drier pinyon-juniper aparine, Lathyrus pauciflorus, Lupinus spp., or sagebrush types and more mesic stands domi- Solidago sparsiflora, Stellariajamesiana, Vicia nated by Douglas-fir, aspen, or white fir. They occur americana, and Viguieria multiflora. in southern mountains, such as the La Sals (fig. 9), Montane shrub communities grow at elevations but reach their greatest development in central Utah, typically dominated by ponderosa pine in similar especially in the Wasatch Range. On most sites habitats to the north, south, and east. Spring and from the southern border northward to approxi- summer drought conditions may be responsible for mately the latitude of Brigham City, Gambel oak the lack of pine regeneration in much of Utah's oak- appears to be the climax dominant. In the Wasatch maple zone (Baker and Korstian 1931). Range from north-central Utah to southeastern Idaho, Gambel oak drops out and bigtooth maple be- Fuels comes the dominant species at climax. On at least some sites in central Utah, Gambel oak appears to Specific fuel-loading information for this fire group be sera1 to bigtooth maple (Eastmond 1968; Harper is scant. A biomass inventory of eight Gambel oak and others 1985). stands near Ephraim, UT, gives an estimate of fuel Small trees and shrubs that commonly inhabit the loadings. Branches and boles on the ground weighed montane zone with oak and maple include: 2.64 tonslacre (5.92 metric tondha). Litter, primarily mountains, Manti-La Sal National Forest.

dropped foliage, weighed 16.66 tondacre (37.35 met- Native Americans have been eliminated, heavy graz- ric tonsha) (Clary and Tiedemann 1986). ing has removed fine fuels in which fires started and Generally the oak zone is not considered to be spread, and wildfires have been actively suppressed highly combustible (fig. 10). In fact, it sometimes is in the latter part of the 20th century. Vegetation as- treated as a "green belt" among other more flam- sociated with Gambel oak and bigtooth maple has mable types. Occasionally, however, fuel conditions also been altered by logging and the spread of exotic in this type develop into a severe wildfire hazard. weedy plants. Paired historic and modern photo- For example, a potentially dangerous situation oc- graphs of central Utah foothill sites indicate that curs when a late spring freeze kills the sprouting oak and maple stands are now more extensive than oak leaves, which remain as dried tinder during the they were 75 to 150 years ago (Gruell 1990; Rogers summer or early fall (Winward 1985). As maple 1982). In the past, the more extensive grass cover cover increases, stand fire susceptibility lessens. likely permitted relatively frequent fires during the Rapidly decomposing leaf litter and a reduced un- dry season. Such fires would have inhibited the es- derstory make it difficult for fires to spread. Where tablishment of oak and maple seedlings apd killed conifers are accidental or are encroaching, flamma- smaller stems on the margins of existing clones. In bility of the stand will increase because of their res- many places in central Utah older oak clones con- inous foliage and persistent litter (Harper and oth- tain residual charcoal as evidence of past fires ers 1985). Dense understory oak increases fire risk (Gruell 1990). On moist sites, fire may have main- to ponderosa pine. Oak can serve as a ladder fuel tained oak as a sera1 species where other more shade that carries fire to overstory tree crowns during both tolerant species such as bigtooth maple or white fir prescribed and wild fires. had the potential to dominate at climax. Because of the drastic change in the balance between grass- Role of Fire dominated and deciduous tree and shrub-dominated vegetation, fire's role has also changed. The rela- Many factors have affected the fire regime in the tively low fire frequency in this type at present may oak-maple zone since settlement. Fires started by be the result of clone development over the last Brushland Succession The successional pathway illustrated in figure 11 assumes a mesic productive site where Gambel oak can attain small-tree stature and where bigtooth maple is the potential climax species. (Subsequent letters in this section refer to fig. 11). Where Gambel oak occurs alone, the response of the associated plant species is much more variable than that of the oak itself. Single applications of fire have little long- term impact on oak clones. Bigtooth maple sprouts, but perhaps not as strongly as oak. Different fire severities may not elicit the same responses. More research is needed on maple response. Residual perennial herbs and invading annuals dominate the initial stage of succession after a stand-replacement fire (A). Within a few weeks or months, depending on the season of burning, vigorous sprouts of Gambel oak and possibly some bigtooth maple appear (B). The shrub clones grow in a low, dense thicket. Over several years, a few stems in the clones gain dominance and increase in diameter (C). Self-thinning leaves the shrub clones more open, and undergrowth productivity often increases. Maple seedlings and sprouts from stem layering begin to dominate the oak understory. Oak and maple make up the overstory of the mature stand. By this phase, oak reproduction is completely shaded out and maple alone makes up the understory (D). As maple increases in the overstory, oak stems and the undergrowth decline, reducing fuel loadings. At climax, maple is the dominant (E). Oak remains only as residual stems around the fiinges of maple clones. Figure 1O-Gambel oak may grow in relatively Mature maple clones burn much less readily than short or tall forms. Taller forms, such as this oak. In some stands, white fir or Douglas-fir seed- specimen, may be less flammable because their lings and saplings may occur in the understory, al- crowns are farther above potential fine fuels and though it is of'ten unclear whether or not they will they commonly occur on moist sites. become significant members of the overstory. Their presence may make the shrub stand more flammable. century and a half. The opportunities for fire have been reduced, especially where maple has become Fire Management Considerations the dominant species, due to a depauperate under- Periodic removal or reduction of stems in Gambel story and relatively nonflammable litter. oak stands can improve quality of wildlife browse, Gambel oak is known to be a vigorous resprouter enhance livestock movement, and increase produc- after fire. Fire temporarily reduces cover and height of oak clones but increases stem density. In central tivity of the undergrowth. Reducing the number of Utah, stands have recovered their preburn height in stems by fire or any other means is only a temporary measure because of oak's ability to resprout quickly 6 to 35 years, with most stands recovering in about 15 years (Kunzler and Harper 1980). Higher eleva- and prolifically. True control or elimination of tion stands recover more slowly than those at lower Gambel oak with fire is not possible or even desir- elevations. The most common effect of fire on oak is able. Gambel oak provides wildlife cover and browse, to stimulate sprouting, thicken existing stands, and stabilizes soil, and retards snowmelt. Maintaining a encourage the merging of scattered clumps (Brown diversity of stand ages can provide a good balance of 1958). Composition of burned oak stands in Utah forage and cover for wildlife. Gambel oak and bigtooth maple are valuble as was found to resemble unburned stands within 20 years following fire (McKell 1950). fuelwood because of their high heat output and Climax ACGR

LEGEND \/ \/ Succession in absence of fire ----+Response to llre Low Cool or lighl surface fire Mod. Fire of rnoderete severlty Severe Hot stend-replacement llre Figure 11-Hypothetical fire-related successional pathways for Fire Group Two habitat types. speed of regeneration after cutting. Demand for qual- Gambel oak are less likely to be top killed than oak ity fuelwood is increasing (Clary and Tiedemann shrubs in a low-severity fire because their branches 1986,1987). Burning or cutting may be used as a are farther above the burning surface hels. Oak tool to rejuvenate stands. There may be potential clones tend to be taller on moist sites where fine fu- to use prescribed fire on sites following fuelwood cut- els are more abundant, but the period of high flam- ting to reduce Gambel oak or bigtooth maple compe- mability is short. Likewise, stems in more mature tition. Removal of the canopy and subsequent dry- clones are less easily damaged than those in denser, ing of fuels will aid fire spread through the recently younger clones because of the generally larger stem emerged sprouts (Gruel1 1990). diameters. Managers in southwestern Colorado found that Bigtooth maple clones are typically less flammable pure oak stands burned best between October 1and than Gambel oak. Fuelwood cutting is probably the snowfall when the National Fire Danger Rating Sys- best method available for reducing density in ma- tem (NFDR) burning index (BI) is between 40 and ture stands. Managers who wish to prevent the 75 and dead leaves remain on the branches. Oak spread of either oak or maple should consider bum- stands also burn well during very dry summer condi- ing before trees become large and the potential un- tions, particularly on steep south aspects (Harrington dergrowth fuel is severely reduced by shading. 1990; Steinhoff 1979). A potentially dangerous fire situation can develop when sprouting oak leaves FIRE GROUP THREE: PONDEROSA freeze in the spring and remain as dry fuel on the PINE HABITAT TYPES shrubs during the hot summer season. Disease may also create large amounts of fine dry kel when Habitat Type, Phase leaves die. Flames can spretid readily through oak and maple crowns during dj,windy weather, espe- Pinus ponderosalArctostaphylos patula h. t. (PIPOl cially on steep terrain. Some fuel management is ARPA), ponderosa pindgreenleaf manzanita advisable for property owners in the oak-maple Pinus ponderosal'rtemisia nova h.t. (PIPOI~O), zone, particularly on steep slopes. Radtke (1983) ponderosa pineiblack sagebrush offers suggestions for homeowners in chaparral-type Pinus ponderosalCarex geyeri h.t. (PIPOICAGE), vegetation including removing and pruning shrubs ponderosa pindelk sedge adjacent to buildings to reduce &el load and Pinus ponderosalCercocarpus ledifolius h.t. (PIP01 continuity. CELE), ponderosa pindmountain-mahogany Oak clones vary in height, density, and size, de- Pinus ponderosalFestuca idahoensis h.t.- pending on a combination of age, environment, and Arctostaphylos patula phase (PIPO/FEID-ARPA), genetic factors. Fire susceptibility varies with com- ponderosa pine/Idaho fescue-greenleaf manzanita munity Structure. For example, treelike forms of phase Pinus ponderosalFestuca idahoensis h.t.-Artemisia tridentata phase (PIPOIFEID-ARTR),ponderosa pinelIdaho fescue-big sagebrush phase Pinus ponderosalFestuca idahoensis h.t.-Festuca idahoensis phase (PIPOIFEID-FEID), ponderosa pinelIdaho fescue-Idaho fescue phase Pinus ponderosalMuhlenbergia montana h.t. (PIPOI MUMO), ponderosa pine/mountain muhly Pinus ponderosalPurshia tridentata h.t. (PIPOI PUTR), ponderosa pinelantelope bitterbrush Pinus ponderosalQuercus gambelii h.t.-Symphoricar- pos oreophilus phase (PIPOIQUGA-SYOR),ponderosa pineIGambe1 oak-mountain strawberry phase Pinus ponderosalQuercus gambelii h.t.-Quercus gambelii phase (PIPOIQUGA-QUGA),ponderosa pineIGambe1 oak-Gambel oak phase Pinus ponderosalSymphoricarpos oreophilus h.t. (PIPOISYOR), ponderosa pindmountain snowberry

Vegetation Fire Group Three is made up of relatively warm, dry sites where ponderosa pine is the climax dominant. In northern Utah, these habitats are mostly restricted to the southern and eastern Uinta Moun- tains. They cover extensive areas of the plateaus and mountains in the central and southern portions of the State. In the north, the geographic distribution of ponderosa pine appears to be limited to areas with adequate moisture in the early growing season. Ponderosa pine generally occupies the lowest elevation of any of the coniferous forest types. At its lower elevational boundary, it borders shrub and Figure 12-Ponderosa pine with seral woodland communities, and its understory often re- aspen, Dixie National Forest. sembles these vegetation types. At its upper limits, aspen or conifers typical of cooler or moister sites are found. Important seral tree species associated with pon- habitat types. Adequate and timely moisture (par- derosa pine habitat types include lodegepole pine, ticularly in the spring) is a critical factor for success- aspen, and Gambel oak (fig. 12). Ponderosa pine ful reproduction. may be the dominant tree during seral and climax Typical shrub species in Utah ponderosa pine stages on some sites. Minor seral species may also forests are Amelanchier alnifolia, Arctostaphylos include pinyon pines, limber pine, Rocky Mountain patula, Artemisia nova, A. tridentata, Ceanothus juniper, or Utah juniper. Many Utah stands have fendleri, Cercocarpus ledifolius, C. montanus, Jun- shrub-dominated understories, unlike the common iperus communis, Purshia tridentata, Quercus ponderosa pinehunchgrass habitat types found in gambelii, and Symphoricarpos oreophilus. Bouteloua neighboring Arizona. Exceptions to this are the Pi- gracilis, Elymus elymoides, Festuca ovina var. nus ponderosalMuhlabergia montana habitat type ingrata, Muhlenbergia montana, Oryzopsis hymen- in southern and central Utah and the Pinusponde- oides, Poa fendleriana, and Stipa comata are rosalFestuca idahoensis-Festuca ialahoensis habitat common graminoids throughout the Fire Group. type found in the eastern Uinta Mountains. Shrub- Although forbs contribute less cover than grass or dominated habitat types may be the result of histo- shrubs, several species do occur in many of the habi- ric grazing practices, an absence of fire, or better tat types, including Achillea millefolium, Antennaria moisture conditions than those in grassland types. microphylla, Eriogonum racemosum, Hymenoxys In similar Colorado stands, pine reproduction on richardsonii, Lathyrus lanzwertii, and Sedum these sites is more dependable than in drier savanna lanceolat um. Forest Fuels moist or facilitating surface fire spread over large areas during dry spells. Although fires were frequent in most presettle- Harrington (1982) contrasted fuels and fire behav- ment ponderosa pine stands, severity remained ior characteristics of stands of different ages ir! relatively low (fig. 13). Many decades of fire exclu- Arizona (ponderosa) pine forests in southeastern sion have altered the fire regime in most stands. Arizona. Widely spaced old growth and dense sap- Without fire, unnatural accumulations of litter and ling thickets were compared. Total fuel loads were downed woody fuels and overstocking have become nearly equal, although the open forests had greater more common. Stands with heavy dead or live fuel forest floor weights and the sapling stands had more loads are susceptible to severe fire. large woody fuels. The openness of the old-growth Average fuel loadings for Utah ponderosa pine stands created a warm, dry microclimate, which in habitat types are not available. Historically, fre- turn dried fuels, creating a high ignition potential. quent low-severity fires probably restricted the When these stands were adjacent to sapling thickets accumulation of large down woody fuels. Dieterich there was a greater risk of severe fire behavior when (1980) described the historical fuels and their role fires moved from open to dense stands with their in fire spread in an interior ponderosa pine forest in higher woody fuel loading. Open stands had approx- Arizona. In the 19th century, fine fuels (grass and imately 24 percent more humus by weight than the needles). were the medium through which historical dense stands. This type of fuel has little effect on fires spread since most large fiels (boles and branches) maximum fireline intensity, but when dry enough would have been consumed by the frequent fires. for combustion the heavier loadings lead to extended Low-severity fires must have been common, and burning time, greater total energy release, and more severe fires rare, because of the lower fuel volumes. difficult suppression. Where small trees are Small-diameter fuels would respond to slight changes crowded under the overstory of larger trees, they in &el moisture, limiting fire when conditions were

Figure 13-Forest floor litter and duff are important for sustaining low-severity and moderate-severity fires in ponderosa pine stands. This is especiaily true where relatively frequent fires have prevented the accumulation of downed woody fuels (Bryce Canyon National Park). add to the fuels and crown fire potential (Kallander Role of Fire 1969; Weaver 1943). High flammability results from the typically abun- Fire has historically played an important role in dant annual needle-fall of ponderosa pine. In dense Utah's ponderosa pine forests, maintaining open stands, needle drop may exceed 1.75 tondacre (3.9 stand conditions by periodically thinning the under- metric tons/ha)/year. Without periodic low-intensity story and removing patches of seedlings. Fire ex- ground fire, litter and woody hels build up to levels poses mineral soil, reduces seedling-damaging that promote high burning intensities (USDA 1982). cutworm populations, reduces competing vegetation, Muhley grasses (Muhlenbergia spp.), or other grass and increases nutrient availability. Depending on species, can form dense stands in drier ponderosa the subsequent seed crop, weather, and continuity pine habitat types (Pinus ponderosalMuhlenbergia of the seedbed, regeneration may appear as dense montana and Pinus ponderosalFestuca idahoensis), stands, separated thickets, or scattered individuals. also increasing flammability. Livestock grazing has Periodic fires can create uneven-aged stands com- decreased fine fuels. Sackett (1975) has character- prised of various even-aged groups. Severe fires will ized fuel loads for southwestern ponderosa pine for- result in a predominantly even-aged stand. Nutri- ests. His results are presented in table 8. ents trapped in woody debris, litter, and duff are

Table &Calculated averages of dead fuel loadings in 62 ponderosa pine stands in the Southwest (Arizona, New Mexico, southern Colorado) locations (Sackett 1979) Proportion of 0- to 1-Inch Proportion Standard diameter of all Fuel component Mean deviation dead fuel dead fuel

- ---- Tons per acre - - - - - .------Percent ------L layer (surface fuel) 1.O 0.5 8 5 needle material F layer (ground fuel) 3.8 1.3 needle material H layer (ground fuel) 6.1 2.5 humus (needle origin) 0 to lA-inch-diameter .2 .1 woody material lA- to 1-inch-diameter 1:o .5 woody material Other material 1.o .5 Total dead fuel 0- to 1-inch diameter 12.7 3.0 Proportion of >I-inch Proportion Standard diameter of all Mean deviation dead fuel dead fuel - - - - Tons per acre ------Percent ------Fuel >l-inch diameter 1- to 3-inch material >3-inch rotten material >3-inch sound material Total dead fuel >l-inch diameter All dead fuel released by burning. This process helps to maintain saplings. This was despite a much higher fire fre- forest health in these relatively dry stands, where quency (4 to 7 years vs. 69 years) as evidenced by decay takes place slowly. the fire-scarred trees examined on both sites. They Weaver (1951) described fire's role in the develop- attributed this condition to removal of herbaceous ment of forest patterns in neighboring Arizona: vegetation by livestock grazing and trampling, and ...larger trees are constantly being killed by light- subsequent establishment by pine seedlings and ning, insects, disease, or windthrow. Fires inevitably shrub saplings. attacked and burned the dead snag and windfelled remains of these trees and gradually reduced them to mere beds of ashes, admirably suited for seedbeds. Forest Succession Where such hot fires burned, clearings were made ... There are four major successional pathways com- and groups of seedlings became established in the monly found in Utah ponderosa pine habitat types. ashes. This accounts for the even-aged groups of pines in various stages of maturity. &pen, lodgepole pine, Gambel oak, or ponderosa pine itself can be major sera1 species. The letters In presettlement times, fire probably occurred in the following section refer to letters in figures 14 with relatively high frequency in habitat types through 16. throughout the fire group, with a possible exception of Pinus ponderosalArtemisia nova and Pinus Succession With Lodgepole Pine (fig. 14bAn ponderosalPurshia tridentata habitat types, where herkishrub stage (A) is the result of a stand-destroying discontinuous ground fuels may have inhibited fire fire. Given an available seed source, both ponderosa spread (Youngblood and Mauk 1985). Fire frequen- pine and lodgepole pine soon establish in the newly cies of 4 to 7 years have been estimated for polide- exposed mineral soil. If the area burned is quite rosa and mixed conifer forests in Bryce Canyon Na- large, lodgepole pine may have an initial advantage tional Park (Buchanan and Tolman 1983). Stein because of its lighter, more easily dispersed seeds. (1988) reported composite fire intervals of 15.2 and Seedling trees may be killed by fire of any severity 18.4 years in three canyons also on the Paunsaugunt (B), but by the sapling stage, ponderosa pine has al- Plateau. The difference in intervals may reflect ac- ready developed resistance to low-severity fires and tual variability in site conditions, or may be a result to some moderate fires. Lodgepole pine is more eas- of sampling areas of different sizes. More limited ily killed. Low to moderate fires result in a scat- sampling areas generally give longer fire intervals tered stand of ponderosa pine saplings (Cl). If low (Arno and Peterson 1983). Fires were estimated to or moderate fires occur Frequently, lodgepole pine occur at an average of every 2 years in northern Ari- cannot reinvade. A pure ponderosa pine overstory zona prior to 1876 (Dieterich 1980). In southwest- and understory develops (El). In the absence of fire, ern Colorado ponderosa pine/Gambel oak stands, the sapling mixed pines mature into pole-sized trees Harrington (1985) calculated average fire frequen- (Dl. Moderate fires in this size class open the stand. cies of approximately 6 years. Some areas are re- Many ponderosa pine and some scattered lodgepole ported to have longer fire-free intervals. On the pine survive (Dl). Pole-sized stands unaffected by Front Range of Colorado, Laven and others (1980) fire continue to mature (E). If the stand is dense, calculated a mean fire interval of 48.6 years. there may be little regeneration beneath the canopy. Although fires were frequent in most presettle- Fire opens these stands and creates new mineral ment ponderosa pine stands, severity remained seedbed for another generation of pines to develop relatively low. Stand replacement fires were a rare (E2). Eventually, an undisturbed stand of lodgepole event. Many decades of fire exclusion have altered pine begins to break up under the influence of wind the fire regime. Without fire, unnatural accumula- damage, pathogens, insects, or senescence (F). The tions of litter and downed woodyhels, and over- long-lived ponderma pine is maintained, and its restocking have become more common. Stands with generation fills the gaps left by the dying lodgepole heavy dead or live fuel loads are susceptible to pine. If there is deadfall created by the lodgepole severe fire. pine breakup, there is an increased risk of moderate Historical grazing practices have contributed, to severe fires at this stage. If severe fires do not oc- along with fire exclusion, to create stand conditions cur, a ponderosa pine climax stand develops. It is ba- that were rare or nonexistent in primeval ponderosa sically unaffected by low to moderate fie. Severe fires pine forests. Madany and West (1983) studied the at climax cause a return to the shrubherb state (A). interaction of grazing and fire in Zion National Succession With Aspen (fig. 15)-Following a Park. They compared the vegetation on a formerly severe fire, the site is dominated by herbs (A). This heavily grazed plateau and that on an isolated is quickly succeeded by a stand of aspen and shrub ungrazed mesa. The grazed plateau had a much resprouts (B). Some ponderosa pine seedlings may higher density of pine, juniper, and Gambel oak also be present in ~penings.Aspen grows quickly severe

LEGEND

absence ol tire ---+ Response lo llre Low Cool or llght rurlace flre Mod. Fire ol moderate severlty Severe Hot rlrnd-replacamenl !\re severe

Figure 14--Hypothetical fire-related successional pathways for Fire Group Three habitat types where lodgepole pine is seral.

- - - - severe r----f --- T---\

low-mod

severe

LEGEND Successlon In absence of fire .--3-Response lo flre Low Cool or llghl surface fire Mod. Fire of moderete severity Severe Hot stand-replacemenl tire

Figure 15-Hypothetical fire-related successional pathways for Fire Group Three habitat types where aspen is seral. and, without the influence of fire, forms a canopy stand of resprouting shrubs and herbs. Given the above the slower growing pine. Ponderosa pine can right moisture conditions and an adequate seed survive in a suppressed state in the understory for crop, ponderosa pine is able to establish seedlings in many years. If a low or moderate fire does occur, the mineral soil. Seedlings are fire intolerant, and aspen suckers are killed, and the released pine may the stand will probably be destroyed by even light take over more of the site by shading some of the surface fires. From the sapling stage on, the main new aspen resprouts (Cl). Aspen response is rapid, role of fires of low to moderate severity is to thin however, and it can subsequently become a codomi- stands and provide mineral seedbed for regeneration. nant with ponderosa pine (Dl). Without the rejuve- Underburns or stands where fire removes relatively nating stimulus of fire or other disturbance, seral small groups of trees may have more successful re- aspen clones in Fire Group Three eventually senesce generation because of the partial shade provided by (Dl. When the aspen overstory breaks up, under- the remaining overstory. Shading may keep down story pine are released and new seedlings can estab- undergrowth competition and prevent the soil from lish in gaps. Low or moderate fires do not signifi- drying out as thoroughly while seedlings are devel- cantly alter this state because senescent aspen oping root systems. In stands with a shrubby under- resprouts poorly. An uneven-aged stand of ponde- story fire frequencies are probably lower than in rosa pine with only remnant aspen stems makes up pinehunchgrass habitat types. Because of the po- the next successional stage (E). Most low and mod- tential for shrub competition with seedlings, regenerate fires retain this condition. Climax ponderosa eration success aRer fire varies with habitat type. stands (F) are very similar, except that by this stage Moir and Dieterich (1988) have presented a de- the last vestiges of aspen have died out. Climax tailed successional pathway for Pinus ponderosal stands are maintained by low to moderate fire and bunchgrass types in northern Arizona (fig. 16). destroyed by severe fire. In the event of a severe fire It is probably applicable to the Pinus ponderosal at climax, ponderosa pine will be the sole seral spe- Muhlenbergia montana habitat type in Utah. cies unless aspen reinvades by roots from adjacent unburned clones. Succession With Gambel Oak (fig. 17)- Gambel oak can occur with ponderosa pine as a Succession With Ponderosa Pine Only (no minor part of the understory or as a major seral diagram)-As in other Utah climax ponderosa pine species. Where it acts as a seral dominant, Gambel stands, succession in this pathway begins with a oak can be a strong competitor with ponderosa pine.

2-10

SUCCESSIONAL STAGE 'V 1. Meadow 2. Meadow-Seedling 3. Sapling-Pole 4. Thinned Pole-Grass 4a. Closed Pole 5-68. Closed Blackjack 6. Open Blackjack-Grass 7. Closed Yellowpine 8. Open Yellowpine -----b No Fire 8. Closed Yellowpine-Snag 10. Open ~etlowpine-snag - - + Low/ High lntensity Fire 11. Snag 50 = Time in years Figure 16-Hypothetical fire-related successional pathway for northern Arizona ponderosa pinelbunchgrass types (from Moir and Dieterich 1988). closed canopy

LEGEND Succession In absence ol llre --- --+Response to tlre Low Cool or llght surface fire Mod. Fire ol moderate severlly Severe Hot stand-repiecement fire Figure 17-Hypothetical fire-related successional pathways for Fire Group Three habitat types where Gambel oak is seral.

