Geological Society, London, Special Publications

Communication in geology: a personal perspective and lessons from volcanic, mining, exploration, geotechnical, police and geoforensic investigations

Laurance J. Donnelly

Geological Society, London, Special Publications 2008; v. 305; p. 107-121 doi:10.1144/SP305.11

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© 2008 Geological Society of London Communication in geology: a personal perspective and lessons from volcanic, mining, exploration, geotechnical, police and geoforensic investigations

LAURANCE J. DONNELLY Halcrow Group Ltd, Deanway Technology Centre, Wilmslow Road, Handforth, Cheshire SK9 3FB, UK (e-mail: [email protected])

Abstract: Geologists are frequently required to convey the results, advice and recommendations from geological investigations to a variety of end users. Often, it is the communication of the information that is the most challenging and can be more difficult than the investigation itself. Most of these investigations use highly sophisticated scientific techniques and geological terminology. When combined with cultural and language barriers, and social, political, religious or economic constraints, this makes it difficult to convey the correct message, and for the recipient to understand the implications of the geological information. The failure to effectively and accurately communicate this message may reduce the usefulness of the information being provided. Communication must be considered part of a geological investigation because if the correct message is not conveyed properly, or is misunderstood, the consequences can be catastrophic. Communication is an ability that professional geologists must have to interact successfully with colleagues, other professionals and the public. It is a skill learnt by training and experience. Spoken communication relies on interpersonal skills and the ability to convey information effectively, confidently and consistently. This paper provides case studies and draws upon the experiences of the author.

For almost two decades, the author has participated in paper are to raise awareness of the importance of several geological projects around the world. These communication, to outline some of the problems projects have included the monitoring and prediction in communication, and to see how these have of geological hazards (e.g. volcanoes and landslides), been overcome. It highlights some of the more mining hazards (e.g. subsidence, fault reactivation, basic fundamentals of communication, and it fissures and mine gas emissions), geotechnical draws primarily on the experiences of the author ground investigations, mineral exploration, and the with particular reference to communicating in provision of geological expertise to support police sensitive and high-profile investigations. searches and forensic investigations. Although many of these projects have been technically challen- ging, requiring geological judgements to be made, often with incomplete data and information, it is the Communication and geology communication of complex geological information that has been, and remains, the most challenging. Communication may be considered the process by The results, advice and recommendations from which geological information is conveyed (by a geological investigations are subsequently con- geologist) to another person, by means of verbal veyed to end users, clients, policy-makers, the and non-verbal methods. This may also be con- public or the media. The recipient of this infor- sidered as the sharing or exchange of geological mation may be other technical specialists or knowledge. From the geologist’s perspective, geo- non-technical people, or both. Typical recipients logical information is required to make the correct of geological information range from school- decision or judgement about ‘the ground’, or to children to specialists in their respective fields. assess the consequences and risks associated with a Geologists have not been (conventionally) particular geohazard. The recipient requires the trained in the skills of communication, so how do information to make decisions that could, for geologists convey the complex technical geological example, influence engineering design, determine information to the decision- or policy-makers, and the location of structures, roads and utilities, or how do they overcome the physical, cultural, politi- could help to locate mineral resources, to find a cal, social, religious and interpersonal constraints grave, or to help save lives. Communication there- that exist in different parts of the world during fore consists of both the giving and receiving communication? The principal objectives of this of information.

From:LIVERMAN, D. G. E., PEREIRA,C.P.G.&MARKER, B. (eds) Communicating Environmental Geoscience. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 305, 107–121. DOI: 10.1144/SP305.11 0305-8719/08/$15.00 # The Geological Society of London 2008. 108 L. J. DONNELLY

