HISTORICAL NOTES

Charles Michie Smith – founder of the Kodaikanal (Solar Physics) Observatory and beginnings of physical astronomy in India*

N. Kameswara Rao, A. Vagiswari and Christina Birdie

It has been about 115 years since the establishment of Kodaikanal Observatory as an extension of the origi- nal Madras Observatory, which has evolved into the present Indian Institute of Astrophysics at Bangalore. It is also the first mountain observatory in India. Charles Michie Smith was the man who selected the site, established the observatory and directed it for the first 12 years. He was also the man who recruited John Evershed, discoverer of the famous Evershed effect and established Kodaikanal Observatory as a major centre for solar physics. Michie Smith, the person and the establishment of Kodaikanal Observatory are discussed here in the context of the early studies in physical astronomy (observational astrophysics) in India.

‘Solar Physics was born in the tobacco the most important one now known as of major difficulties was Charles Michie fields of Guntur’ declared Vainu Bappu1, Kirchoff 1474 (note 2, ref. 6). The bright Smith, a professor of physics at Madras reminiscing about the famous discovery lines were seen simultaneously by other Christian College, who slowly got lured of the element helium during the total astronomers, but actual micrometrical into astronomy and became the Govern- solar eclipse of 18 August 1868, that measurements of their positions were ob- ment astronomer at Madras Observatory passed through Guntur in Andhra tained with spectroscope at Masuli- first and then the founder Director of Pradesh, India. A spectroscope was used patam’7 Had it not been for the red-tape for the first time at a total solar eclipse to methods of conducting Government pub- look at the limb prominences during an lications (at that time), he (Pogson) eclipse. The prominence spectra showed would have got the credit of ‘being the the presence of an emission line that did first to detect the bright lines of the spec- not correspond to any known element on trum of corona at the Indian eclipse of Earth till that time. Both Janssen2,3 (note 1868’ (ref. 8). The discovery of this 1) (who made spectroscopic observations coronal line has been credited to C. A. at Guntur during the eclipse) and Nor- Young in the total solar eclipse of 7 man Lockyer (who made spectroscopic August 1869. observations of prominences outside the However, systematic observational eclipse) were credited as the discoverers studies of solar physics could be pursued of helium4,5. Soon after the eclipse, asto- in the country only after the establish- nished by the brilliance of the red line of ment of the Kodaikanal Observatory in hydrogen in the prominences during the 1899 (note 3, ref. 9) (Solar Physics). The eclipse, Janssen looked for it in full man who selected the site, established sunshine through a spectroscope and and equipped the observatory in the face found it. The Madras Observatory also estab- Figure 2. Prominences at the total solar lished an eclipse camp at Masulipatam eclipse of 18 August 1868 as observed by where Norman Pogson, the famous Pogson at Masulipatnam camp of Madras Observatory. Pogson painted this picture. Madras astronomer, made spectroscopic observations and discovered the emission line (D3) in the prominence spectrum. He sketched the spectrum and noted that the emission line did not coincide with the famous D lines in the solar spectrum (Figure 1). The visibility of red promi- nences (Figure 2) after reappearance of the Sun was also confirmed. Little known, but a most important fact about the experiments at Pogson’s Muslipatam camp is ‘the detection of bright lines in the solar corona (Figure 3), especially of Figure 1. Spectra of the prominence at the total solar eclipse of 18 August 1868 as observed by Pogson at Masulipatnam Figure 3. Drawing of the corona at the *Based on archives of Indian Institute of camp of Madras Observatory. Pogson time of total solar eclipse of 18 August 11 Astrophysics, Bangalore. painted the picture (spectrum). 1868 – from Naegamvala .

CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 106, NO. 3, 10 FEBRUARY 2014 447 HISTORICAL NOTES

bright lines only, three being most very broad line, somewhere in the green exceptionally vivid, two in the red, and part of the spectrum, was visible right one in the blue part of the spectrum. across the field when the Sun’s limb was Several other faint lines are clearly dis- clear of the slit. This was probably the cernible, but subsequent measurements Coronal line known as K1474, and was has shown that the deep red lines in the the only one which did not seem to spectrum of this star by no means corre- change: the rest were flickering in and spond with the red portion of the solar out, sometimes only three and sometimes spectrum, but occupy instead the place of seven or more, as the telescope was made the yellow in the latter, while the vivid to approach the moon’s limb. These blue line is far beyond the well known shorter and less steady lines were most hydrogen line F in Kirchoff’s chart, likely prominence lines only, as the slit almost approaching to the violet end of must have passed over several in sweep- the solar spectrum. A star in Corona ing about and around the limb.’ It is sad Borealis, which suddenly blazed out in that none of this work of the Madras 1860 (note 5) and faded away again in a Observatory has seen the light of the day. Figure 4. Charles Michie Smith. few weeks, excited intense astonishment Pogson comments in 1874 May, ‘It is a among European astronomers and physi- matter of great regret to me that contin- cists, and proved to owe its brief brilli- ued pressure of work and distressing Kodaikanal Observatory later. (Even ancy to the temporary combustion of circumstances beyond all human control after retirement from the observatory he hydrogen gas; in fact to be a world on have, up to present time, prevented me continued to live in Kodaikanal where fire for a short time; but in  () Argus from submitting the report upon this he died and was buried there.) According 13 10 we have before us a permanent furnace expedition.’ C. Ragoonatha Charry was to Chinnici ‘...establishment of Kodai- world, the heat of which probably sur- a key member at this eclipse expedition kanal solar observatory, which was built passes all conception, and is maintained and observations of ‘ordinary telescope in 1895 and started functioning in 1900, by burning gases of a totally different phenomena’ were entrusted to him. thanks to Charles Michie Smith (1854– nature to any with which we are acquain- Several expeditions and observers con- 1922) (Figure 4), Director of Madras ted.’12 It is now believed, that the com- ducted experiments during this eclipse Observatory, who tried to start the prac- bustion referred by Pogson in T CrB is from different places in South India. tice of “New Astronomy” in India.’ nuclear combustion rather than a chemi- While Madras observers were at Ave- cal one as Pogson implied, but still, an nashy, in Coimbatore district, Norman Physical astronomy (astronomical energy generation from hydrogen in Lockyer set up camp at Baicull in South spectroscopy) in India before explosive way! Canara and Tennant and others were at Kodaikanal Subsequently, a total and an annular Doddabetta on the Neilgherry Hills, eclipse of the Sun, that occurred on 12 some were at Poodoocottah. One of the After the trigger of 1868 total solar December 1871 and 6 June 1872 respec- ‘most important’ observations during the eclipse, the emergence of new astronomy tively, which passed through South India 1871 eclipse was the detection, for the (spectroscopic astrophysics) in the coun- were also followed with a spectroscope first time, of Fraünhofer lines (in absorp- try was essentially limited to special as well as direct photography. Madras tion) in the coronal spectrum by Janssen events like eclipses or transits of planets, Observatory attempted for the first time located in the Nilgiris, besides the bright etc. mostly by visiting foreign astrono- celestial and solar photography during lines that were known to be present. This mers, sometimes in collaboration with the 12 December 1871 eclipse. Pogson’s observation suggested that besides hot resident astronomers, done in sporadic son, Norman Everard Pogson, assistant gas there is something that scatters the fashion at different places in the country, to the Government astronomer, was solar photospheric spectrum in the e.g. during the transit of Venus in 1874. especially sent to England to get trained corona (later designated as K-Corona). In with Warren De la Rue in solar photo- a way the polarization observations of graphy that is to be carried out at this Madras Observatory by G. K. Winters Madras Observatory eclipse as well as coming events, like the during this eclipse suggested the same next annular eclipse and 1874 transit of ‘increasing of polarization at a distance The earliest recorded attempt at observa- Venus. Three fair photographs were from sun’s limb or in other words, strong tions of stellar spectra was apparently in obtained during totality with nine-inch reflection of solar rays from the higher 1871, on the eve of the total solar silver glass reflecting telescope by and cooler regions of the Corona than eclipse, at Madras by (Lorenzo) Respighi Browning. ‘The photographs verify the from heated luminous shell shown in the 12 and Pogson of the star  Argus (now existence of a luminous envelope around photographs’ . Both Lockyer and Res- Velorum). ‘The discovery of the very the sun’s disc, to the height of about pighi introduced new instrumentation at remarkable nature of the bright star  () 160,000 miles and show other interesting this eclipse, namely slitless spectroscopy 12 Argus (note 4, ref. 11) by Professor features as well.’ However, the spec- which produced the spectrum instead of a Respighi with a direct vision spectro- troscopic observations were not so suc- series of bright lines, produced a series scope applied to the large equatorial, cessful, ‘the consequence was, that of the of coloured rings, as the corona round must not be omitted. The spectrum of bright lines seen in the spectroscope no the Sun is seen in each line. This way not this star, unlike most others, consists of measures were taken. One vivid but not only the whole corona is seen at once,

448 CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 106, NO. 3, 10 FEBRUARY 2014 HISTORICAL NOTES but differences of height of the corona in in most parts of India. It not only aroused sit were not successful because of bad different lines could also be observed3. considerable interest as an astronomical weather. ‘Venus was briefly seen once or Like Pogson, both (Lieutenant) John event for measuring the solar distance twice during the transit, but only through Herschel Jr and (Major) Tennant who (astronomical unit), but also led to the thick clouds which rendered photographs were stationed at Doddabetta also noted establishment of Calcutta Observatory or measurement of any kind impossible. that the coronal line 1474K could be seen where solar spectroscopy (physics) was The second internal contact noted by all over the corona independent of the to be studied regularly. A team of astro- Miss E. Isis Pogson and C. Ragoonatha structure. nomers led by Pietro Tacchini, from Charry was the only record obtainable ‘The Annular Eclipse of the Sun on Italy, planned to follow the transit of after all the trouble incurred.’14 6th June (1872) yielded results equal if Venus through a spectroscope as it Tacchini remained in India even after not superior in interest to those of the passed over the Sun’s disk and sought a the Venus transit and persuaded Lafont total Eclipse expeditions of 1871. Four suitable place for observations in India to build an observatory for monitoring excellent photographs were taken about (see Chinnici10 for a full account). He the Sun, its spots and other features on the annular phase, one of which shows contacted various Italian Consuls at and at the limb visually (by producing the moon’s dark limb rendered visible by Bombay, Calcutta, Madras as well as drawings) as well as spectroscopically on the light of solar corona, before the com- Norman Pogson, then Director of Madras a regular basis to complement the obser- pletion of the ring. The operators were Observatory. The Consul at Calcutta, vations that are already being done at the late N. E. Pogson and F. Doderet. F. Lamouroux, responded first after con- Palermo and other Italian observatories. The phenomenon known as reversal of sulting father Eugene Lafont, the famous It would have been a collaborative effort the lines hitherto observed only at total Rector and Professor of Physics at and an extension of the Italian experi- eclipses, was also seen to great advan- Xavier’s College in Calcutta. They sug- ments at a different longitude providing tage with the spectroscope at both forma- gested Madhupur (Muddapur) near Cal- continuity and complementarity to the tion and braking of the ring.’14 cutta as a possible site. Lafont was a observations (at Calcutta, solar phenom- Even after these trials of eclipse spec- great promoter and profounder of science ena would be visible about five hours troscopy, continuity in observations of who co-founded, in 1876, the Indian earlier). In fact, Lafont did manage to either solar or stellar (celestial) spectro- Association for the Cultivation of Sci- build the observatory. Writing to Tac- scopy was not maintained at Madras ence and was rightly considered as one chini in July 1875 he remarked ‘I am Observatory or elsewhere in the country of the architects of modern Indian sci- pleased to announce to you that our ob- until another special event occurred, ence17. He became part of the Italian ob- servatory is almost completed... Mr Merz namely the transit of Venus in 1874. serving team consisting of Jesuit Angelo had already written to me and he is busy However, occasionally, sunspots or some Secchi (1818–78), Director of Collegio building a 7-inch equatorial with paral- unusual solar features used to attract the Romano (who later had to leave the lactic mounting for 12,500 francs. It will attention of Madras astronomers. Such expedition for health reasons), Alessan- not be finished before eighteen months. I an event occurred on 17 April 1882. ‘A dro Dorna (1825–86) of the Observatory am going to receive a 10 prism spectro- most interesting solar spot, of vast size of Turin, and Antonio Abetti (1846– scope of Browning as the Lockyer’s one, and subject to striking changes while 1928) of the Observatory of Padua. Dur- and also a direct vision spectroscope, under actual observation, was first seen ing the transit, visual observations which I will use with a small 3-inch tele- on April 17th; attention being drawn to it through a telescope were done by Dorna scope of Steinheil, while waiting for the by corresponding magnetic disturbance and Lafont, whereas Tacchini and Abetti installation of my grand instrument.’ Es- of considerable extent. Careful drawings carried out spectroscopic observations tablishment of this spectroscopic obser- of this spot were made on April 17th, simultaneously. The main result was the vatory was announced by Tacchini ‘The 18th, 19th, 21st and 22nd, by Miss E. Isis difference in contact times recorded eminent father Lafont, Director of St Pogson, Mr A. L. Pogson and Mr R. F. visually by a simple telescope and those Xavier’s College in Calcutta, after obser- Chisholm, the Government Architect.’15 recorded by the spectroscope. The spec- ving the chromosphere and solar promi- In later years even this occasional acti- troscopic ones were earlier by 2 min for nences with our instruments in vity seemed to have ceased and has been the third and fourth contacts. Madhupur and seeing the practical way criticized severely. According to Indian Tacchini also observed absorption to execute the spectroscopic observations Engineering16 dated 18 February 1899 bands in Venus spectrum during the tran- of the Sun at our station, has accepted ‘For nearly ten years, the Solar Physics sit that suggested existence of an atmo- the proposal to build an Observatory in Committee, the secretary of state, and the sphere for Venus consisting of ‘a great Calcutta in his college with the aim of Government of India have been under the deal of vapours, analogous to the terres- carrying out other regular solar observa- impression that Solar Spectroscopic in- trial ones’. Lafont gave a detailed tions, which … could fill the inevitable vestigations were under taken at Madras. account of it and concluded that the ex- gaps of our Observatories ... the new Nothing of that sort has been done’. pedition showed ‘upon experimental Calcutta observatory will be able to give proofs, the great superiority of the spec- the best results under the active direction troscopic method over all others, in de- of Lafont, to whom our colleagues will Calcutta Observatory – The Italian termining the real time of contact, to a be very grateful for remedying, with his connection small fraction of a second, with ease and ability and commitment, a long complai- certainty. The main object of this mis- ned snag.’10 In anticipation of the arrival The nineteenth century’s first transit of sion is therefore accomplished’. Madras of the telescope, Lafont even started Venus on 6 December 1874 was visible observatory’s efforts to observe the tran- practising spectroscopic observations of

CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 106, NO. 3, 10 FEBRUARY 2014 449 HISTORICAL NOTES prominences with a direct vision spectro- a systematic record of the Solar spots who got inspired to pursue astronomical scope attached to a 3-inch telescope. The and protuberances, which they intend spectroscopy after visiting Lafont and his establishment of the spectroscopic ob- publishing in the form of diagrams show- observatory in Calcutta in 1882/83. By servatory was also announced in an arti- ing the positions, number, and principal 1888, he established the Maharaja Tak- cle in Nature by Raphael Meldola in details of these interesting features of our hatasingji Observatory in Poona with the 1875. However, things got delayed and luminary. It has been deemed unneces- ‘most modern equipment at that time in first results could only be obtained in sary to draw more than general outline of India’ for astronomical spectroscopy and 1878, which Lafont sent to Tacchini with the protuberances (Figure 5), as their photography, and could legitimately be a note not to publish them as they are his forms change with such constant rapid- called India’s first astrophysical observa- first trials. Based on these results Tac- ity, that a record of their fitting shapes tory. ‘The principal instruments are a chini wrote, ‘In this first essay sent by cannot be of much scientific value. It is 16½ inch silver-on-glass Newtonian by Lafont there are some solar limbs drawn hoped that these humble contributions to Sir H. Grubb, with a 4-inch finder in November 1877 and April 1878. The the knowledge of Solar Physics may attached and a 6-inch equatorial refractor traits of the prominences and chromos- prove of some assistance towards the by elder Cooke. Both these instruments phere were in good accordance to the formation of a theory and help in com- are of highest excellence, and besides drawings made in Palermo. ... drawings pleting the work of other Observatories, eyepieces and micrometers, they are fur- which we shall receive from Calcutta are where the Sun is a special object of nished with several spectroscopes by entirely comparable with those made in study’. The records presented are for Grubb, Hilger, Browning and others... It Italy...’. December 1881–April 1882 by C. De- is intended at present to restrict the work Those observations were never pub- Clippeleir, the Director. of the observatory to certain branches of lished and before any spectroscopic Alphonse De Penaranda and Constatin spectroscopic research, together with observations could begin in a regular De Clippeleir took charge of the observa- occasional observations of comets & c’20. manner, Lafont was taken ill and had to tory during 1878–79 and 1882 onwards Naegamvala got himself familiarized go to Europe. After 1878, for various respectively. Nothing substantial with spectroscopic equipment and meth- reasons, the Italian connection became emerged from the observatory even ods of observation of the Sun and stars weak and no real spectroscopic observa- though it had good set of instruments through his visits abroad and working tions ever came out of Calcutta Obser- available, except few reports of solar with accomplished people like Norman vatory. Later, Lafont’s interests got eclipses; annular eclipse of 17 July 1890 Lockyer, Vogel and William Huggins, diversified and he passed on the director- observed at Bhagalpur and the total the three leading spectroscopists at that ship of the observatory to others at St. eclipse of 22 January 1898 at Dumraon time. He was in frequent communication Xavier’s College. Writing a foreward to in Bihar. A brief description of this with other astronomers, notably then As- a publication of St. Xavier’s College’s eclipse by the team of Jesuit priests, tronomer Royal W. H. M. Christie. His Solar Observatory in December 1881, including those from St. Xavier’s Col- spectroscopic observations of Orion neb- Lafont states ‘...but a severe illness lege is given in Biswas17. Occasional ula21 showed that the green nebular line caused by over-exposure to the Sun pre- burst of activity took place triggered by (note 7) is sharp, symmetrical and nar- vented the undersigned (Lafont) from some dramatic astronomical events like row and not ‘fluted’ under examination continuing his labours and obliged him ‘Gigantic solar disturbances were obser- with several spectroscopes and magnifi- to give over to some of his colleagues. ved at Madras Observatory yesterday (25 cations with the 16½ inch telescope, thus Rev. C. De Clippeleir, S. J. and Rev. V. April 1882): at the St. Xavier’s college putting the ‘meteoritic hypothesis’ of De Campignelles, S. J., have now began observatory something better was done – the nebulae by Norman Lockyer to the the disturbances were recorded by elec- sword. According to this hypothesis, the tric pen.’17. The observatory’s activities slowly faded away. As remarked by Lafont in his letter to Tacchini ‘…I think that misfortune is attached to my obser- vatory...’ just about sums up the status of the observatory. Very few spectroscopic observations were carried out in spite of the fact that it was ‘the only spectro- scopic laboratory in India’18, until Naegamvala established Takhatasingji Observatory in 1888 and started making spectroscopic observations of sun and stars.

Takhatasingji Observatory – Poona Figure 6. K. D. Naegamvala (photo- Figure 5. Contours of the sunspots Kavasji Dadabhai Naegamvala19 (note 6) graph from a portrait of Naegamvala that recorded at Calcutta Observatory on was available with his grandson and 5 December 1881 by C. DeClippeleir and was a pioneering astrophysicist from daughter-in-law, obtained with their per- V. De Campignelles. Elphinston College, Bombay (Figure 6), mission.)

450 CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 106, NO. 3, 10 FEBRUARY 2014 HISTORICAL NOTES lines arise from collisional heat of the scopes.’ In an application dated 10 Janu- Hennessy Observatory, Dehra Dun re- meteoric particles, and require the nebu- ary 1901, he proposes to observe with spectively. Photography of the Sun’s sur- lar line to be fluted (extended or shaded ‘twenty-inch Cassegrain Equatorial of face had commenced from May 1878 like molecular bands – the likely molecu- the observatory’, which suggests that a under the supervision of Hennessey, at lar band at this wavelength is that of replacement of the 16½ inch mirror by a first with a small photoheliograph giving MgO). Even before Naegamvala’s obser- 20 inch common mirror was in pro- a 4-inch solar image. Later in 1882, big- vations, others notably Huggins, Vogel gress24,25 (note 9). ger images were obtained with larger and James Keeler at Lick showed the In a letter addressed to W. H. M. photoheliographs giving an 8-inch size lines to be sharp, however there still was Christie, the Astronomer Royal, dated 25 disc on 12-inch plates28. a major controversy. As Osterbrock22 April 1895, Naegamvala emphasizes, ‘I The spectroscopic investigations were narrates ‘although Keeler’s paper con- may here mention that this Observatory mainly concerned with the red end of the vinced most of his contemporaries, is the only establishment of its kind in solar spectrum: beyond the Fraünhofer’s Lockyer and his partisians could not India, where Photographic and Spectro- A band. A series of papers in Proceed- accept the result, and at a meeting of the scopic work could be carried out’. He ings of the Royal Society from 1871 to Royal Astronomical Society on 8 May makes his intentions clear with a follow- 1876, describe these efforts, mainly con- 1891, with neither Huggins nor Lockyer up letter dated 10 October 1896: ‘My cerning how to discern atmospheric lines present, an argument welled up. It began earnest desire is that this splendid in the solar spectrum. His observations with the reading of a paper from K. D. equipment that I have managed to bring were conducted from ‘a site in Himala- Naegamvala of Poonah, India, who had together should not lie idle’, further as yas at an altitude of 7100 feet (Dehra been observing the Orion nebula with his seen in the letter of 1901 ‘I am now Dun) with a three-prism compound spec- 16½-inch telescope and three-prism relieved from instructional duties. I am troscope specially constructed for him spectroscope and found that the chief now in a position to devote all my time with the support of Royal Society by the nebular line was sharp under all circum- to astronomical work... in case I am so Dublin firm of Grubb’29. Apparently, stances, and therefore not the remnant of fortunate as to merit its (committee’s) Piazzi Smyth was ‘disappointed by Hen- magnesium fluting, as Lockyer had sug- confidence and support, I will to the best nessey’s spectral map published in gested. Captain William Noble, a friend of my ability endeavour to employ the Transactions of the Royal Society’ and and partisan of Huggins, rose and instrument for the furtherance of stellar went ahead to Lisbon to observe the Sun smoothly congratulated Naegamvala, spectroscopic research for which the cli- at better resolving power in drier climate through the Secretary who had read the matic conditions of this place are so very with very little water vapour. paper.’ Noble is supposed to have said favourable’. However, this promise was ‘The theory (meteoric)... has been al- not kept up either because Naegamvala’s ready three times killed by Dr Huggins in work load as a teacher and as Director of Background for solar monitoring England, Dr Vogel in Germany and Pro- the observatory was so much that he was and solar–terrestrial relations in fessor Keeler at Lick observatory, and I unable to keep up the research work at the Indian context think that we must look on Mr Naegam- the observatory or his interests waned vala as having finally killed and buried with time. He had no collaborator or A proposal to start an astrophysical ob- it’ (see Osterbrock22, for a more detailed assistant to share research interests and servatory (physical astronomy) in India account). keep up the continuity. Except for an was being discussed in scientific circles Occasionally Naegamvala also obser- occasional paper now and then, like the in Briton since 1872 (Huggin’s proposal ved the Sun and its spots spectroscopi- one describing the interesting spectrum to the Royal Astronomical Society3). cally. He observed emission reversals in of the Nova Persei 1901 (= GK Per) he Astronomical physics in the specific the lines of hydrogen and D3 in absorp- obtained showing P-Cygni type spectral guise of solar physics was thought to be tion around the spots (great sunspot lines26,27 (note 10), the activities of the important in the context of possible rela- groups of February 1892) probably taken observatory remained considerably low. tionship of solar phenomena to meteoro- place during a flare build-up23. This was After Naegamvala’s retirement in 1912, logical conditions (rainfall, etc.). accompanied by the ‘largest magnetic the observatory was dismantled and the In 1876, a large deputation from the storm in recent years’. He also observed telescope was shifted to Kodaikanal. British Association had urged the Com- transit of Mercury on 9 May 1891. mittee of Council on Education to carry However, no systematic observational out relevant recommendations of Devon- programme was carried out at the obser- Other stations shire Commission, including establish- vatory. His most impressive and impor- ment of a physical observatory (Prime tant contribution was the observation of In 1869 J. B. N. Hennessey of the Trigo- Minister Gladstone’s ministry set up, in the total solar eclipse of 22 January 1898 nometric Survey of India, commenced a 1870, a Royal Commission on Scientific (see later). series of actinometrical and spectro- Instruction and the Advancement of Sci- In a letter written on 10 October 1896 scopic investigations of the Sun at the ence under the 7th Duke of Devonshire (note 8), Naegamvala mentions ‘By April instance of the members of Solar Physics (Chairman) with eight other members, next the equipment of the observatory Committee (see later) at Dehra Dun. including W. A. Miller (then treasurer of will consist of (1) a 20 Reflector 11–3 Observations of measuring the solar ra- the Royal Society) later replaced by focus, with a six-inch guider, mounted diation at the Earth and photography of Smith, Stokes, Sharpley (secretaries of on a stand very nearly the same as that of the Sun’s disc (features) on every clear Royal Society), Huxley, and Lockyer). In Grubbs 13 astro-photographic tele- day were routinely made at Simla and at the following year (1877) several leading

CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 106, NO. 3, 10 FEBRUARY 2014 451 HISTORICAL NOTES scientists (including J. C. Adams, Joule, cially those being made by Meins in Establishing a connection between Maxwell, Roscoe, Stewart and Sir William India. The Committee consisted of six meteorology and solar physics is thought Thomson) submitted a memorandum to members, including the three advisers to be not only of scientific importance, the Committee of Council, in which the of the Committee of Council on Educa- but also for economic reasons which importance to meteorology of a solar tion: Stokes, Stewart, Strachey, and three were important for countries like India. physics observatory was stressed and a representatives of the Science and In 1879 Lockyer and his colleagues pre- need for early decision was pleaded. The Art Departments, one of whom was sented to the Indian Famine Commission Committee then passed on the memoran- Lockyer, and one representative from a report dealing with the relationship be- dum to Stokes, Balfour Stewart and Gen- Greenwich. tween the sunspot cycle and rainfall in eral Strachey for their opinion. Attempts to correlate solar cycle with South India. This report pointed out that Lockyer had already expressed himself meteorological and geophysical parame- famines in Madras since 1810 could be as strongly in favour of having regular ters have been going on for some time. correlated closely with sunspot mini- observations of the Sun made from Piazzi Smyth published results of a long mum. The authors emphasized that the somewhere in India. Stokes and Balfour series of measurements, that started in exact timing of the famines was probably Stewart’s report clearly supported him. 1837, of temperature just below the not as predictable as the correlation They suggested that astronomical phys- Earth’s surface, using thermometers might suggest, but that the important fea- ics should be divided into two areas. The buried in the rock at Edinburgh. He con- ture was the cyclical nature of the famine first involved experimental research and cluded that there was a long-period occurrence. However, in 1881, H. F. the perfecting of observational methods; variation in these temperatures with the Blanford, the main Indian Government the second consisted rather continuous same period as the solar cycle. Baxendell meteorologist, reported to the Famine recording of solar phenomena. Stokes at the Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, Commissioners that, although he too be- and Stewart emphasized that continuous published an analysis of the meteorologi- lieved solar heat varied cyclically, he had solar observations were best made from cal records there for the previous 11 been unable to find a correlation of the North India. They noted that already ‘ar- years, and claimed that there were varia- sort that Lockyer had reported and there rangements have been made for sending tions of both atmospheric pressure and appeared no immediate possibility of using out to India a highly intelligent sapper of temperature in step with solar activity. solar observations to predict weather in the name Meins, who has been trained by At about the same time Stone, at the India. Later, Lockyer adopted another Mr Lockyer, and will be employed in Cape of Good Hope, examined observa- spectroscopic approach. He found from taking photographs of the Sun’3. Lockyer tions of the previous 30 years there and his observations of sunspot spectra that had obtained this concession from Lord concluded that the mean annual tempera- some lines certainly got wider at some Salisbury, who was Secretary for India in ture at the Cape was related to the solar part of the cycle, while some others got Disraeli’s second administration. Ac- cycle. In 1872, Meldrum in Mauritius narrower and he found that the sun was cording to Indian Engineering16 dated 18 used observation of many years there to hotter at the spot maximum and cooler at February 1899 ‘in 1877, Lord Salisbury, show that cyclones in the Indian Ocean the minimum. Lockyer and his son, Jim then secretary of state for India asked occurred most frequently when the sun- Lockyer examined rainfall variations in Sir Norman Lockyer to formulate a spot number was largest, and that the the vicinity of the Indian Ocean as a programme of solar investigations to be rainfall in Mauritius, Adelaide and Bris- function of Lockyer’s spectroscopic undertaken in India’. Salisbury was sym- bane was generally greater at sunspot estimates of the solar temperature. pathetic to the claims of science and had maximum than at minimum. Lockyer Lockyer explained the Indian data in accepted the case for solar photography used the rainfall records from the Cape terms of what he called ‘heat pulses’ (a on a continuing basis in India. Sub- and Madras and a variation similar to positive pulse at maximum and a nega- sequently, sapper Meins has been dis- Meldrum. The importance of this result, tive pulse at minimum). To both these patched to India where, under the if it could be established, is obvious. The solar heat pulses there corresponded rain direction of the Surveyor-General, he years of minimum rainfall in India natu- pulses on Earth. Famines would tend to began to take daily photographs of rally also tended to be famine years. If a occur between these rain pulses, that is, the Sun (in Simla). These were subse- cycle of rainfall could be established, between maximum and minimum in the quently dispatched back to South Ken- planning for future famines could be spot cycle. This work was warmly wel- sington for examination. possible. Stewart also arrived at a result comed in India3. During 1878, an important move for- from river depths that maximum rainfall All these factors contributed to pre- ward was made. The Duke of Devonshire occurred soon after sunspot maximum ssurize the Government (or Secretary of appealed again to the Committee of and minimum. Stewart was also inter- State) by the Solar Physics Committee to Council on Education, asking them spe- ested in the measurement of the solar establish a solar physics observatory in cifically to provide funds for the deve- heat incident on the Earth (the solar con- India. lopment of astronomical physics. A stant) in the hope of detecting variations response was evoked at last. A Solar which might lead to corresponding Physics Committee was established and changes in climatic conditions. This work Mountain observatory charged with the duties of trying out new known as ‘actinometry’ was thought to methods of observation, of determining be relevant by Lockyer and others to the The dominant use of spectroscopy in the what solar researches were underway in development of solar physics in India, as exploration of the physical nature of the other countries, and of collecting and the country provides clear skies required celestial sources along with photography reducing observations of the Sun, espe- for such measurements. of the sky demanded bigger and bigger