Fire creates good seedbed conditions for pine, but it moderate-severity fires. Oak saplings and poles do also stimulates oak resprouting. The result of burn- not, and the stand after such fires is characterized ing in ponderosa pine/Gambel oak stands depends by more open pine and new, more dense resprouts of on available seed source, postfire site conditions, site oak. The results of fire in the pole stage are similar disturbance history, and fire frequency, season, and (Dl, D2). With continued periodic low to moderate severity. Fire severity and the degree of overstory fires, a mixed-age stand of pine and oak develops removal determine the potential for oak to dominate (El). Fire continues to create patches of seedbed subsequent vegetation development. Where fire has and to regenerate oak. Shading by the expanding been severe, even the fire-resistant older ponderosa ponderosa pine canopy helps to suppress oak to pine are removed from the stand (A). Where oak is some degree. Climax stands may be open to dense, vigorous, its immediate resprouting response and with oak cover less in dense pine stands (I?). the lack of available pine seed give it dominance of the site for a long time (B). In southwestern Fire Management Considerations Colorado, such stands are believed to remain stable without the encroachment of pine for 500 years or In their guide to understory burning in ponderosa more (Steinhoff 1979). The role of fire in Gambel pine-larch-fir forests, Kilgore and Curtis (1987) cited oak brush stands is described in Fire Group Two. objectives listed by expert fire practioners in Forest Where seed is more available and oak somewhat Service Regions 1and 6: less competitive, pine seedlings may establish in PRIMARY USES OF FIRE: openings in the oak brush. Seedlings may be scattered to dense (Bl, B2). Fires of any severity re- 1. Fuel reduction; both natural fuels and slash move all or most of them. Sapling pines (Cl, C2) 2. Site preparation are able to withstand low-severity fires and some 3. Range and wildlife habitat improvement I OTHER USES OF FIRE: amount of fuel consumed under given fire condi- 1. Timber stand improvement by thinning and tions. One important factor is the moisture level mistletoe control in the lower duff (Brown and others 1985; Norum 2. Insect and disease abatement 1977). Harrington (1987) found measurements of 3. Species manipulation (herb, shrub, and tree) H-layer moisture and forest floor depth to be the 4. Esthetics most useful predictor of litter and duff consumption 5. Recreation (campground) maintenance in a southeastern Arizona ponderosa pine forest. Percent consumption increased with decreasing Fire can be used as a tool to achieve the same H-layer moistures and increasing forest floor depth. objectives in Utah ponderosa pine forests. Another important factor was stand density. There Many Utah ponderosa pine habitat types have un- was less consumption in more dense stands, prob- derstories dominated by Gambel oak or shrubs. The ably due to reduced air movement, lower fuel tem- composition of the preburn community and the de- peratures, and higher relative humidities beneath sired postburn composition should be evaluated be- the canopy. Measurements were made under the fore fire is applied to a site. Understory Gambel oak following fire conditions: downslope backing fires, and some shrubs, such as Arctostaphylos patula, upslope winds of 1to 5 milh, air temperatures be- Sympboricarpos oreophdus, Ceanothus fendleri, tween 55 and 75 OF, relative humidity 25 to 50 per- and Amelanchier alnifolia resprout successfully af- cent, and surface L-layer fuels with 5 to 9 percent ter fire. They may compete with pine seedlings for moisture. light and moisture (Shainsky and Radosevich 1986). Postfire rehabilitation efforts after severe fires in Some shrubs commonly associated with ponderosa dense ponderosa pine stands have become more pine, like Purshia tridentata (bitterbrush), are killed common in the southwestern United States. Seed- by fire. Even bitterbrush, however, can be consid- ing with exotic grasses may be included in these ef- ered fire-dependent because it requires open stands forts. Some caution should be exercised on drier to sunrive. It often establishes well from seed on ponderosa pine sites where pine regeneration is a sites with fire-exposed mineral soil. Increased shrub concern. Elliot and White (1987) found that the cover may be considered a detriment or an improve- commonly seeded exotic grasses, Agropyron deser- .. ment, depending on the management objectives. torum and Dactylis glomerata, may compete success- One of the most problematic shrubby habitat types fully with pine seedlings for soil moisture. The im- for managers in the Southwest has been Pinus pact of these deep-rooted grasses appears to be ponderosalQuercus garnbelii. Many stands that greater than for seeded native species such as were once pine-oak are today dominated by the oak Bouteloua gracilis and Elymus elymoides. Melilotus alone. Clearcut logging, grazing, and fire exclusion officinalis, Sanguisorba minor, and other seeded ex- have all favored oak regeneration over pine. His- otic forbs also competed for moisture, although the torical fire-free intervals in the type probably ranged effect was not as great as that for the exotic grasses. from 3 to 20 years (Youngblood and Mauk 1985). Agropyron desertorurn may also compete with pine Fire suppression prevented the creation of mineral seedlings for available nitrogen. . seedbed for pine. Wildfires that occurred despite In the past, frequent low-severity fires probably ; suppression efforts were often more severe because helped control dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium of high fuel loads, and oak was favored over the campylopodum and A. vaginaturn) infestations by

:pnzy more fire-sensitive pine. Logging and grazing re- pruning back infected branches in the lower crowns. $ moved competitive vegetation and stimulated fur- Heavily infected trees were likely consumed.by fire & ther expansion of oak clones. At present, it is not because of their greater flammability. Mistletoe- 2 economically feasible to convert dense oak groves to %* infected trees develop witches' brooms whose dense : pine on many sites. There is%ome evidence that re- branching and tendency to catch dead needles pro- ; peated fire, timed correctly, may reduce cover and vide a source of easily ignited he1 into the crown. density of Gambel oak. In southwestern Colorado, Infected trees also have more dead woody fuel at the Harrington (1985) experimented with biennial burn- base of the bole as a result of branch shedding. Fire : ing at different seasons and phenological stages. exclusion has permitted more heavily infested over- He found that a moderate initial burn and a low- story trees to remain in stands where they serve as severity maintenance burn in August (summer) a source of infection for regeneration. Fire exclusion , applied on a biennial basis reduced oak cover in has also led to the development of extensive two- ; a ponderosa pine understory. Biennial spring and aged stands, which provide optimum conditions for fall burning were not effective. mistletoe spread (Alexander and Hawksworth 1975; Partial burning of forest floor fuels helps retain Koonce 1981). Drier, less-productive habitat types site productivity in ponderosa pine stands. Preburn have more frequent and more severe dwarf mistletoe

F site characteristics can be used to predict the infections. In Colorado, the Pinus ponderosal v

\ *.., -*.., Muhlenbergiu montana habitat type was most af- Vegetation fected (Merrill and others 1987). Prescribed fires can mitigate the effects of subse- Fire Group Four consists of warm, dry Douglas-fir quent wildfire by reducing hazardous fuels. Con- habitat types often dominated by seral ponderosa trolled burning was found to give almost complete pine and dry types where Douglas-fir is the major protection to trees above about 8 inches (20 cm) d.b.h. seral species as well as the climax dominant. Other in a southwestern ponderosa pine forest when it oc- minor seral associates may include limber pine, as- curred 1year before a wildfire. The effects of this pen, Rocky Mountain juniper, or pinyon pine. hazard reduction should last at least 5 years (Wagle The overstory in these stands tends to be open, and Eakle 1979). with the cool dry sites having only scattered Douglas- Prescribed fire can reduce understory and surface fir intermingled with shrubs, juniper, or pinyon fuels appreciably. In a southeastern Arizona experi- pine (fig. 18). Associated shrubs (and small trees) ment, three relatively moist ponderosa pine stands include Amelanchier alnifolia, Arctostaphylos were burned in September and three drier sites patula, Artemisia tridentata, Cercocarpus ledifolius, were burned in October to reduce the fuel hazard. Chrysothamnus nauseosus, Gutierrezia sarothrae, Almost all trees less than 4 ft (1.2 m) tall growing Mahonia repens, Purshia tridentata, Quercus under larger trees were killed, and there was some gumbelii, and Rosa woodsii. Common graminoids thinning of pole-size saplings on plots burned in are Carex geyeri, C. rossii, Elymus elymoides, October. Overall tree stem density was reduced Festuca ovina, Leucopoa kingii, and Poa secunda. from 5,470 to 2,154 on the September-burned plots, Forb cover is less than in Fire Group Five, and spe- and on those burned in October from 4,365 to 989. cies found include Achillea millefolium, Eriogonum The large reduction in stems per acre increased the racemosum, Hymenoxys richardsonii, Lathyrus amount of dead wood on the October-burn plots, but lanzwertii, Lupinus spp., and Thalictrum fendleri. this did not create any particular wildfire hazard because the fire removed most of the previously accu- Forest Fuels mulated dead woody fuels. In this case, the dry needle fall the following year did not appreciably in- In similar dry sites with low productivity in cen- crease the fire hazard (Biswell and others 1973). tral Idaho, the amount of downed dead fuel less than Nevertheless, needle fall has the potential to create 3 inches (7.6 cm) rarely exceeded 5 tondacre (11.2 a real hazard because it is all fine fuel. Harrington metric tonsha). Material greater than 3 inches var- (1990) recommends a maintenance burn after the ied by stand age and condition and accounted for 70 initial treatment. Such burns are easy to conduct percent or more otthe total woody fuel load (Crane and highly effective. and Fischer 1986). Ground fiels are discontinuous with deep needle mats possible in stands dominated by ponderosa pine (fig. 19). Open ponderosa pine FIRE GROUP FOUR: DRIER stands have a dry, warm ground surface microcli- DOUGLAS-FIR HABITAT TYPES mate conducive to fire ignitions (Harrington 1982). The dense shrub understories present in some types Habitat Types, Phases may be significant live fuel during dry, windy Pseudotsuga menziesiilArctostaphy los patula h. t. weather. On the other hand, the typically sparse (PSMEIARPA), Douglas-firlgreenleaf manzanita herbaceous layer is not likely to carry fire. Dwarf Pseudotsuga menziesiilBerberis repens h. t.-Carex mistletoe (Arceuthobium douglasii) is a management geyeri phase (PSME/BERE-CAGE),Douglas-fir1 problem in many of these stands (Youngblood and creeping Oregon-grape-elksedge phase Mauk 1985). The presence of witches' brooms in- Pseudotsuga menziesiilBerberis repens h.t.-Pinus creases crown flammability. Mistletoe-infested ponderosa phase (PSME/BERE-PIPO), Douglas- branches may break during snowstorms and add to fir/creeping Oregon grape-ponderosa pine phase the fuel around the bases of trees. Such fuel accu- Pseudotsuga menziesiilCercocarpus ledifolius h.t. mulations increase the likelihood of surface fires (PSME/CELE), Douglas-fir/curlleaf mountain- killing trees by cooking the cambium or by ~roviding mahogany a means for fire to reach the crown (Crane and Pseudotsuga menziesiilCercocarpus montanus h.t. Fischer 1986). Poor stocking rates and the resultirig (PSME/CEMO), Douglas-fir/mountain-mahogany open stands make Fire Group Four habitat types Pseudotsuga menziesiilQuercus gambelii h.t. (PSMEI less likely to experience widespread fire than more QUGA), Douglas-fir/Gambel oak productive sites. Pseudotsuga menziesiilSymphoricurpos oreophilus h.t. (PSME/SYOR), Douglas-fidmountain snowberry Figure 18--Open Douglas-firlcurlleaf Figure 19-Ponderosa pine needle mats mountain-mahogany stand, Wasatch-Cache are a significant ground fuel in Fire Group National Forest. Four habitat types where pine is seral (Ashley National Forest).

Role of Fire conditions, fire may reach the overstory crowns through the understory fuel ladder and kill all or In general, the role of fire in Group Four is to open part of the ponderosa pine stand. In the new stand, stands, promote the establishment and dominance stand-replacement fires favor Douglas-fir because its of seral ponderosa pine, and prepare seedbeds for ' seeds are lighter and more easily dispersed. On dry Douglas-fir and pine. sites where Douglas-fir is both the seral and climax Frequent fires of low or moderate severity favor species, scattered stands generally sustain low- the development of ponderosa pine stands in those severity thinning fires, and only in dry, windy habitat types where pine is normally seral. Longer weather can fire be driven through the crowns. fire-free intervals (50+ years) favor instead Douglas- Historically, fire was a frequent occurrence in fir, which may form multistoried stands. Fires in many of these stands, particularly those dominated ponderosa pine stands generally remain low in se- by ponderosa pine. In Bryce Canyon National Park, verity, thinning saplings and seedlings, reducing fire frequencies of 4 to 7 years have been estimated smaller woody fuels, and consuming shrubs and her- for ponderosa and mixed conifer forests that include baceous vegetation. Where Douglas-fir regeneration Douglas-fir (Buchanan and Tolman 1983). Stein has become dense under a canopy of ponderosa pine, (1988) reported composite fire intervals of 15.2 to fire behavior is more variable. Low- to moderate- 18.4 years for three canyons on the Paunsaugunt severity fires may creep through the duff' and act as Plateau. Steele and others (1986) reported fire fre- a thinning agent. Under more severe dry, windy quencies for ponderosa pine-dominated Douglas-fir habitat types in the Boise Basin of central Idaho Succession With Ponderosa Pine-Following (table 9). Utah stands in the Pseudotsuga menziesiil a stand-replacement fire, herbs and resprouting Physocarpus malvaceus habitat type generally do shrubs dominate the site. Any additional fires at not have ponderosa pine as a major seral species, this stage will maintain the treeless condition. Both and so are included in Fire Group Five. ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir regeneration are In the open, dry, shrubby habitat types such as favored by exposed mineral soil. Sites that have Pseudotsuga menziesiilCercocarpus ledifolius or experienced large stand-replacement fires may have Pseudotsuga menziesiilCercocarpus rnontanus, fire Douglas-fir as the dominant seral species because its was probably less common because of fine fuel dis- light seeds are more easily dispersed than the heavy continuity. On these severe sites, droughty soils or seeds of ponderosa pine. Smaller burns, or parts of otherwise poor stocking conditions may have slowed a larger burn adjacent to surviving ponderosa pine the influx of conifers during fire-free intervals. To- will have more pine in the initial seedling mix (B). day, however, many formerly open stands are domi- Any fire in the seedling state kills the young trees nated by conifers and decadent shrubs. When fires and causes a reversion to the initial shrubherb con- do occur on these sites they are more likely to be se- dition. Unlike smaller diameter Douglas-fir, sapling- vere. In presettlement times, fire opened stands and pole-sized ponderosa pine are able to su~ve and rejuvenated sprouting shrubs. It also favored many low to moderate fires because of their thicker vigorous resprouting species over those that resprout bark, less dense foliage, and large, protected buds. poorly, such as curlleaf mountain-mahogany and an- Open stands of pine result from fires in these stages telope bitterbrush (Gruel1 1986). Arno and Wilson (C1, Dl). Pine dominance is perpetuated by fbrther (1986) found that in their Idaho study sites fire occurrence. A mixed species overstory develops without fire (E). Douglas-fir regeneration is favored ...fkequent wildfires prior to 1900 kept mountain mahogany largely confined to extremely rocky sites in the understory and, in the continued absence of where fuel was sparse. Absence of fire during the fire, it will eventually dominate. Low-severity fires past century on many sites allowed the species to in- maintain both species in a mixed stand, but moder- crease in abundance. However, mountain-mahogany ate fires remove most or all Douglas-fir and thin the is becoming decadent on many sites and seems unable pine. The result is an open, ponderosa pine park (F). to compete with associated conifers. Frequent fires perpetuate this condition. The theo- Despite their sensitivity to fire damage, Cercocarpus retical climax stand is all-aged Douglas-fir (G). This ledifolius and Purshia tridentata are still dependent state was rarely reached in primeval times because on fire to reduce conifer competition and to produce of relatively frequent fires and the long life span of favorable soil conditions for seedling establishment. ponderosa pine. Fire exclusion and the selective removal of pine has made the condition more common today. If pine has been eliminated from the stand, Forest Succession open to scattered large diameter-Douglas-fir are Ponderosa pine or Douglas-fir may dominate seral probably the only survivors after moderate fire. In stands in Fire Group Four. Figure 20 illustrates the the openings, Douglas-fir and possibly ponderosa role of fire in succession with these species. (Subse- pine establish in the exposed mineral soil (G2, G3) quent letters in this section refer to figure 20). and provide another pathway for a mixed stand to

Table 9-Reported fire frequencies for ponderosa pine-dominated Douglas-fir habitat types1 in the Boise Basin of central Idaho (Steele and others 1986) Mean fire interval Stand No. Elevation Habitat type (1700 to 1895) Feet 3 5,625 PSMEICAGE 9.8 1 4,600 PSMEISPBE 10.3 4 4,975 PSMVSPBE 18.1 6 4,850 PSMEIPHMA (dry extreme) 12.8 2 5,820 PSMEIPH MA (typical) 15.9 7 5,600 PSMEIPHMA (moist extreme) 21.7 ------'Utah stands of PSMEIPHMA do not generally have ponderosa pine as a major seral species. They are included in Fire Group 5. LEGEND Succession In absence of fire --+- Response to fire Low Cool or light surface lire Mod. Fire ol moderate severily Severe Hot stand-replacement fire

Figure PO-Hypothetical fire-related successional pathways for habitat types in Fire Group Four (A) where ponderosa pine is seral; (B) where Douglas-fir alone is seral. develop (E). Low to moderate fires keep the stand nonhost ponderosa pine, migrating budworms as open Douglas-fir. Severe fire at any stage of de- will land instead on the unpalatable pine or on velopment will remove both tree species from the the ground where they may desiccate, starve, or site (A). be eaten by various predators (Anderson and others Succession With Douglas-fir Alone--Sites 1987; Fellin and others 1983). where Douglas-fir is the only sera1 species are gener Habitat types in this fire group have generally ally open, with discontinuous fuels. Severe fires are low potential for timber production. Low site index, infrequent unless they originate in neighboring, stocking limitations, and steep slopes make these more productive stands. Following a stand-replacing sites more valuable for other uses. Where regenera- fire, resprouting shrubs and herbaceous vegetation tion of Douglas-fir or ponderosa pine is a concern, dominate the site. Given an adequate seed source, some shading will protect seedlings and reduce the Douglas-fir seedlings soon follow (B). Any fire from cover of competitive shrubs. Low-severity fires that this state until the pole stage will cause the stand do not top-kill tall shrubs and scarification without to revert to shrub and herb vegetation. Pole-sized burning are better options where shrub competition trees may tolerate low to possibly low-moderate is a problem (Steele 1988). Scarification treatment fires. Stands are further opened by these fires, and may encourage pocket gophers more than burning, in the canopy-openings, shrubs, herbs, and more and compaction may be a problem. Douglas-fir seedlings will establish (Cl). Without Big-game winter range and spring range can be fire, a mature stand of Douglas-fir develops, with rejuvenated with properly applied prescribed fire. young Douglas-fir in the understory (D). Low- Such fires can reduce encroachment of Douglas-fir, severity fires thin smaller trees and create mineral remove accumulated dead plant materials, recycle seedbed. Moderate fires may remove the understory nutrients, regenerate mature shrubs and decadent but are unlikely to kill large overstory trees. The shrubs, and increase distribution and production of result of a moderate fire is a more open, parklike nutrient-rich grasses and forbs. Prescribed fire can stand of mature trees (Dl). A climax stand may con- be used to increase the nutritional value of critical tain several age classes of trees and is maintained wintering and fawning habitat, and thereby reduce by low and moderate fires. In the unlikely event of neonatal fawn losses of mule deer (Schneegas and a severe fire, the stand will return to the initial tree- Bumstead 1977). less condition (A). The shrubby understory of Group Four stands provides seasonal browse and cover for wild ungulates. Pseudotsuga menziesiilCercocarpus ledifolius sites Fire Management Considerations are important nesting sites for blue grouse and Fire uses in Group Four stands include hazard re- American kestrel. The complex vertical structure of duction, seedbed preparation, control of species com- Pseudotsuga menziesiilQuercus gambelii stands is position, safeguarding recreation sites, improving also valuable habitat for birds. Fire may be used to wildlife habitat, and enhancing esthetic values. thin the overstory and rejuvenate sprouting shrubs In the absence of fire, hazardous fuel situations or provide good seedbed for shrubs that spread by can develop in some stands in Fire Group Four. A seed. Cattle use Fire Group Four sites mainly for combination of dense Douglas-fir (or ponderosa pine) resting when they are grazing on adjacent shrub understories, accumulated deadfall, decadent shrubs, or grasslands. and other accumulated litter and debris can produce Grazing has accelerated succession to conifers in fires severe enough to scorch the crowns and kill the Douglas-fir stands by reducing the cover of compet- cambium of overstory trees. ing understory plants, exposing favorable seedbed, Fire may be used to reduce the susceptibility of and eliminating fine fuels that carry thinning fires. Douglas-fir stands to western spruce budworm. In Armour and others (1984) observed the effect of Montana, the increased duration and severity of different fire intensities on understory recovery western spruce budworm outbreaks in the last sev- in an Idaho Pseudotsuga menziesiilPhysocarpus eral decades appears to be associated with the de- malvaceus habitat type. They found that reduct- crease in fire extent, which began with the advent of ion in graminoid abundance depended more on the effective fire suppression. Where Douglas-fir makes amount of duff and large woody fuel consumed than up the understory beneath ponderosa pine, or where fire line intensity or flame length. Heat transferred it forms multistoried stands, the potential for an in- into the soil when heavier fuels are consumed causes tensive budworm attack is much greater. A high mortality. Flame length is dependent on fine he1 density of Douglas-fir increases the chance that bud- amount and moisture content, whereas dufl and worms migrating downward from the canopy will large fuels are consumed after the flame front land in other suitable host trees. Where stands are passes. Greater fire line intensity significantly open, or where there are significant amounts of impacted graminoid response only when both fine surface fuels and duff were dry. Careful fuel mea- the northern portion of the State, and they dominate surements, pre- and postfire, can help managers midelevation forests on calcareous soils in the Uinta predict the effects of fire on important forage species. Mountains. In central and southern Utah, the el- A guide to prescribed fire opportunities in grass- evational range of Group Five habitat types is be- lands invaded by Douglas-fir has been prepared by tween 8,000 and 9,700 ft (2,438 and 2,957 m), gener- Gruel1 and others (1986). Although the specific ally above the range of ponderosa pine. Unlike the study location was in Montana, the basic principles majority of drier types in Fire Group Four, Fire and guidelines presented are generally applicable to Group Five habitat types may be capable of forming other dry Douglas-fir sites as well. Managers who dense overstories made up of Douglas-fir or lodge- ' are interested in using fire to enhance productivity pole pine. Dominant associated small trees and of grassland or shrubland where Douglas-fir en- shrubs include Acer glabrum, Juniperus communis, croachment is a problem may wish to refer to this pachystima myrsinites, Physocarpus malvaceus, publication. prunus virginiana, Ribes montigenum, and Sym- phoricarpos oreophil us. Bromus carinat us, FIRE GROUP FIVE: COOL OR MOIST Calamagrostis rubescens, Carex geyeri, Elymus DOUGLAS-FIR HABITAT TYPES glaucus, and Poa secunda are graminoids that are often present. Forbs occurring in these stands in- Habitat Types, Phases clude species such as Achillea millefolium, Arnica cordifolia, Lathyrus lanzwertii, Osmorhiza chilensis, Pseudotsuga menziesiilAcer glabrum h. t. (PSMEI Smilacina racemosa, and Thalictrum fendleri. ACGL), Douglas-fir1Rocky Mountain maple Pseudotsuga menziesiilBerberis repens h.t.- .' Juniperus communis phase (PSMEIBERE-JUCO), Forest Fuels Douglas-firlcreeping Oregon grape-common juni- In comparable Montana Douglas-fir stands, per phase downed fuel loads averaged about 13 tonslacre Pseudotsuga menziesiilBerberis repens h.t.- (29 metric tonsha) but may be considerably heavier. Symphoricarpos oreophilus phase (PSMEIBERE- Closed stands with dense Douglas-fir understories SYOR), Douglas-firlcreeping Oregon grape- present the highest fire hazard. Stands may have mountain snowberry phase large amounts of downed twigs and small branch- Pseudotsuga menziesiilBerberis repens h. t.-Berberis wood (fig. 22). Downed as well as standing dead repens phase (PSME/BERE-BERE), Douglas-fir/ - - - trees resulting from dwarf mistletoe mortality and . creeping Oregon grape-creeping Oregon grape associated witches' brooms may add greatly to fuel phase (Uintas) loads and corresponding fire hazard. If dense under- Pseudotsuga menziesii1Calamagrostis rubescens h-t. stories are absent, fire hazard is reduced accord- (PSMEICARU), Douglas-firlpinegrass ingly; however, the dense overstory trees and the Pseudotsuga menziesii/Osmorhiza chilensis h.t.- presence of dead branches near the ground create Pachistims myrsinites phase PS MEYOSC H-PAMY), a crown fire potential under severe burning condi- Douglas-firlmountain sweetroot-myrtle pachistima tions. Fuel conditions in stands dominated by either phase lodgepole pine or aspen are less hazardous than in Pseudotsuga menziesii/Physocarpus malvaceus h. t. those dominated by Douglas-fir. Ladder fuels are (PSMEIPHMA), Douglas-firlnin ebark less prevalent, and there is less probability of fire Pseudotsuga menziesiilPhysocarpus maluacew h.t.- moving from the forest floor to the crown (Crane Pachistima myrsinites phase (PSMEYPHMA- and Fischer 1986; Fischer and Clayton 1983). PAMY), Douglas-fir/ninebark,myrtle pachistima phase >. Pseudotsuga menziesiilSymphoricarpos oreophilus Role of Fire h. t. (PSME/SYOR), Douglas-firlmoun tain Forests dominated by Douglas-fir and lodgepole snowbeny pine have variable fire regimes (Kilgore 1981). To- pography, weather, stand structure, and fuel loading Vegetation all contribute to different patterns of fire intensity and frequency in these stands. A range of fire be- Fire Group Five consists of relatively moist havior, from light surface to stand replacement, can Douglas-fir habitat types, or phases of habitat types, occur. As a result, a mosaic of fire treatments prob- where lodgepole pine, aspen, bigtooth maple, or ably existed across the historical landscape, with Douglas-fir may be major sera1 species (fig. 21). much variability within a single fire treatment These types!occur on cooler or more moist exposures (ho1980). Stands were thinned or replaced, and between 5,000 and 9,000 ft (1,524 and 2,743 m) in species relationships were altered. Low or thinning Figure 21-Douglas-firlmountain snowberry stand with dense Douglas-fir understory beneath seral aspen and ponderosa pine. Fallen aspen are evident in the foreground (Dixie Nat ionai Forest).

