New World Beginnings, 33,000 B.C.E.–1769 C.E

Chapter 1 New Worldr Beginnings 33,000 b.c.e.–1769 c.e.

I have come to believe that this is a mighty continent which was hitherto unknown. . . . Your Highnesses have an Other World here.

Christopher Columbus, 1498

everal billion years ago, that whirling speck of of western North America—the Rockies, the Sierra dust known as the earth, fifth in size among the Nevada, the Cascades, and the Coast Ranges—arose Splanets, came into being. much more recently, geologically speaking, some 135 About six thousand years ago—only a minute in million to 25 million years ago. They are truly “Ameri- geological time—recorded history of the Western world can” mountains, born after the continent took on its began. Certain peoples of the Middle East, developing own separate geological identity. a written culture, gradually emerged from the haze of By about 10 million years ago, nature had sculpted the past. the basic geological shape of North America. The con- Five hundred years ago—only a few seconds figu- tinent was anchored in its northeastern corner by the ratively speaking—European explorers stumbled on massive Canadian Shield—a zone undergirded by the Americas. This dramatic accident forever altered ancient rock, probably the first part of what became the future of both the Old World and the New, and of the North American landmass to have emerged above Africa and Asia as well (see Figure 1.1). sea level. A narrow eastern coastal plain, or “tidewater” region, creased by many river valleys, sloped gen- tly upward to the timeworn ridges of the Appalachians. The Shaping of North America Those ancient mountains slanted away on their western side into the huge midcontinental basin that rolled Planet earth took on its present form slowly. Some 225 downward to the Mississippi Valley bottom and then million years ago, a single supercontinent contained rose relentlessly to the towering peaks of the Rockies. all the world’s dry land. Then enormous chunks of ter- From the Rocky Mountain crest—the “roof of Amer- rain began to drift away from this colossal landmass, ica”—the land fell off jaggedly into the intermountain opening the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, narrowing Great Basin, bounded by the Rockies on the east and the Pacific Ocean, and forming the great continents of the Sierra and Cascade ranges on the west. The valleys Eurasia, Africa, Australia, Antarctica, and the Americas. of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers and the Wil- The existence of a single original continent has been lamette–Puget Sound trough seamed the interiors of proved in part by the discovery of nearly identical spe- present-day California, Oregon, and Washington. The cies of fish that swim today in long-separated freshwa- land at last met the foaming Pacific, where the Coast ter lakes throughout the world. Ranges rose steeply from the sea. Continued shifting and folding of the earth’s crust Nature laid a chill hand over much of this ter- thrust up mountain ranges. The Appalachians were rain in the Great Ice Age, beginning about 2 million probably formed even before continental separation, years ago. Two-mile-thick ice sheets crept from the perhaps 350 million years ago. The majestic ranges polar regions to blanket parts of Europe, Asia, and the

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4000 B.C. 4–8 B.C. 1607 1976