452 CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 106, NO. 3, 10 FEBRUARY 2014 HISTORICAL NOTES telescopes to gather more light and to Directorship of Madras Observatory (the Piazzi Smyth at the Royal Society of push the studies to fainter limits and other being John Herschel). Edinburgh. Jacob submitted a proposal higher spectral resolutions. Such a need Although ‘as early as 1717 Isaac New- for funding to set up a hill observatory was also felt at the Madras Observatory ton had recognized the limitation set on near Poona at a height of 4000 feet to the in 1880s. In a letter dated 15 May 1882 the performance of telescopes by atmos- Government after getting it endorsed by (note 11) addressed to the Chief Secre- pheric turbulence, and had suggested that the Royal Astronomical Society. A grant tary of the Government of Fort St. the remedy for this “perpetual” was a of 1000 pounds was provided by the George, Norman Pogson states ‘I have most serene and quiet air, such as may Treasury to put up a station for three the honour to supplement one very im- perhaps be found on the tops of the highest years with a nine-inch Jacob’s own tele- portant suggestion it obtained by the mountains above the grosser clouds’30. scope. Piazzi Smyth welcomed the pro- submission of a few further remarks ‘Isaac Newton’s “serene air above the ject. Jacob after his return from England upon desirability of establishing a branch grosser clouds” lay the future for obser- in 1862 to Bombay even informed Piazzi observatory, equipped with a large mod- vations astronomy’ is what was realized that he is proceeding to the mountain, but ern equatorial at a hill station in South by one of the pioneers of observational unfortunately died five days later29. India. Twenty years ago, as stated in my astronomy and great champion of moun- When Pogson’s proposal for a branch letter referred to, an equatorial telescope tain astronomy Charles Piazzi Smyth, the observatory to Madras (Observatory) to of seven or eight inches aperture was re- ‘peripatetic astronomer’. His experi- be located at a hill station in the South garded as ample for the scientific wants ments at the Peak of Tenerife in 1856 India was submitted, the Governor in of a First-class observatory. The vast im- proved beyond any apprehension that the Council of the Madras Government, provements in the manufacture of large best image quality (seeing) transparency agreed entirely and ‘His excellency be- object glasses have now, however ren- and spectral range are realized at the lieves that no such large Equatorial as is dered such instruments quite out of date, mountain tops compared to low altitudes proposed exists in the Peninsula and and nothing short of a twenty-inch glass where most of the observatories were thinks it would be in the interests of sci- can enable an Astronomer to keep pace located29. Charles Piazzi Smyth was one ence to equip such an observatory as is with the enterprise of his continental and of the teachers to Michie Smith at Edin- indicated. No officer could probably be American rivals in science. The one ob- burgh (his B Sc degree certificate re- found better qualified to start a new sta- servatory of India if deemed worthy of ceived in 1876 was signed by Piazzi tion than Mr Pogson’ (15 March 1883 being maintained at all, should undoubt- Smyth, P. Tait among others). Michie letter of communication from Chief Sec- edly be equipped with a large telescope Smith also continued to keep in touch retary, the Government of Fort St George than it now possesses. At Melbourne, a with Piazzi Smyth even from India. (C. G. Master) to the Secretary to Gov- forty eight-inch reflector has long been The first observatory that was con- ernment of India, Department of Finance in use, at Sydney an eleven-inch refrac- sciously located on a mountain peak was and Commerce). The Astronomer Royal, tor has been supplied, and at D’Urban in the Lick Observatory on Mount Hamil- W. H. M. Christie in a letter dated 14 Natal, a large telescope is decided upon, ton, where in 1888 the 36-inch Lick re- April 1883 to the Government at Fort St while at Madras a very second class fractor was commissioned under the George, re-specified the needs recogniz- eight-inch is the largest available. directorship of Edward Holden30. Indeed ing Pogson’s proposal ‘Taking then a ‘A fact now generally recognized, it was a bold and futuristic suggestion by general view of the requirements of though singularly over looked in the past Pogson to locate a branch observatory in astronomy at the present day, it would, I times, is that by placing an instrument on Palani hills, barring the fact that no think, be desirable to maintain an astro- a mountain, so as to eliminate several observatory in the British territories was nomical observatory in India for the thousand feet of the grosser and lower located on mountain peaks till that time. following definite objects. (a) Determi- atmosphere, its defining power is enor- The idea of setting up a hill observa- nation of accurate positions of the sun mously improved, or in other words it is tory in India for a limited number of and a limited number of fundamental equivalent to a much larger telescope years was first brought up in 1858, the stars and so far as practicable, of the used near sea level. year of publication of the Tenerife Re- moon and planets. (b) Daily observations ‘I would therefore, strongly urge that a port by Piazzi Smyth, but had to be of the solar prominences and of other so- large new telescope should be ordered shelved following the Indian Mutiny29. lar phenomena with the spectroscope.’ with as little delay as possible, to be The plans were revived in 1861 by R. C. Further elaborated by Pogson ‘with placed at a hill-station, as far above sea Carrington and W. S. Jacob, two astro- regard to the subject of astronomical level as convenient; but whether the nomers who were on friendly terms with physics... if my suggestion for the esta- Nilgiris or the Palani Hills would be best Piazzi Smyth. Carrington had in fact blishment of a branch observatory on the suited for the purpose, I am not yet pre- been on the Royal Society committee Pulney Hills in the Madurai district, pared to advise... .’ which advised on Piazzi Smyth’s Tene- seven thousand feet above sea level, It is quite remarkable that Pogson rife expedition. Jacob was the Director at were carried out, such a position would, could realize and emphasize the impor- Madras Observatory from 1849 to 1858 above all others, be the best for spectro- tance of locating the telescope at heights and had his own private observatory at scopic researches...’ for both solar, stellar, where better observing conditions pre- Poona before coming to Madras. At nebular and other solar system objects. vail. He probably was influenced by the Madras, apart from the usual meridional The Governor, requested Michie Smith work of Piazzi Smyth on mountain astronomy Jacob specialized in measur- (Figures 4 and 7), ‘a gentleman of con- observatories. Smyth was one of the two ing double stars and Saturn’s rings, etc. siderable scientific attainments’, who people who recommended Pogson for the Some of these results were reported by was a professor of physics at Madras

CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 106, NO. 3, 10 FEBRUARY 2014 453 HISTORICAL NOTES

Christian College, also trained in practi- The elder two, William Robertson was signed by Tait and Piazzi Smyth). cal astronomy and well acquainted with Smith and George, were thought to be He had the privilege of studying under Pogson and the Madras Observatory, to highly talented students. George died such distinguished men as Archibald undertake the site survey in Palani hills young soon after he secured a place at Geikie, P. G. Tait (father of J. G. Tait for a proper site for the observatory. Cambridge to study mathematics. Wil- who taught in Central College, Banga- liam rose to celebrity at a fairly young lore) and Piazzi Smyth. age and became a professor and Thomas Soon after he found a job with a com- Smith – early childhood Adams Chair of Arabic at Cambridge in pany manufacturing (laying) submarine 1889. He was also the editor-in-chief of cables across the world ‘…I can’t be Charles Michie Smith was born on 13 Encyclopedia Britannica for some time. sure, but it’s possible that Professor Tait July 1854 at Keig, Aberdeenshire, Scot- As a student, he also worked as an assis- and Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), land, seventh child of William Pirie tant to P. G. Tait, professor of natural Willi’s old friends putting Charlie’s Smith and Jane Robertson Smith. William philosophy and a prominent physicist at name forward to the company’. He was Smith was a minister of Free Church till the University of Edinburgh, helping him sent to the Caribbean to lay the cables, his retirement in 1881. in teaching physics. Apparently, the but returned to Edinburgh after few The early childhood of Michie Smith famous author Robert Louis Stevenson months because jobs became scarce and and life in a small town (village) in Scot- was one of those who got benefitted by he was laid-off. Soon he got the appoint- land in Victorian Britain have been such Will Smith tutorials. ment, from Free Church Foreign Mis- described by his younger sister Alice Charles Michie Smith (Charlie) was to sions Committee, as a professor of 31 Thiele Smith in a delightful book Chil- follow his two brilliant elder brothers mathematics and physics at Madras dren of the Manse – Growing up in and inherited the legacy of being com- Christian College. ‘His departure was Victorian Aberdeenshire (many of the pared, unfortunately, with them, particu- especially hard for all of us since it came details mentioned below are mainly from larly by his father. The middle name at the start of Willi’s long battle with this source). Michie Smith was the third Michie in Charlie’s name comes from his Free Church. The two brothers corre- son in a large family of 11 children, four paternal grandmother. Charlie was the sponded regularly, of course, but Charlie boys and seven girls (Figure 8). most practical of all the children and had could be of no direct help.’ During these a special interest in both woodwork and years and later, Charlie seemed to have astronomy. His sister writes that even as extended lots of help, love and affection a boy ‘Charlie, who was the family ex- to his family, particularly to his sisters. pert in woodworking, made fine hoops out of birch for the croquet game’ and a cabinet to store them. He had a workshop In Madras – Madras Christian in a secluded corner of the garden College equipped with a large work bench and huge assortment of tools spending all his Michie Smith arrived in India in early pocket money on it; of course, thoroughly 1877 at an age of 22 to take up the job in disapproved by his father. His other in- Madras Christian College (Figure 7). terest was photography. ‘Charlie, then, ‘Life in India appeared to suit him emi- seventeen, had brought his fishing rod nently.’31 He threw himself vigorously and could be safely trusted to go off into his work both at College and Uni- alone to catch fish for tea. Best of all versity (Figure 9). He started the Chris- were the flounders that he simply caught tian College Magazine and contributed with his hands while wading at the sea’s articles on a variety of science subjects edge.’ He was taught at home by his ranging from development of practical Figure 7. Michie Smith just before arriv- father till he went to University; ‘Curi- ing in Madras in 1877. ously enough, Charlie too had suffered

from his father’s ire through being a poor classical scholar, though brilliant at Maths’ which ‘…at times distinctly strained the relationship between father and son so that I think Charlie was pleased to leave home for King’s College in Aberdeen’ in 1870, which also coin- cided with his brother Will’s appoint- ment as Hebrew Chair at Free Church

College in Aberdeen. Both brothers lived together in Willi’s flat. After graduating, Figure 9. The Madras Christian College with M A at Aberdeen, Charlie went to senate in 1880. G. Patterson is sitting on Figure 8. Family of Michie Smith during Edinburgh to continue his scientific stu- the left, William Miller (principal) in the 1889–90 – Aberdeen. From left: Little centre and Charle Cooper on the right. Jeannie, Bella, Nellie, mother Jane, father dies and ultimately getting his B Sc Standing (from left to right) are A. Alex- W. P. Smith, Charlie, Lucy and Alice. degree in engineering in 1876 (his degree ander, G. M. Rae and Michie Smith.