Figure 22-In Fire Group Five, Douglas-fir stands downed woody fuel accumulations vary with habitat type and dominant seral species. Fire hazard increases as Douglas- fir replaces seral aspen and lodgepole pine. fires favored Douglas-fir because mature trees are Succession With Lodgepole Pine and fairly fire resistant, and the relatively shade-tolerant Douglas-fir (fig. 23)-Where lodgepole pine and seedlings were able to establish in moderate amounts Douglas-fir are seral, a stand of herbs and shrubs of residual duff. Stand-replacement fires favored se- follows stand-replacement fires (A). Repeated fires ral lodgepole pine or aspen on sites where seeds or maintain the treeless condition. Conifer seedlings suckering roots were available. The success of aspen and saplings soon dominate the site without subse- regeneration depended partly on severity of the fire. quent fires (B). Seed availability and site conditions A high-severity burn reduced or eliminated suckering help determine the relative proportions of each spe- if shallow roots were exposed to lethal heating. cies in the stand. Where serotinous lodgepole pine Habitat types in this fire group are more moist was present in the preburn stand or where open- and provide better stocking conditions than habitat coned seedtrees are nearby, lodgepole pine may be types in Fire Group Four, and succession may pro- quite dense. Fires of all severities can remove seed- ceed more quickly. Aspect affects the rate of tree lings and saplings, and the stand reverts to the her- seedling establishment. On moist Douglas-fir and baceous state. A dense to open stand of poles devel- subalpine habitat types in northwestern Montana, ops in the absence of fire (C). Low to moderate fires Shearer (1976) found that natural regeneration was thin the stand and open areas for further conifer re- best on north-facing aspects. generation (Cl). Moderate to severe fires remove Fire histories for moist or cool Douglas-fir types most or all of the trees. in Utah are lacking. Douglas-fir in the Uinta Moun- As Douglas-fir and lodgepole pine increase in di- tains have multiple fire scars and stands contain ameter, they develop greater fire resistance. Low- much scattered charcoal, indicating fire has oc- severity fires have little effect on older stands (D,F). curred at relatively frequent intervals in the past. Moderate fires can cause extensive mortality of In northwestern Utah, most stands are second lodgepole pine even in larger size classes. Douglas- growth, having become established after extensiGe fir is considerably more fire resistant and can sur- cutting and burning during settlement of the area vive most moderate-severity fires. An open stand at the end of the last century (Ma& and Henderson of Douglas-fir results from fire in a mixed species 1984). Older stumps with multiple fire scars are stand (E). As the overstory canopy closes, the more more widely distributed than present tree spacing, tolerant Douglas-fir is favored over lodgepole pine indicating that fire may have occurred at relatively in the understory. Low-severity fires may provide close intervals. Native Americans were likely re- microsites where some lodgepole pine can establish - sponsible for at least some of these fires (Gruell and maintain its presence in the stand (F). In the 1990). Large coverages of aspen, lodgepole pine, absence of fire, the result is a climax stand in which or Calamagrastis rubescens (pinegrass) on the land- lodgepole pine is replaced by Douglas-fir (G).The scape may indicate the occurrence of severe fires in thick-barked old-growth trees can survive low and the past. moderate fires. Small openings created by fire are Arno (1980) reported a mean fire-free interval of quickly repopulated with Douglas-fir seedlings. 15 to 30 years for the Douglas-fir habitat types in Only severe fires threaten the climax stand, and the Northern Rocky Mountains. In southwestern then even the largest trees are destroyed. The stand mixed conifer stands, mean intervals of 13.8 and then reverts to herbs and shrubs (A). 11.8 years were obtained (Ahlstrand 1980). Pseudo- Succession With Aspen (fig. 24)-The initial tsuga menziesiilPhysocarpus malvaceus and Pseudo- postfire herb community will rapidly give way to a tsuga menziesiilVaccinium globulare stands in west- stand of aspen resprouts (B). Some Douglas-fir may ern Montana had mean fire-free intervals of 15.8 establish in openings. Any fire in this stage will de- years (Crane and others 1983). In southwestern stroy the stand. In the absence of fire, a pole-sized Montana, Douglas-firlbunchgrass and Pseudotsuga stand of aspen develops, with an understory of menziesiilCalamagrostis rubescens stands had a his- slower growing Douglas-fir (C). Low-severity fires toric mean fire-free interval of 26 years (Arno and open the stand, providing microsites where aspen Gruell 1986). suckers and Douglas-fir seedlings can establish. Moderate fires probably eliminate Douglas-fir and Forest Succession aspen stems, and new aspen suckers again dominate the postfire site. If fire does not occur in this stage, Lodgepole pine, Douglas-fir, aspen, or bigtooth a mixed stand develops (D). Douglas-fir shares the maple are the major seral species in Fire Group overstory with aspen, and Douglas-fir dominates the Five. Figures 23 through 25 illustrate the role of understory. Moderate fires remove the understory fire with each of these species (letters in this section and kill aspen stems, creating an open Douglas-fir refer to these figures). stand with resprouting aspen (Dl). Low-severity LEGEND Succession In __I, absence ol lire -----b Rssponse to ?Ire Low Cool or llght surlrce llre Mod. Fire of moderate 69verily Severe Hot cland-replacement lire

Figure 23-Hypothetical fire-related successional pathways for habitat types in Fire Group Five where lodgepole pine and Douglas-fir share dominance as seral species.

severe r-----+------

LEGEND

- -3 Response to fire

Mod. Fire of moderate severlty Severe Hot stand-replacement (Ire severe Figure 24-Hypothetical fire-related successional pathways for habitat types in Fire Group Five where aspen is the dominant seral species. fires maintain the stand, opening gaps for regenera- an adequate seed source (B). Douglas-fir is probably tion of either species. If no fires occur, aspen be- restricted to openings in the maple cover at this comes less prominent (E). Once Douglas-fir makes stage of development (B). Because young maple up a significant part of the overstory, it continues clones can form a dense canopy, conifer invasion to be favored by low to moderate fire. Older trees may be slow. Douglas-firs that gain a foothold in are fire-resistant, and the overstory remains intact. openings early in stand development continue to This environment is too shady to sustain aspen grow, however, and a mixed stand may result by the resprouts. Moderate fires result in a more open pole stage (C). Low-severity fires thin trees and kill stand, with Douglas-fir and some residual aspen in smaller diameter maple sbms, clearing areas for canopy openings. The climax stand is a multiaged tree seedlings and new resprouts. Moderate fires Douglas-fir forest (F). If there is a severe fire after remove much of the Douglas-fir and top-kill most of the remaining aspen roots have died, the succes- the maple, initiating a new cycle of resprouting (C 1). sional sequence resembles that where Douglas-fir is Without fire, conifers begin to dominate more of the the only seral and climax species (Fire Group Four). stand, forming an overstory of varying density above Succession With Bigtooth Maple (fig. 25)- the maple (D). There may be both Douglas-fir and Although bigtooth maple has been observed to re- maple regeneration beneath the canopy. Bigtooth sprout following top removal, little is known about maple plants can establish from both seedlings and its successional role in Utah Douglas-fir habitat types. layered stems. If fire does not occur, Douglas-fir As a result the successional pathway here is mostly eventually dominates both the overstory and the supposition based on knowledge of the general ecol- understory. Remnant maple may survive in the understory for a long time (E). In some habitat types, ogy of Douglas-fir and bigtooth maple. .. After a stand-destroying fire, bigtooth maple especially the Pseudotsuga rnenziesiilAcer grandi- resprouts will replace the initial postfire herb stage. dentaturn type, bigtooth maple is a normal under- Douglas-fir seedlings may also occur where there is story component at climax. In other types climax

severe

severe LEGEND Successlon In absence of fire ------) Response to tire Low Coot or llght surface fire Mod. Fire of moderate severity Severe Hot stand-replacement fire Figure.25-Hypothetical fire-related successional pathways for habitat types in Fire Group Five where bigtooth maple is the dominant seral species. consists of multiaged Douglas-fir little affected by Abies concolorlBerberis repens h.t.-Symphoricarpos low to moderate fire (F). The potential for severe oreophilus phase (ABCO/BERE-SYOR), white fir/ fire increases with stand age as young and sup- creeping Oregon grape-mountain snowberry phase pressed understory conifers form fuel ladders. Se- Abies concolorlBerberis repens h.t.-Berberis repens vere fires remove Douglas-fir, and maple may again phase (ABCOIBERE-BERE), white firlcreeping dominate early succession where its resprouting Oregon grape-creeping Oregon grape phase roots or rhizomes have survived in the stand. Where Abies concolorlCercocarpus ledifolius h.t. (ABCO/ Douglas-fir persists, subsequent succession is domi- CELE), white firlcurlleaf mountain-mahogany nated by Douglas-fir until maple is able to invade Abies concolorlJuniperus communis h.t. (ABCO/ the stand from off-site sources. JUCO), white firlcommon juniper Abies concolorlOsmorhiza chilensis h.t. (ABCOI Fire Management Considerations OSCH), white firlmountain sweetroot Abies concolorlPhysocarpus malvaceus h.t. (ABCOI Management opportunities in Fire Group Five PHMA), white firhinebark habitat types are limited by steep slopes, brush con- Abies concolorlQuercus gambelii h.t. (ABCOIQUGQ), trol problems, and, on many sites, harsh conditions white firIGambe1 oak for regeneration. Fire may serve as a means of thin- Abies concolorlSymphoricarpos oreophilus h. t. ning otherwise inaccessible stands. Fire can also be (ABCOISYOR), white fidmountain snowberry used to sanitize postlogging stands by removing re- Picea pungensl'gropyron spicatum h. t. (PIPUI sidual trees infested with dwarf mistletoe (Arceu- AGSP), blue spruce/bluebunch wheatgrass thobium douglasii) (Alexander and Hawksworth Picea pungenslBerberis repens h.t. (PIPU/BERE), 1975). Low-severity fires may be the best for stand blue sprucelcreeping Oregon grape (central and regeneration. They can thin understory trees but southern Utah) leave mature Douglas-fir to provide wind and sun Picea pungenslJuniperus communis h.t. (PIPUI protection for seedlings. Moderate shading may also JUCO), blue sprucelcommon juniper slow the regrowth of competing shrubs. Fire can reduce fuels, recycle nutrients, and pro- Vegetation vide mineral seedbed. Where aspen is a sera1 species, fire can stimulate suckering and rejuvenate Fire Group Six consists of nonriparian white fir stands. Fire top-kills decadent shrubs, which often climax habitat types and three upland types where respond by resprouting prolifically. Resprouts are blue spruce is the potential climax dominant. White more succulent and nutritious to wildlife and live- fir habitat types occur throughout Utah, but are stock than the old, woody stems. more important in the central and southern portions Grazing can impact conifer succession by reducing of the State. They are particularly common on the the cover of competing undergrowth plants, exposing southern plateaus (fig. 26). White fir is climax favorable seedbed, and reducing the fine fuels needed where conditions are too droughty or warm for domi- to carry low-severity fires. In central Idaho, grazing nance by subalpine fir or Engelmann spruce, but are favored Douglas-fir regeneration in a Pseudotsuga often moister than those on Douglas-fir climax sites. menziesiilPhysocarpus malvaceus habitat type where The northerly distribution of white fir may be lim- a relatively closed canopy and duff conditions pre- ited by cold winter temperatures. Its northern limit vented good establishment of ponderosa pine in the Rocky Mountains is Cottonwood Creek, east (Zimmerman and Neuenschwander 1983). of Logan, UT. This limit may correspond to a mean maximum January temperature of 32 OF (0 OC), FIRE GROUP SIX: WHITE FIR AND within the lower altitudinal limits of white fir. Pre- BLUE SPRUCE HABITAT TYPES dation by rodents may also affect success of white fir. Porcupines appear to prefer white fir over other (MIXED CONIFER TYPES) conifers, and mice oRen browse terminal buds and Habitat Types, Phases branches (Hayward 1946; Mauk and Henderson 1984). Predation by rodents combined with unfavor- Abies concolorlAcer glabrum h.t. (ABCOIACGL), able weather conditions probably prevent white fir white fir1Rocky Mountain maple from dominating on lower montane sites at the Abies concolorlArctostaphylos patula h. t. (ABCOI higher latitudes. It is replaced by Douglas-fir as a ARPA), white firlgreenleaf manzanita climax dominant on these sites (Mauk and Henderson Abies concolorlBerberis repens h.t.-Juniperus 1984). communis phase (ABCOIBERE-JUCO), white fir1 White fir stands vary in their density and compo- creeping Oregon grape-common juniper phase sition. Drier habitat types may support only scattered trees and have predominantly shrubby Figure 26-Typical white fir or mixed conifer stand on the Paunsaugunt Plateau. Snags of early seral ponderosa and limber pine are evident.

vegetation. Where conditions are more favorable, another is rarely complete over a wide area, and sue there may be a dense canopy of conifers, often a mix- cessful regeneration and establishment in a given ture of white fir and Douglas-fir (fig. 27). Some stand may depend on local topoedaphic conditions habitat types appear to be dominated for very long and disturbance history more than on relative shade periods of time by Douglas-fir or ponderosa pine. On tolerance or climate. these sites white fir is restricted to the understory, Common seral associates in this Fire Group in the apparent climax dominant, but it rarely achieves the northern mountains are Douglas-fir and aspen. ' that state. Gambel oak or bigtooth maple may achieve treelike '" Blue spruce grows in a range of conditions from stature on some sites and may be important seral warm, dry, steep slopes to mesic stream bottoms. In species. In the central and southern region, ponde- northern Utah, it is able to outcompete Douglas-fir rosa pine becomes increasingly important and blue on warm dry sites with calcareous substrates. On spruce, limber pine, or Rocky Mountain juniper may : more moderate sites, it may be difficult to discern a also be more minor associates. single climax dominant. The relationship between White fir and blue spruce also grow in riparian the species may be similar to that between Engel- situations where they may be associated with box- mann spruce and subalpine fir. Because of its lon- elder or one or more cottonwood species. Rarely, En- gevity, Douglas-fir, like Engelmann spruce, can re- gelmann spruce or subalpine fir may be part of the main as a long-term dominant on a site where blue species mix on these very moist sites. The general spruce may be the recognized climax species because fire response of moist-site subalpine conifers is de- of its dominance in the understory. Blue spruce is scribed in Fire Group Eleven, and the basic succes- less tolerant than white fir, and where these species sional patterns probably apply to white fir-dominated grow together, it is considered seral. As one moves riparian sites as well. The PIPUIEQAR h.t., which south or east through Utah into Arizona, New Mexico, occurs on lower subirrigated slopes and riparian areas and Colorado, blue spruce, Douglas-fir, and white fir in southern Utah, is assigned tx, Fire Group Eleven. are often found together in "southwestern mixed co- Shrubs and small trees characterize the under- ; nifer" forests. The dominance of one species over story of Fire Group Six stands. Important shrub Figure 27-Dense white firfcreeping Oregon-grape stand near Beaver, UT. Seral species are ponderosa pine, aspen, and Rocky Mountain juniper. Downed woody fuel is scant, but there are plenty of live ladder fuels. Note needle draping on understory conifers. species are: Acer glabrum, A. grandidentaturn, mixed conifer typetvere probably no more than one- Amelanchier alnifolia, Arctostaphylos patula, Cerco- fourth to one-third of present-day loadings, or 12.14 carpus ledifolius, Juniperus communis, Mahonia to 18.20 tondacre (27.21 to 40.80 metric tonsha). repens, Pachystima myrsinites, Purshia tridentata, Under a natural fire regime, rates of fuel accumula- Quercus gambelii, Ribes cereum, Rosa woodsii, and tion would have accelerated for 3 to 5 years follow-

Symphoricarpos oreophilus. Graminoids include ' ing area-wide fires until the material that was killed Brom us cinereus, Carex geyeri, C. rossii, Elymus was deposited on the ground. Sufficient fie1 to sup- elymoides, Poa fendleriana, P. secunda, Pseudo- port another fire accumulated within a relatively roegneria spicata, and Stipa lettermanii. Achillea short time (Dieterich 1983). millefolium, Arnica cordifolia, Astragalus miser, Forest floor and downed woody fuel loadings were Balsamorhiza sagittata, Erigeron peregrinus, inventoried on the Apache-Sitgreaves National For- Geranium viscosissimum, Lathyrus lanzwertii, est in Arizona. Litter, fermentation, and humus lay- L. pauciflorus, Solidago parryi, and Thalictrum ers averaged 22.25 tonslacre (55 metric tondha), of fendleri are dominant forbs. which 15.37 tondacre (38 metric tonsha) was in the humus layer. Combined woody forest fuel and forest Forest Fuels floor material was 53.8 tondacre (133 metric tonsha) (Dieterich 1983). Averaged loadings for 16 mixed co- Summarized fuel loading information for Utah nifer stands in Arizona and New Mexico are shown in white fir and blue spruce habitat types is not avail- table 10. able. Fuel estimates for mixed conifer stands in The mean depth and weight of the mixed conifer neighboring Arizona should be comparable to Utah forest floor measured in three Arizona watersheds stands. The absence of fire since the latter 19th cen- were 1.6 inches (4 cm) and 13.0 tondacre (29 metric tury has made white fir habitat types more suscep- tonsha) respectively, with the greatest accumula- tible to severe fires than was the case historically. tions in the fermentation and humus layers Fuel loadings have increased significantly during (Ffolliott and others 1977). the long fire-free interval. Historical loadings in the Table 10-Averaged loadings for 16 mixed conifer stands in of resistant species. Patches in less flammable situa- Arizona and New Mexico (Sackett 1979) tions were often spared. Some patches burned in- Fuel type Tondacre tensely, especially where insects or disease left local concentrations of fuel. In such hot spots even large L layer needle material 1.I trees, especially of susceptible species, were scarred or F layer needle material 3.9 killed. Partly as a consequence, irregular structures H layer needle material 12.3 are the rule in mixed conifer stands... . %inch diameter woody material 1.4 to 1-inch woody material 2.2 Dieterich (1980, 1983) reported an average fire Other material 1.3 interval of 22 years for mixed conifer stands in the White Mountains of Arizona. Kilgore and Taylor Total dead fuel 0- to 1-inch diameter 22.2 (1979) estimated the fire frequency of white fir in 1- to 3-inch woody material 3.3 the southern Sierra Nevada to be between 8 and >3-inch rotten woody material 10.3 18 years. White fir has low fire resistance as a 3-inch sound woody material 8.3 young tree because of its relatively thin bark and Total dead fuel >l -inch diameter 21.9 low branching habit. Its resistance increases as its All dead fuel 44.1 bark thickens with age. Fire carried by shrubby undergrowth tree species such as Gambel oak or corn- mon juniper can torch out understory conifer trees. More fire-resistant seral species, such as ponderosa Role of Fire pine or Douglas-fir, are favored by frequent fires of low to moderate severity. White fir is favored and Little is known about presettlement fire history in becomes dominant where fire is excluded. Utah white fir or blue spruce stands. Logging operations during the period of European settlement altered natural stand composition. The species that Forest Succession provide the best fire record (ponderosa pine and Generalized patterns of succession in southwest- Douglas-fir) were much sought after for lumber and ern mixed conifer and subalpine fir forests have often selectively removed. Accidental fires caused been proposed (Jones 1974; fig. 28). Utah white fir by logging, mining, or agricultural activity altered and blue spruce habitat types are similar. There are the fire regime by burning areas at seasons or fre- a number of potential seral species, and patterns of quencies different than those prevalent in the pre- postfire succession are variable. Aspen, ~ouglas-fir,- settlement period. As a result, the information we and ponderosa pine are important seral trees. On do have must be supplemented by studies done in some sites, bigtooth maple or Gambel oak dominate other similar, but less impacted areas. The fire ecol- sera1 stands. The relationship of seral species to ogy of white fir appears similar to drier grand fir white fir is similar to that of Douglas-fir, and 0x1 habitat types described for central Idaho (Crane and some sites Douglas-fir is codominant with white fir. Fischer 1986; Steele and others 1981). Proximity, Figure 29 illustrates the hypothetical role of fire in similar precipitation patterns, and lightning fre- Utah white fir or blue spruce stands (letters in the quencies suggest that southern Utah white fir and following section refer to fig. 29). blue spruce forests are comparable to the mixed co- A severe fire results in state A, the herb condition- nifer type in Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico. If the roots of Gambel oak, bigtooth maple, or aspen Hypothesized fire response of southwestern mixed are present, this stage is short-lived. A stand of conifer stands (Jones 1974) as well as those for resprouts made up of one or more species will de- montane white fir forests in the Sierra Nevada of velop quickly. Seedlings and saplings of ponderosa California (Parsons and ~e~enedetti1979) provide pine, Douglas-fir, and possibly blue spruce or white relevant information. fir may also be found (B). A dense shrub cover can The presettlement fire interval in Fire Group restrict ponderosa pine to openings or even exclude Six was probably relatively short (Youngblood and it from the site. The more tolerant Douglas-fir, blue Mauk 1985). Tree species that require open stands spruce, and white fir are able to establish beneath and mineral soil for regeneration are commonly the shrub canopy. A fire in this state kills the con- found in white fir stands. Jones (1974) summarized ifers and aboveground portions of the aspen and what he thought to be the historical role of fire in shrubs, returning the stand to the herb state. Aspen mixed conifer forests of Arizona and New Mexico: grows rapidly and will be the first tree to dominate Primeval wilflires were important to the composi- the stand in the absence of fire (C). pole-sized trees tion and structure of mixed conifer forests. Most fires of conifer species are also present, but may suffer were light, and therefore killed many seedlings and slower growth rates if they are beneai;h the aspen saplings but generally spared larger trees, especially canopy. Low or moderate fires thin the stand and -- -- &PRVCE..FIR1L~T~Jl~~fQ~~olDOUGLAS-FIR

DOUGLAS-FIR DOUGLAS-FIR DOWLAS-FR SPRUCE-FIR SPRUCE-FIR (-) 7500-10.000 8500- 10,000

Figure 28-Generalized successional pathway for southwestern mixed conifer and subalpine forests (Jones 1974). Fire Group Six white fir and blue spruce habitat types resemble mixed conifer stands in their successional patterns.

LEGENO Succession In -r absence of fire --+ Response to flre tow Cool or llghl surface fire Mod. Flre of moderate 8everllY Severe Hot stand-replacement llre

Figure 29-Hypothetical fire-related successional pathways for habitat types in Fire Group Six. top-kill the resprouting species. White fir and blue Fire may be applied to enhance multiple resource spruce are the least fire-resistant conifers present values in the right circumstances. Replacing conifer and are probably eliminated by all but coolest fires cover with aspen, shrub, or herbaceous vegetation (C3). The open pole stand is succeeded by a multi- will improve water yield (~eByle1985; Jaynes storied mixed forest made up of two or more species. 1978). Fire can enhance range and wildlife habitat The condition is maintained by low to moderate by rejuvenating decadent forage plants and by im- fires, with the species mix changing, depending on proving the overall vegetative composition on a site. the fire severity and the relative fire resistance of The patchy pattern of get at ion typically left by the species present. Without fire, a mature stand of fire in these stands provides a good mix of cover conifers develops and begins to shade out aspen and and open grazing and browsing areas. Frequent the sprouting shrubs (D). Again, low to moderate low-severity fires open closed stands for viewing fires serve to open these stands and reduce the cov- and stimulates the of aspen stands, erage of white fir (D3). A long fire-free period re- enhancing esthetics, On timber sites where shrub sults in an old-growth conifer stand of pine, Dou- competition is a coneem, fire may be used to im- glas-fir, and white fir or blue spruce (E). The effects Prove tree establishment. preharvest burns can of fire in this state resemble those described for reduce shrub seed resemes in the soil. "Prescribed drier Douglas-fir habitat types (Fire Group Four). fires kill many seeds and others to gemi- Older white fir may survive low-severity fires, but nate. The resulting can be eliminated by in general, ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir will natural mortality in the closed stands or by logging dominate after disturbance. Douglas-fir will domi- and postharvest site activities" (Pearce nate succession in stands where ponderosa pine has 1988). become senescent or where pine is not normally a se- Kilgore and Curtis (1987) have provided an excel- ral species (F). In either case, fire serves to prevent lent guide for understory burning beneath canopies white fir or blue spruce from dominating because of of~onderosapine, larch, Douglas-fir, and grand fir their fire intolerance. It may be possible to achieve (G), for Forest Service Regions 1and 6. They describe a climax state of multistoried white fir but this to very rarely happens. The fire frequency and longev- how define objectives, produce successful burning Prescriptions, use different burning techniques, and ity of ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir assure that monitor and evaluate burn results. These objectives stands will retain a more diverse species composition under a natural fire regime. and techniques are applicable to many Utah conifer stands dominated by ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, or As the stand ages, the chance of a crown or stand- white fir. Managers interested in burning in mixed replacement fire increases. An understory of young conifer stands should consult this guide. fir and Douglas-fir may form a fuel ladder to the Human intervention in many white fir and blue overstory. Severe fires in any successional stage spruce stands has affected their composition and will cause the site to revert to an herbaceous condi- density dramatically. Historic heavy grazing in tion and encourage aspen, oak, or maple resprouting open stands of white fir, blue spruce, Douglas-fir, where viable roots or rhizomes are still present. and ponderosa pine severely reduced the available Frequent low-severity fires and less frequent moder- fine fuel and thus the frequency of light surface ate fires maintain open stands of ponderosa pine or fires. Reduction in ground cover and fires permitted Douglas-fir and provide favorable microsites for the large numbers of conifer ~eedlingsto establish in establishment of other sera1 species. years when the spring moisture was greater than average. As stands became more dense, the less tol- Fire Management Cons jderations erant ponderosa pine seedlings were outcompeted by 1 i, Douglas-fir and white fir. White fir, the most toler- The timber potential of white fir and blue spruce stands in Utah varies widely. Timber potential in ant species, formed a dense understoq beneath se- central and southern parts of the State is usually ral conifers or aspen. ~i~~d-speciesstands and the low. Abies concolor/Osmorhiza chilensis in the vegetative mosaic of interspersed forest and grassy areas gave way to dense, multilayered forests of tol- northern portion of the State has some of the highest observed sample site index values of the mon- erant conifers with a depauperate .herb and shrub tane zone of northwestern Utah (Mauk and component. Today, wildfires on these sites are often Henderson 1984). Because of the overriding impor- severe, killing overstory trees, including relatively tance of other resource values, however, timber har- fire-resistant ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir. A vesting is usually limited. Watershed protection, careful program of prescribed burning may be used to reduce fuel hazards and return the stand to a wildlife habitat, range, and recreation are all important considerations throughout this fire group. more natural fire regime. FIRE GROUP SEVEN:ASPEN Pop ul us t remuloideslSymphoricarpos oreophilus/ DOMINATED HABITAT AND Festuca thurberi c.t. (POTRBYOWFETH), aspen/ mountain snowberrynhurber fescue COMMUNITY TYPES Populus tremuloideslSymphoricarposoreophilusRall Stable Community Types (Probably Forb c.t. (POTR/SYOmALL FORB), aspen/ mountain snowberryltall forb Climax Habitat Types) Populus tremuloideslVeratrum californicum c.t. Populus tremuloideslAmelanchier alnifolid (POTRNECA), aspedwestern false-hellebore Pteridium aquilinum c. t. (POTWAMAWPTAQ), aspen/serviceberry/bracken fern Community Types (and Cover Types) Populus tremuloideslAmelanchier alnifoliafl'all Forb Probably Sera1 to Coniferous Habitat c.t. (POTWARlALrTALL FORB), aspen/ serviceberryltall forb Spes Populus tremuloideslAmelanchier alnifolid Populus tremuloides-Abies lasiocarpa1Amelanchier Thalictrum fendleri c.t. (POTWAMALPTHFE), alnifolia c.t. (POTR-ABLA/AMAL), aspen- aspedserviceberrylFendler meadowrue subalpine firlserviceberry Populus tremuloideslAmelanchier alnifolia- Populus tremuloides-Abies ZasiocarpalCarex geyeri Symphoricarpos oreophiluslCalamagrostis c. t. (POTR-ABLAIC AGE), aspen-subalpine firlelk rubescens c.t. (POTWAMAL-SYOR/CARU), aspen/ sedge serviceberry-mountain snowberqdpinegrass Populus tremuloides-Abies 1asiocarpalCarex rossii Populus tremuloideslAmelanchier alnifolia- c.t. (POTR-ABLAICARO) aspen-subalpine fir1Ross Symp horicarpos oreophi1 uslTall Forb c. t. (POTW sedge AMAL-SYOR/TALL FORB), aspedserviceberry- Populus tremuloides-Abies 1asiocarpalJuniperus~ mountain snowberryltall forb communis c.t. (POTR-ABLAISUCO), aspen- Populus tremuloideslArtemisia tridentata c.t. subalpine firlcommon juniper (POTRIARTR), aspenbig sagebrush Populus tremuloides-Abies lasiocarpal Populus tremuloideslCalamagrostis rubescens c.t. Symphoricarpos oreophiluslThalictrum fendleri (POTR/CARU), aspedpinegrass c.t. (POTR-ABWSYORfl'HFE), aspen-subalpinefirl Populus tremuloideslCarex rossii c.t. (POTWCARO), mountain snowberryRendler meadowrue aspen/Ross sedge Populus tremuloides-Abies lasiocarpal Populus tremuloideslFestuca thurberi c.t. (POTR.1 Symphoricarpos oreophilus/Tall Forb c.t. (POTR- FETH), aspenlthurber fescue ABLAISYORPTALL FORB), aspen-subalpine fir1 Populus tremuloides/Tall Forb c.t. (POTRPTALL mountain snowberry/tall forb FORB), aspedtall forb Populus tremuloides-Abies Easiocarpa/Tall Forb c.t. Populus tremuloideslJuniperus communislCarex (POTR-ABMALL FORB) aspen-subalpine fir/ geyeri c. t. (POTRAJUCOICAGE), aspenkommon tall forb juniperlelk sedge Populus tremuloides-Abies concolorlArctostaphylos Populus tremuloideslJuniperus communislLupinus patula c.t. (POTR-ABCOIARPA), aspen-white fir1 argenteus c.t.(POTR/JUCOLUAR), aspen/common greenleaf manzanita juniperlsilvery lupine Populus tremuloides-Abies concolorlPoa pratensis Populus tremuloideslPteridium aquilinum c.t. c. t. (POTR-ABCOIPOPR), aspen-white fir1 (POTRPTAQ), aspenhacken fern Kentucky bluegrass Populus tremuloideslSambucus racemosa c.t. Populus tremuloides-Abies concolorlSymphoricarpos (POTR/SARA), aspenhed elderberry oreophilus c.t. (POTR-ABCOISYOR), aspen-white Populus tremuloideslStipa comata c.t. (POTW fir/mountain snowberry STCO), aspenheedle-and-thread Populus tremuloides-Picea pungens cover type Populus tremuloideslSymphoricarpos oreophilusl (POTR-PIPU cover type), aspen-blue spruce Carex rossii c.t. (POTWSYONCARO), aspen/ Populus tremuloides-Pinus flexilis cover type mountain snowberry/Ross sedge (POTR-PIFL cover type), aspen-limber pine Populus tremuloideslSymphoricarpos oreophilusl Populus tremuloides-Pinus ponderosa cover type Calamagrostis rubescens c.t. (POTR/SYOWCARU), (POTR-PIP0 COVER TYPE), aspen-ponderosa aspenlmountain snowberrylpinegrass pine Populus tremuloideslSymphoricarpos oreophilusl Populus tremuloides-Pinus contortalCarex geyeri c.t. Thalictrum fendleri c.t. (POTR/SYOR/"I'HFE), (POTR-PICOICAGE), aspen-lodgepole pine/elk aspen/mountain snowberry1Fendler meadowrue sedge Populus tremuloides-Pseudotsuga menziesiil Forest Fuels 1 Ainelanchier alnifolia c.t. (POTR-PSMEVAMAL), aspen-Douglas-firherviceberry Brown and Simmerman (1986) classified aspen Populus trernuloides-Pseudotsuga menziesiu stands in relation to fuels into five types: aspen- Juniperus communis c.t. (POTR-PSME/JUCO) c.t. dominated stands with shrubs, tall forbs, or low aspen-Douglas-fir/common juniper forbs (aspedshrub, aspedtall forb, aspedow forb), and mixed conifer and aspen stands with shrubs and forbs (mixedkhrubs, mixedforbs) (see table 11). Community Types Probably Grazing Although this classification is based on community Disclimaxes types found in southeastern. Idaho and western Populus tremuloideslAstragalus miser c.t. (POTRJ Wyoming, fuel type classification should be appli- ASMI), aspenkimber milkvetch cable in Utah stands where understory vegetation Populus tremuloides/Bromus carinatus c. t. (POTRI is similar. BRCA), aspedmountain brome Brown and Simmerman generalized their findings: Populus tremuloides/Poa pratensis c.t. (POTRI 1. Shrubs contributed significantly to fine fuel POPR), aspen/Kentucky bluegrass loadings. Populus tremuloideslJuniperus communisl 2. Fine fuel loadings differed substantially be- Astragalus miser c.t. (POTR/JUCO/ASMI), aspen/ tween the shrub and forb understory types and be- common juniperltimber milkvetch tween the aspedtall forb and aspen~lowforb types. 3. Herbaceous vegetation in the aspenhall forb Vegetation class averaged two to four times greater than in the other classes. Fire Group Seven includes community types 4. Litter loadings differed greatly among indi- where aspen appears to be climax or a long-term se- vidual stands within types, but the average differ- ral dominant. The basic ecology and fire manage- ence among types was small and not meaningful. ment of these types are also applicable to the sera1 5. Loadings of downed woody fuel 0 to 1inches conditions in other fire groups in which aspen is the (0 to 2.54 cm) and 0 to 3 inches (0 to 7.62 cm) in dominant species or the primary focus of manage- diameter also varied substantially from stand to ment activities. stand. The mixed types appear to have slightly Aspen is a widespread species throughout the more downed woody fuel than the other types, be- Rocky Mountains and the Intermountain West. cause conifer crowns shed more small dead twigs Utah alone has over 1.6 million acres (648,000 ha) and branches than aspen. Considering the variation of aspen-dominated forest (Mueggler and Campbell among stands, however, the differences among types 1986). Aspen is able to tolerate a wide range of envi- appear insignificant. This emphasizes the need to ronmental conditions and, as a consequence, is asso- appraise downed woody fuels on an individual stand ciated with a diverse number of understory shrub basis. and herbaceous species. A few species occur in a 6. Differences in dead fuel loadings between the - relatively large number of stands. Small tree and aspedshrub and mixedshrub types are small. Nev- - shrub species common to a number of community ertheless, these types should be regarded separately types include Amelanchier alnifolia, Mahoniu repens, because conifers in the mixed types are likely to Prunus virginiana, Rosa spp., and Symphoricarpos torch, thus creating a more severe fire. (The same oreophilus. Aspen stands have a particularly rich relationship exists between the aspen/low forb and forb component with Achillea ~illefolium,Agastache mixed/low forb types.) urticifolia, Aquilegia caerulea,'iAster engelmannii, Brown and Simmerman (1986) further found that Corallorhiza maculata, Delphinium spp., Descurania heavy grazing can reduce fine fuels so that fireline richardsonii, Fragaria virginiana, Geranium viscos- intensity and rates of spread may be as low as one- issimum, Lathyrus spp., Lupinus spp., Mertensia tenth that of ungrazed stands. Fire in aspen stands arizonica, Osmorhiza spp., Potentilla gracilis, will not spread unless flame lengths are 1to 1.5 ft Smilacina stellata, Stellaria jamesiana, Thalictrum (2.54 to 3.81 cm), which requires at least 50 percent fendleri, and Viola spp. common. The number of cured herbaceous vegetation in the aspedshrub and graminoid species is considerably less, but Calama- aspenhall forb types (fig. 30). Surface fuels in pure grostis r ubescens, Carex geyeri, Elymus glaucus, E. aspen stands are not typically conducive to prolonged trachycaulus ssp. trachycaulus, Festuca thurberi, flaming or burnout owing to a lack of intermediate Poa pratensis, P. secunda, and Stipa nelsonii, may fuels 0.4 to 3 inches (1 to 8 cm) in diameter. In all be significant members of the community. all cases, the presence of conifers increases stand Table 11-Average fuel loadings and shrub cover from sampled stands representing the aspen fuel types sampled in southeastern Idaho and western Wyoming (Brown and Simmerman 1986) Aspen- Aspen- Aspen- Mixed- Mlxed- Fuel shrub tall forb low forb shrub forb ------Lb/acre...... Herbaceous 670 1,330 300 90 290 (230-1,000) (1,030-2,020) (1 80-460) (80-90) (10-550)

