DOCSLIB.ORG

A Colonial Genealogy of Violence Against Tutsi Women in The

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
A Colonial Genealogy of Violence Against Tutsi Women in The UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Los Angeles Gender-Based Violence and Submerged Histories: A Colonial Genealogy of Violence Against Tutsi Women in the 1994 Rwandan Genocide A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Gender Studies by Helina Asmelash Beyene 2014 ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION Gender-Based Violence and Submerged Histories: A Colonial Genealogy of Violence Against Tutsi Women in the 1994 Rwandan Genocide by Helina Asmelash Beyene Doctor of Philosophy in Gender Studies University of California, Los Angeles, 2014 Professor Sondra Hale, Chair My dissertation is a genealogical study of gender-based violence (GBV) during the 1994 Rwandan genocide. A growing body of feminist scholarship argues that GBV in conflict zones results mainly from a continuum of patriarchal violence that is condoned outside the context of war in everyday life. This literature, however, fails to account for colonial and racial histories that also inform the politics of GBV in African conflicts. My project examines the question of the colonial genealogy of GBV by grounding my inquiry within postcolonial, transnational and intersectional feminist frameworks that center race, historicize violence, and decolonize knowledge production. I employ interdisciplinary methods that include (1) discourse analysis of the gender-based violence of Belgian rule and Tutsi women’s iconography in colonial texts; (2) ii textual analysis of the constructions of Tutsi women’s sexuality and fertility in key official documents on overpopulation and Tutsi refugees in colonial and post-independence Rwanda; and (3) an ethnographic study that included leading anti gendered violence activists based in Kigali, Rwanda, to assess how African feminists account for the colonial legacy of gendered violence in the 1994 genocide. My findings reveal that highly sexualized colonial ideologies such as the Hamitic Hypothesis, not only marked the Tutsi population as non-indigenous, non-black invaders, but also codified Tutsi female sexuality and fertility as a beguiling, non-indigenous threat to the natural population of the land. The colonial era provided the lexicon that staged Tutsi sexuality within the blueprint of African indigeneity, which the post-independence Rwandan state reassembled in its discourses surrounding overpopulation, refugees and national security. Such discursive consolidation positioned Tutsi women’s sexuality as biopolitical threats to the national security of the indigenous population, making them high stakes targets in state crises. My ethnographic study further reveals that Rwandan activists offer explanations that capture the intersection of empire and patriarchy in the making of GBV in African conflicts like the Rwandan genocide of 1994. While Rwandan women’s rights advocates tend to deploy human rights and patriarchy discourses like their western counterparts, the activists provide multiple and more complex articulations that historicize GBV and implicate sites that go beyond patriarchal culture alone. They identify the colonial, the post-colonial as well as the pre-colonial era as sites in the making of Tutsi rapability. The study calls for feminist interpretative frameworks that extend beyond single-axis explanation of GBV that do not naturalize the nation-state and resist global imperial expansion in the name of addressing GBV. iii This dissertation of Helina Asmelash Beyene is approved. Esha De Sandra Harding Andrea Smith Sondra Hale, Committee Chair University of California, Los Angeles 2014 iv DEDICATION For Mommy and Ash who never questioned my choices. For my sisters, Hiriti and Beza, one chosen for me and one I got to choose. For Mary Elizabeth Bass Brayant who left this earth to become my spirit guide. v Table of Contents Chapter 1 ....................................................................................................................................... 1 Reframing Gender-Based Violence in Conflict Zones: Overview and Theoretical Frameworks ... 1 1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 My Argument ................................................................................................................................. 5 1.3 Significance of the Project ............................................................................................................. 7 1.4 Brief Historical Background of Rwanda and the 1994 Genocide .................................................. 8 1.5 Literature Review ......................................................................................................................... 18 1.6 Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................................ 30 1.7 Colonialism, Nationalism, Militarism and Patriarchy: New Feminist Frameworks for Analyzing the Gendered Violence and the Rwandan Genocide .......................................................................... 34 1.8 Research Questions ...................................................................................................................... 39 1.9 Research Methods ........................................................................................................................ 40 1.10 Overview of Chapters ................................................................................................................. 