454 CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 106, NO. 3, 10 FEBRUARY 2014 HISTORICAL NOTES electricity, meteors, volcanic eruptions, appeared continuous and free from bright has made a series of careful observations zodiacal light and even the developments lines except during the spring of 1883... on the Palani hills in the Madura district. at Madras Observatory. He took much the estimated position of the supposed His excellency the Governor in Council interest in physical training of youth at line is wavelength 558, differs but little would again urge very strongly the advi- the Presidency. He became the joint- from the auroral line’ (note 13). As he sability of establishing a branch observa- secretary to the Madras Physical Train- remarks ‘… zodiacal light on which tory in these hills, where a large portion ing and Field Games Association which more detailed and accurate observations of clear nights may be confidently reck- tried to encourage athletics in schools are much needed is its exact position in oned on during the year, and where, and colleges. He was a secretary to the the sky.’ Michie Smith then quotes the owing to the absence of dust and haze, Madras Literary Society for number of work of Captain Jacob in Madras during the conditions are most favourable. years. He was a member and President 1856–58, who found that the axis of the There can be little doubt that a succes- for several years of an organization light is inclined but slightly to the eclip- sion of observations with a powerful called Friends-in-Need Society. He took tic. (It is presently known that zodiacal equatorial placed on these hills would up responsibilities as Fellow and later light is caused by interplanetary dust dis- lead to very valuable scientific results.’ member of the Syndicate of Madras Uni- tributed in the zodiacal plane.) The Government sought advice of the versity for several years. He, obviously, Because of his researches in meteoro- Astronomer Royal, W. H. M Christie, on was popular with students as evidenced logy and astronomy, the Governor con- the location of a large (about 20-inch) by the letters students sent him when he sidered Michie Smith ‘a gentleman of equatorial in a branch observatory in ultimately left the college to accept the considerable scientific attainments’ and Palani hills. His advice (letter of 17 Au- Directorship of Madras Observatory. invited him to conduct site survey in gust 1883 to Under Secretary of State for All this was done while he continued Palani hills for the branch observatory. India), surprisingly was not either based his own researches on meteorology and on the merits of the site or the astrono- astronomy. He participated in the activi- mical needs or feasibility of installation, ties of Madras Observatory and was a Site surveys but because Pogson has lot of accumu- great help to his friend Norman Pogson, lated unreduced observations which need the Government astronomer. He regu- Michie Smith conducted his site surveys to be reduced and published; ‘...it does larly communicated his researches to the for a hill observatory in two installments not seem to me desirable to charge him Proceedings of the Royal Society of covering the period May to July 1883 at with additional work of supervising a Edinburgh (note 12), which ranged from Palani hills and January 1885 at Dodda- large equatorial. On Mr Pogson’s retire- description of volcanic eruption and its betta and its surroundings, as reported in ment the question of establishing a consequences at Bandaisan in Japan, ex- his communications to the Governor of 7 branch observatory or removing Madras periments regarding the surface tension August 1883 and 19 February 1885. His Observatory to a more favourable station of liquids, and spectra of vegetable col- observations were mainly related to the might be considered. ... As regards the ours using a direct vision spectroscope general rainfall, cloud cover, interference advantages of a mountain station for as- which was borrowed from University of due to mist formation, sky transparency, tronomical observations the evidence is Edinburgh. Of particular interest are his dryness (water vapour – by observing somewhat contradictory, and I am not researches on zodiacal light. He obtained spectroscopically the water vapour lines prepared to endorse Mr Pogson’s re- a grant from the Government (Royal near NaI D called the ‘rain band’), haze marks as to the enormous improvement Society) in 1882 for constructing a spec- (scattering due to dust in the atmosphere) in defining power necessarily resulting troscope specifically designed by him to and the stability of the atmosphere (see- from a great elevation. It might well observe and photograph the spectrum of ing) both during the day as well as night. happen that better results would be ob- zodiacal light (faint and extended). He He conducted both spectroscopic obser- tained at a moderate altitude or even at built the spectroscope (with two inter- vations of stars and Sun, zodiacal light, the sea level, if the climate were fine and changeable collimators and quartz lenses as well as visual observations measuring healthy. I am, however, not sufficiently and dispersing prisms and slits) success- separations of double stars, their bright- informed as to the climate of Madras to fully and carried out visual observations ness, etc. and compared them with Ma- be able to offer my opinion on the expe- at Madras. Attempts to photograph the dras (plains) and with each other of these diency of moving the observatory to a spectrum were unsuccessful. ‘...very sites. His conclusions were that the site neighbouring station.’ As a result, the little colour can be distinguished in the in Kodaikanal, on the western side, at decision to put up a large equatorial was spectrum, but under favourable condi- height of 7700 feet above sea level, with shelved (or indefinitely postponed) till tions a distinct tinge of red can be obser- uninterrupted view of the horizons, is Pogson’s retirement (note 14) even ved. Except on few occasions the eminently suitable for a hill observatory. before receiving Michie Smith’s second spectrum, as I have seen it, was continu- A letter dated 9 December 1883, ad- report. ous and quite free from bright lines, but dressed to the Secretary, Government of Meanwhile, the Indian Observatories on several nights in 1883 I saw what India, Revenue and Agricultural Depart- Committee was constituted and it started appeared to be a bright line.’32 He con- ment, the Chief Secretary of Government harassing Pogson about publication of tinued his observations even at high alti- of Madras, states ‘... invite attention to earlier accumulated meridional observa- tudes of Doddabetta at 8642 feet above the accompanying paper, drawn up at the tions. Pogson became ill in June 1891 sea level in January 1885 ‘… in all my request of His Excellency the Governor, and was diagnosed as suffering from observations, which have been carried on by Mr Michie Smith, a gentleman of virulent cancer in the liver of rapid at intervals since 1875, the spectrum has considerable scientific attainments, who growth. His commitment to astronomy

CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 106, NO. 3, 10 FEBRUARY 2014 455 HISTORICAL NOTES was such that he immediately tried to put meridional observations and bring them recognized their importance, first, be- his affairs in order and even wrote a let- out as publications ‘Results of Observa- cause the atmospheric conditions at ter to the Government about his possible tions of the Fixed stars Made with Madras were not suitable, and, secondly successor. The letter of Pogson dated 20 Meridian Circle at the Government Ob- because Mr Pogson was so pressed with June 1891 to Chief Secretary of the Gov- servatory in the year 1871 to 1882’33 and work and arrears of work that he had no ernment (just before his death) states later the ‘New Madras General Cata- time to introduce these observations.’ As ‘The individual who is most intimately logue of 5303 stars for the epoch of to the requirements of Solar Physics acquainted with the details and (steps) of 1875.0’. He successfully managed to Committee, the actinometric work that my (past) labours in the Madras Obser- bring out all the pending observations in was started first at Leh was later shifted vatory is Professor C. Michie Smith, four volumes, last two were published to Mussorie and then to Simla. The daily B Sc. He is a Fellow of the Royal Astro- under the joint names of Pogson and photography of Sun is being done at nomical Society and of the Royal Society Michie Smith. Dehra Dun thus far had to be continued of Edinburgh and has for several years elsewhere. The need to conduct solar spec- past been entrusted by the Royal Society troscopy at a hill station observatory was of London with a large and valuable Establishment of the Kodaikanal felt necessary, as it had not even started. spectroscope for researches on the Observatory – plans, buildings ‘Messers Blanford, Pogson, Hennessey Zodiacal light. I may add that he has un- and others have urged the necessity of dergone a course of training in Practical Pogson’s death in a way reactivated the this for solar physics observations. Mr Astronomy under Dr Copeland, Astro- proposals for an astronomical physics Pogson has also stated that much of the nomer Royal of Scotland. I would there- observatory. John Eliot, the Meteoro- astronomical work could be done at a hill fore urgently advice and solicit as my logical Reporter to Government of India station than at Madras.’ dying wish that the said Professor C. was to take stock of the situation in About the location of the hill observa- Michie Smith might be appointed my Madras Observatory. He was well aware tory, North Indian sites of Leh, Mussorie successor as I am convinced that if this of the recommendations and require- and Simla were considered and rejected were alone (will) my unfinished works ments of the Solar Physics Committee in because of the dust in the atmosphere in would be completed as closely as possi- India as well as the necessity of reorgan- these locations34 (note 15). The South ble as if I had lived to finish them my- izing the Madras Observatory by Madras Indian hill stations were seen to have self... .’ Government in the context of a mountain much less dust and cloudiness than their observatory and the comments of As- counterparts in western Himalayas. The tronomer Royal in this regard. He tried to choice then came down to two places, Michie Smith – successor to Pogson synthesize a solution to various require- Kodaikanal in Palni hills and Kotagiri in at Madras Observatory ments and wrote a letter on 13 October the Nilgiris. The Government of Madras 1891 to the Government of India (which was instructed to request the officiating Pogson died on 23 June 1891. A letter was circulated to the Governor of Madras Government Astronomer at Madras, (Public Department No. 14) addressed to for comments). He felt ‘The present posi- Michie Smith to undertake further de- the Secretary of State for India, the tion at the Madras Observatory affords a tailed investigation of these two places Madras Government states ‘We have favourable opportunity of considering for a period of a year. appointed to the vacancy thus created, the future status of one large Astronomi- Another suggestion Eliot made was Mr C. Michie Smith, B.Sc., F.R.A.S., cal Observatory in India.’ According to regarding the organization of the obser- F.R.S. EDIN., who is a well known ob- his information, the secretary of State vatory. The proposal was to establish an server and is employed as a professor on has decided, on the advice of Astronomer Astronomical and Solar Physics Obser- the staff of the Madras Christian College. Royal, that it was necessary to maintain vatory at a hill station in southern India This gentleman has consented in addition an Astronomical Observatory in India with a staff of two European scientists to carrying on the current work of the that would conduct astronomical physics, and native assistants and to reduce the Observatory, to proceed with and including daily monitoring of solar fea- Madras Observatory to a branch observa- conclude as early as possible the publica- tures on and off the disk, by photography tory of the hill observatory, with the tions of the late Mr Pogson’s observa- and spectroscopy in addition to the as- assignment of carrying out meteorologi- tions. We may mention that this tronomical work that has been routinely cal, magnetic and time signal-related arrangement has been adopted in accor- being practised at Madras Observatory of observations mainly with native assis- dance with a special wish expressed by determination of fundamental positions tants and a half-time officer to supervise. the late Mr Pogson … There being no na- of stars. The Government of India The control would be with Government tive of India competent to perform the accepted this outline of work as a basic of India with advice from the Observato- duties of Government Astronomer in sat- requirement, in addition to other recom- ries and Solar Physics Committees. The isfactory manner and it being impera- mendations. The Madras Observatory’s astronomers were to be selected in Eng- tively necessary to take immediate steps aspirations included, in addition to posi- land by the Observatories Committee. He for carrying on the work of the Observa- tional astronomical work that was going even recommended Michie Smith to head tory...’. He was appointed as officiating on, as ‘Astronomer Royal has pointed the Observatory and supervise the Solar Government Astronomer. out the necessity of the addition of ob- Physics section as well. Michie Smith’s immediate job soon servations in connection with astronomi- By 5 August 1892 Michie Smith could after moving to Madras Observatory was cal physics. None have been hitherto complete his investigations of the two to attend to the pending reductions of the taken at Madras, although Mr Pogson prospective sites for the hill observatory

456 CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 106, NO. 3, 10 FEBRUARY 2014 HISTORICAL NOTES and submitted a report for the third time as people of Madras Observatory, and in the observatory; its layout, domes, etc. regarding their relative merits and com- accordance with recommendation of (his letter of 27 November 1893 to As- pared them with observations at Madras. Famine Commission, made a detailed tronomer Royal). The initial building The observations conducted were: (a) of and elaborate report to the effect that plans of the observatory and the instru- the Sun with special reference to spots, establishment of Solar Physics observa- ments being acquired have also been de- and faculae and their spectra, (b) Venus tory at Kodaikanal is to be taken up im- scribed along with detailed account of and Saturn, (c) star clusters and nebulae, mediately for ‘greater benefit to science’, site selection by Michie Smith in an arti- (d) of double stars, (e) stellar spectra, (f) whereas establishment of the astronomi- cle written on 19 February 1895 in PASP measurements of stellar magnitudes and cal branch could be delayed by five at the invitation35 of Holden of Lick Ob- (g) photographs of star trails. The period years, till that time they (i.e. astronomi- servatory. ‘The proposed equipment con- covered was between February and cal observations) would be carried out at sists chiefly of instruments already in April. After evaluating the meteorologi- Madras. He also conveyed that the India. These are two photoheliographs of cal and astronomical observations, ‘A Madras Government would welcome KEW pattern, with a 4-inch and 6½-inch discussion of the results by Mr J. Eliot, handing over the observatory to Gov- objectives, giving solar pictures of 8- Meteorological Reporter to the Govern- ernment of India and expressed strong inches and 12-inches diameter, at present ment of India, and myself showed clearly opinion about Michie Smith that ‘he was at Dehra Dun; a 6-inch Cooke equatorial, that Kodaikanal was to be preferred. by his special scientific attainments and with a powerful, but somewhat obsolete, ... the result left no doubt that Kodaikanal knowledge of the conditions of scientific form of prism spectroscope for solar was far superior in every respect.’35 work of India, peculiarly fitted for the work, and the necessary minor instru- Eliot’s recommendation along with appointment of Director of the Solar ments. In addition to these, there will Michie Smith’s site survey report were Physics Observatory, and that his ser- probably be a 6-inch photographic lens considered by both the Solar Physics vices in carrying out the publication of of 36 inches focal length, mounted with Committee and the Indian Observatories the Madras Observations had been the LEREBOURS and SECRETAN committee. The Solar Physics Commit- especially valuable and deserved full equatorial of the Madras Observatory as tee, with Norman Lockyer participating, recognition’. a finder, a small spectroscope, with a endorsed on 22 July 1892 all the sugges- Finally, Secretary of State for India in Rowland grating fitted for photography, tions of Eliot, and the hill site, but noted a letter dated 31 August 1893 to the and the zodiacal light spectroscope made in case of difficulty in establishing the Governor-General of India, states that for me by HILGER some years ago.’ astronomical observatory in its entirety, after receiving an endorsements from Further, regarding the buildings ‘The fi- the first priority should be to establish Indian Observatories Committee through nal designs for the buildings have not yet the Solar Physics Observatory with the Astronomer Royal’s letter of 31st been prepared, but the observatory will related activities with emphasis on con- July and the Solar Physics Committee probably be built in the form of a cross, tinuing, without a break, solar photogra- through the letter dated 2 August 1893 of which the longer arms will lie east and phy that was being done at Dehra Dun. from its secretary, Colonel Donnaly, on west, with an equatorial dome at the east, They also commented that ‘experience the proposal of establishing on a small and a transit-room at the west extremity. already gained at South Kensington in scale a new observatory at Kodaikanal in The north and south arms will also conduct of the work in solar physics the Palani hills (under the Direction of terminate in domes for one of the photo- shows conclusively that no large initial Michie Smith) ‘I sanction your propos- heliographs and the photographic equato- expenditure on buildings is essential’. als, which involve an initial outlay of rial. For spectroscopic work, probably, a About appointment of Michie Smith Rs 25,000 (note 17) and yearly increase heliostat will be used in connection with as the Director of Solar Physics Observa- of Rs 1689’, and he further invited the a fixed telescope, the axis of which is tory, the committee expressed that attention of the Government to the sug- pointed to the pole. The Astronomer’s ‘we are not aware of there being any one gestion of ‘continued photographic regis- house is to be built a little below the better qualified for the post at present in tration of sun spots’: and ‘Michie observatory, so as to be sheltered from India’. Smith’s consulting the Astronomer Royal the strong winds on the hilltop... .’ The Indian Observatories Committee, regularly’ regarding the catalogues of the The first structure to start at Kodai- chaired by Lord Kelvin, resolved on 26 old observations. Thus a formal approval kanal Observatory, after acquiring the October 1892 that the ‘Committee highly was given and an order dated 21 Novem- land (89 acres) was the astronomer’s approves of the proposal to establish an ber 1893 communicated to Michie Smith house, for which foundations were laid at Imperial Observatory for India on a site for arranging the budget, estimates and the end of April 1895 (CMS letter to to be chosen in the highlands of Southern plans required by Government of India. Christie of 25 April 1895). India’ and also that ‘the Committee, from The control of Madras Observatory Michie Smith was granted leave on personal knowledge of Mr. Smith’s abi- and the funds connected with it were duty to visit England for few months in lity (note 16) and attainments are of transferred to the Government of India mid 1895 and consult both the Commit- opinion that he would be very suitable from 1 April 1894, placing the organiza- tees about the developing plans regarding Superintendent of the proposed Solar tion and management of the new Solar instruments, science and buildings of Physics Section of the Imperial Indian Physics Observatory under the Meteoro- Kodaikanal Observatory. At the invita- Observatory’. logical Reporter of the Government of tion of Lord Kelvin, the Chairman of In another communication dated 4 India. Indian Observatories Committee (note March 1893, Eliot after visiting Madras Soon after his appointment, Michie 18), Michie Smith presented his plans and consulting the Government as well Smith started planning for establishing for Kodaikanal before the committee on