Professional geologists use technical language to houses damaged by subsidence created a and this is as necessary as vocabulary when learning need for more information about the hazard of another language (Fookes 1997). Without technical shrinkable clay. language geology would not exist as a profession In Britain, the communication of landslide and and scientific discipline. It is the responsibility of subsidence hazards has been facilitated by the pro- the geologist to judge the correct tone and technical duction of planning policy guidance, including content, and to make sure that jargon (unnecessary publications by the Department of the Environment and extraneous use of technical terms) is not used (1990, 1996), Department of Trade and Industry when communicating with others. Levels of com- (1996, produced by the Office of the Deputy munication vary depending upon the education of Prime Minister) and Department of the Environ- the recipients; with specialists the communications ment, Transport and the Regions (2000). These can be highly technical, but with schoolchildren guidelines provide information on the possible they must be in plain language. In mixed audiences geological causes of potentially unstable land so using the correct level of technical content is that this may be considered during the early stages difficult and needs to be considered carefully of the planning, redevelopment or rehabilitation before engagement takes place. of land. The Coal Authority provides coal mine search Existing information and guidelines services to inform home owners and developers of the potential mining hazards associated with the There are relatively few reports available for legacy of past coal mining and brine pumping in geologists aimed specifically at communication. Britain (Law Society 1994). Published information Publications that deal with communications on mining and other geohazards in Britain has usually refer to a variety of geological topics; been provided by, for example, Geomorphological for example, publications on geohazards and Services Ltd (1987), Arup Geotechnics (1992) and geological information include that by Forster & Applied Geology Limited (1993). Similar information Freeborough (2006). Also, numerous websites published in the USA includes work by Muton & now provide information on a range of geohazards Shimabukuro (1974), Marts et al. (1978), Nuhfer (e.g. see the websites for the US Geological et al. (1993), Creath (1996), Noe et al. (1997), Hol- Survey, the Geological Society of London and the combe et al. (2003) and Mileti et al. (2004). US Federal Emergency Management Agency). The material within these websites is useful for Communication in other professions information on geohazards (landslides, mining, floods, tsunami, volcanoes and earthquakes). Communication is recognized as being important Lyme Regis, on the south coast of England, and in professions other than geology. In the medical Ventnor, on the Isle of Wight, are areas with a profession, for instance, effective communication high potential for landslides and have frequently is crucial between doctors and their patients. experienced active landsliding. This has made the Medical jargon is rarely used, and if it is, it is local councils aware of the need to communicate explained. Professional guidance notes to help effectively with the public (including leaflets advis- doctors communicate effectively have been pro- ing householders and the public) about the landslide duced; these include publications by Dickson hazards and what was being done to investigate and et al. (1989), Audit Commission (1993), Ong mitigate the effects of landslides (Cole & Davies et al. (1995), Hind (1997), Royal College of Phys- 2002; Davis & Cole 2002; McInnes 2004). icians of London (1997), Williams (1997), the In Britain, the shrinkage and swelling of clays NHS Confederation (1997) and the British during prolonged hot summer months frequently Medical Association (1998). Although much of causes structural damage. Since the drought of the information contained in these papers and 1976, the Institution of Civil Engineers and the reports is aimed, obviously, at the medical Building Research Establishment have been proac- profession and at the doctor–patient relationship, tive in raising awareness of the possibility for there are some generic concepts that can potentially repairs that may be required as a result of subsi- be applied to the geological professional. The dence damage (Freeman et al. 1994). The report medical profession has recognized the problems by Freeman et al. (1994) provided information on that arise when communication fails, between the causes of subsidence, the distribution of staff, different departments, and doctors and clays susceptible to shrink–swell, what types patients. These observations are similar to those in of investigations to carry out and advice on how engineering geology, mining, geoforensics and geo- to make insurance claims. The increasing incidence hazards investigations, especially where large teams of drought since 1976 and the greater awareness are involved, with different personalities from of the possibility of making claims for repairs different technical, social and cultural backgrounds. COMMUNICATION IN GEOLOGY 109