Litter

Downed woody 2,440 - 1,080 2,600 4,240 2,710 0- to 1-inch (710-4,220) (620-1,440) (1,460-3,690) (3,400-5,000) (1,440-3,900) Downed woody 7,020 7,340 5,720 6,970 7,810 0- to 3-inch (3,580-12,510) (1,520-16,210) (3,290-7,600) (5,550-0,390) (4,090-12,250) ------Percent------Shrub cover 40 10 10 60 20 (30-60) (0-20) (0-30) (60-70) (1 0-30) 'Shrubs indude foliage and stemwood. *Fines include live and dead herbaceous plants and shrubs, litter, and 0 to 1-inch downed woody fuel.

flammability significantly (fig. 31). Further discus- significant role in maintaining and regenerating sion of this useful report may be found in the Fire aspen on such sites. Management Considerations section of Fire Group Fire frequencies of 100 to 300 years appear to be Seven. appropriate for maintaining most seral aspen stands (DeByle and others 1987). Fires in aspen and aspen- Role of Fire conifer stands before and during the mid-19th century were apparently larger and more frequent than Many aspen stands in the West are even-aged has been true since. In Ephraim Canyon, Baker seral stages of coniferous habitat types and result (1925) believed fire may have occurred as often as from rapid suckering after disturbance such as fire. every 7 to 10 years, based on aspen bole scars he In the Intermountain region, however, perhaps a attributed to heat injury. DeByle and others (1987) third of the aspen stands are believed to be rela- list several factors possibly contributing to the re- tively stable and occur on sites unsuited to conifers duction in fire occurrence in modern times: (Mueggler 1989). Uneven-aged stands often occur where aspen is the apparent climax dominant. 1. Direct control of wildfires during the past 50 Here, regeneration takes place as a gradual process, years has been especially effective, particularly in with new suckers establishing as older stems die the aspen type. from age or disease. Uneven-aged structure also oc- 2. For the past century, most aspen stands in the curs where aspen clones invade adjacent grasslands West have been grazed by domestic livestock. Thus, or shrublands. The frequency of fire and its impor- fine fiels have been reduced each summer before tance to community development may differ between they cure and contribute to fire spread in the even-aged and uneven-aged stands. Uneven-aged autumn. stands may be able to perpetuate themselves with- 3. During the 19th century, Native Americans out periodic disturbance by fire or cutting. On some were removed from most of their former homeland. sites, even-aged stands may become uneven aged Their deliberate use of fire on wildlands prior to over time as individual stems die and new sprouts Caucasian settlement is well documented. take their place (Baker 1925). On many others 4. Perhaps most of the flammable aspen-conifer though, conifers will suppress aspen regeneration, mixed stands were burned during the late 1800's. or the stand loses reproductive vigor as stems die Succession to flammable conifers in this type may and new sprouts are not initiated. Fire plays a just now be reaching a critical fuel condition that, in the next drought period, may result in uncontrollable Figure 30-The lush undergrowth typical of many aspen stands frequently limits fire spread. Successful prescribed burning is generally restricted to times when the vegetation is in a cured condition.

Figure 31-Mixed stands of conifer and aspen have more downed and dead fuel. : Young conifers in the understory and a shrubby undergrowth increase flammability. fires and another pulse of extensive, more or less with low-severity fires, which may not kill enough pure, aspen stands. stems, or high-severity fires, which may kill shallow aspen roots (Brown 1990). Regardless of the cause, the lack of fire or other mechanisms of regeneration has precipitated the decline of seral aspen on many thousands of acres Forest Succession throughout the West. The hypothetical pathway presented in figure 32 Although aspen often depends on fire for success- describes succession in climax or persistent aspen ful regeneration, it is extremely fire-sen sitive. Even stands (letters in this section refer to fig. 32). Long- low-severity fires can cause mortality because of term effects of fire exclusion on these stands is not aspen's thin bark. Trees not killed outright by the understood. The biological response of seral aspen heat of the fire often suffer mortality by the second is similar, and its relationship to conifer species is or third growing season, succumbing to disease or described in Fire Groups Three, Five, Six, and Ten. other stress. Surviving fire-scarred trees are espe- A short-lived herb stage follows a stand-replacement cially susceptible to heart rot (Jones and DeByle fire. Resprouting generally begins within the first 1985). The relationship between fire severity, mor- growing season following fire, although suckering tality, and suckering is discussed by Brown and after a severe burn may be delayed because the DeByle (1987). Suckering is a highly variable pro- resprouts must come from deeper roots (B). Any fire cess. The auxin and other hormones produced by at this stage will recycle the stand. Repeated fires aboveground stems suppress sucker growth. Killing may maintain aspen in a shrublike form. Low-se- most or all of the clonal stems helps to stimulate verity fire in an immature or mature stand (C and good resprouting. Suckering ability is governed by D) opens the stand and may stimulate some sucker- clonal genetics, stand vigor, and postfire site factors ing. This results in a two-storied aspen stand (El). as well as hormonal balance. Thus it is difficult to Succeeding fires are more likely to be moderate to predict the amount of resprouting that will take highly severe because of the downed stems left by place in a particular stand after a specific fire low-severity fire. Moderate to highly severe fires treatment. Moderately severe fire may be more - return the stand to the herb state. likely to produce good suckering when compared

/ / /

mature POTR w \ \ \ LEGEND \ ~~~~~~~~~ ':re - - -b Response to fire Low Cool or llght surface fire Mod. Fire of moderate severlty Severe Hot stand-replacement flre

Figure 32-Hypothetical fire-related successional pathways for habitat types and communities in Fire Group Seven. Climax all-aged aspen is the result of a prolonged Regeneration of sera1 aspen stands requires kill- period without fire (F). Mature stems continue to ing most of the aboveground stems in a clone. This degenerate and are replaced by suckers in the open- may be achieved by clearcutting, top-killing with ings. Although low-severity fires may not kill aspen herbicides, or using prescribed fire. Where clearcut- outright, injured stems are very susceptible to inva- ting is not feasible, fire is the most acceptable man- sion by fingal pathogens. Where the vigor of the agement tool (DeByle and others 1987). clone is reduced by disease, there is less suckering. Before planning any manipulation of aspen, the This may slow succession or, in extreme cases, may manager will want to consider carefully what suc- return dominance to shrubs and herbaceous vegeta- cessional stage, or pattern of successional stages, tion. Heavy browsing on aspen suckers may also best satisfies management objectives. Cattle prefer lower clone vigor to the point that suckering no grazing in relatively open stands, free of dense re- longer takes place. A shrub or herb disclimax reproduction. Early successional stages provide opti- sults (Fl). Browsing pressure may allow aspen to mum habitat for ruffed grouse (Stauffer and regenerate, but prevent the development of trees. Peterson 1985). Elk may use young, sapling aspen Aspen will grow instead as a dense shrub. as a source of winter browse. Where hunting pressure is intense, later successional stands with a Fire Management Considerations higher density of young conifers may be desirable to provide adequate hiding cover and prevent overhar- Approximately a third of Utah's commercial forest vesting of game. Water yield is greatest in the earli- land is occupied by aspen (DeByle and others 1987). est stages of succession. A mosaic of different devel- Aspen stands provide excellent forage for livestock opmental stages over the landscape maximizes the and wildlife, with production values of up to 1.5 value of these stands for a variety of uses. tondacre (3.4 metric tonha) recorded for some Fire can be used to enhance many of the values as- stands (Mueggler 1988). Aspen provides quality sociated with aspen. But not all stands are equally browse and cover for many wildlife species. Rapid suited to fire use. Aspen forests are often called "as- development of urban and agricultural areas in the bestos forests" because they are considered difficult Mountain States is increasing the utilization of as- to burn compared with most conifer stands. Aspen pen stands as a source of fuel, fiber, and water. As- stands have been used as firebreaks when managers pen stands have a water-yielding capacity superior burn other vegetation types. Brown and Simmerman to conifer-dominated stands (DeByle 1985; Jaynes (1986) have characterized aspen fuels to determine 1978), a critical feature in the coming decades, espe- potential flammability of aspen stands for pre- cially in arid Utah. Population growth has also in- scribed burning. creased the demand for recreational opportunities, In addition to the limits imposed by specific fuel and aspen forests are popular for picnicking, hiking, types, managers need to be aware of other flamma- or viewing. bility factors: In the Intermountain region as a whole, two-thirds Grazing can greatly reduce flammability where of aspen stands are at least 96 years old and 90 per- herbaceous vegetation is a significant fuel. Our cent are at least 75 years old. Western aspen usu- sampling showed a two-thirds reduction of herb- ally matures between 60 and 80 years of age and de- aceous vegetation due to grazing in aspedshrub teriorates rapidly after 120 years. Relatively few and aspenltall forb types ... . Heavy grazing, with few trees live to be over 200 years old. Approximately exceptions, negates the opportunity to use prescribed 94 percent of aspen stands appear to be mature or fire in aspen forests. Light grazing prior to burning overmature (Mueggler 1989). ,Whether or not some may be possible, depending on other factors influ- kind of treatment is needed tdqassurethe continued encing flammability (Brown and Simmerman 1986). presence of aspen in these stands depends on the de- Aids to flammability in aspen stands include the gree of conifer invasion and the relative success of presence of large downed woody fuel, small conifers, regeneration. Mueggler (1989) has developed a deci- and an open canopy. Autumn leaf fall does not aid sion tree as an aid in determining the need for treat- flammability to any great extent, but leaf litter may ment (fig. 33). help sustain a fire in marginal conditions. Deter- It may be difficult to decide whether aspen regen- mining when fuels are ready to burn is more compli- eration in a stand is adequate. The number of cated in aspen forests than in most other vegetation sprouts needed for rapid stand replacement is not types. Curing is probably the most important vari- well understood. Mueggler does suggest that ma- able to monitor. Successful fire application requires ture or overmature stands with less than 500 suck- waiting until live fuels are adequately cured and ers per acre (1,2351ha) may have regeneration prob- windspeed and dead fuel moistures enhance fire lems, and that those with over 1,000 suckers per spread. Adequate curing is particularly important acre (2,470ha) appear to be reproducing successfully. where herbaceous vegetation is the primary fine fuel. ARE CONIFERS Clearcutting7 PRESENT ? BECOMING Burning? SO 7 Etc.?

REPRODUCTION ..--.uu ....- \ AOEQUAT E ? Yes

PRO7ECT WITH

IS ASPEN r-7PROTECT FROM REPRODUCING GRAZING/ BROWSING ADEQUATELY ? UNTIL REPROD.BEY OND REACH OF ANIMALS

Cleercutthg? Burning? Spray ing7 Etc.7

Figure 33-General decision-making tree for maintaining aspen stands in the Intermountain Region (Mueggler 1989).

Burning operations in these situations should not be for conifers to be considered codominant, for fuel delayed. Cured herbaceous vegetation is more flam- purposes conifer coverage must be at least 50 per- mable, but the chance of snow or rain increases over cent before a stand falls into the mixed category. time as curing continues. The time a stand remains Flammability is altered by many factors. The in- in prescription is usually brief (Brown and Simmerman fluence of grazing and downed woody fuel loading 1986). Figure 34 illustrates the fluctuation of live is reflected in the probability of burning success rat- fuel moisture with season and precipitation for fine ings given in table 13. Fire potential ratings for the fuels collected in a western Wyoming aspen stand. fine aspen fuel types and several combinations of Brown and Simmerman classified western Wyoming grazing intensity and downed woody fuel accumula- and southeastern Idaho .aspen stands into five fuel tions are given in table 14. Brown and Simmerman types (table 12). This classification may also be ap- (1986) identify the following general trends from plied to Utah aspen communities. table 14: In mixed-shrub and mixed-forb fuel types, conifers 1. The mixed-forb class has higher fire potential codominate with aspen in the overstory. Mixed than the aspen-low forb class due to differences in stands are probably sera1 stages of climax coniferous downed woody fuel loadings and torching potentials. habitat types. These stands have a higher potential 2. Grazing reduces fire intensity and rate of for successful prescribed fire because of the more spread by at least one rating level. flammable conifers. Although community classifica- 3. Heavy fuel loadings result in increased intensi- tion requires only 5 to 15 percent conifer coverage ties except where substantial grazing is expected. - GRASS A mrm GERANIUM VlSCOSlSSlMUM IIIIIII RUDBECKIA OCCIDENTALIS WYETHlA AMPLEXICAULIS

15 20 25 31 5 10 15 20 25 31 5 10 15 20 25 JULY AUG. SEPT.

15 20 25 31 5 10 15 20 25 31 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 JULY AUG. SEPT. 0 CT. Figure 34--Live moisture contents of fine fuels collected at different dates and different precipitation levels in a western Wyoming aspen stand. (A) Moisture content of grasses (Elymus and Bromus spp.) from an aspen stand in the Kemmerer Ranger District, Bridger-Teton National Forest, M, 1981. The bars along the horizontal axis show precipitation. (B) Moisture content of Balsamorhiza c macrophylla (BAMA) and grass (Elymus and Bromus spp.) from an aspen stand in the Kemmerer Ranger District, Bridger-Teton National Forest, WY. Precipitation during August and September was 1.58 inches in 1981 and 4.66 inches in 1982. Table 12-A vegetation classification of aspen fuels and flammability (Brown and Simmerman 1986) Vegetation-fuel types Aspen- Aspen- Aspen- Mixed- Mixed- Characteristics shrub tall forb low forb shrub forb - Overstory species occupying 50 percent or more of canopy Aspen Aspen Aspen Conifers Conifers Shrub coverage, percent Greater than 30 Less than 30 Less than 30 Greater than 30 Less than 30 Community type understory Prunus Ranunculus Prunus figus ticum Pedicularis indicator species that may Bmmus Heracleum Beheris Shep herdia Beheris be present Amelanchier Ligus ticum Arnica Spiraea Arnica Shepherdia Spiraea As tragalus Amelanchier Calamagrostis Symphoricarpos Calamagrostis Thalictrum Symphoricatpos Thalictrum Artemisia Rudbeckia Geranium Juniperus Wyethia Poa Pachis tim a

Table 13-Probabilities of successfully applying prescribed fire in aspen forests according to fuel types and the influence of grazing and quantities of downed woody material (Brown and Simmerman 1986) Fuel types Aspen- Aspen- Aspen- Mixed- Mixed- Grazing Woody fuel shrub tall forb low forb shrub forb Ungrazed Light high moderate low high moderate Ungrazed Heavy high moderate low high high Grazed Light moderate low low moderate low Grazed Heavy high low low high moderate

Table 14-Fire intensity and rate-of-spread adjective rating according to fuel typesf grazing intensity, and downed woody fuel quantities (Brown and Simmerman 1986). The first rating is for intensity and the second for rate-of-spread. H, M, L, N mean high, moderate, low, and nil, respectively Fuel types Aspen- Aspen- Aspen- Mixed- Mixed- Grazing Woody fuel shrub fall forb low forb shrub forb Ungrazed Light M-M L-L N-N M-M L-L Ungrazed Heavy H-M M-L L-L H-H M-M Grazed Light 1-L N-N N-N L-L N-N Grazed Heavy M-L N-N N-N M-L L-L

4. Heavy fuel loadings increase rate of spread generated for preheating adjacent fuels, particu- in stands with mixed overstories, but not aspen larly where fuels are abundant and continuous. overstories. Aerial ignition can create larger flames to kill un- The method of ignition is an important consider- wanted vegetation and get the fire to spread in ation in prescribed burning of aspen. marginal fuels, particularly where fuels are abundant and continuous (Brown and Simmerman 1986). Method of ignition should be carefully considered in planning prescribed fire in aspen because it af- On the Fishlake National Forest, successful mixed fects the conditions chosen for burning and chances conifer-aspen burns have been ignited in the late of success. Both hand-held and aerial ignition summer and fall using a helitorch (Gruel1 1990). methods can be used successfully; however, aerial If simply retaining the aspen type is desired, any ignition with jelled gasoline permits burning at fire severity will probably sufEce. To obtain the higher fine fuel moisture contents than possible greatest sucker densities, moderate burns are ad- using hand ignition, because more heat can be vised. High-severity fires may be useful in limited conditions, for example where ceanothus stimulation Pinus contortalJuniperus communis c.t. (PIC01 is desirable or in upper elevation spruce-fir types JUCO), lodgepole pindcommon juniper where only a high-severity fire is sustainable be- Pinus contortaNaccinium caespitosum c.t. (PIC01 cause of the scant fuel loading. VACA), lodgepole pineldwarf huckleberry Where commercial development of aspen is the Pinus contortaNaccinium scoparium c.t. (PICOI objective, clearcutting may produce more consistent VASC), lodgepole pinelgrouse whortleberry stand regeneration than fire. On sites where Douglas- Picea engelmanniilVaccinium caespitosum h.t. fir or ponderosa pine are undesirable competing co- (PIENNACA), Engelmann s pruceldwarf nifers, low-severity fires may actually enhance their huckleberry reproduction over aspen if the conifers survive. Picea engelmanniifvaccinium scoparium h.t. (PIENI They will quickly establish in the newly exposed VASC), Engelmann spruce/grouse whortleberry mineral soil (Brown and Simmerman 1986). Postfire conditions will influence stand reestab- Vegetation lishment. Heavy sucker utilization by wildlife may be one limitation. On Breakneck Ridge in the Gros Habitat types where lodgepole pine can be a persis- Ventre drainage, Wyoming, postburn sucker num- tent seral species or where it forms an apparent cli- bers doubled the second year after fire. By the third max make up Fire Group Eight. Lodgepole pine year, though, there were 37,000 to 50,000 per acre is restricted to northern Utah, and occurs in a belt (15,000 to 20,000 per hectare), similar to the num- from about 7,500 to 10,300 fi (2,286 to 3,139 m) on bers that existed before the fire. Because of heavy granitic soils that are often droughty and nutrient winter elk use, these densities have not been enough poor. True climax lodgepole pine stands occur only in to regenerate the stand (Bartos and Mueggler 1981). the Uinta Mountains. Stands of persistent lodgepole Nevertheless, aspen can be remarkably persistent. in the Wasatch Mountains are considered seral phases Where browsing is heavy, aspen may exist for long of subalpine fir habitat types (Mauk and Henderson periods of time as an inconspicuous shrub. If graz- 1984). PIENNACA, PIENNASC, and ABLANASC- ing pressure is removed, it may be capable of devel- VASC sites located above the cold limits of lodgepole oping into a viable stand (Mueggler 1990). Treat- pine are assigned to Fire Group Twelve. Other lower ment areas that are too small (<40 acre; smoke column development is See text for description and discussion of curves A, B, and C. stands are most hazardous. Least hazardous are mineral seedbed. Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine moderately dense to open, advanced, immature, and stands vary in their degree of serotiny. Proportions mature stands. Hazard increases as stands become of serotinous trees range from zero to 80 percent overmature and as ground hels build up from down- (Lotan 1975). Double burns or successive burns fall and establishment of shade-tolerant species. within a 50-year span favor serotiny. A mix of sero- Curve C depicts conditions not uncommonly found. tinous and nonserotinous trees usually results after Ground fuel quantities and fire potential remain low or moderate fires. A higher proportion of regen- relatively low throughout the life of the stand until eration from serotinous trees follows severe crown it undergoes decadence. Individual stands can vary fires. Over time, without fire, even stands with a anywhere between curves A and C during younger very high proportion of closed cones can become pre- growth periods, and develop higher fire potential at dominantly open-coned as regeneration replaces the later periods of growth (curve B). original trees (Muir 1984). In mixed species stands, In a young lodgepole stand the snags created by fire interrupts the course of succession and increases the previous fire provide an immediate source of the proportion of lodgepole with each burn. downfall. Lyon (1977,1984) found that after 2 years Reported fire frequencies for lodgepole pine stands with little windthrow, lodgepole pine snags on the vary from 22 years in the Bitterroot Valley of west- Sleeping Child Burn (Bitterroot National Forest) fell em Montana (Arno 1976) to 300 plus years in at an annual rate of 13.4 percent (fig. 37). Overall, an average of 497 snags per acre was reduced to an average of 75 snags per acre after 15 years (table 15). SNAG ATTRITION

After 21 years, nearly 93 percent of all snags had SNAGS 3-8 INCHES fallen. SNAGS OVER 8 INCHES Role of Fire In lodgepole pine stands, fire perpetuates or re- AVERAGE, ALL SNAGS news the species. Where pine is a sera1 species, shade-tolerant species will replace it without fire or other disturbance because of its intolerance and 3 INCHES mineral seedbed requirement. Lodgepole pine establishes readily on disturbed areas. Bare mineral soil, whether caused by logging or fire, provides the best seedbed (Lotan 1975). Lodgepole pine often has serotinous, or closed, cones, but even in populations with a high degree of serotiny there will be open-coned individuals. 0 4 8 12 16 20 Serotiny can affect the age distribution in a stand. Seed from open-coned trees produces uneven-aged stands, where seedlings establish over a period of SUCCESSION YEARS years. Closed-cone trees generally produce even- Figure 37-Percentage of lodgepole pine aged stands. They develop from the flush of seed- snags still standing, by year and diameter lings that arises following the fire-induced release class, Sleeping Child Burn, Bitterroot National of large numbers of seeds on the freshly prepared Forest, MT, 1962 to 1982 (Lyon 1984).