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17 July 1895. The meeting was initiated Shadol, where Michie Smith, The could trace the corona to about two solar by the Secretary of State for India, Lord Astronomer Royal, H. H. Turner and diameters or more (Figure 10). The re- George Hamilton. The committee ap- others had their camps, Dumraon where sults showed the extreme brightness of proved ‘generally of the plans laid before St Xavier’s College, Calcutta had its the inner corona and the rapidity with it for the Kodaikanal Observatory, and camp and several other places between which it fades away with increased dis- considers that they are well adopted for and beyond. tance from the limb; the evident connec- the work to be done. In particular, it ‘The observations of the total solar tion between prominences and certain approves of the proposals regarding the eclipse in India has been a magnificent details in the corona; the striking resem- solar spectroscope, and strongly recom- success’ declared Maunder36 on the day blance between the corona of 1896 and mends that an instrument of this form be of the eclipse. All the stations on the 1898 (ref. 37). The short, half second ex- provided’. Subsequently, the proposals totality path had clear skies. The specta- posure given with the great 40-foot tele- were sanctioned by the Secretary of State cle was further described by Maunder, scope ‘shows the very beginning of the (letter of 12 August 1895 to Governor at stationed at Talni ‘we looked up at the eclipse with a range of small promi- Fort St George, Madras Government or- magnificent spectacle before us. The nences round nearly half the sun’s limb’. der dated 2 September 1895). The new darkness did not equal that of the The striking long streamer is conspicu- solar spectroscope proposed consists of eclipses of 1886 or 1896, but the corona ous. The team included R. L. Jones, Sur- lens of 40 focus and 6-inch aperture, stood out in the sky as a vast silver star, veyor-General, J. L. VanGeyzel, M. R. slit, concave grating and apparatus for bright and more extended than when I Ry. K. V. Siva Rama Aiyar, Assistant to both viewing and photographing the saw it 11 years before. Two fine leaf the Government Astronomer (Michie spectrum. shaped extensions stretched out almost Smith) and others. In October 1895 the foundation stone horizontally east and west, whilst nearly, The emphasis of the experiments of of the new observatory was laid by the but not quite, on the sun’s equator, both Evershed and Naegamvala was on Governor. By July 1897, the north–south directed south-west, was the greatest ray spectroscopic observations of the corona, line for the observatory building was of all, two millions of miles in length chromosphere, prominence and more marked by Michie Smith and construc- almost, pointing to where one celestial importantly, the nature of the ‘flash’ tion plans were handed over to the Gov- brilliant glittered several degrees away’ spectrum (Figure 11). ernment architect. Soon it was time to (note 19). The dark Fraünhofer lines in the solar plan for the 1898 total solar eclipse that The main concerns of the Kodaikanal spectrum are thought to have been was to pass over central and North India. Observatory team were ‘changes in the formed in the reversing layer by cooler conditions of the Sun’s atmosphere asso- gases that absorb the sun’s continuous ciated with changes in the number of spectrum. In the eclipse of 22 December Total solar eclipse of 1898 sunspots’. This eclipse is to take place 1870, C. A. Young watching the spec- near the time of minimum sunspots and trum of ‘the dwindling arc of sunlight After the historic 1868 total solar eclipse, would provide good comparison to the with a slit spectroscope, as the moon had the total eclipse of 22 January 1898 eclipse results obtained at maximum sun- all but hidden the sun, saw at the moment occupies an important place in the con- spot numbers. The emphasis was on pho- of second contact the ordinary solar text of solar physics in India. This is the tographing the Corona at different scales, spectrum with its dark lines on the con- eclipse in which detailed and elaborate with a 40 foot focus and 6-inch aperture tinuous background disappear and then instrumental set-ups have been deployed lens as well as with a 5 foot focus and all at once, as suddenly as a bursting by several international teams that 4-inch aperture lens. The 40-foot tele- rocket shoots out its stars, the whole include one headed by Naegamvala of scope gave images with 4 and 3/4 inch field of view was filled with bright lines, Takhtasingjii Observatory, Science Col- diameter moon on 18  18 plates, more numerous than one could count. lege, Poona, and another by Madras Ob- whereas the 5-foot photoheliograph gave This beautiful appearance has since servatory led by Michie Smith, at several an image of 0.6-inch diameter moon and become known as the “flash” ’38. places along the totality path that passed through the states of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. John Evershed, who was to join Kodaikanal Observatory, had also come as part of the British Astro- nomical Association delegation. Delega- tions from institutions belonging to different countries including England, America and Japan participated in observing this eclipse. Observational camps were established all across the country from Vizayadurga on the west coast, where Norman Lockyer was sta- tioned, to Jeur where Naegamvala, Wil- Figure 10. Photograph of corona at total liam Campbell of Lick Observatory and Figure 11. Flash spectrum in the 1898 solar eclipse of 22 January 1898 as ob- total solar eclipse as observed by others set up their camps, to Talni where served by Michie Smith with 5-foot photo- Naegamvala from Jeur. Bright regions are John Evershed had his equipment, heliograph at Shadol. shown as dark and vice versa.

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Evershed intended to photograph the which, in recent eclipses, has placed pho- it changes with the solar cycle. This spectrum of the reversing layer and the tographs of the “flash” as absolutely the work of Naegamvala might be consid- emergence of emission spectrum from most instructive observations that could ered as the highlight of all his astronomi- the Fraünhofer dark line spectrum. He be made.’ Naegamvala’s largest and cal achievements. managed to obtain spectra extending into most important instrument was a large the ultraviolet up to 3346 Å. ‘A new fea- objective prism mounted upon a very ture was shown in the hydrogen spectrum heavy substantial equatorial stand, upon Michie Smith–Lockyer feud of prominences, consisting of a continu- which it moved by clockwork, for ob- ous spectrum beginning at the limit of taining the spectra of ‘flash’ and corona. Michie Smith laid the north–south line the hydrogen series (Balmer series) of Another instrument for spectrum photog- for the building on July 1897 and handed lines at  3646 and extending to the end raphy worked with a 12-inch siderostat, over the work to the consulting Govern- of the plate. This proved to be the coun- while an integrating spectroscope, work- ment architect in December hoping that terpart of the continuous absorption ing direct, was manipulated by hand. ‘if no unforeseen trouble arises, the spectrum discovered by Sir William Naegamvala presented the results of his buildings would be ready to receive Huggins in the stars having very strong several experiments in an impressive instruments in less than six months’ hydrogen lines.’2 The measures of wave- detailed report published in 1902. The (Annual Report of the Observatory, lengths and intensities of lines of ‘flash’ delay in publishing the report is due to as 1897–98). The unforeseen trouble did spectrum showed that ‘flash spectrum he explains, ‘Though Mr W. Shackleton arise in the form of Norman Lockyer. represents the higher, more diffused por- had secured the first record of “flash” at In the Annual Report of 1898–99, tion of the gases which by their absorp- Novaya Zemylain 1896, the spectrum of Michie Smith writes ‘the Government of tion give the Fraünhofer dark line this important solar phenomena, was for India requested the Astronomer Royal, spectrum, and the flash spectrum is the the first time adequately obtained at the and Sir Norman Lockyer to report on the same in all solar latitudes. Previously, it Indian Eclipse of 1898, and it was at various Indian observatories. The former was considered that the flash and the once evident that proper appreciation of after visiting Kodaikanal approved gen- Fraünhofer spectra were separate and this important record could only be erally of the plans for the observatory distinct phenomena’2,39. Evershed also gained by comparing it with stellar spec- there and made some suggestions for reconfirmed the wavelength of coronal tra of solar and other related types’, minor alterations (dome diameter to be line 1474K as 5303 Å. which he tried to obtain for the previous changed from 15 feet to 18 feet, etc.) Jeur, in Satara district of Maharashtra, two years without much success. His re- which were at once adapted (note 21). attracted several astronomers as the camp port deals in detail about the spectra of Sir Norman Lockyer, on the other hand, site for observing the 1898 total eclipse the flash (Figure 11), which he compared without visiting the place (spent some of the Sun. Naegamvala’s team from with the Fraünhofer spectrum and came hours in the drawing room of the As- Maharaja Thakhtasingji Observatory and to the conclusion similar to that men- tronomer’s house in Madras) objected Science College, Poona had an elaborate tioned by Evershed. To the question ‘Is entirely to the plans and on his return to set-up, with ‘greatest number of assis- there a definite layer of gases in which, if England represented to the Secretary of tants upon the ground, was helped by the not all, the vast majority of the Fraün- State for India that the buildings were Principal, some of the professors of the hofer lines are represented?’, the answer “too costly and too permanent” and were college, and other gentlemen, and a is affirmative. The prominence spectra badly designed and unsuited for their strong contingent of native students and the wavelengths of the three coronal purpose. He went on to point out that whom he succeeded in knocking into lines present in his spectra (Figure 12), “the South Kensington Solar Physics Ob- shape by constant drills for a week in etc. were discussed in detail with respect servatory thus equipped with temporary advance’38,40. W. W. Campbell of Lick to each instrument used. He also pro- structures is the most powerful in the Observatory, California had a neighbour- duced plots showing the variation of the world. It does more and better work than ing camp, with a large (longest) tele- shape of corona with respect to sunspot the similar institution at Potsdam where scope of 40-foot focus, the end of which numbers over the years and showed how the buildings cost £250,000” and urged was located in a pit 8-foot deep, domi- that the new buildings at Kodaikanal nating the site. His wife, Elizabeth should be like those at South Kensington Campbell41 (note 20), organized the run- “shanties”, built of wood and canvas. As ning of the camp for him. Japanese a consequence, the Secretary of State astronomer Terao and his team were also telegraphed out that the work on the at the same site. observatory was to be stopped till the The major Indian effort at observing reports of the Astronomer Royal, and Sir the eclipse was that of Naegamvala42: Norman Lockyer had been fully consid- ‘From the first I had proposed to concen- ered. To anyone acquainted with the cli- trate the powers of the expedition in the matic conditions existing in Kodaikanal spectroscopic line, a secondary place the proposal to house valuable instru- only to the subjects of photographing the ments in such “shanties” as Sir Norman corona and of the eye-observations.’ Par- Lockyer recommends seems as strange as ticularly, the phenomenon of ‘flash spec- Figure 12. Slitless spectrum of corona in the 1898 eclipse as observed by his estimate of the relative values of the trum’, in the words of Maunder: ‘It was Naegamvala. Bright rings are the coronal work done at South Kensington and no exaggerated sense of its importance lines. Potsdam and the Government Astronomer

CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 106, NO. 3, 10 FEBRUARY 2014 459 HISTORICAL NOTES protested against this proposal (since this ing. As a result, Lockyer had apparently with some delay. By March of 1899, was written the roofs of two of the lot of criticism about the functioning of 1000 coolie loads of books and instru- houses, though well fixed, have been Kodaikanal. As was reported in Indian ments were transported to Kodaikanal blown off. The corrugated iron being in Engineering ‘... Much fuss was made with remarkably little damage and parts torn off as if it had been little about the transfer of the 6 Cooke Re- Michie Smith took up his residence by stronger than card board). Whether or not fractor to Madras for carrying out the the end of February (Figure 13) to super- this protest was forwarded to the Indian new programme; we learn that this hap- vise (advise) the construction of build- Observatories Committee is not known, pened in 1894, and, inexplicable as it ings and to receive instruments on arrival but the result of the deliberation of the seems to us, we note from the report of (Annual Report of the Observatory committee was that no reference what Sir N. Lockyer, that the instrument on 1898–99). Officially, the observatory ever was made to the buildings after a arrival was put in the godown and the started functioning from 1 April 1899. delay extending from the beginning of beautiful spectroscope with which he had June to the end of October according to made some of his first observations of the designs which have been so strongly “widened lines” in sun-spots “was de- Astronomy (solar physics) at condemned’. The result was a long delay stroyed at an expense of £65 under the Kodaikanal in completion. guise of reconstruction”. This is indeed a Some antagonism was built up bet- sad tale. But what is worse; a new in- ‘During the first few years, the work of ween Michie Smith and Lockyer. In a strument purchased ostensibly for con- the Director was naturally concerned letter dated 12 May 1898 addressed to ducting the observations required by the mostly with lay-out, planning the organi- Christie, the Astronomer Royal, Michie Solar Physics Committee at home is zation. Prof. C. Michie Smith the first Smith complains ‘... Lockyer wished to declared by the same high authority to be Director of the observatory did much turn the whole of the Kodaikanal build- “quite useless” for the purpose ... The pioneering work in this direction. The ings with a series of “shanties” and now letter of remonstrance that Sir Norman constructional works were done under you probably know that he has got the Lockyer wrote to Mr J. Eliot before leav- his personal supervision. Planted trees Secretary of State to telegraph out to stop ing India is in itself a sufficient commen- for improvement of the solar image, all the buildings except the two domes. tary on the manner in which matters have installed the instruments for routine …Of course I know that Lockyer’s been allowed to slide at Madras’. observational work and formulated daily action is taken mainly out of spite While Lockyer was keen on solar observations. During a short period when against me & I am sure that if the Secre- physics work to start at Kodaikanal as Michie Smith was absent on leave, tary of State had known of the position quickly as possible with as little invest- Observatory was under the direction of 43 he has taken up ever since my appoint- ment as possible (the idea he was harping Mr C. P. Butler’ . ment he would have asked your advice on with Solar Physics Committee since before taking this action... .’ The ‘spite’ 1893), Michie Smith, on the other hand, which Michie Smith mentions in his was concerned more with establishing a letter might partly be due to the fact that proper observatory. In an earlier letter to Michie Smith belonged to the school of Christie, Michie Smith remarked about Piazzi Smyth and lacked proper training Lockyer’s intentions ‘my interview with in solar physics. Lockyer was trying but we both kept our The reasons for Lockyer’s attitude tempers. His chief object was to try and might be because he was so thoroughly get me to at once start spectrophoto- impressed by the work of his ‘former stu- graphs of the Sun on the Hale-Deslander dent’3, Naegamvala, ‘who, so far as I plan with an apparatus made up of odds know, is the only person in India particu- & ends from other instruments set up in a Figure 13. Astronomer’s residence in larly familiar with Solar Physics work’ “shanty” “which would not cost £5”. I Kodaikanal Observatory premises, that he was unable to appreciate the pointed out that I had neither the neces- 1900(?). effort put up by Michie Smith at Kodai- sary apparatus nor at present the time to kanal. He visited Naegamvala in Poona take it up on which he offered to lend me before he arrived in Madras. ‘Mr his son or one of his assistants from Naegamvala was good enough to show South Kensington! I did not jump at the me the results he had obtained (of the offer. He would like to turn Kodaikanal Total Solar Eclipse) and I found them of Observatory into a series of “shanties” a high order of excellence, while the pro- (which Michie Smith abhorred).’ More- gramme of work he undertook showed a over, ‘About this time (about 1900), the large grasp of the various solar problems chance arose for Lockyer to go to India which await solution at such a time’ to take charge of the new solar physics (quotes from Lockyer16). While he saw observatory at Kodaikanal, but he finally an enthusiastic effort being put up at decided to stay at South Kensington.’3 Poona, where he was not expecting any, Anyway, as it turned out, the feud on the contrary, at Kodaikanal where seemed to have died quietly and things Figure 14. Kodaikanal Observatory Lockyer was expecting to see lot of pro- continued (maybe through the interven- probably in 1905, certainly earlier than gress, he did not find enough to his lik- tion of Astronomer Royal) at Kodaikanal 1908.

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Systematic solar observations com- was seen in the spots that were quite as Kodaikanal from 1906 to 1923 (which menced at Kodaikanal from early 1901. shown by the C (H) line’. covers the period till Michie Smith’s Magnetic, meteorological and seismo- The 6-inch Lerebours and Secretan death). logical observations were in progress at equatorial is modified and used as photo- After getting married in 1906 Septem- Kodaikanal from the very beginning. heliographs to obtain daily white light ber, Evershed and his bride left England Michie Smith seemed to have made a pictures of the Sun. (This is one of the for Kodaikanal by way of America, visit- visit to England in 1900 June–August to oldest telescopes in the country, and still ing observatories and meeting astrono- consult the Indian Observations Commit- in use19.) Regular series of scientific mers there, finally reached Kodaikanal tee (and Astronomer Royal) and also vis- publications from the observatory was on 21 January 1907. ‘My early work at ited Aberdeen to see his family. Soon started by Michie Smith in 1904 as Kodai- Kodaikanal was largely concerned with after his arrival back in India, he sent kanal Observatory Bulletins (KOB). The Cambridge spectroheliograph which I details of his plans for a Hale-type spec- first paper in this series was by Michie brought into working order in early troheliograph, about which he had Smith on the widened lines in sunspot 1907; and so began the long series of consultations with Hale and new spectro- spectra. photographs of the Sun’s disk and the scope for sunspot and prominence work The daily solar observations made prominences.’2 to the Astronomer Royal on 24 Septem- were both visual and photographic of Few months after his arrival, Comet ber 1900 and sought his advice. In 1902, prominence spectroscopy, with photo- (Daniel) 1907d showed up in the sky a spectroheliograph to image in Ca ii-K heliographs and spectroheliographs in during the southwest monsoon period at line was ordered from Cambridge Scien- the K line (and H after Evershed added Kodaikanal. In spite of the very poor tific Instruments Company. It got com- H spectroheliograph in 1914). Positions weather, Evershed decide to obtain the pleted and arrived at Kodaikanal in 1904. of sunspots and prominences were recor- cometary spectrum and devised the The instrument consisted of a 12-inch ded and marked on charts. instrumentation efficient enough to get achromatic triplet with a focal length of Michie Smith visited George Hale at spectra in a short time (the comet could 20-feet and was fed by a 18-inch silver- Mt Wilson, with whom he was in con- be seen for at most three-quarters of an on-glass mirror Focault siderostat. The stant touch, in early 1904 to discuss in hour). He devised a prismatic (objective image of the Sun and the camera remain detail the developments in solar physics prisms) camera with two 60 prisms of stationary, while the total instrument and the kind of work Kodaikanal Obser- crown glass and photographically cor- consisting of collimating lens, camera vatory should be engaged in coming rected lens attached to 6-inch Cooke lens, prisms and slits fixed on a rigid years. equatorial in the south dome. He could frame moves on rails perpendicular get three occasions and obtained spectra to the optical axis (across the Sun’s of the comet on two with exposures of image). Arrival of Evershed half-an-hour each. He used the spectra of In 1903, a spectrograph was built bright stars Procyon and Sirius obtained using a diffraction grating and a couple Nominations for the position of an assis- on the same plates to get the wavelength of existing lenses and used with a 6-inch tant to Michie Smith and also a possible calibration. The spectrum covered the Cooke equatorial to obtain spectra of successor to him as Director of Kodai- region from H to ultraviolet shortward solar features. ‘A three-prism Evershed kanal, after his retirement was solicited of  3570. This was the first ever ultra- spectroscope was also ordered from by John Eliot, the then Director General violet spectrum of any comet observed Hilger Co. (the same company which of Indian Observatories, from Astrono- till that time. He could see bright mono- provided Michie Smith his zodiacal spec- mer Royal and the Indian Observatories chromatic images of the tail (tail bands) troscope), for the use with the same setup Committee in 1902. The position was to at wavelengths  3580, 3690, 3780, which arrived in 1904. This gave excel- be filled-in in due course. John Evershed, 4010, 4260, 4550, which were not very lent spectra of sunspots and promi- by then a well-known practitioner of bright in the nucleus of the comet. These nences. One of the significant piece of solar physics and an ‘irresponsible ama- bands extended to 0.5–1.5 from the work done at this time was observations teur’ (as he describes himself) also nucleus. Identification of these was not of ‘D3 (He i) as a dark line in the solar expressed interest in 1902 along with known at that time47. These are now spectrum’44, based on spectra obtained few other candidates. ‘In the year 1905 it known as the famous ‘comet-tail bands’ around the sunspots during one year was largely through his (Sir William due to CO+ (A2Π – X2+ system) and period of March 1904 to March 1905. Huggins) influence that the India Office later seen in many other comets48,49. Most of these observations were made by offered me the post of assistant to Mr Evershed is the discoverer of these tail M. Sitarama Iyer and G. Nagaraja Aiyar, Michie Smith, director of the Kodaikanal bands of CO+ in UV in comets (although the second and third assistants. By 1896, Observatory.’2 not acknowledged). Michie Smith employed fairly well- John Evershed and the solar physics at According to Evershed2, ‘One which educated persons as assistants like K. V. Kodaikanal have been described in great was destined to occupy my thoughts for Sivarama Aiyar (with an M.A. degree), detail in the IIA Archives Publication45 the rest of my life was a spot on the Sitarama Iyer (with a B.A. degree). They and by Hasan et al.46, commemorating Sun’s disk’. The year 1909 was an event- arrived at the conclusion that ‘as a gen- the centenary of the discovery of the ful year in the history of Kodaikanal eral rule, it may be said that the more ‘Evershed effect’. As such, we present in Observatory, because of the discovery of disturbed the spot greater is the probabi- the following section, mostly his (and the ‘Evershed effect’, followed by finding lity of D3 appearing as a dark line, observatory’s) non-solar astrophysics one of the spots with highest strength of although several occasions exist where it and some highlights during his stay at magnetic field of 10,000 gauss. These

CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 106, NO. 3, 10 FEBRUARY 2014 461 HISTORICAL NOTES discoveries came about because ‘the ob- ‘It appeared as though the nucleus had Michie Smith retired in January of servatory possessed an excellent grating thrown off an entire tail and was forming 1911 as Director of Kodaikanal Observa- (a 6-inch plane grating by Michelson) of a new one.’ Although several slit spec- tory and continued to live in Kodaikanal about 70,000 lines, and with this I con- troscopic observations were attempted by (Figures 17 and 18). His last scientific structed a high dispersion spectrograph’. Evershed, most useful observations were contributions are the observations of He used the high-dispersion spectro- obtained with the prismatic camera set- Halley’s comet along with Evershed and graph to find out whether there was any up, similar to that employed for comet list of prominences observed in the first motion of ascent or descent in sunspots. Daniel 1907d. The nucleus showed half of 1910. Although he did not par- ‘An excellent opportunity presented almost reflected solar spectrum, whereas ticipate in the scientific activities at itself for this work on 5 January 1909, the immediate surroundings of the nu- the observatory, nevertheless being in with two large spots on the Sun, and cleus (coma) showed strong bands of CN Kodaikanal he must have been following excellent definition after heavy rain- molecule at  3871, 3883 and 4050 with interest the activities at the observa- storms. The spectra revealed a curious band (later identified as C3) may be C2 tory till his death. twist in the lines crossing the spots Swan bands. The monochromatic images which I at once thought must indicate a of the tail showed bands at wavelengths rotation of the gases, as required by similar to that observed in comet Daniel, New technique for measuring line Hale’s recent discovery of strong mag- i.e. the comet-tail bands due to CO+ shifts netic fields in spots, but it soon turned (Figure 16). The next appearance of Hal- out from spectra taken with the slit ley’s comet occurred in 1986, which has The large part of the spectroscopic work placed at different angles across a spot been observed and studied in great detail at Kodaikanal was devoted to the meas- that the displacement of the lines, if at Vainu Bappu Observatory, Kavalur52. urements of the minute shifts of the solar 2 attributed to motion, could only be due to This study also discussed comparisons lines. Evershed developed a technique a radial accelerating motion outward with observations of Michie Smith and of measuring accurate line shifts (radial from the centre of the umbra (Evershed Evershed. velocities) by matching superposed spec- effect). Later photographs of the calcium ‘On May 19th 1910 the nucleus was tra of negative and positive copies of the lines H and K and the hydrogen line α computed to be in transit over the Sun. same spectrum. He even got a Hilger revealed a contrary or inward motion at We attempted to photograph this event comparator built to measure such line higher levels represented by these lines.’2 with the spectroheliograph, using the shifts. ‘I claim, however, for the positive A great sunspot in September 1909 ultra-violet light of cyanogen which is a on negative method that it extends our 53 showed a spectrum in which the Zeeman specially prominent radiation of the head range of perception very appreciably.’ splitting of the iron lines in the region of of comets, but no trace of the comet This method formed the basis of spectral H and K gave a magnetic field strength could be seen in the photograph, nor comparators in use at several observato- of 10,000 gauss during a ‘flare’50. ‘The could it be seen on the Sun in ordinary ries. ‘Its direct application to stellar accompanying magnetic storm upset the telescope. At this time the tail must have Indian Telegraph system, for which we swept over the Earth and a sensation was appeared to be held responsible by the caused in the newspapers by suggestion Director of Telegraphs’2 (note 22). of a poisonous gas entering our atmo- Both Michie Smith and Evershed sphere.’2 observed the Halley’s comet from mid- April to mid-May of 1910, which put up a memorable display with its tail extend- ing for 100 far up towards zenith. Both spectroscopic and photographic observa- tions were systematically done to see 51 the changes in its appearance over the period (Figure 15). These revealed an ac- Figure 17. The residence of Charles celerating outward movement of the tail. Michie Smith after retirement in Kodai- kanal.

Figure 16. Prismatic spectrum of Hal- ley’s comet observed at Kodaikanal on 2 May 1910 showing the strong bands of C2 and CN in and around the nucleus (coma). The monochromatic images of the tail show the comet-tail bands of CO+. The spectrum immediately lower to the cometary spectrum is that of Venus. The Figure 15. Halley’s comet observed at spectrum extends from H to below  Figure 18. Charles Michie Smith with Kodaikanal on 3 May 1910. 3570. sister Lucy in Kodaikanal.