Perhaps the solutions provided to the medical Circumstances will vary, but, in general, good profession have application to the geosciences? relationships rely on some well-accepted character- istics (e.g. good manners, respect, laughing, compli- Types of communication ments, friendliness and especially empathy, amongst many others). The good communicator All geologists should be competent in both oral must also be a good listener, using silence, reflect- and written communication. Geologists need to ing, paraphrasing and non-verbal behaviour. communicate with all age groups, a wide range of other professions and across cultures. Competence in communication is therefore a critical part of Geologists and communication with geologists’ training and capabilities. There are two other professionals main ways by which geologists conventionally communicate: (1) spoken (conferences, workshops, Successful communication between fellow seminars, lectures and meetings); (2) written geologists is important to ensure that clients and (reports, memoirs, maps, scientific papers, technical other professionals do not receive conflicting, notes, letters, e-mail and computer data). confusing or contradictory information. In civil Spoken communication relies on interpersonal engineering, for example, a structural engineer skills and the ability to convey information effec- may be offered different advice from a geotechnical tively, confidently and consistently (often, con- engineer or an engineering geologist, which is sciously or subconsciously relying on body probably frustrating for the structural engineer. language). These skills are important when geol- This situation may have arisen because it reflects ogists are providing information on an impending the different training for the two disciplines; it geohazard. Written communications, such as publi- may also be traced to the fact that many engineering cations, reports and maps, allow geologists to com- geological decisions are based on judgement and municate with each other, but are not necessarily interpretation. A co-ordinated and integral approach the most effective form of communication when is therefore required in such circumstances for the geological information needs to be conveyed to outcome to be successful. another (non-geological) professional or members Geology is crucial to the civil engineer, who of the pubic, who may not necessarily be familiar requires factual geological information on the with complex geological language. ground in which he is working, the engineering characterization of the ground conditions, and infor- Communication skills mation on groundwater and hydrogeology. The best services an engineering geologist can provide to a Communication may be learnt by training so civil engineer are to get the geological character- that geologists can become better communicators; istics of the site right (Fookes 1997). Once the training and the continuation of professional geology is understood, this needs to be then development (CPD) may provide the necessary clearly communicated to the engineer who will opportunity. The type of communication training use the information to help make decisions. needs to be planned and considered with respect to Civil engineers, although technical subject the geologist’s background and professional role as matter experts, may not necessarily be familiar a geologist (e.g. a forensic geologist v. a mining with the complex technical terminology used by geologist v. an engineering geologist). Training engineering geologists. Too much geological courses therefore need to be properly designed and terminology may potentially cause the engineer to ‘fit-for-purpose’ to facilitate the requirements of become frustrated. Engineering geologists have the geologist (or group of geologists). the ability to make sound, rational decisions, Geologists also communicate not just to convey based on partial and imperfect knowledge. information but to create and develop positive Engineering geologists must reply on judgement inter-professional relationships. Communication and therefore this introduces a degree of uncer- involves the interaction of individuals. It may be tainty, as a result of ‘gaps-in-knowledge’. These entered into voluntarily or non-voluntarily and judgements are based on the geologists’ training, sometimes involves emotive issues. Whereas many observation and experience, and communication geological investigations rely on technical sophisti- skills. Engineering geologists must therefore make cation, innovation and fundamental science, inter- accurate judgements and communicate the infor- personal communication is the means by which mation to clients and engineers. Visual aids such geologists communicate their findings. There as maps, cross-sections, photographs, drawings are many ways geologists may develop good inter- and ‘back-of-an-envelope’ sketches are often the personal relationships, but there are very few guide- solution during informal communications between lines or publications on how this may be achieved. the geologist and the engineer (Fig. 1). 110 L. J. DONNELLY

Fig. 1. Communication with a range of other professionals and technical specialists. Top left, geologists discuss volcanic hazards during the inspection of lava flows, in the Valle del Bove´, October 1992 eruption of Mt Etna, Sicily. Top right, discussions with mining engineers, surveyors and strata control experts at the adit entrance to a small mine in Kashmiri Pakistan in the Karakoram Himalayas. Bottom left, mining geologists, mining engineers and geologists from the Pakistan Geological Survey inspect maps during an exploration survey at high altitude in a remote part of the Karakoram–Himalayas. Bottom right, engineering geologists investigate a 4 m high, 4 km long, fault scarp in the South Wales Coalfield, discussing mining subsidence and fault reactivation mechanisms.