Table 15-Average number of snags per acre by size class and year count, Sleeping Child Burn, Bitterroot National Forest, MT (Lyon 1977) (totals may not agree because of rounding) Size class Year (Inches) 1962 1 963 1966 1969 1971 1976 Under 3 266 265 9 6 41 28 4 3to8 159 156 124 103 85 50 8to12 64 62 40 36 24 19 Over 12 7 7 7 6 4 3 Total 497 390 268 186 141 75 Yellowstone National Park (Romme 1982). The interval between any two fires in an area may only be a few years. Regional fire frequency varies with summer dryness and lightning occurrence. Locally it depends on slope, aspect, elevation, and natural fire barriers. Fire size is also weather dependent. Large fires may occur during droughty conditions in most lodgepole stands regardless of stand age (Brown 1975). The overriding effect of weather was demonstrated in the fires that occurred in Yellowstone Park in 1988. Fires in lodgepole pine-dominated stands tend toward one of two extremes. They may smolder and creep slowly on the soil surface consuming litter and duff, or act as severe, stand-replacing crown fires. Most are low-intensity fires due to the generally sparse undergrowth and stand growth habit. Cool, moist conditions prevail under a dense, closed canopy, and fires that start here usually remain on the ground, smoldering for days or even weeks before extinguishing (Lotan and others 1985). Such fires have been observed in Yellowstone National Park (Despain and Sellers 1977). Severe fires are most likely to occur where dead fuels have accumulated. Where there are concentrations of dead or mixed dead and live fuels, individual trees or groups of trees may torch, and fire can continue to travel through the crowns aided by steep slopes and high winds. Though much less common, severe crown fires account for most of the timber consumed. Sum- mer wildfires may exhibit both types of fire behavior, depending on the diurnal weather fluctuations. The chance of crown fire occurring in lodgepole Figure 38-Bug-killed lodgepole pine with stands is governed by the amount of heat released aspen. The mountain pine beetle is an from surface fuel, the height of tree crowns above integral part of the fire fuel cycle in many the ground, and fire weather conditions. Stand lodgepole pine stands. conditions determine the fire potential, and this, in turn, is the result of stand disturbance history (Brown 1975). The kind of fire that occurs will de- mortality. Conversely, the type of fire affects the termine stand density and the rate of succession. potential for mistletoe infection. A stand thinned by If open stands result, there will be a faster rate of fire may become more susceptible to mistletoe, be- succession (Brown 1975). cause mistletoe is most successful in otherwise un- Stand development, vegetation mortality, and fuel stressed trees, such as those in a well-spaced stand accumulation interact dynamifally with fire in the (Parmeter 1978). Mountain pine beetle-lodgepole lodgepole pine forest (Brown 1975). The type and pine interaction differs with habitat type. McGregor degree of vegetation mortality affects the fuel and Cole (1985) found that in southeastern Idaho buildup, which in turn determines the severity and northwestern Wyoming habitat types, 44 per- of later fires and subsequent stand regeneration. cent of stands in the Abies lasiocarpa l Vaccinium Historically, fire probably generated the most sur- scoparium habitat type were infested between 6,500 face fuel in lodgepole pine stands. Competition be- and 8,500 ft (1,981 and 2,591 m), 92 percent were in- tween dense seedlings and saplings often results fested in the Abies lasiocarpalPachistirna myrsinites in further fuel buildup from suppression mortality. habitat type between 6,500 and 7,800 R (1,981 Two biotic factors that have a great impact on the and 2,377 m), and 64 percent were infested in the fire dynamics of lodgepole pine are dwarf mistletoe Pseudotsuga menziesiilCalamagrostis rubescens and the mountain pine beetle (fig. 38). Dwarf habitat type between 6,000 and 7,800 ft (1,829 and mistletoe reduces tree vigor and may increase 2,377 m). The relationships between fire, lodgepole pine, and ROLE OF MOUNTAIN PINE BEETLE WHERE the mountain pine beetle have been well summa- LODGEPOLE PINE IS PERSISTENT OR CLIMAX rized by Amman (1977): Lodgepole pine is persistent over large acreages, ROLE OF MOUNTAIN PINE BEETLE WHERE and because of the number of shade-tolerant individu- LODGEPOLE PINE IS SERAL als of other species found in such persistent stands, the successional status is unclear (Pfister and Absence of fire: Lodgepole pine stands depleted by Daubenmire 1975). In any case, lodgepole pine per- the beetle and not subjected to fire are eventually suc- sists long enough for a number of beetle infestations ceeded by the more shade-tolerant species consisting to occur. In such cases and those of a more limited primarily of Douglas-fir at the lower elevations and nature when lodgepole pine is climax because of spe- subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce at the higher el- cial climatic or soil conditions, the forest consists of evations throughout most of the Rocky Mountains. trees of different sizes and ages ranging from seed- Starting with a stand generated by fire, lodgepole lings to a few over-mature individuals. In these for- pine grows at a rapid rate and occupies the dominant ests, the beetle infests and kills most of the lodgepole position in the stand. Fir and spruce seedlings also pines as they reach larger sizes. Openings created in established in the stand grow more slowly than lodge- the stand as a result of the larger trees being killed, pole pine. are seeded by lodgepole pine. The cycle is then re- With each infestation, the beetle kills most of the peated as other lodgepole pines reach sizes and ph- large, dominant lodgepole pines. After the infesta- loem thicknesses conducive to increases in beetle tion, both residual lodgepole pine and the shade- populations. tolerant species increase their growth. When the A mosaic of small clumps of different ages and sizes lodgepole pines are of adequate size and phloem thick- may occur. The overall effect is likely to be more ness, another beetle infestation occurs. This cycle is chronic infestations by the beetle because of the more repeated at 20- to 40-year intervals depending upon constant source of food. Beetle infestations in such growth of the trees, until lodgepole pine is eliminated forests may result in death of fewer trees per hectare from the stand. during each infestation than would occur in even-aged The role played by the mountain pine beetle in stands developed after fires and in those where lodge- stands where lodgepole pine is seral is to periodically pole pine is seral. remove the large, dominant pines. This provides Fires in persistent and climax lodepole pine forests growing space for subalpine fir and Douglas-fir, thus should not be as hot as those where large epidemics of hastening succession by these species. The continued beetles have occurred. Smaller, more continuous de- presence of the beetle in these mixed-species stands is posits of fuel are available on the forest floor. The as dependent upon fire as that of lodgepole pine. lighter beetle infe~tations,and thus lighter accumula- Without it, both are eliminated. tions of fuel, would result in fires that would elimi- Presence of fire: Where lodgepole pine is seral, for- nate some of the trees but probably would not cause ests are perpetuated through the effects of periodic total regeneration of the stand. This would be benefi- fires (Tackle 1965). Fires tend to eliminate competi- cial to the beetle because a more continuous supply of tive tree species such as Douglas-fir, the true firs, and food would be maintained. Where large accumula- spruces. Following fire, lodgepole pine usually seeds . tions of fuel occur after large beetle epidemics, fire in abundantly. would completely eliminate the beetle's food supply Large accumulations of dead material caused by pe- from vast acreages for many years while the entire riodic beetle infestations result in very hot fires when stand of trees grow fiom seedlings to sizes conducive they do occur (Brown 1975). Hot fires of this nature to beetle infestation. eliminate Douglas-fir, which otherwise is more resis- [The mountain pine beetle] has exploited a niche tant to fire damage than lodgepole pine. The domi- that no other bark beetle has been able to exploit, that nant shade-tolerant species are eliminated, resulting of harvesting lodgepole pine trees as they reach or in a return to a pure lodgepole pine forest. On the slightly before they reach maturity. Such trees are at other hand, light surface fires would not be adequate their peak as food for the beetle. Harvesting at this to kill large, thick-barked Douglas-fir and return time in the age of the stand maintains the vigor of the lodgepole pine to a dominant position in the stand. stand, and keeps the stand at maximum productivity. Following regeneration of lodgepole pine after fire, the mountain pine beetle-lodgepole interactions would Fire severity plays an important and variable role be similar to those described in the absence of fire. A in lodgepole pine stand establishment (Lotan and fire may interrupt the sere at any time, reverting the others 1985): stand back to pure lodgepole pine. However, once suc- HIGH-INTENSITY FIRE cession is complete, lodgepole pine seed will no longer be available to seed the burned areas except along 1. Creates good seedbed conditions on mesic and edges where the spruce-fir climax joins persistent or wet sites, and when seed is abundant, dense stands climax lodgepole pine. are established. On dry sites, however, low stocking can result because of poor moisture conditions. 2. Crown fires usually cause maximum release of 2. Mortality may be minimal or sporadic. Some- stored seed. In surface fires with considerable crown- times widely spaced stands result. In time, two-aged ing, mineral soil is exposed, serotinoils cones open, or three-aged stands can develop. and if seed is abundant, a dense stand results. Occa- 3. In stands of mixed species, the survival of lodge- sionally, severe crown fires consume up to %-inch di- pole pine depends on its fire resistance relative to ameter fuel, destroying much of the seed supply, and other species as well as the seed potential of all spe- a lower density stand results. cies. Post-fire species composition, age structure, and 3. When seedbed conditions, seed supply, soil mois- density of mixed stands vary considerably depending ture, and other factors are favorable for stand estab- on fire characteristics and many other interrelated lishment, extremely high stocking (leading to stag- factors. nated stands) frequently results. 4. Competition from understory vegetation, particularly grass, can decrease stand density even if Forest Succession other factors influencing establishment are favorable. Fire Group Eight stands where lodgepole pine ap- LOW-INTENSITY FIRES pears to be climax are dominated during succession 1. Moisture content of duff is an important factor in by either lodgepole pine alone or by a mixture of determining level of stocking. When duff is dry, a pine and aspen. Figure 39 illustrates the role of fire low-intensity fire will expose mineral soil, resulting in in Group Eight stands. Letters in this section refer a high level of stocking. When duff is moist, fire will to letters in figure 39. expose less mineral soil, resulting in poor seedbed conditions and low stocking.

LEGEND Succession In absence ol flre --- + Response to flre Low Cool or llght surface flre Mod. Flre of moderate severity Severe Hot stand-replacement lire

Figure 39-Hypothetical fire-related successional pathways for habitat types and communities in Fire Group Eight where lodgepole pine alone is the major seral and climax species and where aspen is an important seral species with lodgepole pine. Lodgepole Pine Climax-Lodgepole pine is es- new seedlings (F). Low to moderate fires maintain sentially the only tree present on the site. Conse- this age structure, and severe fires recycle the stand quently, succession is dominated by lodgepole pine to the herbaceous state. at all stages of development, and even several centu- Succession With Aspen-Aspen may be an im- ries without fire may not change species composition. portant sera1 species with lodgepole pine. Where After a stand-replacing fire, an initial herblshrub this is true, the initial herb stage (A2) will be short community will establish on the site (A). Fires of lived. Any fire in this or the subsequent aspen and any severity maintain this state. In stands where shrub resprout stage returns the stand to herbs. lodgepole pine is serotinous, this stage is quickly fol- Lodgepole pine seedlings may appear about the time lowed by a dense stand of even-aged lodgepole pine the resprouts develop, in the first growing season or seedlings and saplings. Lodgepole pine with non- two (B2). Fast-growing aspen can overtop the pine serotinous cones may also reestablish rapidly where seedlings, suppressing them. The pine may die from there is an adequate nearby seed source (B). Where shading where aspen is vigorous. Seedlings that es- conditions are somewhat less favorable for lodgepole tablish in openings between clones may continue to pine, a more open stand, possibly with a few fir and grow and eventually overtop the aspen. Either spe- spruce, may result. Any fire returns this site to an cies can be favored by fire if it occurs in the mature herblshrub state. In a serotinous stand, the initial state (C2). Moderately severe fire would probably flush of seedlings from heat-opened cones on site kill most aspen and lodgepole pine overstory trees. may be consumed by subsequent fire. In this case, Pine seed availability and the extent and vigor of the formerly serotinous stand becomes dependent aspen roots would determine which species regener- on off-site seed and further patterns of regeneration ates the site. Low-severity fires should spare at resemble those of the nonserotinous stand. If poten- least some lodgepole pine, possibly giving its regenera- tial off-site seed trees are predominantly serotinous, tion the ability to dominate an area more quickly and pine reestablishment takes considerably longer. outcompete the aspen suckers. Low-severity fires can Without fire, in both serotinous and nonserotinous kill aspen stems but may not remove enough of them stands a pole-sized stand of lodgepole pine results (C). to stimulate adequate suckering. Severe fire would Young stands are often densely overcrowded. kill the entire stand, resulting in the herb stage. Such stands may have little or no understory. If no fires occur in the mature stage, the aspen Stand-replacement fires are a possibility in either overstory begins to deteriorate (D2), creating open- the pole or mature stages during droughty weather ings as stems die. The gaps may be filled by either with high winds. Lodgepole pine often produces aspen or lodgepole pine. As the time without fire cones at a young age, and after a crown fire a pole- lengthens, lodgepole pine begins to dominate the sized serotinous stand could revert quickly to a stand (E2). Low to moderate severity fires continue seedling-sapling stage. Nonserotinous stands will to maintain a mixed species stand while aspen and return again to a shrubherb condition in the event pine are both viable on the site. Severe fires return of a severe fire. A low to moderate fire may open (Cl, the stand to herbs. A climax, all-aged lodgepole pine pole or mature stands Dl). In the exposed min- stand develops after a prolonged period without fire. eral soil of these openings, seedlings of lodgepole Subsequent succession after severe fire will involve pine can establish. If no fires occur for 60 years or only lodgepole pine where living aspen roots are no more, the mature, dense overstory begins to open longer on the site. up as a result of beetle-kill, disease, or windthrow (E, El). New openings are created that enhance Spruce and Subalpine Fir Climax Types- seed establishment or the release of suppressed un- Succession in these habitat types differs only slightly derstory trees. Moderate fires are unlikely at this from that in lodgepole pine climax types. Lodgepole stage. Instead, severe fires can occur, fed by the ac- pine dominates succession regardless of the indicated cumulated downed woody fuels that result from tree climax. The only difference in most successional mortality and the presence of dense, young lodgepole stages is that tolerant climax species may be present in the understory. In contrast, the other type of in the understory. The successional process is similar burn commonly encountered is that produced by low, to that diagrammed in Fire Group Ten, lower subal- creeping surface fires. They burn with greater fre- pine fir forests. But in stands where lodgepole pine is quency but affect smaller areas and cause consider- persistent, the time it takes until spruce and fir domi- ably less mortality, removing patches of variously nate may be very long, or may not occur before the aged trees rather than whole stands. Sufficiently next fire. If a stand does attain true climax status, large openings encourage the establishment of more and lodgepole pine has died out of the stand, succes- lodgepole seedlings. Climax stands are all-aged, sion follows the pathway described for Fire Group with old, decadent stems continually replaced by Twelve (high-elevation spruce-fir forests). Fire Management Considerations Lotan and Perry (1983) have summarized the various considerations that determine the appropriate Perhaps the most important fire management con- use of fire for site preparation and regeneration of sideration in this group is protection from unwanted lodgepole pine forests. Silviculturists and fire man- fire during periods of drought and severe fire weather. agers should consult this guide before developing Fires at such times can become holocausts if the fire prescriptions to regenerate lodgepole pine. lodgepole stand physiognomy and fuel moistures Competition with herbaceous vegetation affects are prime for burning. lodgepole pine success. Lodgepole pine is a poor Opportunities for fire use are limited in natural competitor, and seedlings compete least well against stands because of the low fire resistance of lodgepole grass. On the Sleeping Child Burn (Bitterroot Na- pine, spruce, and subalpine fir. The other side of tional Forest, MT) where exotic grass species were this problem is that during "safe" fire weather, it is seeded following fire, tree seedling attrition on plots often difficult to sustain a fire. But low to medium where grass cover was less than 1percent averaged surface fires do occur. Thus there may be opportuni- 4 percent annually on north slopes and 5 percent an- ties to use prescribed fires to accomplish specific nually on south slopes. On plots where grass cover management objectives. averaged 29 percent, the comparable rates of mortal- The primary use of prescribed fire in lodgepole ity were 21 and 29 percent (Schmautz and Williams pine is hazard reduction and site preparation in con- 1967). Evidence suggests that as growing conditions junction with tree harvesting and subsequent regen- become less favorable, grass competition becomes eration. Broadcast burning and pile and windrow less important (Clark and McLean 1974; Stahelin burning have been the methods most often used to 1943). accomplish these tasks. Successful broadcast slash Habitat type may help predict the success of tree burning usually yields increased forage production seedling establishment. In southern Montana and for big game. Slash disposal of any kind aids big southeastern Idaho, significant differences were found game movement through these stands. Harvest in the lodgepole pine seedseedling ratios between schedules should be developed and implemented three habitat types. Ratios were lowest (fewest seeds to create age-class mosaics of lodgepole pine. This to establish one seedling) on an Abies lasiocarpal minimizes the areal extent of stand-destroying fires. Vmcinium scoparium (subalpine fidgrouse whortle- Silvicultural practices designed to harvest trees sus- berry) habitat type when compared with those in the ceptible to mountain pine beetle before the trees are Pseudotsuga menziesiKalamagrostis rubescens attacked (Cole and Amman 1980) can greatly reduce (Douglas-firlpinegrass) and Pinus contorta/Purshia the threat of severe fires in second-growth stands of tridentata (lodgepole pinelantelope bitterbrush) habi- lodgepole pine. The use of lodgepole pine for fire- tat types. The presence of lodgepole pine in a habitat wood, poles, posts, house logs, wood chips, and saw- type is a function of the ease of establishment, the fire logs may provide opportunities for fuel management- (or other disturbance) history, and the rate of succes- related harvesting. sion in the type. The presence of the species only par- Prescribed fire has been suggested as a manage- tially reflects where it is most easily established. ment tool for controlling dwarf mistletoe. According Lodgepole pine is generally a seral species. Where to Alexander and Hawksworth (1975), prescribed lodgepole cover is low and that of other seral species burning, in relation to mistletoe control, can serve is high, lodgepole pine is probably less suited to these two purposes: (1) eliminate infected residual trees sites. Conversely, where lodgepole pine cover is high, in logged-over areas and (2) destroy heavily infected as in the Abies ZasiocarpaNaccinium scoparium habi- stands on unproductive sites sp that they can be re- tat type, lodgepole pine is the best suited seral species, placed by young healthy stan*. Not all fires reduce and easier to regenerate. But Pinus contorta habitat stand infection. A severe, stand-destroying fire will types may present special regeneration problems. eliminate dwarf mistletoe. Burns that are sporadic They are too harsh for other conifer species to estab- or less severe will leave infected trees on the site to lish, and seed:seedling ratios for lodgepole pine are quickly spread the parasite to the developing under- often high. Also, trees on these sites tend to be open- story. Where an infested stand has been eliminated, coned, and so do not have a large store of seeds re- but surrounding mistletoe stands remain, infesta- served to restock the site ifthe stand is removed. In tion will occur but at a less rapid rate (Zimmerman a study of a Pinus contorta/Purshia tridentata habitat and Laven 1984). To successfully reduce mistletoe type in southwestern Montana, seed:seedling ratios in the Grand Mesa, Uncompahgre, and Gunnison ranged from 621:l to 2,160:l on scarified clearcuts and National Forests, managers wrote fire prescriptions 1,876:l to 6,480:lon unscarified clearcuts. Seed crops to remove between 85 percent and 97 percent of the were good, but only 3 of 15 years had significant seed- infected lodgepole pine canopy (Chonka 1988). ling establishment (Lotan and Perry 1983). Table 16 presents estimates of seed:seedling ratio instituted to moderate the mountain pine beetle- under different site conditions. They are guidelines lodgepole pine-fire interaction cycle. His premise and should not be used to substitute knowledge was that both wildfire and prescribed fire manage- gained in a specific area. The estimates are conser- ment plans can be developed to use fire to "create a vative, and favorable sites may have considerably mosaic of regenerated stands within extensive areas lower ratios. Data from the Medicine Bow Moun- of timber that have developed." He believed that tains and Alberta suggest ratios on the order of prescribed fires can create these ecosystem mosaics 100:1 on well-scarified sites. more effectively than wildfires. With the recent In some wildernesses, periodic crown fires play a change from fire control to fire management, man- vital role in natural development of lodgepole pine aged wildfires will be, in fact, prescribed fires. ecosystems, and their use should be considered when Guidelines have been developed by McGregor and consistent with the need to protect human life, Cole (1985) to assist forest managers in integrating property, and resource values outside wilderness. pest management techniques for the mountain pine In many areas where natural fires have been sup- beetle with other resource considerations in the pro- pressed, forest residues resulting from mountain cess of planning and executing balanced resource pine beetle epidemics accumulate until hot fires oc- management of lodgepole pine forest. The guide- cur. "...such fires are normally more destructive lines present visual and classification criteria and than one that would have otherwise occurred if fires methods for recognizing and summarizing occur- had not been suppressed, and they tend to perpetu- rence and susceptibility status of lodgepole pine ate future extremes in the mountain pine beetle/ stands according to habitat types and successional lodgepole pinebire interactions" (D. Cole 1978). roles and important resource considerations associ- Several opinions have been expressed that the bark ated with them. McGregor and Cole reviewed ap- beetle epidemics now rampant in the Rockies and propriate silvicultural systems and practices, includ- Intermountain West may be a product of fire exclu- ing use of fire, for commercial and noncommercial sion (Schwennesen 1979). In Glacier National Park, forest land designations, including parks, wilder- the mountain pine beetle epidemic took such a strong ness, and other reserved areas. hold because fire suppression programs were so suc- Schmidt (1987) listed some pros and cons of using cessful and trees that ordinarily might have been fire to treat overstocked small-diameter lodgepole burned are now mature and ripe for the beetle pine stands: (Kuglin 1980). SOME ADVANTAGES D. Cole (1978) suggested that a deliberate program of fire management and prescribed fire can be - Low-cost method for stand conversion

Table 16-Estimates of lodgepole pine:seedling ratios for different site conditions in southwestern Montana (Perry and Lotan 1977) Site preparation Representative None or Broadcast Bulldozer habitats slig htl burning scarification Cool, moist, low to moderate competition (for example, Abies lasiocarpal Vaccinium scoparium) 1,OOO:l 1,OOO:l 300:l Moderate moisture and temperature, heavy competition (for example, Pseudotsuga menziesii/Calamagrostis rubescens to Abies lasiocatpal Calamagrostis rubescens) 10,000:1 3,OOO:l Cool and droughty (for example, Pinus contortalPurshia tridentata 10,OOO:l 3,OOO:l 1,OOO:l Hot and droughty (south slopes) without excessive competition Hot and droughty with heavy competition 'Including lop and scatter. Can regenerate new stand with manageable compo- FIRE GROUP NINE: CLIMAX STAPXDS sition and density DOMINATED BY LIMBER PINE OR Closely resembles "nature's method" By regulating fire intensity, may be able to reduce WESTERN BRISTLECONE seed supply and subsequent overstocking Usually leaves some shade to enhance seedling Habitat Types survival Reduces insect and disease problems Pinus flexilislBerberis repens h.t. (PIFUBERE), Usually increases other resource values such as for age limber pinelcreeping Oregon grape Can increase availability of nutrients Pinus flexilis/Cercocarpus ledifolius h.t. (PIFLI CELE). limber ~inehrlleafmountain-mahogany SOME DISADVANTAGES - An up-front expense Vegetation - With poor fire regulation, may just perpetuate the problem by producing another overstocked stand, or Fire Group Nine consists of sites where limber it may require the expense of planting or seeding if pine andlor bristlecone pine are the climax domi- all seed is burned under the wrong prescription nants (figs. 40,41). Stands may form a lower tim- - Very limited season for prescribed burning on most berline adjacent to juniper or mountain mahogany lodgepole pine sites woodlands or, more commonly, represent a topo- - Requires good fire management skills - If burned too hot on some sites, nutrient capitals, edaphic climax in the Douglas-fir and subalpine zones particularly of nitrogen, can be depleted between 7,000 and 9,000 R (2,134 and 2,743 m). They - May have a temporary loss in esthetic values are rarely extensive, being restricted to particular

Figure 40-Bristlecone pines, Btyce Canyon Figure 41-Limber pine stand, Wasatch-Cachs National Park. National Forest. slopes or rocky outcrops. In northern Utah, two lim- may be somewhat higher. Otherwise, fuels are ber pine habitat types, Pinus flexilislCercocarpus sparse and discontinuous. ledifolius and Pinus flexilislBerberis repens, have The greatest hazard to these habitat types is due been identified (Mauk and Henderson 1984). Bristle- to their generally small area and proximity to more cone pine is restricted to southern and central Utah. flammable stands. Severe, fast-spreading fires may Habitat types in this region have not been described. burn through nearby tree crowns and extend into Distinctions between potential habitat types are not pockets of limber pine or bristlecone pine. Group clear because of understory diversity (Youngblood Nine stands otherwise act as a firebreak during less and Mauk 1985). severe fires. Greater flammability may result where The presence of limber pine or bristlecone pine limber pine and Douglas-fir share a site. Higher sib as climax species indicates special edaphic or topo- productivity makes fuel accumulation more likely. graphic conditions. Extreme drought usually pre- Douglas-fir with its denser, longer crown is also vails on these sites because of rapid soil drainage more flammable than the sparsely branched limber or excessive evapotranspiration rates induced by in- pine. I tense insolation and constant wind. The two pines Downed woody fuel loadings in Montana limber are of'ten the only trees able to survive in such se- pine stands range between 5 tonslacre (11.2 metric vere environments, although in northwestern Utah tonsha) and 15 tondacre (33.6 metric tonsha) with and the northern Wasatch Range, Douglas-fir may about 80 percent of the loading accounted for by ma- share dominance with limber pine on less harsh terial greater than 3 inches (7.62 cm) in diameter sites (Mauk and Henderson 1984). (Fischer and Clayton 1983). Average loadings in Representative stands within this fire group are Utah Group Nine limber pine sites are probably easily seen on the spectacular eroded limestone rims similar. Lower loadings may occur where bristle- of the Paunsaugunt and Markagunt Plateaus. Utah cone pine dominates a site. limber pine and bristlecone pine stands are most common on slopes with southwesterly exposures, Role of Fire although they may occur within the forested zone on any direction slope with droughty soils. There is little evidence of past fires in Utah limber The undergrowth in limber pine-bristlecone pine pine or bristlecone pine stands (Mauk and Henderson stands is usually diverse. Most sites are shrubby. 1984; Youngblood and Mauk 1985). Stand dynamics Common shrub species that may be scattered appear to be more affected by climate and soil fac- through the stands include Cercocarpus ledifolius, tors and by special animal relations than fire. Seed C. nontanus, Haplopappus suffruticosus, Juniperus collection and caching by Clark's nutcrackers is es- communis, Mahonia repens, Ribes cereum, and Rosa sentially the only means of distribution for limber woodsii. Cercocarpus ledifolius may form dense pine and is the major means of bristlecone pine thickets on Pinus flexilislCercocarpus ledifolius sites dispersal (Lanner 1980, 1985, 1988). in northern Utah. Elsewhere, shrubs may not be . Fire potential remains low, and flames are ex- conspicuous and graminoid species such as Carex tremely unlikely to enter tree crowns on those sites rossii, Elymus trachycaulus ssp. trachycaulus, where there is enough fine fuel available to carry a Leucopoa kingii, Leymus salinus, Muhlenbergiu fire. The scattered distribution of the trees them- montana, or Pseudoroegneria spicata are more im- selves inhibits fire spread. In Yellowstone National portant. On more mesic sites, forb diversity may Park, Cooper (1975) believed that limber pine-- be better developed. Common species are Achillea Douglas-fir stands had "variable" fire frequencies. millefol ium,Astragal us miser, Hyrnenoxys richard- He noted six fire scars on old (>300 years) Douglas- sonii, and Lathyrus lanzwertii. Various other mem- fir associated with limber pine. Arno and Gruel1 bers of the sunflower family may also be present. (1983) reported a mean fire interval of 74 years for On the moistest sites in the series, Thalictrum a southwestern Montana limber pindbluebunch fendleri may occur. wheatgrass habitat type at a grassland ecotone. Keown (1977) also reported fairly lengthy fire-free Forest Fuels intervals (about 100 years) in a similar Montana limber pine stand with grass and shrub understory. For the most part, limber pine and bristlecone pine The frequency of spreading fires in Utah limber pine climax stands occur on sites where fire-sustaining stands where grass dominates the undergrowth may fuels are light to nearly nonexistent. Where dense be comparable. But the frequency of extensive burns shrubs occur, such as the Pinus fZexilislCercocarpus in bristlecone pine stands, or stands of limber pine ledifolius type, or where graminoids are able to at- with shrubby undergrowth, is undoubtedly less be- tain good cover in the understory, the fire hazard cause of scant fine fuels. Trees on exposed slopes or plateau rims are susceptible to lightning, but most Open areas are often attractive seed caching sites fires are restricted to a single tree or group of trees. for the Clark's nutcracker, and limber pine regen- There is some potential for fire to spread into these eration results (Lanner and Vander Wall 1980). stands from surrounding Douglas-fir or subalpine Stands are typically open with sufficient gaps where forests. In extremely dry, windy weather, a fire intolerant seedlings can establish from seeds that theoretically could spread through the crowns of germinate from caches forgotten by nutcrackers. smaller, relatively dense limber pine or bristlecone Exposed mineral soil can also make good seedbed pine trees. for Douglas-fir on more moderate sites. The relative Frequent low-severity fires may favor limber pine success of the pines or Douglas-fir depends on seed- by keeping fuel loadings to a minimum. Where ling microsite conditions. Limber pine and bristle- Douglas-fir is a codominant with limber pine, fire cone pine are better able to survive cold and desicca- maintains a mosaic of the two species. Fire may fa- tion. Douglas-fir may have a competitive advantage vor pine over Douglas-fir in the smaller age classes on less harsh sites because of its more rapid growth (Keown 1977). As trees increase in diameter, sus- rate. ceptibility to fire changes. Mature specimens of Achieving the mature or climax state takes several Douglas-fir are probably more fire-resistant than centuries. Climax, once attained, persists because of limber pine trees of similar diameter. Cooper (1975) the low rate of disturbance and the longevity of the noted that, unlike Douglas-fir, limber pine does not pines. Limber pine may reach 2,500 years of age appear to accumulate multiple fire scars, indicating and bristlecone pine can achieve ages well over it is unable to survive as many fires. Bristlecone 4,000 years (Ahlenslager 1987a, b). Severe fires are pine occupies such harsh sites that competition from very unlikely, but possible, in the mature or climax other trees is minimal. Fire occurrence probably has stages. They will recycle the stand to a shrub or little impact on these stands beyond changing the herb condition (A). age structure. Specific fire frequencies for bristlecone pine have not been reported. Fire Management Considerations Forest Succession Limber pine and bristlecone pine stands have little commercial timber value. They do provide im- In southern and central Utah, bristlecone pine portant wildlife range. In southern Utah, the windy and limber pine are often codominants. The range conditions and open stand structure prevent snow of bristlecone pine does not extend into northern from accumulating, leaving forage plants exposed. Utah. Douglas-fir is an important associate on Available forage is utilized heavily on these sites many sites throughout the State. Limber pine or even in years of relatively low snowpack (Youngblood bristlecone pine climax stands often grade into the and Mauk 1985). Limber pine stands are used by drier Douglas-fir habitat types such as Pseudotsuga deer as summering grounds in the mountains of menziesiilcercocarpus ledifolius, Pseudotsuga northern Utah. Limber pine and bristlecone pine rnenziesiilCercocarpus montanus, or Pseudotsuga also offer watershed protection on slopes too harsh menziesiilSymphoricarpos oreop hilus. Stands with for other vegetation (Mauk and Henderson 1984). a large proportion of Douglas-fir may have a fire Limber pine and bristlecone pine are extremely ecology more like that described for Fire Group Four long-lived. Bristlecone pine is generally believed habitat types. The hypothetical role of fire in Fire to be the world's longest-lived organism. Specimens Group Nine stands is illustrated in figure 42 (subse- from the Great Basin have provided overlapping quent letters in the text refer to this figure). tree-ring chronologies that date back 9,000 years. Limber pine and bristlecone pine stands are These records have contributed to studies in clima- generally multi-aged because:of the continual seed- tology, archaeology, and geology (Ahlenslager caching by Clark's nutcracker. The exception is 1987b). Their gnarled, gracefbl forms give great where a stand is removed by fire or other distur- pleasure to recreationists. bance. A low-severity fire of limited extent is the Although fire does not appear necessary to main- most common type of burn in limber pine and tain most limber pine and bristlecone pine stands, bristlecone pine stands regardless of their age struc- important understory forage species may benefit ture. The successional pathway here describes the from periodic burning to remove decadent growth developmental sequences after a stand replacement and stimulate resprouting (Steele and others 1983). fire. Any fire in trees in the youngest age class will The postfire regeneration of limber pine depends on return the site to shrubs or herbs (A). Low-severity seed-caching by Clark's nutcracker. Factors that af- fires in any of the older age classes will thin the fect the population size or distribution of nutcrack- trees and produce open patches of ground (B,C,D,E). ers will impact limber pine regeneration. Herb or shrub

LEGEND Succession in absence of fire --+ Response lo {Ire J Low Cool or light surface fire severe Qod. Fire of moderate severlly

I severe Hot stand-replacemenl (Ire Figure 42-Hypothetical fire-related successional pathways for habitat types and communities in Fire Group Nine.