462 CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 106, NO. 3, 10 FEBRUARY 2014 HISTORICAL NOTES spectra has been suggested by number of tions started at Kodaikanal with a new scope itself was untouched. Of course, authors (particularly Babcock54 and Fell- reconstructed prismatic camera using night-time astronomy was not a priority gett55).’56 Actually this principle also ‘two excellent 45 prisms acquired from at Kodaikanal officially. About 40 years became the basis for the photoelectric the dismantled Poona Observatory’ and a later, Das43 in his report says ‘A 20-inch radial velocity spectrometer of Griffin56 6-inch aperture photo-visual lens provid- Grubb reflector is being installed, and in and others. ing a spectrum of 104 mm length the near future stellar work will form a The minute shifts of the solar lines between H and HE and at the red end regular feature of the activities of Kodai- were found to be towards the red, espe- also H. The observations continued kanal’. Even this took another decade or cially the iron lines, when compared with from 10 June to 15 July, while the star’s two and another Director (M. K. Vainu spectra obtained with the electric arc. brightness changed from 0.2 to 4th mag- Bappu) to get the stellar physics started The shifts measured of the Sun’s disk were nitude. ‘The hydrogen emission lines as- in a regular way at Kodaikanal Observa- found to agree with the gravitational red- sumed extraordinary forms, H appeared tory (and VBO at Kavalur). shift predicted from Einstein’s general as a block of brilliant red light, the  and Although Nizamiah Observatory (Os- relativity, but at Sun’s limb there seemed  lines were extended blocks of blue and mania University), which got started in to be an extra redshift which could not be violet, well defined at their edges.’ His 1901, did mainly stellar astronomy by explained. Venus was used as a probe to observations revealed an absorption line being one of the participants in that measure redshift from the reflected sun- system indicating expanding gas at 1600 Carte-du-Ceil programme, physical astro- light spectrum by Evershed and Royds, and 2200 km/s that gets accelerated with nomy was not practised until 1960s. which gave the same value as the disk. time. He also identified the presence of John Evershed retired by 1922 soon nebular lines of  5007, 4959 by 10 after Michie Smith’s death and an era in July, emergence of the so-called ‘Orion the development of physical astronomy Second nova discovered at Madras Spectrum’59. He also could identify (observational astrophysics) came to an the lines of Fe II, Mg II in the expanding end. A nova (new star) discovered G. N. absorption system may be as shells of Bower at Madras on 8 June 1918, be- gas. Michie Smith – promoter of tween 3:30 and 4:30 pm G.M.T. in the The nova has received lot of attention astronomy at other centres constellation of Aquila created lot of ex- both spectroscopically59,60 and photomet- 61 citement and hectic activity at Kodai- rically owing to its substantial outburst Some of the responsibilities (or obliga- kanal Observatory. Evershed came to in which it brightened by 13 magnitudes. 62 tions) Michie Smith had as the Govern- know about it through a telegram from It was shown by Barnard that the ex- ment Astronomer, Madras was to one C. L. Dundas, I.C.S. He also in- panding ejecta had increased in diameter participate and advise other astronomical formed Evershed that it was equal mag- from 0.6 arcsec in October to 1.9 arcsec centres. One such institution was G. V. nitude to Altair ( Aquila) and the in December 1918 and reached a diame- Jugga Row Observatory at Visakhapat- spectrum he obtained on June 10/11 ter of 26.0 arcsec by May 1933 (ref. 60). nam66. Mrs A. V. Narasing Row, daugh- when the star was of 0.2 magnitude The ejecta has found to have had uniform ter of the founder and in-charge of the (according to the estimate of Mary Ack- expansion and was modelled by observatory, handed over the manage- 57 63 worth Orr (Evershed’s wife ) ‘in addi- Weaver . The nebular ejecta is now dis- ment of the Observatory to the Govern- tion to the bright hydrogen lines, he persed and no longer discernible. At ment of India on 8 November 1894 with noted absorption lines in series, sharp maximum its brightness was –1.1 magni- an endowment fund of three lakh rupees towards the violet’. This is not the first tudes. It was shown to be a cataclysmic h m for the permanent maintenance of the nova that was discovered at Madras. Ear- binary with a period of 3 19. 5 (ref. 64), institution. The management was to be lier Pogson discovered the recurrent consisting of a white dwarf in the system. handled by a committee comprising the Nova U Scorpii in 1863 at Madras Ob- Old novae like Nova Aquila 1918 provide Collector (for the time being), meteoro- servatory. Evershed, in a hurry built a good examples for the study of accretion logical reporters of the Government of spectrograph and got a spectrum on 10 phenomenon. Bengal and Madras, the Government June 6:30 G.M.T., with the 15-inch Hy- The high-resolution spectrographs astronomer and others. Michie Smith was 58 derabad lens (Nizamia observatory’s built by Evershed were also used to study thus included. John Eliot was also invol- (note 23) and received help from its stellar physics problems like the line 65 ved. Michie Smith took the job of order- Director R. J. Pocock, who was visiting widths in stars like Sirius . The broad- ing a camera and chronometers for the Kodaikanal at that time) in conjunction ening of spectral lines (shapes) due to observatory, whose main aim was to with an 18-inch siderostat and a prism various phenomena like Stark broaden- photograph the sky. Choosing of the pho- spectrograph; ‘it is of interest in showing ing, turbulence, rotation, etc. could have tographic plates and other needs were no defined bright lines or bands but only been an area where significant contribu- handled by the famous Oxford astrono- a continuous spectrum with faint groups tions could have been made at Kodai- mer, H. H. Turner. of absorption lines’57. kanal, had such studies been continued This is the now famous nova desig- be utilizing the 20-inch Bhavanagar tele- nated as V603 Aquila (= nova Aquila scope of Maharaja Takhatsingji’s Obser- Trees, bees and other things 1918 III) which is the prototype of ‘Fast vatory, which arrived (in boxes) in novae’59, similar to nova Persius 1901 Kodaikanal in 1912. Although Evershed Michie Smith not only established the (= GK Per) observed earlier by Naegam- used the spectroscopic components like observatory, its buildings, instruments, vala26. Systematic spectroscopic observa- prisms, etc. of that telescope, the tele- etc., but also took care to plant trees

CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 106, NO. 3, 10 FEBRUARY 2014 463 HISTORICAL NOTES which would provide proper environment and tripods, etc. for the erection of heavy Last days for astronomical observations. instruments ... part of the equipment of It was Michie Smith’s inspired initia- Poona observatory when transferred to In 1910, Michie Smith’s services to the tive that resulted in the planting of pine Kodaikanal was erected by the observa- cause of science (or British raj) were rec- and oak trees in the observatory sur- tory staff at practically no cost to Gov- ognized and he was awarded the title of rounding the domes and observing facili- ernment because timber was at hand for ‘Companion of the Indian Empire’. In ties that were helpful to improve the the work.’ the following year, he retired and settled steadiness of the images. ‘A large num- Evershed’ wife was deeply interested in Kodaikanal. For number of years he ber of young trees have, however, been in the history of astronomy. She wrote was a member of the Municipality and raised from seed and planted out when- several articles on the origin of constella- even became its chairman for some ever the weather is suitable. These young tions67, and also completed her book years. He was apparently well known in trees were largely pines of various kinds Dante and the Early Astronomers in Kodaikanal as the energetic and careful from the hills of Southern California for 1914 at Kodaikanal with help from her secretary and three-time president of the which the Director (CMS) is indebted to husband. She was also interested in the Boat Club, devoted to the protection of Mr Lukins of Pasedena. A number of observations of prominences. Both hus- its property and rules. He also took inter- seeds brought from the Lick Observatory band and wife together published a long est in planting trees in the town and other were also grown and the seedlings prom- paper about their forms, distribution, places. ise to do well’ (Annual Report of the connection with spots and other details On one of his visits to home at Scot- Observatory, 1904). A part near the spec- (Figure 19) based on observations col- land in 1909, Michie Smith invited his troheliograph buildings has been cleared lected at Kenley, in England as well as at younger sister Lucy to come and live and planted with good grass. Kodaikanal68. with him in Kodaikanal. Lucy agreed and John Evershed, in a letter addressed to joined him, as his housekeeper, some- the then Director General of Observato- time in 1911 after quitting her job as a ries written in 1912, comments regarding Horse named Jerusalem and nurse and a matron at St. Thomas Hospi- the trees in the observatory grounds: Halley’s comet tal in London. In the words of her sister ‘These trees are mostly Pines planted by Alice ‘…the prospect of a peaceful re- my predecessor Mr Michie Smith at his Michie Smith apparently maintained his tirement in the Indian hills must have private expense, and in addition to their own horse for moving in Kodaikanal held considerable appeal for her. Charlie ornamental use are of great value in pro- (maybe elsewhere too), particularly had a beautiful home and garden beside tecting the soil and rock surfaces from between the town and the observatory. the Kodaikanal Observatory. There were excessive heating by the sun. In this way He named his horse Jerusalem. For many domestic animals too in plenty for Lucy they tend to improve the solar observa- British officers of that time, horseman- to care for and talk to, just as she had tions by preventing atmospheric distur- ship was a requirement. Even the founda- done in the early days at Keig’. Lucy bances near the instruments, and it tion stone for Kodaikanal Observatory must have enjoyed life in India greatly. follows that the Director incharge of the was laid by then Governor Wenlock after In 1914 Michie Smith accompanied by observatory will always endeavour to going there along bridle-path on a horse- his sister Lucy, visited Australia just promote the growth of these trees and back in 1895. Being the president of the before the outbreak of war, to be present preserve as far as possible from destruc- English Club (Kodaikanal Club) (note at the meeting of the British Association tion.’ The same letter continues about 24) Michie Smith used to spend time (Astronomers). In the spring of 1919, in other trees (wattles, blue gum, etc.). ‘In there. Apparently ‘on one night in 1910 spite of failing health, he and Lucy paid the assistant Director’s compound the (April 1910) Mrs Peachey and her hus- land was not cleared when taken over band, the late Canon Peachey, were from the Forest Department and the trees walking home in the evening from Tin- were purchased by Mr Michie Smith nevelly settlement, they saw a comet and from the forest Department privately... stopped at the English Club to ask Mr they proved very useful for providing Michie Smith about it. He came out to temporary buildings in the observatory look at it, said it must be Halley’s comet, and immediately jumped on his horse, whose name was Jerusalem, and galloped up to the observatory to consult Mr Ever- shed69.’ (note 25). Not only did Michie Smith and Evershed make detailed observations and study of the Halley’s comet, it apparently made quite an im- pression on Kodaikanal public as well. A letter written from Kodaikanal on 16 May 1910 is quoted as saying ‘I was on Coaker’s walk 4:40 this morning, and a

more magnificent sight than the comet Figure 19. Solar prominences as you can not imagine. It extended from Figure 20. The memorial of Charles sketched by John/Mary Evershed. horizon to mid-heaven’69. Michie and Lucy Smith in Kodaikanal.

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innovative instrumentation, mainly peo- Saha’s refusal to accept Kodaikanal ple like John Evershed. They provided offer, Anderson72 writes ‘the reason for continuity of scientific purpose to the fa- the refusal in the authorized biography is cility. Even after the British (trained) as- hardly convincing’. He then quotes Sen tronomers left the scene (Evershed, ‘Working under a man of Evershed’s Royds), a smooth continuity prevailed genius and genial personality would have and scientific activities continued with been a great honour and privilege, and it the same vigour by their successors probably would have brought him (Saha) (Narayana, Das and Bappu). New in- greater recognition, but his heart was in strumentation was brought in to suit and physics, and he would not change it even pursue the newer and deeper problems. for astrophysics.’ Anderson further com- It is often been said that the institu- ments ‘This is curious (retrospective) tions like Kodaikanal remained as islands statement by Saha because Saha’s repu- of British science. It may be relevant to tation was already established in astro- ask how much of the science that was be- physics’. ing done percolated to the natives (aca- Saha’s contact with Kodaikanal Ob- demic public) by these institutions? Have servatory occurred much later when he they been responsible to stimulate any visited as chairman of post-war commit- research or interest in science among In- tee for development of astronomy and Figure 21. Painting of Charlie Michie Smith. dians? The reputation of the scientific ac- astrophysics in India in 1945–46. The tivities at Kodaikanal led by Evershed committee had Krishnan also as a mem- did attract (inspire) few individuals like ber, although he never visited Kodai- 70 a visit to Scotland with a view to settle K. S. Krishnan and P. Chidambarum kanal or participated in its meetings . down there. But ‘Charlie could no longer Aiyar (may be many more) for aspiring stand the harsh climate nor so he decla- to work there. Krishnan got to know Notes red, the narrow Scottish mentality’. Both about Evershed and the solar physics work through his teacher Moffat at Ma- returned back to Kodaikanal. Soon after 1. ‘I can remember also, at the age of six, his arrival Charlie’s physical and mental dras Christian College. Unfortunately (or seeing in an illustrated paper a picture of health started to deteriorate. Nursing him fortunately for C. V. Raman), he had to German shells falling in the streets of Lucy became sick and passed away six compete with Chidambarum Aiyar, who Paris, and it was during this siege by the months before Charlie’s death at the end was already an assistant at Madras Germans that Janssen, the French as- of September 1922 (Figure 20). He Observatory, thus an internal candidate, tronomer, escaped by balloon from the bequeathed his ‘considerable fortune’ to the same position (second assistant) besieged city to observe a total eclipse of the Sun2.’ It was 1870 eclipse in which to his sister Bella, who had an ‘unex- at Kodaikanal Observatory. The authori- the totality passed through Spain, Sicily, pected windfall’31. ‘All those who knew ties prevailed on Evershed to accept Chidambarum Aiyar70. North Africa. Janssen escaped from Paris him well and appreciated his genuine by a balloon and went to Algeria to observe Another puzzling aspect is, why was kindly nature feel that in him they the event, even though Norman Lockyer have lost a real friend (from Madras there no communication between institu- arranged for free passage to him through Christian College Magazine 1922)’ (Fig- tions (or astronomers) pursuing the same German lines3. ure 21). science, e.g. Naegamvala with Madras or 2. It is now known6,7 as the green line of Kodaikanal astronomers. We are puzzled 5303 Å of Fe XIV, initially thought to be why M. N. Saha never interacted with due to an unknown element designated as Epilogue Kodaikanal astronomers like Evershed or coronium. Royds when he was developing and 3. Apparently in Tamil, Kodaikanal means applying his theory of ionization to stel- ‘summer, a mirage’, implying hardly any Kodaikanal observatory is still an ongo- 9 ing research facility living its ‘raison lar spectra while complaining about lack summer days . 4. The quote from Pogson says  Argus. d’être’, whereas other solar (stellar) of access to observational data, particu- The constellation Argus was divided later physics centres like Calcutta Observa- larly about solar and sunspot spectra. Al- into three constellations, Pupis, Carina tory, Takhatasinghji Observatory or even though he was communicating with and Velorum.  Argus refers to  Velo- Lucknow Observatory disappeared in people like Fowler, Milne in England rum. But  Velorum is a solar-type star much shorter time. They all were one- and H. N. Russell at Princeton, USA, and does not match the description of the time wonders, that disappeared as soon Saha did not appear to have made an spectrum presented. Subsequent check as the main motivator (who started it) attempt to get in touch with Evershed or revealed, from the report of J. Eliot, who was no longer active or disappeared from Royds, who probably would have pro- went through the unpublished records of the scene. The continuity was never kept vided him with observational data. Ap- Pogson after his death, that the unpub- up or the successors had very limited parently Gilbert Walker, then Director lished observations are of  Argus ( Ve- lorum).  Velorum is now a well-studied interest and diverted to other areas. The General of Observatories, had invited Wolf-Rayet star binary11. success of Kodaikanal was mainly Saha to join the Kodaikanal Observatory 5. Refers to T CrB, the cataclysmic vari- because of its continuing motivated Di- as assistant Director to Evershed. able–recurrent nova which had an out- rectors and astronomers, till recently, ‘Though Saha declined, it did not dimin- burst in 1866 and showed emission lines 71 who improved the facilities and provided ish Walker’s support’ to Saha. About of hydrogen and helium.