Forensic geologists, police officers and police depth of burial, time and duration of burial, and search advisors who search the ground for murder physical, chemical, hydrogeological and geotechni- victims’ graves (Donnelly 2000a, b; Fenning & cal variations compared with the surrounding Donnelly 2004), may also find communication ground. This information may then be used to deter- challenging (Fig. 2). This work involves teams of mine the correct search strategy, the appropriate multidisciplinary experts such as geologists, anthro- choice of instrumentation, and the optimum pologists, botanists, victim recovery dog handlers, method of deployment. To successfully carry out remote sensing aerial assets, behavioural profilers, such an operation, the main challenges are not clinical psychologists and military personnel. necessarily technical but communication. The geol- These searches are usually co-ordinated and ogist conveys all of the above technical information managed by a Senior Investigating Officer (SIO). to the SIO and other experts. The police officer may A conceptual geological model of the ground may have already a team of multidisciplinary technical be developed by the geologist to provide information specialists. How does the geologist fit into this about the target’s age, size, geometry, expected system? At what stage does the geologist approach COMMUNICATION IN GEOLOGY 111

Fig. 2. Top, geologists and police officers inspecting the ground in the Midlands, following the discovery of human bones (later found to be a pauper grave). Bottom, geologists and police officers search the ground. the crime scene, to reduce the risks of any cross maintained. The interface with geologists and contamination? How can the geologist begin to other professionals may often take place on a understand crime scene management and crime one-to-one personal basis. For communication to scene investigation, and the strict police protocols be effective both the geologist and the other pro- involved? The SIO, already possibly overloaded fessional must be able and willing to give and with a range of specialists, now finds that he or receive information. she has to deal with yet another specialist, the geol- ogist (Fig. 3). This may potentially be problematic if the process is not carefully planned and communi- Geologists and communication in a cated (Donnelly 2003, Harrison & Donnelly 2008). multicultural world There is clearly still the need to improve communication between geologists and other Geologists, like other professionals, usually discuss professionals. It is essential that good channels and debate their findings, and consideration must of clear communication are developed and be given to whether members of the public 112 L. J. DONNELLY

Fig. 3. The introduction of a forensic geologist to a complex, multi-disciplinary police search team must be carefully co-ordinated and properly managed. The geologist must be able to effectively communicate with the other subject matter experts, be aware of his/her limitations and understand the role and capabilities of the other experts (modified after Donnelly 2000b, in Harrison & Donnelly 2008).

(Anonymous 2002), or the client, should be part of Each community, society and group of people those discussions. Often the recipient of geological has its own particular view of the natural environ- information requires only a decision, and may not ment and geohazards, although they may be sub- necessarily be concerned about the details of how jected to the same events (Fig. 4). It is this view that decision was determined. During the monitor- that needs to be very carefully considered before ing of a recent volcanic eruption, for example, engaging with a community to discuss geohazards, some members of the public were present during consequences and risks. This will determine the scientists’ debrief, discussions and debate. It was type of language to use (technical or non-technical) originally envisaged that this would strengthen and the manner in which to conduct the communi- and improve relationships between scientists and cation. Individual perception and public response the public. However, it had the opposite effect, is based on geohazards history, traditions, culture, because the public considered the scientists’ religion, emotion, folklore, gossip, superstition, debates and discussions to represent uncertainty other non-scientific influences, knowledge about and inconsistency, which undermined some of the the risk, and experience. Individual judgement is public’s confidence. The communication of geo- based on previous personal experience of the logical information to the public may be influenced geohazard rather than an objective, collective by the following: (1) language barriers; (2) human assessment of all the probabilities and conse- influences, such as disinclination to ask (possibly quences (Peltu 1991). because of embarrassment), anxiety, anger, forget- Effective communication is central, and this is fulness, preconceptions, pride and age differences; particularly important when members of the (3) assumptions (‘a little knowledge may be public are being provided with information con- dangerous’). cerning potentially catastrophic geohazards. COMMUNICATION IN GEOLOGY 113

Fig. 4. The communication of geological information to the public, multicultural and multiracial societies. Top left, evacuation camps established in Montserrat, during the eruption of the Soufrie`re Hills Volcano, Montserrat. Top right, local residents at a Montserrat evacuation camp displaced by volcanic hazards. Middle left, farmers in Singrauli, India, affected by mining hazards associated with large scale open cast and under ground coal mining operations. Middle right, terraced houses in Easington, County Durham, affected by mining subsidence. Bottom left and bottom right, children, women and unskilled men who scavenge coal from waste tips in Antioquia, Colombian Andes. These communities and environments, where geological and mining hazards have negatively affected lives require the clear and careful communication of geological information to the public and interpersonal skills.