RECORDED JESUS VIRGINIA BICEN- HISTORY BORN FOUNDED TENNIAL BEGINS

1492 1607 1776 1945 1991 2000 115 years 169 years 169 years 46 years 9 years

COLUMBUS'S VIRGINIA INDEPENDENCE WORLD WAR II COLD NEW DISCOVERY FOUNDED DECLARED ENDS WAR MILLENNIUM ENDS BEGINS

Figure 1.1 The Arc of Time

Americas. In North America the great glaciers carpeted most of present-day Canada and the United States as Peopling the Americas far southward as a line stretching from Pennsylvania through the Ohio Country and the Dakotas to the The Great Ice Age shaped more than the geological his- Pacific Northwest. tory of North America. It also contributed to the origins When the glaciers finally retreated about 10,000 of the continent’s human history. Though recent (and years ago, they left the North American landscape trans- still highly controversial) evidence suggests that some formed, and much as we know it today. The weight of early peoples may have reached the Americas in crude the gargantuan ice mantle had depressed the level of the boats, most probably came by land. Some 35,000 years Canadian Shield. The grinding and flushing action of the ago, the Ice Age congealed much of the world oceans moving and melting ice had scoured away the shield’s into massive ice-pack glaciers, lowering the level of the topsoil, pitting its rocky surface with thousands of shal- sea. As the sea level dropped, it exposed a land bridge low depressions into which the melting glaciers flowed connecting Eurasia with North America in the area of to form lakes. The same glacial action scooped out and the present-day Bering Sea between Siberia and Alaska. filled the Great Lakes. They originally drained south- Across that bridge, probably following migratory herds ward through the Mississippi River system to the Gulf of of game, ventured small bands of nomadic Asian hunt- Mexico. When the melting ice unblocked the Gulf of St. ers—the “immigrant” ancestors of the Native Ameri- Lawrence, the lake water sought the St. Lawrence River cans. They continued to trek across the Bering isthmus outlet to the Atlantic Ocean, lowering the Great Lakes’ for some 250 centuries, slowly peopling the American level and leaving the Missouri-Mississippi-Ohio system continents (see Map 1.1). to drain the enormous midcontinental basin between As the Ice Age ended and the glaciers melted, the the Appalachians and the Rockies. Similarly, in the West, sea level rose again, inundating the land bridge about water from the melting glaciers filled sprawling Lake 10,000 years ago. Nature thus barred the door to fur- Bonneville, covering much of present-day Utah, Nevada, ther immigration for many thousands of years, leaving and Idaho. It drained to the Pacific Ocean through the this part of the human family marooned for millennia Snake and Columbia River systems until diminishing on the now-isolated American continents. rainfall from the ebbing ice cap lowered the water level, Time did not stand still for these original Ameri- cutting off access to the Snake River outlet. Deprived of cans. The same climatic warming that melted the ice both inflow and drainage, the giant lake became a grad- and drowned the bridge to Eurasia gradually opened ually shrinking inland sea. It grew increasingly saline, ice-free valleys through which vanguard bands groped slowly evaporated, and left an arid, mineral-rich desert. their way southward and eastward across the Ameri- Only the Great Salt Lake remained as a relic of Bonnev- cas. Roaming slowly through this awesome wilderness, ille’s former vastness. Today Lake Bonneville’s ancient they eventually reached the far tip of South America, beaches are visible on mountainsides up to 1,000 feet some 15,000 miles from Siberia. By the time Europeans above the dry floor of the Great Basin. arrived in America in 1492, perhaps 54 million people

49530_01_ch01_0002-0023.indd 5 10/27/11 5:40 PM ARCTIC OCEAN BERING 80°N 160°E LAND BRIDGE 40°E le c ir C ic ct Ar 180°

60°N 20°E

160°W 0°

40°N

140°W

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Tropic of Cancer 20°N 120°W

100°W PACIFIC OCEAN Equator 0°

20°W N Map 1.1 The First Discoverers of 20°S America The origins of the first Amer- Tropic of Capricorn icans remain something of a mystery. According to the most plausible theory of how the Americas were populated, for some 25,000 years people crossed 0 500 1000 Km.

the Bering land bridge from Eurasia 0 500 1000 Mi. to North America. Gradually they dis- Extent of land, 40°S persed southward down ice-free val- ca. 33,000–10,500 B.C.E. leys, populating both the American Glaciers, ca. 15,000 B.C.E. continents. © Cengage Learning Probable ancient shoreline Probable migratory route Selected Paleo-Indian site 80°W 60°W 40°W