FIRE GROUP TEN: DRY, LOWER Abies 1asiocarpalOsmorhiza chilensis hat.(ABLAI SUBALPINE HABITAT TYPES OSCH), subalpine firlmountain sweetroot Abies 1asiocarpalPedicularis racemosa h.t.- Habitat Types, Phases Pseudotsuga menziesii phase (ABLAPERA- PSME), subalpine firlsickletop pedicularis- Abies 1asiocarpalAcer glabrum h.t. (ABLAIACGL), Douglas-fir phase subalpine firlRocky Mountain maple Abies lasiocarpalPedicularis racemosa h.t.- Abies 1asiocarpalBerberis repens h.t.-Carex geyeri Pedicularis racemosa phase (ABLALPERA-PERA), phase (ABLNBERE-CAGE), subalpine firlcr eeping subalpine firlsickletop pedicularis-sickletop Oregon grape-elk sedge phase pedicularis phase Abies 1asiocarpalBerberis repens h.t.-Berberis repens Abies 1asiocarpalPhysocarpus malvaceus h.t. (ABLAI phase (ABLNBERE-BERE), subalpine fidcreeping PHMA), subalpine firhinebark Oregon grape-creeping Oregon grape phase Abies 1asiocarpalRibes montigenum h.t.-Mertensiana Abies 1asiocarpalBerberis repens h.t.-Juniperus arizonica phase (ABMIMO-MEAR), subalpine communis phase (ABMEREJUCO), subalpine firlmountain gooseberry-Arizona bluebells phase firlcreeping Oregon grape-common juniper phase Abies ZasiocarpalRibes montigenum h.t.-Pinus Abies lasiocarpalBerberis repens h.t.-Picea contortti phase (ABMIMO-PICO), subalpine fir1 engelmannii phase (ABLA/BERE-PIEN), subal- mountain gooseberry-lodgepole pine phase pine firlcreeping Oregon grape-Engelmann spruce Abies 1asiocarpalRibes montigenum h.t.-Thalictrum phase fendleri phase (ABLAtRIMO-THFE),subalpine fir/ Abies 1asiocarpalBerberis repens h.t.-Pinus flexilis mountain gooseberry-Fendler meadowrue phase phase (ABLNBERE-PIFL), subalpine firheeping Abies 1asiocarpalRibes montigenum h.t.-Ribes Oregon grape-limber pine phase montigenum phase (ABLA/RIMO-RIMO), subal- Abies ZasiocarpalBerberis repens h.t.-Pseudotsuga pine firlmountain gooseberry-mountain gooseberry menziesii phase (ABLABERE-PSME), subalpine phase firhreeping Oregon grape-Douglas-fir phase Abies 1asiocarpaNacciniurn caepitosum h.t. (ABLA.1 Abies 1asiocarpalBerberis repens h.t.-Ribes VACA), subalpine fiddwarf huckleberry montigenum phase (ABMERE-RIMO), Abies 1asiocarpaNaccinium caepitosum h.t.-Picea subalpine fidcreeping Oregon grape-mountain engelmannii phase (ABLANACA-PIEN)), subal- gooseberry phase pine fir/dwarf huckleberry-Engelmann spruce Abies lasiocarpa/Calamagrostis rubescens h.t. phase (ABLAICARU), subalpine firlpinegrass Abies lasiocarpaNaccinium globulare h.t. (ABW Abies 1asiocarpalCarex geyeri h.t. (ABLNCAGE), VAGL), subalpine firhlue huckleberry subalpine firlelk sedge Abies lasiocarpaNaccinium myrtillus h.t. (ABLAI Abies 1asiocarpalCarex rossii h. t. (ABLNCARO), VAMY), subalpine firlmyrtle whortleberry subalpine fir1Ross sedge Abies 1asiocarpaNaccinium scoparium h.t.-Arnica Abies 1asiocarpalJuniperus communis h.t. (ABLN JUCO), latifolia phase (ABLANASC-ARLA), subalpine fir/ subalpine firlcommon juniper grouse whortleberry-broadleaf arnica phase1

t Abies ZasiocarpaNaccinium scoparium h.t.-Carex 179 metric tonsha) were inventoried by Fischer geyeri phase (ABWASC-CAGE), subalpine fir/ (1981) in Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir cover grouse whortleberry-elk sedge phase types in Montana. The heaviest downed woody kel Abies ZasiocarpaNaccinium scoparium h.t.- loads in Utah forests can be expected in Fire Group Vaccinium scoparium phase (ABWAX-VASC), Ten, particularly on sites where lodgepole pine is the subalpine fidgrouse whortleberry-grouse whortle- seral species. Live and standing dead fuel can con- berry phase tribute significantly to overall fire hazard. Dense spruce and fir understory trees along with low- Vegetation hanging moss-covered live and dead branches of overstory trees form effective fuel ladders to the Fire Group Ten contains the bulk of subalpine overstory crowns. Dead subalpine fir and Engel- habitat types, those that are neither very moist nor mann spruce trees have significant amounts of fine very cold (these habitat types are discussed in Fire fuels in lateral twigs, which often curl against the Groups Eleven and Twelve, respectively). Climax larger branches or trunk, frequently along the entire species are subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce. length of the tree. Dead trees are often closely inter- Forest composition in subalpine forests varies with mingled with live vegetation and easily spread fire elevation, exposure, and latitude (Wright and Bailey to overstory crowns during dry weather. 1982). Seral species include most of the conifer Clagg (1975) looked at fuels in subalpine forests species represented in the State, as well as aspen. of Rocky Mountain National Park and the Roosevelt Douglas-fir is most important in northwestern Utah, National Forest in Colorado. The number of stand- while lodgepole pine is the dominant species on many ing snags left after a fire declined through stand age sites in the Uintas. White fir, blue spruce, and lim- 74. The number subsequently rose as the canopy ber pine may be common in stands in the central closed and competition mortality occurred. Larger and southern mountains and high plateaus, and as- snags (greater than 6 inches or 15 cm d.b.h.) domi- pen is widespread throughout the State. Subalpine nated in stands aged 8 to 74 years. A second peak at fir and Engelmann spruce may be the important, or around stand age 200 was dominated by small snags even the only, seral species on some sites. See Fire (less than 6 inches d.b.h. or 15 cm). These probably Group Eight for ABLANASC-VASC sites where resulted from competition. By age 250, large snags lodgepole pine is a persistent seral or an apparent again dominated until the next fire. Fuel moisture climax species. was kept high by typical wet summer conditions. Undergrowth cover is often sparse in near-climax Clagg concluded that fuels in these subalpine stands or climax stands beneath a dense overstory of spruce could be considered hazardous only during extended and fir. Seral stands, particularly those dominated drought or periods of strong winds. by aspen, may be relatively rich in herbaceous cover. In the same Colorado study, 99 percent of the total Commonly occurring shrubs include Acer glabrum, downed woody fuel loading was accounted for by Amelanchier alnifolia, Juniperus communis, Loni- 1,000-hour time lag fuels (greater than 3 inches or cera utahensis, Mahonia repens, Pachistima myrsin- 7.62 cm diameter). Fuels ranged fiom 10 to 37 tons ites, Rosa nutkana, R. woodsii, Symphoricarpos per acre (22.4 to 82.9 metric tonsha). Immediately oreophil us, and Vaccinium scoparium . Gr aminoids after a fire fuels measured 19 tons per acre (43 met- are Bromus ciliatus, Calamagrostis rubescens, Carex ric tonslha). Stands 400 years old had fuel loadings geyeri, C. rossii, Poa secunda, Stipa lettermannii, of 33 tons per acre (74 metric tondha). Sound 1,000- and Trisetum spicatum. Achillea millefolium, Aqui- hour fuels remained fairly constant or exhibited a legia caerulea, Arnica cordifolia, Aster engelmannii, slight downward trend over time. In contrast, the Fragaria spp., Geranium richardsonii, G. viscos- importance of rotten 1,000-hour fbels increased as issimum, Lathyrus lanzwertii,!Pedicularis racemosa, stands matured. An observed increase in total load- Pyrola secunda, Swertia radiuta, Thalictrum ing was mostly accounted for by this increase in rot- fendleri, and Viola adunca. ten fuels. Smaller diameter fuels appeared to change little over time. Fine fuels, important for fire spread, Forest Fuels were discontinuous and not very abundant. A combination of deep duff and large amounts of The most applicable fuels information available dead, rotten fuel can result in hot, smoldering sur- comes from studies carried out in neighboring face fires during unusually dry conditions. When a States. Downed and dead woody he1 loadings dense understory exists, fire can easily spread to the on lower subalpine habitat types in Montana and tree crowns and destroy the stand. Even if surface northern Idaho averaged between 20 and 25 tons/ fires do not crown, there is a good chance the over- acre (56 metric tonsha) (Brown and See 1981). story spruce and subalpine fir will be killed by Loads ranging between 1to 80 tons per acre (2 to cambium heating, Roots of shallow-rooted spruce or fir may be killed or injured by duff fires, leaving stands became increasingly susceptible to fire as them susceptible to insects, disease, or windthrow. succulent forbs were succeeded by woody fuel and Because of the predominantly cold, moist condi- litter (Pfister 1972). tions in subalpine forests, even those stands having Subalpine forests in the Uintas are typically domi- relatively heavy fuel loads may not experience fires nated by lodgepole pine rather than aspen. Here, for many decades or centuries. the conifer-to-conifer succession shortens the period of fuel buildup and the interval between fires Role of Fire (Pfister 1972). A fire history study in the Engelmann spruce- Forest Succession subalpine fir zone of the Utah State University Ex- perimental Forest showed a decreased fire interval Which seral species are involved in succession on during settlement and a greatly increased interval subalpine fir-spruce dominated sites depends on during the fire suppression era (table 17) (Wadleigh- habitat type, geographic location, and availability of Anhold 1988). The difference was attributed to log- seed or other reproductive means (for example, as- ging, livestock, arid other activity by settlers of the pen roots). Pfister (1972) described the structural Cache Valley. The vegetal mosaic created by these and successional characteristics of Utah subalpine settlement fires persists today. These earlier fires, forests. In general, succession after fire or other dis- according to Wadleigh-Anhold (1988) favored lodge- turbance proceeds more slowly on less favorable pole pine and aspen but the less frequent fires of the sites, and seral species retain dominance for long pe- suppression era are favoring the more tolerant sub- riods. Where spruce is a major component of early alpine fir which is regenerating in all types. She seral stands, it tends to dominate late successional predicts that the continued lack of fire will allow the and climax stands. It is long-lived (300+ years) and fir and spruce to overtop the lodgepole and aspen. often of large stature (40 inches [I00 cml d.b.h. and Specific fire history information for other Utah 100 ft C30 ml tall) in old-growth stands. Some con- subalpine forests is lacking. Historically, lightning sider it a co-climax, rather than a persistent seral fires in lower subalpine habitat types were probably species, although it appears to be unable to regener- less frequent than those in other, drier fire groups. ate in its own litter (Mauk and Henderson 1984). In the Northern Rocky Mountains, fire intervals of On harsh sites, aspen acts as a nurse tree for conifer 50 to 130 years have been estimated for subalpine regeneration. In the Abies ZasiocarpalRibes monti- fir habitat types (Arno 1980). In Central and South- genum habitat type, postfire aspen clones are in- ern Rocky Mountain subalpine forests, relatively few vaded first by subalpine fir regeneration. Engel- acres appear to have burned during the last 300 to mann spruce encroachment may be much slower 400 years (Alexander 1987). and restricted to areas of disturbed soil (Youngblood In subalpine fir forests, fire led to dominance by and Mauk 1985). Where livestock or wild ungulates one or more of the potential seral species, opened remove aspen, conifer establishment may be hindered. otherwise dense stands, and created a mosaic of dif- A generalized model of succession in southern ferent ages and species compositions as in the Utah Rocky Mountain subalpine forests was offered by State University Experimental Forest case cited Stahelin (1943) (fig. 43). Schimpf and others (1980) above. Where lodgepole pine or aspen occurred, described the basic successional pathways for the higher frequency of fires favored long-term domi- Abies lasiocarpa/Pedicularisracenzosa habitat type nance by these species. As conifers replaced aspen, in the Wasatch Mountains near Logan Utah:

Table 17-Mean fire interval (MFI)' by cover type and fire frequency period for the Utah State University Experimental Forest (Wadleigh-Anhold 1988) - - - Historic settlement Suppression Total (1700-1 855) (1 856-1909) (191 0-1 988) (189 years) Study area 39 4.9 79 18.1 Cover types ESIAF LP AS 'MFI is an arithmetic average in years of the number of years in a period divided by the number of fires occurring in that period. *Denotes no evidence of fire occurring in that period was found. SPRUCE -FIR CLIMAX through 46 illustrate the hypothetical role of fire on sites with different seral species present. Blue spruce is the climax dominant in the Picea pungensl Berberis repens habitat type. Although it does not appear in the pathways illustrated, blue spruce (PIPU) can be susbstituted for Engelmann spruce I LODGEPW ASPEN, aASP& - DRY PARK, SUBALPINE (PIEN) in any of the diagrams. Letters in this section refer to figures 44-46. Succession With Lodgepole Pine (fig. 44a)- - - L~~~~~~~~~,CRASS & FORBS MOSS, GRASS, & FORBS On sites where lodgepole pine is the sole or domi- 1 4 I 1 nant seral species, after a stand replacing fire an LIGHT FlRE SEVERE FlRE initial herbhhrub community establishes on the site (A). Fires of any severity maintain this state. Where lodgepole pine is serotinous, this stage is quickly followed by a dense stand of evenaged seed- Figure 43--Generalized model of succession lings and saplings (B). Lodgepole pine with non- in southern Rocky Mountain subalpine forests serotinous cones may also reestablish relatively rap- (Alexander 1974). idly when there is an adequate outside seed source. Nonserotinous stands are often less dense, and the seedlings may invade over a period of several years, ...there are probably four major pathways of succes- giving the stand an uneven-aged character. A more sion leading to spruce-fir forests. Pathway "1"repre- open stand (Bl)may include Engelmann spruce. sents succession following the destruction by fire of a Subalpine fir is not usually present at this stage. forest containing significant aspen root biomass. The If pine regeneration is dense, other conifer seedlings aspens sucker within a short period of time to produce are probably crowded out (C). Low to moderate fire an aspen-dominated stand. Spruce and fir subse- may open the stand and permit regeneration of fir quently invade, and eventually outlive and replace and spruce as well as more pine (Cl). Without fire, the aspen. a dense pcle stand becomes a crowded mature stand Pathway "2"occurs in the lower elevational range of pine (Dl. Stem density is somewhat reduced by of the habitat type ... . If aspen is not locally abundant then lodgepole is the postfire pioneer, provided competition-induced mortality. The understory in that a local seed source exists. Lodgepole cones are the pole or mature state is sparse. Low to moderate not serotinous in this area so seeding is from adjacent fire in the mature state can open the stand and per- stands. Spruce and fir establish and grow more mit further development of a mixed species under- slowly than lodgepole; thus, a pine-dominated ecosys- story. The stand eventually breaks up due to dis- tem exists for some time prior to spruce-fir stand re- ease, decadence, or beetle kill (El. Fir and spruce covery. Spruce and fir may establish soon after fire, are able to invade openings. Stands with a dying without site amelioration by aspen or lodgepole, if a lodgepole pine overstory and fir-spruce understory significant quantity of unburned woody material re- are susceptible to severe fire because of their typi- mains as protection ...p athway "3", [is] where the cli- cally heavy live and dead fuel loads. Severe fires max species establish without preclimax tree species. recycle the stand. If no fire occurs during breakup, The climax stand structure typically takes less time to the stand is dominated by climax fir and spruce (G). develop than through pathways "1" and "2". Pathway "4". ..begins with long-persistent meadows, probably Moderate fires in mixed stands (El) kill most of not of fire origin ... . the tolerant conifers but may spare some of the I lodgepole pine. The overstory is then again made These pathways apply for ipruce-fir habitat types up of scattered lodgepole pine (Dl). At near-climax where nonserotinous lodgepole pine or aspen are the or climax (F,G), a severe fire returns the stand to an major seral species. Other successional pathways herbkhrub state. Low-severity surface fires reduce are possible where the seral species mix differs. The fuels and expose mineral soil for regeneration. If a three most important seral species are lodgegpole lodgepole pine seed source is not available, a severe pine, aspen, and Douglas-fir. Aspen can occur on fire initiates a successional process in which spruce all but the Abies lasiocarpalVaccinium rnyrtillus, and fir alone dominate seral stands (see Fire Group Abies lasiocarpaNaccinium scopariurn-Vaccinium Twelve). Fire ordinarily occurs before this condition scoparium, and Abies lasiocarpdVaccinium sco- is reached. On the Picea pungensll3erberis repens parium-Carex geyeri habitat types within this fire h.t., blue spruce may dominate at climax, replacing group. Without aspen, dominance by Douglas-fir Engelmann spruce shown in the diagram. is accelerated on sites where it occu&. ~ibres44 Mod. Fire of moderate severlty Severe Hot stand-replacement llre Figure 44--Hypothetical fire-related successional pathways for habitat types in Fire Grou~ Ten, (a) where lodgepole pine is seral, (b) where lodgepole pine and aspen are seral, (c) where aspen alone is seral.

Succession With Lodgepole Pine and Aspen ' Severe fires at near-climax or climax return the (fig.44b)-Where aspen and lodgepole occur to- stand to the shrubherb state. gether in a stand, asien resprouts and lodgepole Succession With Aspen Only (fig. 4.4~)-Where pine seedlings may both become established in an aspen is present, it usually resprouts after a short hedishrub field after fire (B2). Aspen grows quickly, herb stage (A2). Resprouting shrubs and aspen may however, and soon overtops lodgepole pine. Pine both appear the first growing season after fire. Any seedlings tend be restricted to openings where ' to fire can kill resprouts. Spruce and fir seedlings are there are no suckering aspen roots (C2). Spruce shade tolerant and able to establish beneath a cano- and subalpine fir regeneration may occur beneath py of aspen in any stage of development (B3 through the aspen or lodgepole pine canopy. Low-severity E3). Seedlings may be smothered in aspen leaf lit- fires open the stand, favoring lodgepole pine seed- ter, however, slowing their invasion into the stand. ling establishment, or possibly aspen regeneration A low-severity surface fire may kill most conifer re- if enough aspen stems are killed to stimulate sprout- generation, but it can also damage aspen stems. If ing. Without fire, the aspen overstory eventually only scattered stems are killed, suckering may not breaks up (D2). A mixed conifer stand develops be stimulated. An influx of conifers in the under- with lodgepole pine in the overstory and spruce story may occur in the gaps. and fir in the understory (E2). Low- to moderate- Moderate to severe fires return the site to herbs in severity fires maintain this stand and all species any successional stage. The site is quickly repopu- regenerate in the openings. Aspen survives in occasional patches. As the stand approaches climax con- lated by aspen suckers. Spruce and fir reestablish in openings. Without fire, the conifer understory ditions, lodgepole pine drops out of the stand (F). continues its development and eventually replaces the shorter lived aspen, which is unable to propa- fire in the mature stand is an open Douglas-fir stand gate successfully in the shade (D3).,.Severe fires in with Douglas-fir regeneration (Dl). If fire does not the mature conifer stand cause a return to the herb occur, subalpine fir and spruce join the overstory stage. If remnant aspen are leR, some resprouting and dominate the understory (E). After several cen- may occur. Where most or all aspen stems are dead turies, a climax of pure spruce and subalpine fir is or decadent, fire does not cause sufficient suckering hypothetically possible (F). But pure stands are ex- for regeneration because the root system is also tremely rare because of the potential for fire and the weakened. Without fire, conifer density will con- longevity of Douglas-fir. tinue to increase over time (E3,F). Conifers may Douglas-fir may also share seral dominance with become dominant on many sites in 200 to 400 years aspen (no diagram). After a stand-replacement fire, (Bartos and others 1983; DeByle and others 1987). both aspen sprouts and Douglas-fir seedlings may In areas of optimum growth, such as central Utah, establish on the site. But because aspen grows more it may take well over 1,000 years for aspen stands quickly, it will probably dominate the site until ma- to convert to climax conifers (Mueggler 1976). Cli- turity. In the understory, Douglas-fir may occur max stands old enough to be pure spruce and fir are with climax spruce or fir. Low or moderate fires rare. If fire occurs in one of these sites, lack of pine open the aspen stand and permit more conifer re- or aspen will mean the climax dominants also domi- generation as well as aspen sprouting. Once the nate seral stages. aspen begins to open up, Douglas-fir may seed into Succession With Douglas-fir (fig. 45)-Where openings and form a multistoried stand with the cli- Douglas-fir is the dominant seral species, fires of max tolerant species in the understory. Over a long any severity can prevent conifer development in the period of time without fire, Douglas-fir is replaced herbhhrub or seedling-sapling states (A,B). At later by spruce and fir. stages of stand development, severe fire has the Succession With Mixed Species (fig. 46)-In same effect. Low-severity fires occurring in the pole the central and southern portions of the State, par- through climax stages do not change stand condition ticularly at lower elevations, several sera1 species much. On some sites spruce is an important associ- may be found on sites that at climax are dominated ated species. Even low-severity fires can eliminate by Engelmann spruce, blue spruce, or subalpine fir. spruce because of its shallow roots. Any opening On these sites, a varying mix of conifers including caused by spruce mortality is quickly recolonized Douglas-fir, white fir, subalpine fir, or the two by Douglas-fir, subalpine fir, spruce, or occasionally, spruces dominate succession. Aspen is a common white fir seedlings. Moderate fires are not likely to seral species on many sites with mixed conifers. . occur until there has been some buildup of under- On some sites blue spruce or limber pine may also story dead and live fuels (D). The result of a moderate be present, although they are not included in the

PEN or ABLA

LEGEND Succesalon In absence of firs --- - + Response to fire Low Cool or 11ght surface fire Mod.. Fire of moderate severity Severe Hot stand-replacement (Ire Figure 45-Hypothetical fire-related successional pathways for habitat types in Fire Group Ten where Douglas-fir is the dominant seral species. .Figure 46-Hypothetical fire-related successional pathways for habitat types in Fire Group Ten where a mixtie of species occur during succession.