Geologists who work in multicultural and multira- bilingual translators may be required to improve cial societies should have an appreciation and cross-cultural communication. understanding of the different types and levels of Communication is an interpersonal social skill, communication that may be required with the not a technical one, and as such requires an appre- public and non-specialists. Particular attention ciation of the emotional dimension of the situation should be paid to local customs, which it may be both before communicating and as a result of its important to respect. Appropriate preparation and impact. For communication to be effective the geo- adequate provision of language interpreters and logist must identify and understand the needs of the 114 L. J. DONNELLY target audience. This includes an assessment of Geohazard investigations were undertaken at their state of knowledge, any gaps-in-knowledge, Nevado del Ruiz, prior to the 1985 eruptions. their appreciation of basic science, their language, Previous pyroclastic flow deposits and lahars were cultural values, age profiles, and domestic, political mapped and their extent was known, accurate and language constraints. Careful consideration reports of historical events were recorded and, must be given to the background of the particular following a period of monitoring the volcano, audience. In any situation, effective communi- advice was made available from Colombian and cation, in the opinion of the author, may be international scientists who participated in the achieved by face-to-face meetings to engage investigations. In the months prior to the eruption, directly with the recipients, audiences and/or communications were established between geolo- other professionals. Audiences of mixed ages, gists and the government. The geologists attempted race, religions and scientific background are likely to explain the significance of the observed precur- to have different understandings of geology and sory activity, which included low-intensity earth- geohazards. In these circumstances, good visual quake swarms, a steam (phreatic) eruption, aids facilitate effective communication (this may explosions, ash-fall deposits and small lahars include, for instance, maps, photographs, anima- within 30 km of the summit. Geological hazard tions and video footage). maps were produced over a month before the fatal Once the target audience has been engaged, the event. The Colombian officials issued alerts to information may then be transferred by verbal, prepare for mudflows, but unfortunately these written, electronic or visual means. When the reports were not properly disseminated. Pyroclastic public, clients and professionals have been given flows and surges were generated, but it was not information on geohazards they will then need to announced that these events were significant. Infor- be informed on potential strategies on how to mation on volcanic hazards was met with scepti- mitigate or avoid the hazard (Fig. 5). cism by the local authorities and the population. Feedback is a critical part of communication. An evacuation of Armero was considered to be Many people may react adversely to an authoritarian unnecessary by the authorities (this may also have stance and need to feel they are ‘part of the process’, been influenced by the fact that it was night with and/or ‘in control’. Continuity is important; a heavy rainfall). The violent lahars came in two single meeting may not be sufficient, as geohazards surges, the first cold, the second hot, and these do not simply cease. There is likely to be the need engulfed Armero for at least 2 h. The catastrophe for a programme of regular meetings, and it is at Nevado del Ruiz and Armero was exacerbated important that the same information, advice and by failures in communications, cumulative human recommendations are given in a calm, clear, non- error, misjudgement, indecision and bureaucracy ambiguous and consistent manner, making sure (Williams 1990a, b). that, whenever possible, technical language is Montserrat is a British dependent island located avoided or minimized (or if used, then explained). in the West Indies. The Soufrie`re Hills Volcano, Good communication is important during the situated in the southern part of this island, has monitoring and prediction of volcanic eruptions. been in a state of almost continuous volcanic There are several examples of successes and fail- activity for the past 13 years, since 1995, after ures. For example, Nevado del Ruiz volcano is being dormant for about 400 years (Druitt & located in the Andean Cordillera of Colombia, Kokelaar 2002). The Montserrat Volcano Observa- approximately 100 km NW of Colombia’s capital tory (MVO) was established soon after the occur- city, Sante Fe De Bogota. On 13 November rence of phreatic eruptions on 12 July 1995. The 1985, a Plinian eruption generated a series of pyr- eruption of the Soufrie`re Hills Volcano was an oclastic flows, which interacted with the snow and event for which the local population was ice that formed the summit ice cap. The rapid completely unprepared. transfer of heat from the eruption, combined with Pyroclastic surges and lahars have radiated from the seismic shaking, generated lahars (mud flows) the volcano, travelling along river gullies towards and avalanches of saturated snow, ice, felled the sea and engulfing numerous villages. This has trees and rock debris. These flowed along drainage resulted in the loss of use of a large part of the channels and within 4 h had travelled over 105 km, island, including the airport, main jetty and capital descending 5100 m, leaving a wake of catastrophic town, Plymouth (a new airport and jetty have now destruction and obliterating everything in their been built; Plymouth has been evacuated of all its resi- path. The town of Armero was buried beneath a dents and is currently buried beneath volcanic depos- blanket of mud. Approximately 24 740 people its), and there were some fatalities (Donnelly 2007). were killed or missing, 4420 injured and 5092 During the early stages of the eruption some of made homeless (Fig. 6). the islanders and scientists were conscious of COMMUNICATION IN GEOLOGY 115