inhabited the two American continents.* Over the cen- than 2,000 separate languages, and developed many turiesHMCo they Map split Ms00225a into countless tribes, evolvedBleeds top more and right diverse religions, cultures, and ways of life. Kennedy, The American Pageant 14/e ©2010 Align top at page trim Trade Routes with the East Align left at type block Incas in Peru, Mayans in Central America, and kennedy_01_01_Ms0225a Aztecs in Mexico shaped stunningly sophisticated civ- Trim 45p0 x 50p ilizations. Their advanced agricultural practices, based 1st proof 7/2/08 *Much controversy surrounds estimates of the pre-Columbian Native primarily on the cultivation of maize, which is Indian AmericanFinal: population. 8/7/08 The figures here are from William M. Denevan, ed., The Native Population of the Americas in 1492, rev. ed. (Madison: corn, fed large populations, perhaps as many as 20 mil- University of Wisconsin Press, 1992). lion in Mexico alone. Although without large draft

49530_01_ch01_0002-0023.indd 6 10/27/11 5:40 PM Examining the Evidence Making Sense of the New World This map from 1546 by Sebastian Gradually the immense implica- what sixteenth-century Europeans Münster represents one of the earliest tions of the New World’s existence found remarkable (note the Land of efforts to make geographic sense out began to impress themselves on Giants—Regio Gigantum—and the of the New World (Nouus Orbis and Europe, with consequences for indication of cannibals—Canibali—in Die Nüw Welt on the map). The very literature, art, politics, the economy, present-day Argentina and Brazil, re- phrase New World suggests just how and, of course, cartography. Maps spectively). What further clues to the staggering a blow to the European can only be representations of reality European mentality of the time does imagination was the discovery of and are therefore necessarily distor- the map offer? In what ways might the Americas. Europeans reached tions. This map bears a recognizable misconceptions about the geogra- instinctively for the most expansive of resemblance to modern mapmak- phy of the Americas have influenced all possible terms—world, not simply ers’ renderings of the American further exploration and settlement places, or even continents—to com- continents, but it also contains gross patterns? prehend Columbus’s startling report geographic inaccuracies (note the that lands and peoples previously location of Japan—Zipangri—relative unimagined lay beyond the horizon to the North American west coast) of Europe’s western sea. as well as telling commentaries on National Archives of Canada

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animals such as horses and oxen, ease with which the European colo- and lacking even the simple tech- nizers subdued the native North nology of the wheel, these peoples Americans. built elaborate cities and carried on The Mound Builders of the Ohio far-flung commerce. Talented mathe- River valley, the Mississippian cul- maticians, they made strikingly accu- ture of the lower Midwest, and the rate astronomical observations. The desert-dwelling Anasazi peoples of Aztecs also routinely sought the favor the Southwest did sustain some large of their gods by offering human sac- settlements after the incorporation of rifices, cutting the hearts out of the corn planting into their ways of life chests of living victims, who were during the first millennium c.e. The often captives conquered in battle. Mississippian settlement at Cahokia, By some accounts more than 5,000 near present-day East St. Louis, was at people were ritually slaughtered to one time home to as many as twenty-