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6. For biographical details and his pay at 22. On 16 July 2013 the telegram service was 18. Ansari, S. M. R., Introduction of Modern various times, see Kochhar and Nar- discontinued for good by the Indian Western Astronomy in India during 18– likar19. Postal Department. 19 Centuries, Department of History of 7. 5007 Å line; attributed to an unknown 23. See Bhaskaran58 for the history of the Medicine and Science, Institute of His- element called nebulium, later identified telescope and loaning of the lens. tory of Medicine and Medical Research, as due to [O iii] by Ira S. Bowen in 24. Apparently it had Indian, American, New Delhi, 1985. 1920s. Scottish, Welsh and Irish members as 19. Kochhar, R. K. and Narlikar, J. V., As- 8. This and other letters of Naegamvala well, although it is called ‘English’ tronomy in India, Indian National Aca- mentioned in the text were obtained from 25. Does not say much about anticipating the demy, New Delhi, 1995. RGO collection. arrival of history’s most famous comet. 20. Naegamvala, K. D., Observatories. The 9. See Glass24 and the references therein for Observatory, 1888, 143, 438–439. the history. This is also the most travelled 21. Naegamvala, K. D., On the character of telescope (for its size) in the country. 1. Bappu, M. K. V., The eclipses of the the chief line of the Nebula in Orion. Starting at Poona it travelled to Kodai- Sun. Cont. Nizamiah & Japal Rangapur MNRAS, 1891, 51, 442–443. kanal in 1912, where it was in boxes till Observatory No. 10, 1979, pp. 1–10. 22. Osterbrock, D., James E. Keeler, Pioneer 1951, then to Kavalur and later to Leh 2. Evershed, J., Recollections of seventy American Astrophysicist, Cambridge and back again to Kodaikanal25. years of scientific work. Vistas Astron., University Press, Cambridge, 1984. 10. See Anupama and Kantharia27 for recent 1955, 1, 33–40. 23. Naegamvala, K. D., Note on the spec- study and image of the remnant of this 3. Meadows, A. J., Science and Contro- trum of the great Sun-spot group of 1892 nova obtained with the 2-m Himalayan versy – A Biography of Sir Norman February. MNRAS, 1892, 52, 424–426. Chandra telescope of IIA. Lockyer, Macmillan, London, 2008. 24. Glass, I. S., Web Page of Glass. I.S and 11. These and other official correspondences 4. Lockyer, W. J. S., Helium: its discovery Victorian Telescopes, the Lives and Let- are obtained from Archives of Tamil Nadu. and applications. Nature, 1920, 105, ters of Thomas and Howard Grubb, In- 12. Kashi Nandy managed to get some 360–363. stitute of Physics Publishing, Bristol and money from Royal Society, Edinburgh to 5. Nath, B., The Story of Helium and the Philadelphia, 1997. support my visit to ROE in 1984 Birth of Astrophysics, Springer, New 25. Kameswara Rao, N., Christina, B. and (N.K.R.). York, 2012. Vagiswari, A., Most widely travelled 13. This refers to [O I] 5577 Å line – likely 6. Edlén, B., Arkiv. f. Matem. Astr. och. telescope in the country. IIA Newsl., due to airglow. Fys., 28B. No. 1, 1941; Edlén, B., Zs. f. 2013 (in press). 14. The largest telescope Kodaikanal ever Ap., 22, 30, 1942. 26. Naegamvala, K. D., A first note on seen, the 20-inch Bhavanagar telescope 7. Pogson, N. R., Proceedings of the Ma- the Nova in Perseus. MNRAS, 1901, 61, of Maharaja Takhatsingjii Observatory, dras Government Public Department, 21 338–339. arrived from Poona in 1912 after May 1874. 27. Anupama, G. C. and Kantharia, N. G., A Naegamvala’s retirement. 8. Shearmen, T. S. H., Norman Robert Pog- multiwavelength study of the remnant of 15. A more recent site survey at Leh was son. Pop. Astron., 1913, 21, 479–484. nova GK Persei. A&A, 2005, 435, 167– conducted in 1980–89 and similar con- 9. Sounder Rajan, M., Telescopes in India, 175. clusions were arrived at35. National Book Trust, New Delhi, 2009. 28. Hennessey, J. B. N., Obituary notices: 16. The Scottish connection of CMS. Lord 10. Chinnici, I., An Italian observatory in Fellows – Hennessey, John B. N. Kelvin (William Thomson) being a per- India: The history of the Calcutta Obser- MNRAS, 1911, 71, 258–261. sonal friend of William Robertson Smith, vatory. In Studies in Hist. of Medi. and 29. Bruck, H. A. and Bruck, M. T., The Peri- the elder brother of Michie Smith, knew Sci., XIV, New Series (1995/96) (ed. An- patetic Astronomer: Life of Charles Pi- CMS well. sari, S. M. R.), New Delhi, 1996, pp. 91– azzi Smyth, IOP Publishing Ltd, Adam 17. This estimate was provided by Eliot for 115. Hilger, Bristol, 1988. the establishment of the hill observatory. 11. Marco, O. et al., The gamma Velorum 30. Whitford, A. E., Astronomy and astro- 18. The other members of the committee pre- binary system. II. WR stellar parameters nomers at the mountain observatories. sent were General Walker, Sir G. G. and the photon loss mechanism. A&A, N.Y. Acad. Sci., 1972, 198, 202–210. Stokes, Dr Huggins, General Strachey, 2000, 358, 187–200. 31. Smith, A. T., Children of the Manse: Astronomer Royal, while Dr Common 12. Pogson, N. R., Administration report of Growing Up in Victorian Aberdeen-shire could not attend. However, Michie Smith the Madras Government Observatory, (eds Hess, A. and Booth, G. K.), The was in constant touch with Astronomer 1871. Bellfield Press, Edinburgh, 2004. Royal. 13. Rao, N. K., Vagiswari, A. and Christina, 32. Michie Smith, C., Notes on the zodiacal 19. Among other rituals being practised at B., C. Ragoonatha Charry and variable light. Proc. R. Soc. Edinburgh, 1890, 17, the time of the eclipse like taking holy star astronomy. J. Astron. Hist. Heritage, 142–144. dips in the Ganges, etc. apparently the 2009, 12, 201–210. 33. Pogson, N. R. and Michie Smith, C., Re- Nizam of Haidarabad has released 50 14. Pogson, N. R., Administration report of sults of observations of the fixed stars prisoners, each of whom received a pre- the Madras Government Observatory, made with Meridian circle at the gov- sent of money and clothes on the occa- 1874. ernment observatory in the year 1871 to sion. 15. Pogson, N. R., Administration report of 1882, New Madras Catalogue, 1893. 20. See Pang41 for a delightful account of her the Madras Government Observatory for 34. Bhatnagar, A. and Gandhi, S. L., Techni- experiences in the field and at the eclipse the year 1882–83, 1883. cal report on the DST project astronomi- camp at Jeur. 16. The reorganization of Indian Observato- cal and atmospheric observations in 21. It was proposed that two out of the three ries. Indian Eng., 1899. Ladhak region with long term view of domes were to be constructed and the 17. Biswas, A. K., Father Eugene Lafont of setting up a national high altitude astro- third dome was to have been erected and St. Xavier’s College, Kolkata and the nomical observatory for infra-red and left unoccupied in the hope that, in the Contemporary Science Movement, The optical studies (April 1984 to October future, a large telescope may be placed Asiatic Society, Kolkata, 2001, pp. 99– 1989), 1991; http://hdl.handle.net/2248/ there which, of course, never materialized. 107. 2018

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35. Michie Smith, C., The Kodaikanal Solar 50. Evershed, J., Note on the magnetic field 66. Rao, N. K., Vagiswari, A. and Christina, Physics Observatory in India. PASP, in the sunspot of spectrum of September B., Early pioneers of telescopic astron- 1895, 7, 113–116. 1909. KOB, 1910, 22, 265–267. omy in India: G. V. Juggarow and his 36. Maunder, E. W., RGO archives, 1898. 51. Michie Smith, C. and Evershed, J., observatory. Curr. Sci., 2011, 100, 37. Michie Smith, C., Report of the Madras Observations of Halley’s comet. KOB, 1575–1581. Observatory for the year 1897–98 and on 1910, 20, 199–205. 67. Evershed, M. A., The origin of the con- the Eclipse Expedition of January 1898, 52. Sivaraman, K. R., Babu, G. S. D., Shy- stellations. Observatory, 1913, 36, 179– 1898. laja, B. and Rajamohan, R., Spectropho- 181. 38. Maunder, E. W. (ed.), The Indian Eclipse tometry of comet P/Halley. I: Flux, 68. Evershed, J. and Evershed, M. A., Re- 1898, British Astronomical Association, column density and emission gradients sults of prominence observations. Mem. Hazell, Watson and Viney Ltd, London, within the coma in the emission bands KOB, 1917, 1, 55–126. 1899. and the continuum. A&A, 1987, 187, 69. Stoole, R. A. B., The English Club Ko- 39. Evershed, J., The Indian Eclipse 1898 543–550. daikanal 1887–1970, The English Club, (ed. Maunder, E. W.), British Astro- 53. Evershed, J., The positive-on-negative Kodaikanal, 1970. nomical Association, Hazell, Watson, method of measuring spectra. The Ob- 70. Mallik, D. C. V., K. S. Krishnan and the and Viney, Ltd, London, 1899. servatory, 1918, 41, 443–445. Kodaikanal Observatory. Curr. Sci., 40. Cousens, H., The Indian Eclipse 1898 54. Babcock, Ann. Rep. Director of Mt Wil- 2000, 79, 665–668. (ed. Maunder, E. W.), British Astro- son & Palomar Obs., 1955, 19–55. 71. DeVorkin, D. H., From Astronomy to As- nomical Association, Hazell, Watson and 55. Fellget, A., Spectroscopic orbit for HR trophysics (eds Sinha, B. and Bhatta- Viney Ltd, London, 1899, pp. 81–85. 152. Opt. Acta, 1953, 2, 9. charya, M.), Saha Institute of Nuclear 41. Pang, A. S.-K., Gender culture, and as- 56. Griffin, R. F., A photoelectric radial- Physics, 1995, p. 3. trophysical field work: Elizabeth Camp- velocity spectrometer. Ap. J., 1967, 148, 72. Anderson, R. S., Nucleus and Nation, bell and the Lick Crocker eclipse 465–476. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, expeditions. In Science in the Field (eds 57. Evershed, J., Nova Aquilæ (1918), the 2010, p. 39. Kucklick, H. and Kohler, R. E.), Osiris, spectrum. MNRAS, 1919, 79, 468–491. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 58. Bhaskaran, T. P., The 15-inch Grubb ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. We thank Ms 1996, 2nd series, vol. 11, pp. 17–43. equatorial of the Nizamiah Observatory, Astrid Hess, grand niece of Michie Smith 42. Naegamvala, K. D., Report on the Hyderabad. Pop. Astron., 1923, 31, (CMS), for generously providing us with sev- Total Solar Eclipse of 21–22 January 497–500. eral photographs and information on CMS, his 1898, Publication of the Maharaja 59. McLaughlin, D. B., Stellar Atmospheres family and early days of Kodaikanal Observa- Takhatasingji Observatory, Poona, vol. (ed. Greenstein, J. L.), Chicago Univer- tory. Dr Joshua Kalapati of Madras Christian 1, 1902. sity Press, Chicago, 1960, pp. 585–620. College (MCC), Chennai provided the photo- 43. Das, A. K., Kodaikanal Observatory 60. Wyse, A. B., The spectrum of Nova graphs and CMS’s obituary report in MCC (1901–1950). Indian J. Meteorol. Geo- Lyrae. Lick Observatory Bull., 1940, 14, magazine, 1922. We also thank our IIA phys., 1951, 2, 85–95. 231–235. library colleagues (B. S. Mohan, P. Prabahar, 44. Michie Smith, C., D3 as a dark in the so- 61. Campbell, L., The light curve of Nova P. N. Prabhakara and M. Venkatesha) for help lar spectrum. KOB, 1905, 3, 65–67. Aquilae no. 3. Harvard Ann., 1923, 81, at various stages. N.K.R. thanks Dave Pike 45. John Evershed and solar physics at the 113–178. for photographs of the CMS family memorial, Kodaikanal Observatory. IIA Archives 62. Barnard, E. E., Some peculiarities of which mentions Michie Smith at the bottom Publ. No. 1, 2008. Nova Aquilae III of 1918. Ap. J., 1919, and the tombstone of Robert William Smith at 46. Hasan, S. S. et al., Solar physics at the 49, 199–202. Keig, Aberdeenshire. We also thank Dipankar Kodaikanal observatory: a historical per- 63. Weaver, H., The outer layers of novae Mallik for useful comments on an earlier ver- spective. Astrophys. Space Sci. Proc., and supernovae. Joint discussion at the sion of the paper.

2010, 12–36. XV General Assembly of the IAU, 47. Evershed, J., Comet d 1907 (Daniel) Sydney 1974. Highlights of Astronomy, N. Kameswara Rao*, A. Vagiswari and spectrum. MNRAS, 1907, 68, 16. 1974, 3, 499–574. Christina Birdie are in the Indian Insti- 48. Fowler, A., Comets of 1909 recent ter- 64. Kraft, R. P., Binary stars among cata- tute of Astrophysics; Bangalore 560 034 restrial reproduction of the tails. MNRAS, clysmic variables. III. Ten old novae. Ap. 1909, 70, 176–180. J., 1964, 139, 457–459. India; N. Kameswara Rao is also at The 49. Larsson, M. Geppert, W. D. and Ny- 65. Evershed, J., Widened lines in the spec- W.J. McDonald Observatory, University mann, G., Ion chemistry in space. Rep. trum of Sirius. MNRAS, 1922, 82, 392– of Texas, Austin, TX78712-1083, USA. Prog. Phys., 2012, 75, 1–75. 396. *e-mail: [email protected]

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