Fig. 5. Conceptual flow chart to illustrate the main phases of communication during a geohazard investigation. 116 L. J. DONNELLY

Fig. 6. Top left, the town of Manizales, Colombia, situated in the shadow of Nevado del Ruiz Volcano. Top right, view of the upper Lagunillas River valley, close the summit of Nevado del Ruiz. Bottom left, scoria, ash-rich pyroclastic flow deposits exposed on the upper reaches of Nevado del Ruiz. Bottom right, horizontally stratified ash, pyroclastic flow, pumiceous and mudflow (lahar) deposits on the walls of the Lagunillas River valley, exposed by erosion during the 1985 lahars that buried the town of Armero. Approximately 24 740 people were killed or missing, 4420 injured and 5092 made homeless. This was attributable, at least in part, to breakdown in communications between scientists and officials. historical volcanic eruptions on neighbouring issuing of newsletters (Fig. 7). During the early Caribbean islands. For instance, in 1909, the erup- stages of the eruption the author experienced the tion of Mount Pele´e on Martinique generated pyro- benefits of personal engagement with the local com- clastic flows that killed at least 29 000 people. More munity (Fig. 4). This supported more formal recently, in 1976–1977, approximately 70 000 volcanic hazards announcements provided by the people on Guadeloupe were evacuated following a MVO, sometimes via the media and Government relatively small steam eruption on La Soufrie`re of Montserrat. An appreciation of interpersonal Volcano that lasted about 9 months. However, no and social skills was necessary for creating an major eruption followed and the evacuation was environment of trust within which a dialogue considered to have been unnecessary by many of could be established to convey the necessary mess- the local people. Unfortunately, there was a break- ages of the nature of volcanic eruptions and their down in communications between the geologists, implications for those threatened by them. This government and the public; no lives were lost but approach demonstrated the need for social and there was a significant negative economic impact interpersonal skills as well as technical and scienti- on businesses and farms (Robertson 1995). fic expertise, for the effective monitoring and The move towards the evacuation of much of the communication of volcanic hazards. population of Montserrat resulted in a situation During the eruptions of Mount Pinatubo, in the where the communication of geohazards to the Philipines, in 1990 (where approximately 250,000 government and public was very important. In the people were evacuated) and Rabaul in Paupa New early stage of the eruption on Montserrat different Guinea in 1994, good communications between types of communications were established with geologists, the authorities, and the population resulted the public. These included the daily issuing of in a positive response from the people affected by statements via the media (TV and radio), regular these volcanic eruptions. This is likely to have meetings with community representatives and the saved many thousands of lives (McGuire 1998). COMMUNICATION IN GEOLOGY 117

Fig. 7. Examples of leaflets and newsletters produced by the Government of Montserrat to help with the communication of information on volcanic hazards to the public. Reproduced by kind permission from the Government of Montserrat. 118 L. J. DONNELLY

Fig. 8. Communication with the media. Top left, during the monitoring of the Soufrie`re Hills Volcano, Montserrat, for the production of an international TV documentary. Top right, and bottom left, journalists photograph a geologist working at a crime scene. Bottom right, local TV news crew interviewing a geologist describing mining hazards and their impact on the environment.