celebrate the crowning of one Aztec Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz/Art Resource, NY five thousand people. The Anasazis chieftain. Corn Culture This statue of a built an elaborate pueblo of more corn goddess from the Moche than six hundred interconnected culture of present-day coastal rooms at Chaco Canyon in modern- The Earliest Americans Peru, made between 200 and day New Mexico. But mysteriously, 600 b.c.e., vividly illustrates the perhaps due to prolonged drought, Agriculture, especially corn growing, centrality of corn to Native all those ancient cultures fell into accounted for the size and sophistica- American peoples, a thousand decline by about 1300 c.e. tion of the Native American civiliza- years before the rise of the great The cultivation of maize, as well Incan and Aztec empires that the tions in Mexico and South America. as of high-yielding strains of beans Europeans later encountered. About 5000 b.c.e. hunter-gatherers in and squash, reached the southeast- highland Mexico developed a wild ern Atlantic seaboard region of North grass into the staple crop of corn, which became their America about 1000 c.e. These plants made possible staff of life and the foundation of the complex, large- three-sister farming, with beans growing on the scale, centralized Aztec and Incan civilizations that trellis of the cornstalks and squash covering the plant- eventually emerged. Cultivation of corn spread across ing mounds to retain moisture in the soil. The rich diet the Americas from the Mexican heartland. Everywhere provided by this environmentally clever farming tech- it was planted, corn began to transform nomadic hunt- nique produced some of the highest population densi- ing bands into settled agricultural villagers, but this ties on the continent, among them the Creek, Choctaw, process went forward slowly and unevenly. and Cherokee peoples. Corn planting reached the present-day Ameri- The Iroquois in the northeastern woodlands, can Southwest as early as 2000 b.c.e. and powerfully inspired by a legendary leader named Hiawatha, cre- molded Pueblo culture. The Pueblo peoples in the Rio ated in the sixteenth century perhaps the closest North Grande valley constructed intricate irrigation systems American approximation to the great empires of Mex- to water their cornfields. They were dwelling in vil- ico and Peru. The Iroquois Confederacy developed the lages of multistoried, terraced buildings when Spanish political and organizational skills to sustain a robust explorers made contact with them in the sixteenth cen- military alliance that menaced its neighbors, Native tury. (Pueblo means “village” in Spanish.) American and European alike, for well over a century Corn cultivation reached other parts of North (see “Makers of America: The Iroquois,” pp. 36–37). America considerably later. The timing of its arrival But for the most part, the native peoples of North in different localities explains much about the rela- America were living in small, scattered, and imperma- tive rates of development of different Native American nent settlements on the eve of the Europeans’ arrival. peoples (see Map 1.2). Throughout the continent to In more settled agricultural groups, women tended the north and east of the land of the Pueblos, social the crops while men hunted, fished, gathered fuel, life was less elaborately developed—indeed “societ- and cleared fields for planting. This pattern of life fre- ies” in the modern sense of the word scarcely existed. quently conferred substantial authority on women, No dense concentrations of population or complex and many North American native peoples, including nation-states comparable to the Aztec empire existed the Iroquois, developed matrilineal cultures, in which in North America outside of Mexico at the time of the power and possessions passed down the female side of Europeans’ arrival—one of the reasons for the relative the family line.

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ESKIMO

YUPIK Arctic Circle 160°W 40°W ALEUT ARCTIC DOGRIB YELLOWKNIFE INUIT 60°N

TLINGIT CHIPEWYA H u d s o n INUIT 140°W B a y SUBARCTIC HAIDA NORTHWEST CREE CREE CREE BEOTHUK COAST CREE MONTAGNAIS KWAKIUTL OJIBWA CREE

NOOTKA BLACKFEET CREE MICMAC

MAKAH PLATEAU OJIBWA C ASSINIBOINE Great ALGONQUIN o SPOKANE ouri CHINOOK lum Miss R. Lakes ABENAKI 60°W R. bia COEUR FLATHEAD OJIBWA TILLAMOOK D’ALENE CAYUSE CROW MANDAN NEZ HURON MENOMINEE 40°N PERCE ARIKARA IROQUOIS MASSACHUSETT WINNEBAGO POTAWATOMI NARRAGANSETT SHOSHONE SIOUX M MODOC is SAUK YUROK CHEYENNE s ERIE i FOX NORTHEAST SIOUX s s KICKAPOO i DELAWARE HUPA PAIUTE SHOSHONE p