pathway illustrated here. As is discussed in Fire in an overstory of Douglas-fir by killing most aspen Group Six (white fir), the most common presettle- stems as well as the understory conifers (C3). ment fire severities in the mixed conifer type were Stands experiencing moderate fires will develop an probably low to moderate. Small fires of low sever- open overstory of Douglas-fir and an understory of ity would open gaps where one or more of the species aspen suckers and Douglas-fir dominated regenera- adapted to the region could establish. A pattern of tion. If the mature aspen and understory conifers gap filling may help explain the diverse nature of do not burn, a mixed forest may develop (D). Again, these forests. fire in this stage favors Douglas-fir and aspen. Where aspen is present, the herb stage will nor- Larger spruce and white fir can often survive low- mally be followed quite quickly by a stand of re- severity fires and contribute to the regeneration of sprouts. Repeated fire will prolong this stage be- the site (Dl or D2). Without fire, as the conifer cause any fire will kill sprouts and conifer seedlings. stand develops, aspen is eventually crowded out. The earliest seedlings will most likely be Douglas-fir Douglas-fir is a long-lived species and remains an and possibly blue spruce or Engelmann spruce, important member of the overstory for a long time. although white fir and subalpine fir may also be An all-aged mix of white fir, subalpine fir, and present (B). Aspen is the fastest growing species spruce is associated with the old Douglas-fir (E). and will form an overstory above the conifers, slow- The effects of fire are similar to those in earlier ing the growth of the less-tolerant species. Low- phases, with Douglas-fir favored by low or moderate severity surface fires may remove some of the under- severities. Severe fires in this stage may be more story and could promote aspen resprouting if enough likely because of fuel laddering. Severe fires return stems have been killed. The resulting open stand is the stand to the herblshrub stage. If fire occurs at made up of aspen and Douglas-fir poles (Cl). Most this stage, only conifers are included in the succes- other understory conifers will be killed, and new sional process because live aspen roots are no longer conifer regeneration will establish in the gaps (Dl). in the stand (A4 through C4). Climax stands (F) Moderate fires in the mature stage (C) will result may be made up of varying proportions of subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce depending on stand age FIRE GROUP ELEVEN: MOIST TO and habitat type. Low- to moderate-severity fires WET SUBAIPIME HABITAT TYPES open the stand and gaps are filled by subalpine fir and spruce seedlings since Douglas-fir is no longer Habitat or Community Types present. Spruce may be favored by low-severity fires because of its somewhat greater fire tolerance and Abies 1asiocarpalAconiturncolumbianurn h.t. its ability to establish successfully on mineral soil. (ABWACCO), subalpine firlmonkshood Its reinvasion of the stand will be accelerated if suf- Abies ZasiocarpalActaea rubra h.t. (ABWACRU), ficient debris or shade are available to moderate subalpine firlred baneberry heat and light conditions for seedlings. Abies 1asiocarpaICalamagrostis canadensis h.t. (ABWCACA), subalpine firhluejoint Abies lasiocarpalStreptopus amplexicaulis h.t. Fire Management Considerations (ABLA/STAM), subalpine firlclaspleaf twisted- Fire can sanitize stands, reduce fire hazard, pro- stalk vide a good seedbed for conifers, and regenerate as- Picea engelmanniilEquisetum arvense h.t. (PIEN/ pen for wildlife and livestock browse. Fire produces EQAR), Engelmann sprucelcommon horsetail a vegetational mosaic favorable for wildlife and can Picea engelmanniilCaltha leptosepala h.t. (PIENI improve water yield by converting dense conifer CALE), Engelmann sprucelmarsh marigold stands to aspen or shrub and herbaceous cover. Picea pungenslEquisteum arvense h.t. (PIPUIEQAR), Fire protection is usually an important consider- blue sprucelcommon horsetail ation during severe burning conditions, especially ConiferlCornus sericea c. t. (CONIFER/COSE), where timber production is an objective. At other coniferhedoiser dogwood times, fires may be of low to moderate severity and ConiferlAconitum columbianum c.t. (CONIFER/ result in only moderate damage or no damage to un- ACCO), coniferlmonkshood derstory trees, despite the relatively low fire resistance of some of the species present. Large, over- Vegetation story Douglas-fir should easily survive low- to moderate-severity fire. Fire Group Eleven is composed of subalpine habi- Fire has been used to remove stands of mistletoe- tat types occurring in seasonally moist or wet condi- infested lodgepole pine (Chonka 1988) and to reduce tions, or where soils are subirrigated and water the food supply of spruce beetles in cull logs or wind- tables remain high year-round. Subalpine forest throws (Wright and Bailey 1982). habitat types generally found adjacent to riparian Fire can be used to dispose of slash on logged ar- areas, on moist benches, or as stands associated eas, but broadcast burning for site preparation may with late-melting, high-elevation snowbanks are in- be hampered by high duff moistures and the limited cluded in this grouping (fig. 47). number of acceptable burning days during tradi- The riparian community type classification for tional spring and fall burning periods. Consequently, Utah and southeastern Idaho (Padgett and others summer burning may produce better results and has 1986; Youngblood and others 1985) describes several become common in some areas (Crane and Fischer community types that occur adjacent to moist subal- 1986). Debris left on exposed sites will increase re- pine habitat types of Fire Group Eleven. Such ripar- generation success (Wright and Bailey 1982). ian types may actually be seral stages of the Fire Aspen community classifications have recently Group Eleven habitat types. Although our under- been developed for Utah (Mueggler 1988; Mueggler standing of the successional relations in these plant and Campbell 1986) and in some areas aspen may communities is incomplete, we have tentatively in- be the natural, long-term ddminant in a stand. In cluded the ConiferlCornus sericea and Conifer/ other areas, extensive aspen coverage may be the Aconitum columbianum riparian community types result of disturbance. Subalpine forests were sub- in Fire Group Eleven. jected to extremely heavy logging and uncontrolled Engelmann spruce is often a persistent seral spe- human-caused fires in the late 1800's. Conifer re- cies, the climax dominant, or a climax codominant generation was inhibited by these impacts as well with subalpine fir in Fire Group Eleven. On some as by grazing and its associated soil compaction. south-central Utah sites, blue spruce replaces Engel- Conifers are only now beginning to return to some mann spruce as the climax dominant. In addition to sites (Mauk and Henderson 1984). Aspen communi- spruce, less important seral species may include ties that today appear to be climax may eventually Douglas-fir, aspen, lodgepole pine, and subalpine fir, give way to subalpine fir or spruce with continued particularly on very moist sites, where it may he the exclusion of fire and other disturbances. only seral species. Forest Fuels Fuels in moist subalpine fir forests resemble those described for Fire Group Ten. The large 1,000-hour time lag fuels make up the bulk of the fuel loading. The potential for Engelmann spruce to reach large diameters on these sites may result in a greater average diameter of the large woody fuels. Fires are infrequent due to the moist environment and lush shrub and herb component. There may be much rotten material and duff on the forest floor. In colder, higher elevation habitat types, the proportion of sound to rotten woody fuel may be greater because of slow decomposition r@es. Fire Group Eleven stands are susceptible to severe fires when droughts occur. Stands may be killed by either surface fires or by crown fires that encroach from surrounding stands. Thin bark and shallow roots make spruce especially susceptible to mortality from hot surface fires that consume organic layers around trees.

Role of Fire Little is known about the fire history of Fire Group Eleven sites in Utah. In general, fire is an infrequent disturbance on moist or wet sites. Al- though they do not occur as often as they do on drier sites, fires may be more severe because of higher fuel loads resulting from greater site productivity. Low-severity smoldering fires of restricted area probably occur most often. This type of fire may remove single trees or a small group of trees rather than an entire stand. Severe burns can result dur- Figure 47-Moist subalpine f irhluejoint ing extremely dry conditions when severe fires reedgrass stand, Ashley National Forest. spread from adjacent upland sites. Crane (1982) reported estimates of 325-335 years, with a variance of 50 years as the fire-return interval of three moist The undergrowth in these moist habitat types is spruce habitat types on the Shoshone National For- often lush. Common understory shrubs are Lonicera est, WY. Romme and Knight (1981) found intervals involucrata, Pachistima rnyrsinites, Ribes montig- of 300 to 400 years between fires in drainage bot- enum, Sambucus racemosa, Symphoricarpos oreo- toms compared to 300 years for drier upland sites of philus, Vaccinium caespitosum, and V. scoparium. the Medicine Bow National Forest in southwestern There is a diversity of tall and low forbs on these Wyoming. The mean fire-free interval for a moist sites, including Achillea millefolium, Actaea rubra, Abies lasiocarpa/Clintonia uniflora type in north- Arnica cordifolia, Caltha leptosepala, Epilobium western Montana was estimated to be 130 years angustifoliurn, Equisetum arvense, Erigeron pere- (Sneck 1977). The Abies lasiocarpaIGaliurn tri- grinus, Geranium richardsonii, Mertensia ciliata, florum habitat type in western Wyoming-southeastern Osrnorhiza depauperata, Pyrola asarifolia, Pyrola Idaho has comparable vegetation and site conditions secunda, Senecio triangularis, and Streptopus to the Abies ZasiocarpalActaea rubra type in Utah. amplexicadis. Bromus ciliatus, Calarnagrostis Cooper (1975) commented that the Abies lasiocarpal canadensis, Carex rossii, Descharnpsia caespitosa, Gulium triflorum type was dominated by older suc- Elymus glaucus, Glyceriu striata, and Luzula cessional stages, which attested to the relative infre- parviflora are typical graminoids. quency of fire and a rapid rate of succession. Forest Succession At climax, spruce and fir are dominant in the overstory and the only species regenerating in the under- Figure 48 illustrates the hypothetical role of fire in story (F). Low-severity fires perpetuate the all-aged Fire Group Eleven. Letters in this section refer to structure, and severe fires recycle the stand. figure 48. Fires of moderate severity are less common than either low-severity or stand-replacement fires be- Fire Management Considerations cause of the moisture regime. Severe fires destroy Severe fires are rare in these moist forests, but the stand. Following a stand-replacement fire, the they can invade from adjacent stands during dry, initial herb stage is quickly followed by a stand of windy weather. Killing the overstory by fire may resprouting shrubs, and aspen, if it is present (B). have similar effects to those of logging: raised water Conifer and cottonwood seedling establishment may tables and possibly increased windthrow potential also occur on some sites. Any fire in either stage re- among the remaining live trees. Windthrow may be sults in a return to the herb state (A). In the pole mitigated as long as dead boles remain standing. A stage (C),rapidly growing aspen, lodgepole pine, or fire that burns away much of the duff may remove Douglas-fir overtop the slower growing Engelmann shallow-rooted species. Deep-seated resprouting spruce, blue spruce, and subalpine fir. The mature shrubs and herbs, or annual species, will dominate forest consists of an aspen, lodegpole pine or Douglas- the postfire site. Low-severity fires open stands, fir overstory with a multi-aged understory of spruce provide microsites for seedling establishment, and and fir (D). Low-severity fires in either of these may stimulate aspen and shrub sprouting. Even stages open areas for conifer regeneration or aspen low-severity fires may kill or damage shallow-rooted resprouts. In stands where more fire-resistant spruce directly, or weaken roots and make trees sus- Douglas-fir or lodgepole pine are present, low- to ceptible to windfall. The open canopy and upturned moderate-severity fires may favor these species over soil from windfall create favorable conditions for con- the less-resistant spruce and fir. In the near-climax ifer regeneration. At high elevations, spruce regen- state, the sera1 intolerant species are gradually re- eration may suffer sun scalding if there is not ad- placed by spruce and fir (E). Douglas-fir, because equate shade after overstory removal. of its longevity and relative shade tolerance, may Management of these sites is often oriented toward remain in the community for a long time. Fire pro- nonconsumptive values such as water production vides a mineral seedbed that is favorable for regen- and wildlife habitat. On some sites the disturbance eration of many conifers, particularly Douglas-fir. associated with modern fire suppression may result .

Climax forest

LEGEND Succession In absence of lire --- - + Response to fire Low Cool or light surface fire Mod. Fire of moderate severity Severe Hol stand-replacemenl fire

Figure 48-Hypothetical fire-related successional pathways for habitat types in Fire Group Eleven. in more lasting damage than fire itself would cause. Pachistima myrsinites, Ribes montigenum, Vaccin- Fire management direction for Fire Group Eleven ium caespitosum, and V. scopulorum. Carex rossii, sites should weigh the perceived costs and benefits Festuca ovina, Poa secunda, and Trisetum spicatum of fire suppression against its ecological conse- are typical graminoids. Achillea millefolium, Anten- quences. The appropriate fire management policy naria microphylla, Arnica cordifolia, A latifolia, may be one that allows certain ignitions to burn ac- Erigeron peregrinus, and Thalictrum fendleri are cording to a predetermined fire management pre- forbs commonly encountered in these habitat types. scription (Fischer 1978). Forest Fuels FIRE GROUP TWELVE:COLD, UPPER Moist conditions and discontinuous fine fuels keep SUBALPINE HABITAT TYPES fire hazard low in uppper subalpine forests. The Habitat Types, Phases greatest fire danger occurs when wind drives fire into the high country frqm lower, more fire-prone Abies EasiocarpalRibes montigenum h.t.-Trisetum stands. Fuels in this type are similar to those de- spicatum phase (ABLA/RIMO-TRSP), subalpine scribed for Fire Group Ten. Larger diameter fuels firlmountain gooseberry-spike trisetum phase dominate the loadings. Fuel loadings in a compa- Abies lasiocarpaNaccinium scoparium h.t.- rable fire group described for Montana averaged Vacciniumlscoparium phase (ABLANASC-VASC), 2 tonslacre (4.5 metric tonsha) of material one- subalpine firlgrouse whortleberry-grouse whortle- quarter inch to 3 inches (0.64 to 7.62 cm) in diam- berry phase eter and about 9 tondacre (20 metric tonsha) of fu- Picea engelmanniilRibes montigenum h.t. (PIENI els over 3 inches (7.62 cm) in diameter (Fischer and RIMO), Engelmann sprucelmountain gooseberry Clayton 1983). The relatively low productivity of Picea engelmanniiNaccinium caespitosum h.t. these sites may decrease the rate of fuel accumula- (PIENNACA), Engelmann spruceldwarf tion, and average diameters of large woody fuels huckleberry will probably be smaller than those in lower stands. Picea engelmanniiNaccinium scoparium h.t. (PIENI Countering this trend is a slower rate of decomposi- VASC) , Engelmann spruce/grouse whortl eberry tion. Surface fires may kill trees by heating the cambium or root tissue in krurnmholz, most fires Vegetation spread through the crowns because of the short stature of the trees. Fire Group Twelve is made up of high-elevation or timberline portions of subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce habitat types that are, for the most part, too Role of Fire cold for Douglas-fir, white fir, blue spruce, lodgepole Fire is an infrequent visitor in much of the high pine, or aspen. These forests often occur well above country. Many stands may have substantial snow- 10,000 ft (3,048 m). Climax subalpine fir and Engel- packs that may last through the summer months. mann spruce are usually the only sera1 species. Grasses and forbs cure in August or September, Trees may not cover extensive areas. Patches of con- about the time that late summer storms often begin, ifers intermingle with subalpine meadows. On ex- effectively ending the fire season. Thus, though the posed ridges, trees may form krummholz. In these incidence of lightning strikes may be relatively high, harsh environments, most increase of forested area fire frequency is low. In Montana, Gabriel (1976) is due to layering by subalpine fir rather than seed- concluded that the fire history at high elevations in ling establishment. On dry, windy sites unfavorable the Bob Marshall Wilderness was one of lightning for spruce and fir, limber pine or bristlecone pine strikes igniting many fires that burned small areas, may be persistent dominants. Fire effects on these from individual trees to several acres, In Utah, forests are described in Fire Group Nine. Lower el- summer lightning is generally accompanied by rain, evation portions of the PIENNACA and PIENNASC making fire spread unlikely. Timberline stands are h.t.'s, where lodgepole pine occurs, are assigned to frequently discontinuous, separated by talus, rocky Fire Group Eight. Lower elevation portions of the cliffs, or expanses of herbaceous vegetation. Billings ABLANASC h.t. are assigned to Fire Groups Eight (1969) studied fire in the high-elevation "ribbon for- and Ten. ests" of the Medicine Bow Mountains in southern The undergrowth component is not particularly di- Wyoming, where ribbons of trees alternate with ex- verse. Scattered shrubs and low herbaceous plants panses of moist meadow vegetation. Fires appeared grow where there are gaps in the dense canopy. to be relatively common, but local in extent. There Shrubs commonly associated with high-elevation appeared to be little cross-correlation between fires subalpine forests include Juniperus comm unis, occurring between neighboring patches of trees. Intervening snowglade meadows or tundra re- snags, logs, or shrubs (B). One hundred years or stricted fire spread. Fires in these ribbon forests more may pass before conifers dominate the site. may be ground or crown, with krummholz patches It may take another 100 years before a mature for- almost always experiencing crown fires because of est develops (C). Stand and fuel conditions will the short trees. Succession after ground fires may probably not support a fire of any consequence dur- return the stand to its prefire condition in relatively ing this time. It may take two or three centuries to few years. After crown fires, the site is no longer reach climax status (D). In Utah, Engelmann ameliorated by the presence of trees, and a return spruce tends to dominate the highest elevation cli- to the forested state may be extremely slow. Slow max stands. Eventually, stands will break up under regeneration adds to the difficulty in determining the impact of snow and wind damage, insect and dis- fire intervals, because relatively old burns may sup- ease mortality, windthrow and senescence, creating port only sparse or otherwise underdeveloped stands. more woody fuels. Because of the lack of different Estimates of fire-free intervals range from 50 to 300 sera1 species, low-severity fires at all stages tend to years (Arno 1986, 1990; Heinselmann 1981). Fire change the age structure rather than the species has its greatest impact when occasional large high- composition in most high-elevation stands. Sparse severity fires invade from lower elevation forests dur- fuels and unfavorable weather conditions limit the ing severe fire conditions. Periods of high wind and occurrence of moderate fires. Severe, stand-destroying low fuel moistures present the greatest fire hazard. fires, oRen invading from lower elevation stands, become a possibility in mature or climax stands during Forest Succession droughty periods. Severe fires will recycle the stand to the herbaceous state. Figure 49 illustrates the hypothetical role of fire In high-elevation burns in Colorado and Wyoming, during succession in Fire Group Twelve stands. Stahelin (1943) found that the most important fac- Letters in this section refer to figure 49. tors affecting rate of regeneration were seed tree, Secondary succession begins with a mixture of abundance, soil, exposure, and ground cover. Stock- herbs and shrubs (A). Adverse conditions for conifer ing seemed to be favored on north-facing slopes, regeneration allow herbaceous plants to dominate lighter gravelly soils, well-scattered seed trees, and the stand for an extended period. Fire may initiate little or no graminoid cover. On these sites, 10 or succession, but it is unlikely that it has a role in more seed treedacre were considered to be adequate maintaining it. Physical disruption of the stand by to restock the site within 50 years. The sensitivity snow and wind, rock slides, and talus slippage are of young Engelmann spruce to sun scalding may more important recyclers of high, unproductive sites inhibit seedling establishment unless sufficient than fire. Conifers may establish in the shelter of debris is left on the ground to provide shade.

LEGEND Succession In absence of fire -Response to fire ---+ Low Cool or light surface fire Mod. Flre of moderate severity Severe Hot stand-replacerne~tfire Figure 49-Hypothetical fire-related successional pathways for habitat types in Fire Group Twelve.

103 Fire Management Considerations Ahlstrand, Gary M. 1980. Fire history of a mixed conifer forest in Guadalupe Mountains National Timber production is rarely an important manage- Park. In: Stokes, Marvin A; Dieterich, John H., ment objective in Fire Group Twelve forests. Water- tech. coords. Proceedings of the fire history work- shed, wildlife, and recreation are often the dominant shop; 1980 October 20-24; Tucson, AZ. Gen. Tech. values. Management may be restricted by natural Rep. R.M-81. Fort Collins, CO: US. Department of area or wilderness designation. Fire is infrequent, Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain For- and when it does occur, damage in terms of manage- est and Range Experiment Station: 4-7. ment objectives is usually slight. These sites, how- Albini, Frank A. 1976. Computer-based models of ever, are fragile and can easily be damaged by mod- wildland fire behavior: a user's manual. Ogden, em, mechanized firefighting equipment. For many UT: U.S.Department of Agriculture, Forest Ser- Fire Group Twelve habitat types, the primary con- vice, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment sideration should be the development of prescrip- Station. 68 p. tions that allow fire to more nearly play its natural Alexander, M. E.; HawKsworth, F. G. 1975. Wildland role (Fischer 1984). fires and dwarf mistletoes: a literature review of Because of the long fire-free intervals, past fire ecology and prescribed burning. Gen. Tech. Rep. suppression policies have had less effect in high- RM-14. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agri- elevation subalpine stands than in other habitat culture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest types. But because of their susceptibility to fires at and Range Experiment Station. 12 p. lower elevations, subalpine stands can be affected Alexander, Robert R. 1987. Ecology, silviculture, and by excessive he1 buildups in lower, more fire-prone management of Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir forests. Fire management should consider this type in the central and southern Rocky Moun- relationship. tains. Agric. Handb. 659. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky REFERENCES Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 144 p. Ahlenslager, Kathleen A. 1986. Pascopyrum smithii. Alexander, Robert R.; Sheppard, Wayne D. 1984. In: Fischer, William C., compiler. The Fire Effects Silvical characteristics of Engelmann spruce. Gen. Information System [Data base]. Missoula, MT: Tech. Rep. RM-114. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Depart- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, ment of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Moun- Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain tain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 38 p. Fire Sciences Laboratory. Magnetic tape reels; Amman, G. D. 1977. The role of mountain pine 9 track; 1600 bpi, ASCII with Common LISP beetle in lodgepole pine ecosystems: impact on suc- present. cession. In: Mattson, W. J., ed. 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Natural fuel loadings in Pfister, Robert D.; Kovalchik, Bernard L.; Arno, ponderosa pine and mixed conifer forests of the Stephen F.; Presby, Richard C. 1977. Forest habi- Southwest. Res. Pap. RM-213. Fort Collins, CO: tat types of Montana. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-34. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, For: Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment est Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Ex- Station. 10 p. periment Station. 174 p. Schier, G. A. 1974. Deterioration of aspen clones in Preston, R. J. 1940. Rocky Mountain trees. Arnes, the middle Rocky Mountains. Res. Pap. INT-170. IA: The Iowa State College Press. 285 p. Ogden, UT:U.S. Department of Agriculture, For- Radtke, Klaus W. H. 1983. Living more safely in est Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Ex- the chaparral-urban interface. Gen. Tech. Rep. periment Station. 14 p. PSW-67. Berkeley, CA: US. 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The Fire Effects Information ture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. System Data base]. Missoula, MT: U.S. Depart- 23 p. ment of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermoun- Wadleigh-Anhold, Linda L. 1988. Fire frequency and tain Research Station, Intermountain Fire Sci- the vegetal mosaic of the Utah State University ences Laboratory. ~agnetictape reels; 9 track; Experimental Forest. Logan, UT: Utah State Uni- 1600 bpi, ASCII with Common LISP present. versity. 61 p. Thesis. Winkler, Gail. 198713. Ribes aureum. In: Fischer, Wagle, R. F.; Eakle, Thomas W. 1979. A controlled William C., compiler. The Fire Effects Information burn reduces the impact of a subsequent wildfire System Data base]. Missoula, MT: U.S. Depart- in a ponderosa pine vegetation type. Forest Sci- ment of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermoun- ence. 25(1): 123-129. tain Research Station, Intermountain Fire Sci- Wagener, W. W. 1955. Preliminary guidelines for es- ences Laboratory. Magnetic tape reels; 9 track; timating the survival of fire-damaged trees. Res. 1600 bpi, ASCII with Common LISP present. Note 98. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agn- Winkler, Gail. 1987~.Ribes cereum. In: Fischer, culture, Forest Senrice, California Forest and William C., compiler. The Fire Effects Information Range Experiment Station. 9 p. System [Data base]. Missoula, MT: U.S. Depart- Wagener, Willis W. 1961. Guidelines for estimating ment of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermoun- the survival of fire-damaged trees in California. tain Research Station, Intermountain Fire Sci- Misc. Pap. 60. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of ences Laboratory. Magnetic tape reels; 9 track; Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest For- 1600 bpi, ASCII with Common LISP present. est and Range Experiment Station. 11 p. Winkler, Gail. 1987d. Ribes lacustre. In: Fischer, Walkup, Crystal. 1991. Shepherdia canadensis. In: William C., compiler. The Fire Effects Information Fischer, William C., compiler. The Fire Effects In- System [Data base]. Missoula, MT: U.S. Depart- formation System [Data base]. Missoula, MT: U.S. ment of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermoun- Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Inter- tain Research Station, Intermountain Fire Sci- mountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire ences Laboratory. Magnetic tape reels; 9 track; Sciences Laboratory. Magnetic tape reels; 9 track; 1600 bpi, &XI1 with Common LISP present. 1600 bpi, ASCII with Common LISP present. Winkler, Gail. 1987e. Ribes montigenum. In: Walter, H. 1977. Effects of fire on wildlife communi- Fischer, William C., compiler. The Fire Effects In- ties. In: Mooney, H. A.; Conrad, C. E., eds. Envi- formation System [Data base]. Missoula, MT: U.S. ronmental consequences of fire and fuel manage- Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Inter- ment in Mediterranean ecosystems: Proceedings mountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire of the symposium; 1977 August 1-5; Palo Alto, CA. Sciences Laboratory. Magnetic tape reels; 9 track; Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-3. Washington, DC: U.S.De- 1600 bpi, ASCII with Common LISP present. partment of Agriculture, Forest Service: 183-192. Winward, A. H. 1985. Perspectives on Gambel oak Weaver, Harold. 1943. Fire as an ecological and sil- management on National Forests in the Inter- vicultural factor in the ponderosa pine region of mountain Region. In: Johnson, Kendall L., ed. Pro- the Pacific slope. Journal of Forestry. 41(1): 7-15. ceedings of the third Utah shrub ecology work- Weaver, Harold. 1951. Fire as an ecological factor in shop; 1983 August 30-31; Provo, UT. Logan, UT: the Southwestern ponderosa pine forests. Journal Utah State University, College of Natural Re- of Forestry. 49(1): 93-98. sources: 33-36. Wellner, C. A. 1970. Fire history in the Northern Woodard, P. M. 1977. Effects of prescribed burning Rocky Mountains. In: Role of fire in the Inter- on two different-aged high-elevation plant commu- mountain West: Proceedings of a symposium; 1970 nities in eastern Washington. Seattle: University October 27-29; Missoula, MT. Missoula, MT: Inter- of Washington. 228 p. Dissertation. mountain Fire Research Council: 42-64. Wright, H. A. 1972. Shrub response to fire. In: Wild- Welsh, Stanley L.; Atwood, N. Duane; Goodrich, land shrubs-their biology and utilization. Gen. Sherel; Higgins, Larry C. 1987. A Utah flora. Tech. Rep. INT-1. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Senice, Intermountain Forest Youngblood, Andrew P.; Mauk, Ronald L. 1985. Co- and Range Experiment Station: 204-217. niferous forest habitat types of central and south- Wright, H. A. 1978. The effect of fire on vegetation ern Utah. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-187. Ogden, UT: in ponderosa pine forests: a state-of-the-art re- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, view. Sci. Publ. T-9-199. College Station, TX: Intermountain Research Station. 89 p. Texas Tech University, College of Agriculture. Zager, Peter. 1980. The influence of logging and 21 p. wildfire on grizzly bear habitat in northwestern Wright, H. A. 1980. The role and use of fire in the Montana. Missoula, MT: University of Montana. semidesert grass-shrub type. Gen. Tech. Rep. 131p. Dissertation. INT-85. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agricul- Zimmerman, G. Thomas. 1979. Livestock grazing, ture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and fire and their interactions within the Douglas-fir/ Range Experiment Station. 24 p. ninebark habitat type of northern Idaho. Moscow, Wright, H.A.; Bailey, A. W. 1980. Fire ecology and ID: University of Idaho. 78 p. Thesis. prescribed burning in the Great Plains-a re- Zimmerman, G. Thomas; Laven, Richard D. 1984. search review. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-77. Ogden, Ecological interrelationships of dwarf mistletoe UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Ser- and fire in lodgepole pine forests. In: Biology of vice, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment dwarf mistletoes: Proceedings of the symposium; Station. 501 p. 1984 August 8; Fort Collins, CO. Gen. Tech. Rep. Wright, Henry A,; Bailey, Arthur W. 1982. Fire INT-111. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Ag- ecology-United States and southern Canada. riculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest New York: John Wiley & Sons. 501 p. .. and Range Experiment Station: 123-131. Wright, Henry A.; Neuenschwander, Leon F.; Zimmerman, G. Thomas; Neunschwander, Leon F. Britton, Carlton M. 1979. The role and use of fire 1983. Fuel-load reductions resulting from prescribed in sagebrush-grass and pinyon-juniper plant com- burning in grazed and ungrazed Douglas-fir stands. munities: a state-of-the-art review. Gen. Tech. Journal of Range Management. 36(3): 346-350. Rep. INT-58. Ogden, UT: US. Department of Agri- Zimmerman, Mary Lou. 199 1. Arctostaphylos culture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and patula. In: Fischer, William C., compiler. The Fire Range Experiment Station. 48 p. Effects Information System [Data base]. Missoula, Youngblood, A. P.; Padgett, W. G. ;Winward, A. H. MT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Ser- 1985. Riparian community types of northern Utah vice, Intermountain Research Station, Intermoun: and adjacent Idaho. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department tain Fire Sciences Laboratory. Magnetic tape of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Re- reels; 9 track; 1600 bpi, ASCII with Common LISP gion. 104 p. Preliminary draft present. APPENDIX A: FOREST AND WOODLAND HABITAT AND COMMUNITY TYPES MSPGNED TO UTAH FIRE GROUPS Abbreviations and scientific names are from published classifications by Mauk and Henderson (1984), Youngblood and Mauk (1985), Mueggler (1988), and Padgett, Youngblood, and Winward (1989). Habitat types and phases Abbreviation Scientific name Common name ABIES LASIOCARPA CLIMAX SERIES Northern Utah ABLNCACA h.t. Abies lasiocarpa/Calamagrostiscanadensis h. t. subalpine firlbluejoint reedgrass ABLNSTAM h.t. Abies lasioca palStreptopus amplexifolius h .t . subalpine fir/claspleaf twisted-stalk ABLNACRU h.t. Abies IasiocapalActaea rubra h.t. subalpine fitlbaneberry ABLAIPHMA h.t. Abies lasiocapalPhysocarpus malvaceus h.t. subalpine firhinebark ABLNACGL h.t. Abies IasiocapafAcer glabrum h. t. subalpine firlmountain maple ABLANACA h.t. Abies lasiocapal Vaccinium caespitosum h.t. subalpine fir/dwarf blueberry ABLANAGL h.t. Abies lasiocapal Vaccinium globulare h. t. subalpine firlblue huckleberry ABLANASC h.t. Abies lasiocapal Vaccinium scoparium h.t. subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry -ARIA phase -Arnica latifolia phase -broadleaf arnica phase -CAGE phase - Carex geyeri phase -elk sedge phase -VASC phase - Vaccinium scoparium phase -grouse whortleberry phase ABLNCARU h.t. Abies 1asiocarpalCalamagrostisrubescens h.t. subalpine fir/pinegrass ABLNPERA h.t. Abies lasiocaipalPedicularis racemosa h.t. subalpine fir/sickletop pedicularis -PSME phase - Pseudotsuga menziesii phase -Douglas-fir phase -PERA phase - Pedicularis racemosa phase -sickletop pedicularis phase ABLNBERE h.t. Abies lasiocarpalSerberis repens h.t. subalpine firlcreeping Oregon-grape -PIFL phase -Pin us flexilis phase -limber pine phase . -RIM0 phase -Ribes montigenum phase -mountain gooseberry phase -CAGE phase - Carex geyeri phase -elk sedge phase JUCO phase - Juniperus communis phase -common juniper phase -PSME phase - Pseudorsuga menziesii phase -Douglas-fir phase -BERE phase -8erberis repens phase -creeping Oregon-grape phase ABLNRIMO h.t. Abies IasiocarpalRibes montigenum h.t. subalpine firlmountain gooseberry -THFE phase - Thalictrum fendleri phase -Fendler meadowrue phase -PIC0 phase -Pinus contorta phase -lodgepole pine phase -TRSP phase - Trisetum spicatum phase -spike trisetum phase -RIM0 phase -Ribes montigenum phase -mountain gooseberry phase ABLNOSCH h.t. Abies lasiocarpalOsmorhiza chilensis h. t. subalpine firlmountain sweetroot ABLAIJUCO h.t. Abies 1asiocarpalJunl;oeruscommunis h.t. subalpine firhmmon juniper South and Central Utah ABLAIACCO h.t. Abies lasiocarpafAconitumcolumbianum h.t. subalpine fir/columbia monkshood ABLAIPHMA h.t. Abies lasiocarpalPhysocarpus malvaceus h.t. subalpine firlninebark ABLNACGL h.t. Abies IasiocarpalAcer glabrum h. t. subalpine fir/Rocky Mountain maple ABLANACA h.t. Abies lasiocarpal Vaccinium caespitosum h.t . subalpine firldwarf huckleberry -PIEN phase -Picea engelmannii phase -Engelmann spruce phase ABLANAGL h.t. Abies lasiocarpal Vaccinium globulare h.t. subalpine firlblue huckleberry ABLANAMY h.t. Abies lasiocarpal Vaccinium myrtillus h.t. subalpine fir/dwarf billberry ABLNBERE h.t. Abies lasiocapal Berberis repens h. t. subalpine firlcreeping Oregon-grape -PIFL phase -Pin us flexilis phase -limber pine phase -PIEN phase - Picea engelmannii phase -Engelmann spruce phase -BERE phase - Berberis repens phase -creeping Oregon-grape phase ABLNRIMO h.t. Abies IasiocatpalRibes montigenum h.t. subalpine firhnountain gooseberry -MEAR phase -Mertensia arizonica phase -tall bluebell phase -RIM0 phase -Ribes montigenum phase -mountain gooseberry phase ABLAICAGE h.t. Abies IasiocarpalCarex geyeri h.t. subalpine firlelk sedge ABLNJUCO h.t. Abies IasiocarpalJuniperuscommunis h.t . subalpine fir/common juniper ABLACARO h.t. Abies IasiocarpalCarex rossii h .t. subalpine firlRoss sedge (con.) APPENDIX A (Con.)

