Nuevos Modelos E Iconos De La China Contemporánea: Símbolos De Una Sociedad De Consumo Emergente

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Nuevos Modelos E Iconos De La China Contemporánea: Símbolos De Una Sociedad De Consumo Emergente Nuevos modelos e iconos de la China contemporánea: símbolos de una sociedad de consumo emergente Dr. Stefan R. Landsberger Titular de la cátedra Olfert Dapper de Cultura Contemporánea China de la Universidad de Ámsterdam y profesor adjunto del Departamento de Estudios Chinos de la Universidad de Leiden Síntesis sigan siendo relevantes. Sin embargo, y en paralelo, el flo- reciente sistema mediático que satisface los caprichos de un El Partido Comunista Chino (PCCh) siempre ha mostrado un número cada vez mayor de telespectadores, ha convertido verdadero interés por moldear el comportamiento popular. en ídolos a famosos, estrellas del mundo del espectáculo, El propio Mao Zedong creía fervientemente en la maleabili- del deporte, incluso del ámbito del internet chino, cada vez dad del hombre. El uso de modelos era una de las principa- más efervescente. Dichos famosos no sólo son atractivos les vías utilizadas por el Partido/Estado para educar a las porque se asocian a “estilos de vida de ricos y famosos”, personas después de la fundación de la República Popular sino que ellos mismos son la prueba viviente de que todo el en 1949. Un enfoque que por lo demás no era nuevo: mundo puede hacerse rico (y famoso, importante, influyen- desde antiguo las élites dirigentes habían considerado el te). Al mismo tiempo, surge una paradoja: estos “ídolos he cho de predicar con el ejemplo, y el uso de la persuasión consumistas”, como les llaman algunos con desprecio, con- y de la educación, como los métodos más eficaces para tienen muchas dimensiones y en cambio carecen de la influir en el comportamiento. Con esta finalidad, algunos dimensión moralizante que tenían sus predecesores; tam- personajes históricos famosos, entre los que se cuentan em- bién su influencia es menos omnipresente y menos impor- peradores, estadistas, eruditos, poetas, concubinas y ge - tante que antes. Además, ya no son parte de las masas del nerales, sirvieron como modelos. Los modelos del PCCh se pueblo: no todo el mundo puede ser un famoso, un depor- elegían entre los nuevos grupos que formaban los pilares tista de élite, un escritor popular o una estrella del pop. del Estado: los trabajadores, los campesinos y los solda- Además, el ejemplo que dan no está tan bien definido y tan dos. Estos modelos tenían que proceder del pueblo, ser un cuidadosamente modelado por las organizaciones respon- estereotipo reconocible, facilitar la identificación y aumen- sables dentro del PCCh, como en el pasado. tar los efectos de su comportamiento. Prácticamente siem- pre, los auténticos modelos de comportamiento llegaban a Esto plantea algunas cuestiones sobre los nuevos modelos e su clímax con la muerte (violenta). Para ser sinceros, un mo- iconos de una sociedad china que está cambiando a pasos delo vivo no tenía la misma fuerza aleccionadora que uno agigantados. ¿Quién merece la pena ser emulado y qué tipo martirizado. de comportamiento es el que quiere ver representado el Partido-Estado? ¿Cómo cumplen su misión estos exponen- Como sucedió con la mayoría de aspectos de la sociedad tes de la moralidad actual y qué valores representan? ¿Sigue china, el uso y la naturaleza de los modelos sufrieron impor- teniendo el Partido-Estado alguna influencia en la forma- tantes cambios después de 1978. Con la llegada de la ción de lo que Wang ha denominado la personalidad post- modernización y las reformas económicas, se necesitaban comunista, o se ha convertido la emulación de modelos nuevos emblemas de comportamiento que dieran a conocer simplemente en idolatría? las nuevas prioridades. Sin embargo, a medida que se iba desarrollando la economía, cada vez resultaba más difícil El. encontrar ejemplos aptos para enseñar a la población cómo Los orígenes de los modelos de conducta lf!.. debía comportarse. Esta situación no se vio favorecida por el énfasis de Deng Xiaoping en que algunos debían enrique- En la China premoderna, la élite dirigente se sumó a la idea cerse primero; al contrario, convirtió en cada vez más super- de la “maleabilidad del hombre”. Esta concepción estuvo fluas cualidades como el colectivismo, el ascetismo y el fuertemente influenciada por Confucio (551-479? a.C.), altruismo. que anteponía educación y persuasión a la fuerza y el casti- go, buscando conseguir el estado de armonía social que Con todo, hoy en día aún perviven algunos de los modelos imaginaba. Creía que los seres humanos modelarían su com- de conducta de antaño, lo que hace que de algún modo portamiento cuando tuvieran delante personas con unas 443 Cultura cualidades morales irreprochables. Según Donald Mun ro, “la favorecían los modelos que ponían de manifiesto un com- emulación de modelos no era tan sólo una ma nera de portamiento que rompía con los conceptos y patrones de aprender [para los confucionistas]: era de lejos la manera conducta tradicionales. Incluían mujeres que se rebelaban más eficaz, y se podía inculcar cualquier conducta virtuosa contra la represión y la discriminación de género; campesi- en las personas ofreciéndoles el modelo adecuado”. Cuando nos que se levantaban contra los terratenientes y las institu- el confucianismo se convirtió en la ideología imperante ciones feudales; líderes locales que no eran autoritarios y durante la dinastía Han (206 a.C.