PACIFIC MAIDU p MIAMI SUSQUEHANNA

YUKI GREAT PLAINS i

GREAT BASIN R IOWA ILLINOIS SHAWNEE LENAPE

POMO . WASHO ARAPAHO PAWNEE OCEAN R. POWHATAN SHOSHONE R. MISSOURI io MIWOK o h d A KANSA O CHICKAHOMINY MONO ra UTE rkan lo sas R. PAIUTE o TUSCARORA C OSAGE CALIFORNIA NAVAJO APACHE KIOWA CHEROKEE HOPI CATAWBA PUEBLO ATLANTIC CHUMASH MOHAVE ZUNI QUAPAW CREEK CHICKASAW APACHE OCEAN COMANCHE CADDO ALABAMA WICHITA SOUTHEAST APACHE CHOCTAW 120°W PIMA KILIWA R NATCHEZ io TIMUCUA G r a n PIMA d e KARANKAWA CALUSA SOUTHWEST G u l f o f Tropic of Cancer N M e x i c o 0 300 600 Km. CIBONEY 20°N TAINO 0 300 600 Mi. CARIBBEAN Tribal location SIOUX AZTEC at time of contact Caribbean Sea Modern boundaries, MESOAMERICA for reference 100°W 80°W

Map 1.2 North American Indian Peoples at the Time of First Contact with Europeans Because this map depicts the location of various Indian peoples at the time of their first contact with Europeans, and because initial contacts ranged from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries, it is necessarily subject to considerable chronological skewing and is only a crude approximationHMCo of the “original” territory of any given group. The map also cannot capture the fluidity and dynamism of NativeNorth AmericanAmerican Indian life Peopleseven before Columbus’sNo “discovery.” bleeds For example, the Navajo and Apache peoples had migrated from at the time of First Contact Center E/W on type block present-day with the Europeans northern Canada only shortly before the Spanish first encountered them in the present-day American Southwest inkennedy_ the 1500s. 01_02_Ms00226 The map also places the Sioux on the Great Plains, where Europeans met up with them in the early nineteenth century—butTrim: 41p6 x 42 the Sioux had spilled onto the plains not long before then from the forests surrounding the Great Lakes. The indigenous1st proof 1/18/08 populations of the southeastern and mid-Atlantic regions are especially difficult to represent accurately in a map like2nd this proof: because 3/7/08 pre-Columbian intertribal conflicts had so scrambled the native inhabitants that it is virtually impossible to Final proof: 3/25/08 determineOvertake: 4/16/08 which groups were originally where. © Cengage Learning