Geologists and communication with information about a sensitive police investigation. the media If available, press officers or public relations specialists should be consulted prior to any inter- Geologists sometimes have to communicate with action with the media, to obtain appropriate the media (Fig. 8). Geologists are not conventionally advice and to be made aware of any broader trained to deal with journalists and so their responses issues (Nield 2008). should be carefully considered, so that the intended Before geologists accept invitations by the message is put across clearly, factually and without media they should make sure they understand sensationalism (however, post-interview editing whether the interview may be recorded or live. can change this). Failure to communicate the Recorded interviews may give the opportunity to geologists’ messages accurately may result in the rehearse or review an interview before it is broad- media (and therefore the public) being given an cast or reported (although this is not always the erroneous estimation of a geohazard or misleading case). Live interviews do not give the opportunity COMMUNICATION IN GEOLOGY 119 for rehearsal prior to broadcasting or for the information is usually more challenging that the correction of mistakes. It is therefore essential that geological investigation itself. This is made more the geologist prepares for the interview, under- difficult where the socio-cultural background and stands something about the usual programme, language are markedly different from that of the including its aims, objectives and target audience. communicator. The failure to effectively communi- This will allow answers to be prepared beforehand cate geological information may blight land or have in the context of the interview. Geologists need to catastrophic consequences. decide before the interview takes place exactly The geologist must make sure that the infor- what the key points will be that they are trying to mation is effectively and accurately communicated. get across in the message. About three or four Communication usually takes place by spoken or main points should be identified. written means. A geologist relies on interpersonal During interviews with the media and the public, skills, training and expertise to overcome any geologists should come across as being confident potential obstacles that may hinder good communi- and positive. The information given should be cation. Good geologists are not necessarily good simple, clear and non-contentious, and ambiguity natural communicators. The failure to effective should be avoided. Jargon should not be used, but and accurately communicate geological infor- if geological and other scientific terms are used, mation, no matter how accurate and reliable the then these should be explained in non-technical results of a geological investigation, may reduce terms. During live interviews any mistakes made the reliability of the information being provided. must be corrected during the interview. When Communication is a social skill, not a technical being interviewed on television or for the pro- one, for the impersonal transfer of data and duction of a documentary, personal image, appear- information. The most effective method of com- ance, body language, tone of voice, facial munication is the use of clear, simple, unambigu- expressions and posture are just as important as ous, non-technical language. Visual material can the verbal messages. facilitate effective communication, especially to a Speaking with the media (and public) gives non-technical audience and other professionals geologists the opportunity to raise the profile of with little or no knowledge of geology. The transfer geology. During public speaking, it is always of knowledge, to be wholly effective, needs to be advisable to match the talk to the interests of the done with confidence and consistency. The good audience. The communication of geological infor- communicator must also be a good listener, using mation to the public, and the public promotion of silence, reflecting, paraphrasing and non-verbal science, can be entertaining and enjoyable. Maga- behaviour. If possible, there should be feedback zine articles, newspapers, lectures and TV docu- from the targeted audience (or individual). mentaries regularly focus on geology and in During the monitoring and prediction of geoha- particular geological hazards. This enhances the zards (e.g. volcanic activity), one of the important public understanding of geology. What is more, challenges is to understand the popular, public per- geology as a profession depends on the next gener- ception of the hazards and threat. The real chal- ation and constant flow of ‘youngsters’, and lenges are to communicate the likelihood of an therefore professional geologists perhaps have a eruption and to call for an evacuation; this is often duty to participate in the public communication of a very difficult decision, usually much more diffi- geology (Donnelly 2002a). Working in such an cult that the science itself. interesting profession, it is not too difficult to sup- The accurate communication of information plement such talks and presentations with enthu- relating to geohazards by geologists to the public siasm and impressive images of geohazards; is critically important. Throughout history there always guaranteed to captivate audiences and the are many examples where geologists got the media. On occasions, some of these presentations science and communication right, got the science