46 Chapter 2 ..................................................................................................................................... 49 Gender-Based Violence and Colonial Complicity in Belgian Rule in Central Africa .................... 49 2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 49 2.2 Hardheaded Disentanglements: The Link between Conquest and Rape ...................................... 54 2.3 Colonial Love Stories: A Colonial Rite of Passage ..................................................................... 56 2.4 The Great Epics of Africa: Colonialism and Sexual Discipline ................................................... 63 2.5 Movement, Fertility and Indigeneity in Colonial Rule: The Reification of Identity and the Codification of Gendered Violation ................................................................................................... 66 2.6 Erotic Entrapments: The Gendered Politics of Colonial Representation ..................................... 71 2.7 Hamitic Hypothesis: An Overview .............................................................................................. 73 vi 2.8 The Tutsi as Hamite ..................................................................................................................... 77 2.9 The Blackening of Ham and The Sexuality of Hamiticism: The Black Mother as Site of Degeneracy ......................................................................................................................................... 79 2.10 Colonial Iconographies of Tutsi Women: The Politics of Culture, Desire and Fear .................. 83 2.11 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 93 Chapter 3 ..................................................................................................................................... 94 “A Cockroach Cannot Give Birth to a Butterfly:” The Politics of Indigeneity and Fertility and Sexual Violence in Population and Refugee Discourses of Pre-Genocide Rwanda ........................ 94 3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 94 3.2 Population, Security and Fertility: Technological Assemblage of Biopower .............................. 97 3.3 The Imperial Politics of Population in the 20th Century: Overpopulation and Underpopulation . 99 3.4 Population Discourses on Africa: Primordial Wombs and State Crisis ..................................... 106 3.5 African Refugees: Pure Victim and Pure Danger ...................................................................... 113 3.6 Indigeneity In African Refugee Discourses ............................................................................... 116 3.7 Bare Life and the Feminization of the African Refugee ............................................................ 119 3.8 New Discursive Convergences of State Insecurity: Population Growth, Refugees and Environmental Crisis ........................................................................................................................ 121 3.9 German and Belgian Population Discourses on Rwanda ........................................................... 124 3.10 Post-independence Politics of Population in Rwanda .............................................................. 133 3.11 Population Explosion and the Refugee Question ..................................................................... 137 3.12 Framing the Genocide as Overpopulation ................................................................................ 144 3.13 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 148 Chapter 4 ..................................................................................................................................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Written Evidence (ZAF0049)
    London Stock Exchange Group – Written evidence (ZAF0049) Submission on Local Currency Bond Markets for House of Lords International Relations Committee Inquiry “UK and Sub-Saharan Africa - prosperity, peace and development co-operation 1. London Stock Exchange Group (LSEG) is a diversified global financial markets infrastructure business focused on Information Services, Risk and Balance Sheet Management and Capital Formation. The Group supports global financial stability and sustainable economic growth by enabling businesses and economies to fund innovation and manage risk. 2. This submission looks at how raising debt finance from offshore capital pools in local currencies can serve as an important source of investment for African economies, mitigating an issuer’s currency risk associated with borrowing in a hard currency. This topic is especially relevant in light of recent falls in commodity prices and the economic shock of the Covid-19 crisis that has resulted in the appreciation of the US Dollar vis-à-vis emerging market currencies. This submission provides an overview of LSEG’s activity related to the development of local currency bond markets, with a focus on emerging markets. LSEG in Africa: A long-term partnership 3. London Stock Exchange Group has a long history of working in partnership with Africa, supporting the development of African capital markets and investment in African companies and infrastructure. LSEG has a partnership approach and a long- term commitment to the continent. The UK-Africa Investment Summit in January 2020 was an opportunity to deepen and widen links. Associated with the Summit, LSEG commemorated landmark transactions supporting Kenya and Rwanda, described in sections 31 and 32 below.