49530_01_ch01_0002-0023.indd 9 10/27/11 5:40 PM 150°W 120°W 90°W 60°W 30°W 0° 30°E 60°E 90°E 120°E 150°E GREENLAND Arctic Circle Iceland 60°N ENGLAND EUROPE ASIA FRANCE Venice NORTH PORTUGAL Genoa Constantinople Beijing Azores SPAIN AMERICA JAPAN PERSIA Canary Is. Hangzhou 30°N Delhi Alexandria CHINA PACIFIC Tropic of Cancer SAHARA Guangzhou OCEAN ARABIA INDIA (Canton) Cape MALI ATLANTIC Verde Timbuktu OCEAN Is. Cahokia Mounds Historic Site AFRICA Spice Malacca Islands Cahokia This artist’s rendering of Cahokia, based on archaeological excavations, 0° Equator shows the huge central square and the imposing Monk’s Mound, which rivaled in size Príncipe PACIFIC São Tomé the pyramids of Egypt. SOUTH OCEAN AMERICA INDIAN Madagascar OCEAN Tropic of Capricorn Unlike the Europeans, who would soon arrive with grapes, which led them to name the spot Vinland. But AUSTRALIA the presumption that humans had dominion over the no strong nation-state, yearning to expand, supported 30°S earth and with the technologies to alter the very face of these venturesome voyagers. Their flimsy settlements N 0 1500 3000 Km. the land, the Native Americans had neither the desire consequently were soon abandoned, and their discov- 0 1500 3000 Mi. nor the means to manipulate nature aggressively. They ery was forgotten, except in Scandinavian saga and revered the physical world and endowed nature with song. The world known to Europe, 1492 Portuguese exploration spiritual properties. Yet they did sometimes ignite mas- For several centuries thereafter, other restless Euro- 60°S The Silk Road Díaz, 1488 sive forest fires, deliberately torching thousands of acres peans, with the growing power of ambitious govern- Antarctic Circle Other land trade routes da Gama, 1498 of trees to create better hunting habitats, especially for ments behind them, sought contact with a wider world, Ocean trade routes Prevailing wind deer. This practice accounted for the open, parklike whether for conquest or trade. They thus set in motion appearance of the eastern woodlands that so amazed the chain of events that led to a drive toward Asia, the early European explorers. penetration of Africa, and the completely accidental But in a broad sense, the land did not feel the discovery of the New World. hand of the Native Americans heavy upon it, partly Christian crusaders must rank high among Amer- HMCo Map Ms00528 because they were so few in number. They were so ica’s indirect discoverers. Clad in shining armor, tens Kennedy, The American Pageant 14/e ©2010 Trade Routes with the East thinly spread across the continent that vast areas were of thousands of these European warriors tried from kennedy_01_03_Ms00528 virtually untouched by a human presence. In the fate- the eleventh to the fourteenth century to wrest the Trim 51p0 x 30p2 ful year 1492, probably no more than 4 million Native Holy Land from Muslim control. Foiled in their mili- 1st proof 5/8/08 2nd proof 7/2/08 Americans padded through the whispering, primeval tary assaults, the crusaders nevertheless acquired a Final: 8/7/08 forests and paddled across the sparkling, virgin waters taste for the exotic delights of Asia. Goods that had of the continent north of Mexico. They were blissfully been virtually unknown in Europe now were craved— unaware that the historic isolation of the Americas was silk for clothing, drugs for aching flesh, perfumes for about to end forever, as the land and the native peoples unbathed bodies, colorful draperies for gloomy castles, alike felt the full shock of the European “discovery.” and spices—especially sugar, a rare luxury in Europe before the crusades—for preserving and flavoring food. Europe’s developing sweet tooth would have momen- Indirect Discoverers tous implications for world history. of the New World The luxuries of the East were prohibitively expensive in Europe. They had to be transported enormous Europeans, for their part, were equally unaware of distances from the Spice Islands (Indonesia), China, the existence of the Americas. Blond-bearded Norse and India, in creaking ships and on swaying camel seafarers from Scandinavia had chanced upon the back. The journey led across the Indian Ocean, the Per- northeastern shoulder of North America about 1000 sian Gulf, and the Red Sea or along the tortuous cara- c.e. They landed at a place near L’Anse aux Meadows van routes of Asia or the Arabian Peninsula, ending at in present-day Newfoundland that abounded in wild the ports of the eastern Mediterranean (see Map 1.3).

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150°W 120°W 90°W 60°W 30°W 0° 30°E 60°E 90°E 120°E 150°E GREENLAND Arctic Circle Iceland 60°N ENGLAND EUROPE ASIA FRANCE Venice NORTH PORTUGAL Genoa Constantinople Beijing Azores SPAIN AMERICA JAPAN PERSIA Canary Is. Hangzhou 30°N Delhi Alexandria CHINA PACIFIC Tropic of Cancer SAHARA Guangzhou OCEAN ARABIA INDIA (Canton) Cape MALI ATLANTIC Verde Timbuktu OCEAN Is.

AFRICA Spice Malacca Islands 0° Equator Príncipe PACIFIC São Tomé SOUTH OCEAN AMERICA INDIAN Madagascar OCEAN Tropic of Capricorn AUSTRALIA 30°S N 0 1500 3000 Km. 0 1500 3000 Mi.