have inspired tomorrow’s generation of geologists. right but the communication wrong, or got both Further information on communicating with the the science and communication wrong. media has been published by, for example, White When working with the police, the forensic et al. (1993) and the Royal Society (2000). geologist must be aware of the limitations of his or her experiences and be confident to communicate Summary with a multidisciplinary team of forensic investi- gators and police officers. Communication of geological information is Communication with the media (and public) usually preceded by scientific (geological) investi- gives geologists the opportunity to raise the gations, the results of which are then conveyed by profile of geology. Media training and awareness the geologist to the recipient. In many respects the is recommended before engaging with the media. communication of technically complex geological Responses need to be carefully considered, so that 120 L. J. DONNELLY the intended message is put across clearly and, fac- Board of Medical Education, British Medical tually, without sensationalism. Recorded interviews Association, London. may give the opportunity to rehearse or review an COLE,K.&DAVIS, G. M. 2002. Landslide warning interview before it is broadcast or reported. Live and emergency planning systems in West Dorset. interviews do not give the opportunity for rehearsal England. In:MCINNES,R.&JAKEWAYS, J. (eds) Slope Instability—Planning and Management. prior to broadcasting and for the correction of mis- Thomas Telford, London, 463–470. takes. Information should be simple and non- CREATH, W. B. 1996. Home Buyers’ Guide to Geologic contentious, and ambiguous jargon should not be Hazards. American Institute of Professional Geol- used, but if geological and other scientific terms ogists, Arvada, CO. are used, then these should be explained in DAVIS,G.M.&COLE, K. 2002. Working with the layman’s terms. When addressing the public and community—public liaison in instability management media, personal image, appearance, body language, at Lyme Regis, Dorset, England. In:MCINNES,R.& tone of voice, facial expressions, persona and JAKEWAYS, J. (eds) Slope Instability—Planning and Management. posture are just as important as the verbal messages. Thomas Telford, London, 695–700. DEPARTMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENT 1990. Planning This paper has relied heavily on the author’s Policy Guidance Note 14: Development on Unstable professional experiences during the monitoring Land. HMSO, London. of volcanic hazards, mining hazards, exploration, DEPARTMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENT 1996. Planning geotechnical investigations and working with the Policy Guidance Note 14: Development on Unstable police in many parts of the world. This paper Land. Annex 1: Landslides and Planning. HMSO, has highlighted some key issues and has drawn London. attention to the importance of communication DEPARTMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENT,TRANSPORT between geologists, and with other specialists, the AND THE REGIONS 2000. Planning Policy Guidance Note 14: Development on Unstable Land. Annex 2: public and the media. These experiences suggest Subsidence and Planning. DETR, London. that communication should be more formally DEPARTMENT OF TRADE AND INDUSTRY 1996. Going taught, perhaps at undergraduate level with Public, an Introduction to Communicating Science, advanced (CPD) communication courses available Engineering and Technology. Department of Trade to practising, professional geologists. It is through- and Industry, London. out the geologist’s career, however, and from DICKSON, D. A., HARGIE,O.&MORROW, N. C. 1989. experiences that the real skills of communication Communication Skills Training for Health are tested and developed. Professionals. An Instructors’ Handbook. Chapman & Hall, London. The author would like to acknowledge the support and DONNELLY, L. J. 2002a. Finding the silent witness. How assistance provided by the British Geological Survey, forensic geology helps solve crimes. All-Party Parlia- International Mining Consultants, Halcrow Group Ltd, mentary Group for Earth Science. Geoscientist, 12, Mr James White (Government of Montserrat) and 16–17, 24. Dr Richard Robertson (The Seismic Research Centre, The DONNELLY, L. J. 2002b. Finding the silent witness. In: University of West Indies, Trinidad and Montserrat DONNELLY, L. J. (ed.) Record of presentation on For- Volcano Observatory). The views expressed in this paper ensic Geology and The Moors Murders to the House of are those of the author and not necessarily the views of any Commons, Westminster Palace, on 12th March 2002, of the organizations that have been mentioned in this paper. with contributions from J. R. Hunter and B. Simpson. British Geological Survey & International Mining Consultants. References DONNELLY, L. J. 2003. The applications of forensic geology to help the police solve crimes. European ANONYMOUS 2002. Dialogue with the Public: Practical Geologist–Journal of the European Federation of Guidelines. Research Councils UK. Developed for Geologists, 16, 8–12. the Research Councils UK and the Office of Science DONNELLY, L. J. 2007. Engineering geology of land- and Technology by People Science & Policy Ltd & slides on the volcanic island of Montserrat, West Taylor Nelson Sofres, London. Indies. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology & APPLIED GEOLOGY LIMITED 1993. 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