    [Show full text]
  • We Are All Rwandans”
    UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Los Angeles “We are all Rwandans”: Imagining the Post-Genocidal Nation Across Media A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Film and Television by Andrew Phillip Young 2016 ABSTRACT OF DISSERTATION “We are all Rwandans”: Imagining the Post-Genocidal Nation Across Media by Andrew Phillip Young Doctor of Philosophy in Film and Television University of California, Los Angeles, 2016 Professor Chon A. Noriega, Chair There is little doubt of the fundamental impact of the 1994 Rwanda genocide on the country's social structure and cultural production, but the form that these changes have taken remains ignored by contemporary media scholars. Since this time, the need to identify the the particular industrial structure, political economy, and discursive slant of Rwandan “post- genocidal” media has become vital. The Rwandan government has gone to great lengths to construct and promote reconciliatory discourse to maintain order over a country divided along ethnic lines. Such a task, though, relies on far more than the simple state control of media message systems (particularly in the current period of media deregulation). Instead, it requires a more complex engagement with issues of self-censorship, speech law, public/private industrial regulation, national/transnational production/consumption paradigms, and post-traumatic media theory. This project examines the interrelationships between radio, television, newspapers, the ii Internet, and film in the contemporary Rwandan mediascape (which all merge through their relationships with governmental, regulatory, and funding agencies, such as the Rwanda Media High Council - RMHC) to investigate how they endorse national reconciliatory discourse.
    [Show full text]
  • Crown Agents Bank's Currency Capabilities
    Crown Agents Bank’s Currency Capabilities September 2020 Country Currency Code Foreign Exchange RTGS ACH Mobile Payments E/M/F Majors Australia Australian Dollar AUD ✓ ✓ - - M Canada Canadian Dollar CAD ✓ ✓ - - M Denmark Danish Krone DKK ✓ ✓ - - M Europe European Euro EUR ✓ ✓ - - M Japan Japanese Yen JPY ✓ ✓ - - M New Zealand New Zealand Dollar NZD ✓ ✓ - - M Norway Norwegian Krone NOK ✓ ✓ - - M Singapore Singapore Dollar SGD ✓ ✓ - - E Sweden Swedish Krona SEK ✓ ✓ - - M Switzerland Swiss Franc CHF ✓ ✓ - - M United Kingdom British Pound GBP ✓ ✓ - - M United States United States Dollar USD ✓ ✓ - - M Africa Angola Angolan Kwanza AOA ✓* - - - F Benin West African Franc XOF ✓ ✓ ✓ - F Botswana Botswana Pula BWP ✓ ✓ ✓ - F Burkina Faso West African Franc XOF ✓ ✓ ✓ - F Cameroon Central African Franc XAF ✓ ✓ ✓ - F C.A.R. Central African Franc XAF ✓ ✓ ✓ - F Chad Central African Franc XAF ✓ ✓ ✓ - F Cote D’Ivoire West African Franc XOF ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ F DR Congo Congolese Franc CDF ✓ - - ✓ F Congo (Republic) Central African Franc XAF ✓ ✓ ✓ - F Egypt Egyptian Pound EGP ✓ ✓ - - F Equatorial Guinea Central African Franc XAF ✓ ✓ ✓ - F Eswatini Swazi Lilangeni SZL ✓ ✓ - - F Ethiopia Ethiopian Birr ETB ✓ ✓ N/A - F 1 Country Currency Code Foreign Exchange RTGS ACH Mobile Payments E/M/F Africa Gabon Central African Franc XAF ✓ ✓ ✓ - F Gambia Gambian Dalasi GMD ✓ - - - F Ghana Ghanaian Cedi GHS ✓ ✓ - ✓ F Guinea Guinean Franc GNF ✓ - ✓ - F Guinea-Bissau West African Franc XOF ✓ ✓ - - F Kenya Kenyan Shilling KES ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ F Lesotho Lesotho Loti LSL ✓ ✓ - - E Liberia Liberian