The world known to Europe, 1492 Portuguese exploration 60°S The Silk Road Díaz, 1488 Antarctic Circle Other land trade routes da Gama, 1498 Ocean trade routes Prevailing wind

Map 1.3 The World Known to Europe and Major Trade Routes with Asia, 1492 Goods on the early routes passed through so many hands along the way that their HMCo Map Ms00528 ultimate source remained mysterious to Europeans. © Cengage Learning Kennedy, The American Pageant 14/e ©2010 Trade Routes with the East kennedy_01_03_Ms00528 Trim 51p0 x Muslim30p2 middlemen exacted a heavy toll en route. stimulated European desires for a cheaper route to the 1st proof 5/8/08By the time the strange-smelling goods reached Italian treasures of the East. 2nd proof 7/2/08 Final: 8/7/08merchants at Venice and Genoa, they were so costly These accumulating pressures eventually brought a that purchasers and profits alike were narrowly limited. breakthrough for European expansion. Before the mid- European consumers and distributors were naturally dle of the fifteenth century, European sailors refused to eager to find a less expensive route to the riches of Asia sail southward along the coast of West Africa because or to develop alternate sources of supply. they could not beat their way home against the prevailing northerly winds and south-flowing currents. About 1450, Portuguese mariners overcame those obstacles. Europeans Enter Africa Not only had they developed the caravel, a ship that could sail more closely into the wind, but they had European appetites were further whetted when foot- discovered that they could return to Europe by sail- loose Marco Polo, an Italian adventurer, returned to ing northwesterly from the African coast toward the Europe in 1295 and began telling tales of his nearly Azores, where the prevailing westward breezes would twenty-year sojourn in China. Though he may in fact carry them home. never have seen China (legend to the contrary, the hard The new world of sub-Saharan Africa now came evidence is sketchy), he must be regarded as an indi- within the grasp of questing Europeans. The northern rect discoverer of the New World, for his book, with its shore of Africa, as part of the Mediterranean world, had descriptions of rose-tinted pearls and golden pagodas, been known to Europe since antiquity. But because

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Marco Polo Passing Through the Strait of Hormuz This illustration, from the first printed edition of The Travels of Marco Polo in 1477, shows the traveler crossing the Persian Gulf between the Arabian Peninsula and Persia (present-day Iran). Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, France/The Bridgeman Art Library

sea travel down the African coast had been virtu- dwarfed the modest scale of the pre-European traffic. ally impossible, Africa south of the forbidding Sahara Slave trading became a big business. Some forty thou- Desert barrier had remained remote and mysterious. sand Africans were carried away to the Atlantic sugar African gold, perhaps two-thirds of Europe’s supply, islands in the last half of the fifteenth century. Millions crossed the Sahara on camelback, and shadowy tales more were to be wrenched from their home continent may have reached Europe about the flourishing West after the discovery of the Americas. In these fifteenth- African kingdom of Mali in the Niger River valley, century Portuguese adventures in Africa were to be with its impressive Islamic university at Timbuktu. But found the origins of the modern plantation system, Europeans had no direct access to sub-Saharan Africa based on large-scale commercial agriculture and the until the Portuguese navigators began to creep down wholesale exploitation of slave labor. This kind of plan- the West African coast in the middle of the fifteenth tation economy would shape the destiny of much of century. the New World. The Portuguese promptly set up trading posts along The seafaring Portuguese pushed still farther the African shore for the purchase of gold—and slaves. southward in search of the water route to Asia. Edging Arab flesh merchants and Africans themselves had cautiously down the African coast, Bartholomeu Dias traded slaves for centuries before the Europeans arrived. rounded the southernmost tip of the “Dark Continent” The slavers routinely charged higher prices for captives in 1488. Ten years later Vasco da Gama finally reached from distant sources, because they could not easily flee India (hence the name “Indies,” given by Europeans to their native villages or be easily rescued by their kin. to all the mysterious lands of the Orient) and returned Slave brokers also deliberately separated persons from home with a small but tantalizing cargo of jewels and the same tribes and mixed unlike people together to spices. frustrate organized resistance. Thus from its earliest Meanwhile, the kingdom of Spain became united— days, slavery by its very nature inhibited the expression an event pregnant with destiny—in the late fifteenth of regional African cultures and tribal identities. century. This new unity resulted primarily from the The Portuguese adopted these Arab and African marriage of two sovereigns, Ferdinand of Aragon and practices. They built up their own systematic traffic in Isabella of Castile, and from the brutal expulsion of slaves to work the sugar plantations that Portugal, and the “infidel” Muslim Moors from Spain after centuries later Spain, established on the African coastal islands of Christian-Islamic warfare. Glorying in their sudden of Madeira, the Canaries, São Tomé, and Principe. strength, the Spaniards were eager to outstrip their The Portuguese appetite for slaves was enormous and Portuguese rivals in the race to tap the wealth of the