-220 d.C.), la emulación corruptos, no malversaban fondos públicos y no estaban de modelos pasó a ser un elemento habitual en las prácticas distanciados de las masas. Se presentaron muchos modelos políticas y sociales. que habían muerto o habían sido torturados en los años anteriores a la fundación de la República Popular China. Al A pesar de sus ambiciones y actitudes revolucionarias, Mao convertir el sacrificio en un triunfo político, se rendía home- Zedong y los demás líderes del PCCh de la primera gene- naje a estos héroes muertos y al mismo tiempo se suponía ración crecieron todos bajo la hegemonía cultural confu- que inspiraban a los vivos. cionista. Aunque rechazaban algunas prácticas confucionis- tas co mo la piedad filial, la creencia de que las personas El conflicto de Corea (1950-1953) proporcionó un buen podían perfeccionarse seguía teniendo vigencia para ellos. número de mártires convertidos en modelos, valientes sol- Mao abo gaba por el uso de modelos para propiciar el cam- dados, hombres y mujeres, que luchaban contra las tropas bio: los avanzados actuaban de modelo para los interme- americanas, defendiendo las fronteras chinas. Uno de estos dios, y los in termedios de modelo para los atrasados, así ejemplos fue Huang Jiguang (1930-1952), que murió du- toda la sociedad se desarrollaría. Un modelo que funciona- rante la batalla de Sangkumryung. Después de lanzar su ría como “co rrea de transmisión”, trasladando a las masas última granada, se abalanzó contra la ametralladora de un la información autorizada oficialmente. Mao contribuyó ac - refugio subterráneo controlado por soldados americanos. tivamente a la formación de la ética de los modelos. Muchas Su cuerpo recibió las ráfagas de la ametralladora y esto campañas sólo tomaron vuelo cuando él mismo acuñó un permitió al resto de los soldados chinos llegar a tomar la eslogan resumiendo las cualidades del modelo en cuestión, cumbre. o de los objetivos de la campaña de emulación. Durante estos años, la (re)construcción económica también En la teoría maoísta, la confrontación con un modelo sigue estuvo muy presente. Tras décadas de guerra (civil), ahora se un proceso dialéctico y encaja en el esquema “lucha-unidad- daban las condiciones favorables para reconstruir el país. lucha” desarrollado en la epistemología de Mao. Al encon- Para ello, se emprendieron varias campañas, cada una con trar un modelo, se produce una contradicción interna entre su propio tipo de modelos a corto plazo y con objetivos los valores inherentes del individuo y los valores con los que inmediatos: campesinos que se unían al colectivo o comu- ahora se compara. La lucha entre los dos sistemas de valores na; mujeres que conducían tractores u otra maquinaria conduce a un nuevo equilibrio, en el que se interiorizan los in dustrial; trabajadores que impulsaban las iniciativas de nuevos valores. Al confrontarse a un nuevo modelo, el equi- producción de tipo Stakhanov para el acero; jóvenes intelec- librio vuelve a dar paso a una contradicción interna. De este tuales que emigraban al campo para aplicar allí sus conoci- modo, se crea un ciclo eterno de confrontación, interioriza- mientos, etc. ción y confrontación renovada, que desemboca en unos niveles cada vez más elevados de perfección humana o de - sarrollo social. Con la presentación de un nuevo modelo, se Modelos de la Revolución Cultural pretendía básicamente resolver un problema de conducta (tal y como han destacado autores co mo Munro o Burch), En el período anterior a la Revolución Cultural y en sus años pero en pocas ocasiones se habían previsto los efectos que iniciales, los modelos más conocidos eran soldados, una resultarían del nuevo comportamiento que se intentaba prueba de la influencia del ejército en la política china. En generar. sus diarios, en sus últimas palabras, todos atribuían sus ha - zañas milagrosas a la Revolución, al Partido o a Mao. Du - rante el proceso, muchos murieron como mártires, invocan- Modelos posteriores a 1949 do el valor moral tradicional de “sacrificar los propios inte- reses en beneficio de los demás” (sheji weiren) (Lü, 1995: Una vez que el PCCh consolidó su poder después de 1949, 551-552). utilizó distintos modelos de conducta para enseñar a las personas el marxismo-leninismo y el pensamiento de Mao Sin embargo, el modelo definitivo de la primera mitad de la Zedong, y para movilizarlos en campañas masivas y propa- Revolución Cultural fue el propio Mao. Como Gran Maestro, gar las políticas y actividades del Partido. En particular, se Gran Líder, Gran Timonel, Gran Comandante, que según 444 Nuevos modelos e iconos de la China contemporánea: símbolos de una sociedad de consumo emergente Myers era “la encarnación y ejemplificación del sistema de La condición de modelo de Lei se basaba en cuatro princi- valores apoyado por la ideología gubernamental” (Myers, pios.
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