    [Show full text]
  • ZIMRA Rates of Exchange for Customs Purposes for Period 24 Dec 2020 To
    ZIMRA RATES OF EXCHANGE FOR CUSTOMS PURPOSES FOR THE PERIOD 24 DEC 2020 - 13 JAN 2021 ZWL CURRENCY CODE CROSS RATEZIMRA RATECURRENCY CODE CROSS RATEZIMRA RATE ANGOLA KWANZA AOA 7.9981 0.1250 MALAYSIAN RINGGIT MYR 0.0497 20.1410 ARGENTINE PESO ARS 1.0092 0.9909 MAURITIAN RUPEE MUR 0.4819 2.0753 AUSTRALIAN DOLLAR AUD 0.0162 61.7367 MOROCCAN DIRHAM MAD 0.8994 1.1119 AUSTRIA EUR 0.0100 99.6612 MOZAMBICAN METICAL MZN 0.9115 1.0972 BAHRAINI DINAR BHD 0.0046 217.5176 NAMIBIAN DOLLAR NAD 0.1792 5.5819 BELGIUM EUR 0.0100 99.6612 NETHERLANDS EUR 0.0100 99.6612 BOTSWANA PULA BWP 0.1322 7.5356 NEW ZEALAND DOLLAR NZD 0.0173 57.6680 BRAZILIAN REAL BRL 0.0631 15.8604 NIGERIAN NAIRA NGN 4.7885 0.2088 BRITISH POUND GBP 0.0091 109.5983 NORTH KOREAN WON KPW 11.0048 0.0909 BURUNDIAN FRANC BIF 23.8027 0.0420 NORWEGIAN KRONER NOK 0.1068 9.3633 CANADIAN DOLLAR CAD 0.0158 63.4921 OMANI RIAL OMR 0.0047 212.7090 CHINESE RENMINBI YUANCNY 0.0800 12.5000 PAKISTANI RUPEE PKR 1.9648 0.5090 CUBAN PESO CUP 0.3240 3.0863 POLISH ZLOTY PLN 0.0452 22.1111 CYPRIOT POUND EUR 0.0100 99.6612 PORTUGAL EUR 0.0100 99.6612 CZECH KORUNA CZK 0.2641 3.7860 QATARI RIYAL QAR 0.0445 22.4688 DANISH KRONER DKK 0.0746 13.4048 RUSSIAN RUBLE RUB 0.9287 1.0768 EGYPTIAN POUND EGP 0.1916 5.2192 RWANDAN FRANC RWF 12.0004 0.0833 ETHOPIAN BIRR ETB 0.4792 2.0868 SAUDI ARABIAN RIYAL SAR 0.0459 21.8098 EURO EUR 0.0100 99.6612 SINGAPORE DOLLAR SGD 0.0163 61.2728 FINLAND EUR 0.0100 99.6612 SPAIN EUR 0.0100 99.6612 FRANCE EUR 0.0100 99.6612 SOUTH AFRICAN RAND ZAR 0.1792 5.5819 GERMANY EUR 0.0100 99.6612
    [Show full text]
  • 1999-2000 Rwanda Burundi
    COUNTRY PROFILE Rwanda Burundi This Country Profile is a reference tool, which provides analysis of historical political, infrastructural and economic trends. It is revised and updated annually. The EIU’s quarterly Country Reports analyse current trends and provide a two-year forecast The full publishing schedule for Country Profiles is now available on our web site at http://www.eiu.com/schedule. 1999-2000 The Economist Intelligence Unit 15 Regent St, London SW1Y 4LR United Kingdom The Economist Intelligence Unit The Economist Intelligence Unit is a specialist publisher serving companies establishing and managing operations across national borders. For over 50 years it has been a source of information on business developments, economic and political trends, government regulations and corporate practice worldwide. The EIU delivers its information in four ways: through subscription products ranging from newsletters to annual reference works; through specific research reports, whether for general release or for particular clients; through electronic publishing; and by organising conferences and roundtables. The firm is a member of The Economist Group. London New York Hong Kong The Economist Intelligence Unit The Economist Intelligence Unit The Economist Intelligence Unit 15 Regent St The Economist Building 25/F, Dah Sing Financial Centre London 111 West 57th Street 108 Gloucester Road SW1Y 4LR New York Wanchai United Kingdom NY 10019, US Hong Kong Tel: (44.20) 7830 1000 Tel: (1.212) 554 0600 Tel: (852) 2802 7288 Fax: (44.20) 7499 9767 Fax:
    [Show full text]
  • Countries Codes and Currencies 2020.Xlsx
    World Bank Country Code Country Name WHO Region Currency Name Currency Code Income Group (2018) AFG Afghanistan EMR Low Afghanistan Afghani AFN ALB Albania EUR Upper‐middle Albanian Lek ALL DZA Algeria AFR Upper‐middle Algerian Dinar DZD AND Andorra EUR High Euro EUR AGO Angola AFR Lower‐middle Angolan Kwanza AON ATG Antigua and Barbuda AMR High Eastern Caribbean Dollar XCD ARG Argentina AMR Upper‐middle Argentine Peso ARS ARM Armenia EUR Upper‐middle Dram AMD AUS Australia WPR High Australian Dollar AUD AUT Austria EUR High Euro EUR AZE Azerbaijan EUR Upper‐middle Manat AZN BHS Bahamas AMR High Bahamian Dollar BSD BHR Bahrain EMR High Baharaini Dinar BHD BGD Bangladesh SEAR Lower‐middle Taka BDT BRB Barbados AMR High Barbados Dollar BBD BLR Belarus EUR Upper‐middle Belarusian Ruble BYN BEL Belgium EUR High Euro EUR BLZ Belize AMR Upper‐middle Belize Dollar BZD BEN Benin AFR Low CFA Franc XOF BTN Bhutan SEAR Lower‐middle Ngultrum BTN BOL Bolivia Plurinational States of AMR Lower‐middle Boliviano BOB BIH Bosnia and Herzegovina EUR Upper‐middle Convertible Mark BAM BWA Botswana AFR Upper‐middle Botswana Pula BWP BRA Brazil AMR Upper‐middle Brazilian Real BRL BRN Brunei Darussalam WPR High Brunei Dollar BND BGR Bulgaria EUR Upper‐middle Bulgarian Lev BGL BFA Burkina Faso AFR Low CFA Franc XOF BDI Burundi AFR Low Burundi Franc BIF CPV Cabo Verde Republic of AFR Lower‐middle Cape Verde Escudo CVE KHM Cambodia WPR Lower‐middle Riel KHR CMR Cameroon AFR Lower‐middle CFA Franc XAF CAN Canada AMR High Canadian Dollar CAD CAF Central African Republic
    [Show full text]
  • "Where Elephants Fight the Grass Is Trampled"
    Jason Stearns. Dancing in the Glory of Monsters: The Collapse of the Congo and the Great War of Africa. New York: PublicAffairs, 2012. 417 pp. $16.99, paper, ISBN 978-1-61039-107-8. Reviewed by Matthew G. Stanard Published on H-Empire (June, 2012) Commissioned by Charles V. Reed (Elizabeth City State University) For many who grew up during the Cold War, the African National Congress on a path toward the competition between capitalism and commu‐ one-party dominance. Japanese economic growth nism seemed to determine the unfolding of histo‐ was followed by a crash and the so-called lost ry. Then 1989 happened, and communism col‐ decade. India and Pakistan both tested nuclear lapsed spectacularly. Francis Fukuyama famously weapons. Multiple terrorist strikes in and outside proclaimed the end of history, that is, the end of the United States presaged the 2001 attacks. ideological competition and the triumph of West‐ Considering all this, it is unsurprising that ern liberal democracy.[1] Of course history did anyone who lived through the 1990s had trouble not end, ideological battles continued, and the keeping track of the multitude of developments decade that followed witnessed a dizzying array also unfolding in Rwanda and Zaire (later rebap‐ of complex developments. Saddam Hussein’s Iraq tized the Democratic Republic of the Congo). A invaded Kuwait and was expelled. Mengistu Haile century earlier, during the 1890s, news about Mariam’s regime collapsed in Ethiopia and Eritrea atrocities in the Congo were hard to come by and gained its independence, which led to an extraor‐ it took dedicated efforts by individuals like E.