Habitat types and phases Abbreviation Scientific name Common name PICEA ENGELMANNII CLIMAX SERIES Northern Utah PIENIEQAR h.t. Picea engelmanniilEquisetum arvense h. t. Engelmann spruce1common horsetail PIENICALE h.t. Picea engelmanniilCaltha leptosepala h. t. Engelmann sprucelelkslip marshmarigold PIENNACA h.t. Picea engelmannig Vaccinium caespitosum h.t. Engelmann spruceldwarf blueberry PIENNASC h.t. Picea engelmanniilVaccinium scoparium h. t. Engelmann spruce@rousewhortleberry South and Central Utah PIENIRIMO h.t. Picea engelmanniilRibes montigenum h.t. Engelmann sprucelmountain gooseberry PICEA PUNGENS CLIMAX SERIES Northern Utah PIPUIAGSP h.t. Picea pungenslAgropyron spica tum h. t . blue sprucehluebunch wheatgrass PIPUIBERE h.t. Picea pungenslBetberis repens h. t. blue sprucelcreeping Oregon-grape South and Central Utah PIPUIEQAR h.t. Picea pungenslEquisetum arvense h.t. blue sprucelcommon horsetail PIPUNUCO h.t. Picea pungenslJuniperuscommunis h.t. blue spruce1common juniper PIPUIBERE h.t. Picea pungens1Berberis repens h.t. blue sprucelcreeping Oregon-grape PINUS CONTORTA CLIMAX SERIES Northern Utah PICOICACA c. t. Pinus contortalCalamagrostis canadensis c. t . lodgepole pinehluejoint reedgrass PICONACA c.t. Pinus contortalVaccinium caespitosum c. t. lodgepole pineldwarf blueberry PICONASC c.t. Pinus contortalVaccinium scoparium c.t. lodgepole pinelgrouse whortleberry PICOIJUCO c.t. Pinus contortalJuniperus communis c.t. lodgepole pinelcommon juniper PICOIARUV c.t. Pinus contortalArctostaphylos uva-ursic.t. lodgepole pinehearberry PICOIBERE c.t. Pinus contortalBeheris repens c. t. lodgepole pinelcreeping Oregon-grape PICOICARO c.t. Pinus contortalCarex rossii c.t . lodgepole pinelRoss sedge ABIES CONCOLOR CLIMAX SERIES Northern Utah ABCOIPHMA h.t. Abies concolorlPhysocarpus malvaceus h. t. white firlninebark ABCOIOSCH h.t. Abies concolorlOsmorhiza chilensis h.t. white firlmountain sweetroot ABCOIBERE h.t. Abies concolorlBerberis repens h.t. white firlcreeping Oregon-grape -SYOR phase -Symphoricarpos oreophilus phase -mountain snowberty phase -BERE phase - Berberis repens phase -creeping Oregon-grape phase South and Central Utah ABCOIPHMA h.t. Abies concolorlPhysocarpus malvaceus h. t . white firlninebark ABCOIACGL h.t. Abies concolorlAcerglabrum h.t. white fir1Rocky Mountain maple ABCOICELE h.t. ~biesconcolorlCercocarpus ledifolius h. t. white firlcurlleaf mountain mahogany ABCOIARPA h.t. Abies concolorlArctostaphylos patula h. t . white firlgreenleaf manzanita ABCOIQUGA h.t. Abies concolorlQuercus gambelii h. t. white fir1Gambel oak ABCOIBERE h.t. Abies concolorlBerberis repens h.t. white firlcreeping Oregongrape JUCO phase -Juniperus communis phase common juniper phase -0ERE phase - Berberis repens phase -creeping Oregon-grape phase ABCOIJUCO h.t. Abies concolorlJuniperus communis h. t. white fir/common juniper ABCOISYOR h.t. Abies concolorlSymphoricarpos oreophilus h. t. white firlmountain snowberry (con.) APPENDIX A (Con.)

Habitat types and phases Abbreviation Scientific name Common name

PSEUDOTSUGA MENZIESII CLIMAX SERIES Northern Utah PSMEIPHMA h.t. Pseudotsuga menziesiilPhysocapus malvaceus h. t. Douglas-firlninebark -PAMY phase - Pachistima myrsinites phase -myrtle pachistima phase PSMEIACGL h.t. Pseudotsuga menziesiilAcer glabrum h. t. Douglas-fir/mountain maple PSMEIOSCH h.t. Pseudotsuga menziesiilOsmorhiza chilensis h.t. Douglas-firlmountain sweetroot -PAMY phase -Pachistima myrsinites phase -myrtle pachistima phase PSMEICARU h.t. Pseudotsuga menziesiilCaiamagrostisrubescens h. t. Do uglas-fir/pinegrass PSMEICELE h.t. Pseudotsuga menziesiilCercocapus ledifolius h. t. Douglas-fir1cu;rlleaf mountain-mahogany PSMEIBERE h.t. Pseudotsuga menziesiilBerberis repens h. t. Doug las-firlcreeping Oregon-grape -CAGE phase - Carex geyeri phase -elk sedge phase JUCO phase -Juniperus communis phase -common juniper phase -SYOR phase - Symphoricarpos oreophilus phase -mountain snowberry phase -BERE phase -5erberis repens phase -creeping Oregon-grape phase PSMEISYOR h.t. Pseudotsuga menziesiilSymphoricapos oreophilus h.t. Douglas-firlmountain snowberry South and Central Utah PSMEIPHMA h.t. Pseudotsuga menziesiilPhysocapus malvaceus h. t . Douglas-firlninebark PSMEICELE h.t. Pseudotsuga menziesiilCercocarpusledifolius h.t. Douglas-firlcurlleaf mountain-mahogany PSMEIARPA h.t. Pseudotsuga menziesiilArctostaphylos patula h. t. Douglas-firlgreenleaf manzanita PSMEICEMO h.t. Pseudotsuga menziesiilCercoca pus montanus h. t . Douglas-firltrue mountain-mahogany PSMEIQUGA h.t. Pseudotsuga menziesi~Quercusgambelii h.t. Douglas-fir1Gambel oak PSMEIBERE h.t. Pseudotsuga menziesii1Berberis repens h.t. Douglas-firlcreeping Oregon-grape . -PIP0 phase -Pinus ponderosa phase -ponderosa pine phase -BERE phase - Berberis repens phase -creeping Oregon-grape phase PSMEISYOR h.t. Pseudotsuga menziesiilSymphoricapos oreophilus h.t . Douglas-firlmountain snowberry PINUS PONDEROSA CLIMAX SERIES Northern Utah PIPOICAGE h.t. Pinus ponderosalCarex geyeri h .t. ponderosa pinelelk sedge PIPOIFEID h.t. Pinus ponderosalFestuca idahoensis h.t. ponderosa pinelldaho fescue -ARPA phase -Arctostaphylos patula phase -greenleaf manzanita phase -ARTR phase -Artemisia tridentata phase -big sagebrush phase -FEID phase - Festuca idahoensis phase -Idaho fescue phase South and Central Utah PIPOICELE h.t. Pinus ponderosalCercocarpus ledifolius h .t. ponderosa pinelcurlleaf mountain- mahogany PIPOIARPA h.t. Pinus ponderosalArctostaphylospatula h.t. ponderosa pinelgreenleaf manzanita PIPOIARNO h.t. Pinus ponderosalArtemisia nova h.t. ponderosa pinefblack sagebrush PIPOIPUTR h.t. Pinus ponderosalPurshia tridentata h .t. ponderosa pinelantelope bitterbrush PIPOIQUGA h.t. Pinus ponderosalQuercus gambelii h. t. ponderosa pine1Gambel oak -SYOR phase -Symphoricatpos oreophilus phase -mountain snowberry phase -QUGA phase -Quercus gambelii phase -Gambel oak phase PIPOISYOR h.t. Pinus ponderosalSymphoricarpos oreophilus h.t. ponderosa pinelmountain snowberry PIPOIMUMO h.t. Pinus ponderosalMuhlenbergia montana h.t. ponderosa pinelmountain muhly

PiNUS FL EXWS CLIMAX SERIES Northern Utah PJFUCELE h.t. Pinus flexilislCercocapus ledifolius h .t. limber pinelcurlleaf mountain-mahogany PIFUBERE h.t. Pinus flexilislBerberis repens h .t . limber pinelcreeping Oregon-grape South and Central Utah No h.t.3 differentiated (con .) APPENDIX A (Con.)

Habitat types and phases Abbreviation Scientific name Common name

POPULUS TREMULOIDESSERIES POTWAMAL Populus tremuloideslAmelanchier alnifolia IPTAQ c.t. IPteridium aquilinum c.t. aspen/serviceberryhracken fern POTWAMAL Populus tremuloideslAmelanchier alnifolia /TALL FORB c.t. /Tall Forb c.t. aspen/serviceberry/talI forb POTWAMAL Populus tremuloideslAmelanchier alnifolia KHFE c.t. IThalictrum fendleri c.t. aspenlserviceberry1Fendler meadowrue POTWAMAL-SYOR Populus tremuloideslAmelanchier alnifolia ICARU c.t. -Symphoricatpos oreophiluslCalamagrostis aspenlserviceberry-mountain rubescens c.t. snowberrylpinegrass POTWAMAL-SYOR Populus tremuloideslAmelanchier alnifolia /TALL FORB c.t. -Symphoricatpos oreophilus/Tall Forb c.t. aspenlserviceberry-mountain snowberry /tall forb POTWARTR c.t. Populus tremuloideslArtemisia tridentata c.t. aspenlbig sagebrush POTWCARU c.t. Populus tremuloideslCalamagrostis rubescens c.t . aspenlpinegrass POTWCARO c.t. Populus tremuloideslCarex rossii c.t. aspennhurber fescue POTRITALL FORB c.t. Populus tremuloides/ral l Forb c.t . aspenltall forb POTRIJUCO Populus tremuloideslJuniperus communis /CAGE c.t. l Carex geyeri c.t . aspenlcomrnon juniperlelk sedge POTR/JUCO Populus tremu1oideslJunl;oerus communis ILUAR c.t. /Lupinus argenteus c.t. aspen/common juniperlsilvery lupine POTWPTAQ c.t. Populus tremuloideslPteridium aquilinum c.t. aspenlbracken fern POTWSARA c.t. Populus tremuloideslSambucus racemosa c.t. aspenlred elderberry POTWSTCO c.t. Populus tremuloideslStipa comata c. t. aspenlneedle-and-thread POTFUSYOR Populus tremuloideslSymphoricarpos oreophilus ICARO c.t. lCarex rossiic.t. aspenlmountain snowberry1Ross sedge POTWSYOR Populus tremuloideslSymphoricarpos oreophilus ICARU c.t. lcalamagrostis rubescens c .t . aspenlmountain snowberrylpinegrass POTRISYOR Populus tremuloideslSymphoricarpos oreophilus /THFE c.t. 1Thalictrum fendleri c.t. aspenlrnountain snowberrylfendler meadowrue POTFUSYOR Populus tremuloideslSymphoricarpos oreophilus IFETH c.t. lFestuca thurberi c.t. aspenlrnountain snowberryIThurber fescue POTWSYOR Populus tremuloideslSymphoricarpos oreop hilus ITALL FORB c.t. Kall Forb c.t. aspenlrnountain snowberryltall forb POTWVECA c.t. Populus tremuloideslVeratrum californicum c.t. aspenlwestern false-hellebore POTR-ABLA Populus tremuloides-Abies lasiocarpa IAMAL c.t. IAmelanchier alnifolia c. t. aspen-subalpine firlserviceberry POTR-ABLA Populus tremuloides-Abies lasiocarpa /CAGE c.t. lCarex geyeric.t. aspen-subalpine firlelk sedge POTR-ABLA Populus tremuloides-Abies lasiocarpa ICARO c.t. /.Care mssiic. t. aspen-subalpine firIRoss sedge POTR-ABLA Populus tremuloides-Abies lasiocarpa IJUCO c.t. /Juniperus communis c.t. aspen-subalpine firlcommon juniper POTR-ABLA Populus tremuloides-Abies lasiocarpa aspen-subalpine firlrnountain ISYORfTHFE c.t. ISymphoricarpos oreophiluslThalictrum snowberrylfendler meadowrue fendleric.t. POTR-ABLAISYOR Populus tremuloides-Abies lasiocarpa /TALL FORB c.t. ISymphoricarpos oreophilus/Tall Forb c.t. aspen-subalpine firlmountain snowberry Aall forb POTR-ABLA Populus tremuloides-Abies lasiocarpa ITALL FORB c.t. /Tall Forb c.t. aspen-subalpine firhall forb POTR-ABCO Populus tremubides-Abies concolor IARPA c.t. lArctostaphylos patula c.t. aspen-white firlgreenleaf manzanita (con.) ~PE~MA (Con.)

Habitat types and phases Abbreviation Scientific name Common name

POTR-ABCO Populus tremuloides-Abies concolor IPOPR c.t. lPoa pratensis c.t. aspen-white fir1Kentucky bluegrass POTR-ABCO Populus tremuloides-Abies concolor ISYOR c.t. lSymphoricarpos oreophilus c.t. aspen-white firlmountain snowberry POTR-PIPU Populus tremuloides-Picea pungens Cover Type Cover type aspen-blue spruce POTR-PIFL Populus tremuloides-Pinus flexilis Cover Type Cover type aspen-limber pine

POTR-PIP0 Populus tremuloides-Pinus ponderosa I) Cover Type Cover type aspen-ponderosa pine POTR-PIC0 Populus tremuloides-Pinus contorta /CAGE c.t. lCarex geyeri c. t. aspen-lodgepole pinelelk sedge POTR-PSME Populus tremuloides-Pseudotsuga menziesii IAMAL c.t. IAmalanchier alnifolia c.t. POTR-PSME Populus tremuloides-Pseudotsuga menziesii IJUCO c.t. /Juniperus communis c.t. aspen-Douglas-firlcommon juniper POTWASMI c.t. Populus tremuloideslAstragalus miser c. t. aspenltimber milkvetch POTRIBRCA c.t. Populus tremuloideslBromus carinatus c.t. aspen/mountain brome POTWPOPR c.t. Populus tremuloides/Poa pratensis c.t. aspen1Kentucky bluegrass POTR/JUCO Populus tremuloides/Juniperus communis IASMI c.t. IAstragalus miser c.t. aspenlcommon juniperltimber milkvetch RIPARIAN COMMUNITIES CONIFEWACCO Con if erlAconitum columbianum c. t. coniferlmonkshood CONIFEWCOSE Conif erlcornus sericea c.t. coniferlred-oiser dogwood APPENDIX B: COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES MENTIONED IN TEXT

Common name Scientific name Trees Alder-leaf mountain mahogany Cercocarpus montanus Arizona pine Pinus ponderosa var. arizonica Ashe juniper Juniperus ashei Aspen Populus tremuloides Bigtooth maple Acer grandidentatum Blue spruce Picea pungens Boxelder Acer negundo Chokecherry Prunus virginiana Common juniper Juniperus communis Cottonwood Populus spp. Curlleaf mountain-mahogany Cercocarpus ledifolius Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga menziesii Engelmann spruce Picea engelrnannnii Gambel oak Quercus gambelii Interior ponderosa pine Pinus ponderosa var. scopulorum Limber pine Pin us flexilis Lodgepole pine Pinus contorta var. latifolia Mexican pinyon Pinus cembroides Pinyon Pinus edulis Ponderosa pine Pinus ponderosa Quaking aspen Populus tremuloides Red-osier dogwood Cornus sericea Rocky Mountain juniper Juniperus scopulorum Rocky Mountain maple Acer glabrum Serviceberry Amelanchier alnifolia Singleleaf pinyon Pinus monophylla Subalpine fir Abies lasiocapa Thinleaf alder Alnus incana Two-needle pinyon Pinus edulis Utah juniper Juniperus osteosperma Western bristlecone Pin us longaeva White fir Abies concolor

Scientific name Common name Common synonym Shrubs Acer glabrum Rocky Mountain maple Amelanchier alnifolia serviceberry, shadbush, saskatoon Arctostaphylos patula greenleaf manzanita Arctostaphylos uva-ursi kinnikinnick, bearberry Artemisia ahuscula low sagebrush Artemisia arbuscula ssp. ahuscula Artemisia nova black sagebrush Artemisia tridentata big sagebrush Beheris repens Oregon-grape Mahonia repens creeping Oregon-grape Ceanothus fendleri Fendler mountain-lilac Ceanothus greggii desert mountain-lilac Ceanothus velutinus snowbrush ceanothus Cercocapus ledifolius curlleaf mountain-mahogany Cercocarpus mon fanus alderleaf mountain-mahogany Chrysofhamnus nauseosus rubber rabbitbrush Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus viscid rabbitbrush Clematis columbiana Columbia clematis Cornus sericea red-osier dogwood Cornus stolonifera Gutierrezia sarothrae broom snakeweed (con.) APPENQIX E (Con.)

-- - -- Scientific name commonname Common synonym Haplopappus suffruticosus singlehead goldenweed Holodiscus dumosus mountain spray Holodiscus discolor Juniperus communis common juniper Juniperus horizontalis creeping juniper Linnaea borealis twin-flower Lonicera involucrata black twinberry Lonicera utahensis Utah honeysuckle Mahonia repens Oregon-grape Berberis repens Pachistima myrsinites mountain lover Physocarpus malvaceous mallow-leaved ninebark

Potentilla fruticosa shrubby cinquefoil U Prunus virginiana chokecherry Purshia mexicana var. Cowania mexicana stansburiana cliff-rose var. stansburiana Purshia tridentata bitterbrush Quercus gambelii Gambel oak Ribes aureum golden currant Ribes cereum wax or squaw currant Ribes lacustre swamp black gooseberry Ribes montigenum gooseberry currant Ribes viscosissimum sticky currant Rosa gymnocarpa baldhip rose Rosa nutkana nutka rose Rosa woodsii woods rose Rubus patviflorus thimbleberry Salix s pp. willows Salix scouleriana Scouler willow Sambucus racemosa red elderberry Shepherdia canadensis soapberry Sorbus scopulina Rock mountain ash Symphoricatpos albus white snowberry Symphoricarpos longiflorus long-flower snowberry Symphoricatpos oreophilus mountain snowberry Vaccinium caespitosum dwarf huckleberry Vaccinium globulare dampwoods blueberry Vaccinium myrtillus dwad bilberry Vaccinium scoparium grouseberry Grasses Agropyron cristatum fairway or crested wheatgrass Agropyron desertorum standard wheatgrass Agropyron cristatum Bouteloua gracilis blue grama Bromus ciliatus fringed brome Brom us tectorum cheatgrass, downy chess Bromus carinatus mountain or California brome Calamagrostis canadensis bluejoint reedgrass Calamagrostis rubescens pinegrass Carex hoodii Hood sedge Carex rossii Ross sedge Carex geyeri elk sedge Dactylis glomerata orchard grass Deschampsia caespitosa tufted hairgrass Elymus elymoides squirreltail Sitanion hystrix Elymus glaucus blue wildrye Elymus virescens Eymus trachycaulus var. trachyca ulis slender wheatgrass Agropyron trachycaulum Festuca ovina sheep fescue Festuca ovina var. arizonica Arizona fescue Festuca arizonica (con.) APPENDIX B (Con.)

Scientific name Common name Common synonym Festuca ovina var. ingrata Idaho fescue Festuca idahoensis Festuca thurberi Thurber fescue Glyceria striata fowl mannagrass Glyceria elata Hilaria jamesii galleta Koeleria macrantha prairie junegrass Koeleria pyramidata Leucopoa kingii spike fescue Hesperochloa kingii Leymus salinus Salina wildrye Elymus salinus Luzula parviflora millet woodrush Melilotus officinalis yellow sweet -clover Muhlenbergia montana mountain muhly Pascopyrum smithii western wheatgrass Agropyron smithii, Elymus smithii Poa fendleriana muttongrass Poa pratensis Kentucky bluegrass Poa secunda Sandberg bluegrass Poa sandbergii, P. nevadensis Pseudoroegneria spicata bluebunch wheatgrass Agropyron spicatum Stipa comata needle and thread grass St@anelsonii Nelson needlegrass Stipa occiden talis Stipa hymenoides Indian ricegrass Oryzopsis hy rnenoides Stipa lettermanii Letterman needlegrass Thinopyrum intermedium ssp. in termedium intermediate wheatgrass Agropyron intermedium Trisetum spicatum spike trisetum Forbs Achillea millefolium milfoil yarrow Aconitum columbianum monkshood Actaea rubra baneberry Agastache urticifolia horse-nettle Allium acuminatum tapertip onion Antennaria microphylla rosy pussytoes Aquilegia caerulea Colorado columbine Arnica cordifolia heartleaf arnica Arnica latifolia broadleaf arnica Aster spp. aster Aster engelmannii Engelmann aster Astragalus miser weedy milkvetch Balsamorhiza sagittata arrowleaf balsamroot Caltha leptosepala marsh-marigold Clintonia uniflora queencup beadlily Corallorhiza maculaPa spotted coralroot Cryptantha spp. cryptanth Delphinium spp. larkspur Descurania richardsonii Richardson tansymustard Disporum trachycarpum fairy bells Dracocephalum parviflorum American dragon head Epilobium angustifolium fireweed Equisetum atvense horsetail Erigeron peregrinus strange daisy Eriogonum racemosum red root buckwheat Fragaria virginiana mountain strawberry Galium aparine cleavers bedstraw Galium triflorum sweet-scented bedstraw Geranium richardsonii Richardson geranium Geranium viscosissimum sticky geranium Hymenoxys richardsonii Colorado rubberweed (con.) APPENDIX B (Con.)

Scientific name Common name Common synonym La thyrus paucifbrus Utah sweetpea Lathyrus lanzwertii Lanzwert sweetpea Lupinus spp. lupine Lupinus argenteus silvery lupine Mertensia arizonica tall bluebell Mertensia ciliata mountain bluebell Osmorhiza chilensis mountain sweetroot Osmorhiza depauperata blunt-fruit sweet-cicely Pedicularis racemosa leafy lousewort Phlox spp. phlox Potentilla gracilis slender cinquefoil; potentilla Pteridium aquilinum bracken fern Pyrola secunda Secund wintergreen Pyrola asarifolia liver-leaf wintergreen Rudbeckia occidentalis western coneflower Sanquisorba minor burnet Sedum lanceolatum common stonecrop Senecio stretpanthifolius manyface grounsel Senecio triangularis arrowleaf groundsel Smilacina racemosa false Solomon-seal Smilacina stellata starry false-Solomon-seal Solidago spp. goldenrod Solidago parryi Parry goldenweed Haplopappus parryi Solidago sparsiflora alcove goldenrod Stellariajamesiana tuber stawort Streptopus amplexifolius clasping twisted-stalk S wertia radiata elkweed Frasera speciosa Thalictrum fendleri Fendler meadowrue Veratrum californicum false hellebore Vicia americana American vetch Viguiera multiflora showy goldeneye Viola s pp. violet Viola adunca blue violet Wyethia amplexicaulis mulesears

*U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1992-673-041 161001

Bradley, Anne F.; Noste, Nonan V.; Fischer, William C. 1992. Fire ecology of forests and woodlands in Utah. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-287. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agricul- ture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 128 p.

Provides information on fire as an ecological factor in forest habitat types, and in pinyon- juniper woodland and oak-maple brushland communities occurring in Utah. Identifies Fire Groups based on fire's role in forest succession. Describes forest fuels and suggests considerations for fire management.

KEYWORDS: forest ecology, forest fire, fire management, forest fuels, forest succession, fire effects

@ Printed on recycled paper INTERMOUNTAIN RESEARCH STATION

The Intermountain Research Station provides scientific knowledge and technology to improve management, protection, and use of the forests and rangelands of the Intermountain West. Research is designed to meet the needs of National Forest managers, Federal and State agencies, industry, academic institutions, public and private organizations, and individuals. Results of research are made available through publications, symposia, workshops, training sessions, and personal contacts. The Intermountain Research Station territory includes Montana, Idaho, Utah, Nevada, and western Wyoming. Eighty-five percent of the lands in the Station area, about 231 million acres, are classified as forest or rangeland. They include grasslands, deserts, shrublands, alpine areas, and forests. They provide fiber for forest industries, minerals and fossil fuels for energy and industrial development, water for domestic and industrial consumption, forage for livestock and wildlife, and recreation opportunities for millions of visitors. Several Station units conduct research in additional western States, or have missions that are national or international in scope. Station laboratories are located in:

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Ogden, Utah

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