    [Show full text]
  • Assessing the Contribution of Military in Peace Building in Africa: Case Study Rwanda (1994-2016)
    UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI INSTITUTE OF DIPLOMACY AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES ASSESSING THE CONTRIBUTION OF MILITARY IN PEACE BUILDING IN AFRICA: CASE STUDY RWANDA (1994-2016) MPAGAZE Anthony Baguma Reg. No: R47/8917/2017 SUPERVISOR: Col (Dr) Steven HANDA RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE AWARD OF POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA IN STRATEGIC STUDIES. DECEMBER 2018 DECLARATION This research project is my own original work and it has never been presented for examination in any other university or any other award. All materials from other sources have been acknowledged appropriately. Name: MPAGAZE Anthony BAGUMA Registration No: R47/8917/2017 Signature: ___________________________ Date: ___________________________ The project has been submitted for examination with our approval as the University Supervisor. Name: Dr Steven HANDA Signature: ___________________________Date: _____________________________ i DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my beloved parents for their guidance ever since my childhood which became a strong base that propelled me to undertake this academic journey. My success is built on the foundation you gave me. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to thank God for the gift of life given into me throughout this course. Secondly I wish to pay special tribute to my family especially my wife Susan Asiimwe and our children, Nyemina Jordan, Beza Georgia and Mpagaze Josh for their understanding, sacrifice, perseverance, patience and moral support given to me during the course. I pledge to dedicate more time to them in the future. I wish to extend my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Dr. Steven HANDA without his intellectual guidance and support it would have been difficult to complete this task.
    [Show full text]
  • 1 the Congo Crisis, 1960-1961
    The Congo Crisis, 1960-1961: A Critical Oral History Conference Organized by: The Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars’ Cold War International History Project and Africa Program Sponsored by: The Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars September 23-24, 2004 Opening of Conference – September 23, 2004 CHRISTIAN OSTERMANN: Ladies and gentlemen I think we’ll get started even though we’re still expecting a few colleagues who haven’t arrived yet, but I think we should get started because we have quite an agenda for this meeting. Welcome all of you to the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars; my name is Christian Ostermann. I direct one of the programs here at the Woodrow Wilson Center, the Cold War International History Project. The Center is the United States’ official memorial to President Woodrow Wilson and it celebrates, commemorates Woodrow Wilson through a living memorial, that is, we bring scholars from around the world, about 150 each year to the Wilson center to do research and to write. In addition to hosting fellowship programs, the Center hosts 450 meetings each year on a broad array of topics related to international affairs. One of these meetings is taking place today, and it is a very special meeting, as I will explain in a few moments. This meeting is co-sponsored by the Center’s Cold War International History project and 1 the Center’s Africa Program, directed by former Congressman Howard Wolpe. He’s in Burundi as we speak here, but some of his staff will be joining us during the course of the day.
    [Show full text]
  • Britain's Hidden Role in Rwandan State Violence
    E overtly by the British and US Britain’s hidden role in governments. It is arguable that the AT civil war continued for such a ST lengthy period due primarily to the Rwandan state violence substantial Western assistance granted to both forces. Hazel Cameron explores how an idealised The final three months of the civil history of the 1994 Rwandan Genocide war coincided with the period of the BRITISH Rwandan genocide perpetrated by has provided cover for Britain’s role in Hutu extremists against the Tutsi and moderate Hutu of Rwanda. THE violence abroad. Throughout the period of the genocide, the RPA’s relationship with OF British intelligence networks tan Cohen noted how in and geopolitical concerns as well as permitted their political Stalinist Russia, ‘the past has to mutual paranoia and deep representatives to assert some Sconform to the present to ideological and cultural divisions influence in respect of the mandate establish a version of history (a (Cameron, 2011). of the United Nations Assistance master narrative) to legitimate current In 1986, the Rwandan Tutsi Mission in Rwanda (UNAMIR) at United Nations Security Council VIOLENCE policy’ (Cohen, 2001). In Rwanda, refugees in exile in Anglophone Paul Kagame has skilfully Uganda formed a rebel guerrilla discussions. The genocide and civil orchestrated a ‘master narrative’ that organisation in opposition to the war ended in Kigali in July 1994 with has resulted in the West’s selective Francophone government of the victory of the guerrilla RPA who amnesia of historical and ongoing Rwanda. Its military wing became immediately established a human rights violations perpetrated known as the Rwanda Patriotic Army Government of National Unity.
    [Show full text]
  • Towards a History of Mass Violence in the Etat Indépendant Du Congo, 1885-1908
    This is a repository copy of Towards a History of Mass Violence in the Etat Indépendant du Congo, 1885-1908. White Rose Research Online URL for this paper: http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/74340/ Article: Roes, Aldwin (2010) Towards a History of Mass Violence in the Etat Indépendant du Congo, 1885-1908. South African Historical Journal, 62 (4). pp. 634-670. ISSN 0258-2473 https://doi.org/10.1080/02582473.2010.519937 Reuse Unless indicated otherwise, fulltext items are protected by copyright with all rights reserved. The copyright exception in section 29 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 allows the making of a single copy solely for the purpose of non-commercial research or private study within the limits of fair dealing. The publisher or other rights-holder may allow further reproduction and re-use of this version - refer to the White Rose Research Online record for this item. Where records identify the publisher as the copyright holder, users can verify any specific terms of use on the publisher’s website. Takedown If you consider content in White Rose Research Online to be in breach of UK law, please notify us by emailing [email protected] including the URL of the record and the reason for the withdrawal request. [email protected] https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/ Towards a History of Mass Violence in the Etat Indépendant du Congo, 1885-1908* Aldwin Roes UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD Although the „atrocities of epical proportions‟ in the Etat Indépendant du Congo (EIC, Congo Free State) are „legendary‟, no up to date scholarly introduction to the issue is currently available1.
    [Show full text]
  • An Examination of the Instability and Exploitation in Congo from King Leopold II's Free State to the 2Nd Congo War
    CORE Metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk Provided by University of Central Florida (UCF): STARS (Showcase of Text, Archives, Research & Scholarship) University of Central Florida STARS HIM 1990-2015 2014 An Examination of the Instability and Exploitation in Congo From King Leopold II's Free State to the 2nd Congo War Baldwin Beal University of Central Florida Part of the History Commons Find similar works at: https://stars.library.ucf.edu/honorstheses1990-2015 University of Central Florida Libraries http://library.ucf.edu This Open Access is brought to you for free and open access by STARS. It has been accepted for inclusion in HIM 1990-2015 by an authorized administrator of STARS. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Recommended Citation Beal, Baldwin, "An Examination of the Instability and Exploitation in Congo From King Leopold II's Free State to the 2nd Congo War" (2014). HIM 1990-2015. 1655. https://stars.library.ucf.edu/honorstheses1990-2015/1655 AN EXAMINATION OF THE INSTABILITY AND EXPLOITATION IN CONGO FROM KING LEOPOLD II’S FREE STATE TO THE 2ND CONGO WAR by BALDWIN J. BEAL A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Honors in the Major Program in History in the College of Arts and Humanities and in The Burnett Honors College at the University of Central Florida Orlando, Florida Fall Term 2014 Thesis Chair: Dr. Ezekiel Walker Abstract This thesis will analyze the Congo from King Leopold II’s Free State to the 2nd Congo War. After a thorough investigation of the colonial period, this thesis will analyze the modern period.
    [Show full text]