49530_01_ch01_0002-0023.indd 12 10/27/11 5:40 PM The Impact of Discovery • 13 TSGT Justin D. Pyle, USAF/Wikimedia Commons

Gorée Island Slave Fortress From this holding station off the coast of Senegal, thousands of African captives passed through the “Door of No Return” into a lifetime of slavery in the New World.

ocean navigation. In Spain a modern national state was taking shape, with the unity, wealth, and power to shoulder the formidable tasks of discovery, conquest, and colonization. The dawn of the Renaissance in the fourteenth century nurtured an ambitious spirit of optimism and adventure. Printing presses, introduced about 1450, facilitated the spread of scientific knowledge. The mariner’s compass, possibly borrowed from the Arabs, eliminated some of the uncertainties of sea travel. Meanwhile, across the ocean, the unsus- pecting New World innocently awaited its European “discoverers.” Onto this stage stepped Christopher Columbus. This skilled Italian seafarer persuaded the Spanish monarchs to outfit him with three tiny but seaworthy SEYLLOU DIALLO/AFP/Getty Images ships, manned by a motley crew. Daringly, he unfurled the sails of his cockleshell craft and headed westward. His superstitious sailors, fearful of venturing into the Indies. To the south and east, Portugal controlled the oceanic unknown, grew increasingly mutinous. After African coast and thus controlled the gateway to the six weeks at sea, failure loomed until, on October 12, round-Africa water route to India. Of necessity, there- 1492, the crew sighted an island in the Bahamas. A new fore, Spain looked westward. world thus swam within the vision of Europeans. Columbus’s sensational achievement obscures the fact that he was one of the most successful failures in Columbus Comes upon a New World history. Seeking a new water route to the fabled Indies, he in fact had bumped into an enormous land bar- The stage was now set for a cataclysmic shift in the rier blocking the ocean pathway. For decades thereaf- course of history—the history not only of Europe but ter explorers strove to get through it or around it. The of all the world. Europeans clamored for more and truth gradually dawned that sprawling new continents cheaper products from the lands beyond the Mediterra- had been discovered. Yet Columbus was at first so cer- nean. Africa had been established as a source of cheap tain that he had skirted the rim of the “Indies” that he slave labor for plantation agriculture. The Portuguese called the native peoples Indians, a gross geographical voyages had demonstrated the feasibility of long-range misnomer that somehow stuck.

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Gold, silver

Corn, potatoes, pineapples, tomatoes, tobacco, beans, vanilla, chocolate

Syphilis

OLD WORLD

NEW WORLD Wheat, sugar, rice, coffee

Horses, cows, pigs

Smallpox, measles, bubonic plague, influenza, typhus, diphtheria, scarlet fever

Slave labor AFRICA

Figure 1.2 The Columbian Exchange Columbus’s discovery initiated the kind of explosion in international commerce that a later age would call “globalization.”

Columbus’s discovery would eventually con- with castanets” (rattlesnakes). Native New World plants vulse four continents—Europe, Africa, and the two such as tobacco, maize, beans, tomatoes, and especially Americas. Thanks to his epochal voyage, an interde- the lowly potato eventually revolutionized the interna- pendent global economic system emerged on a scale tional economy as well as the European diet, feeding undreamed-of before he set sail. Its workings touched the rapid population growth of the Old World. These every shore washed by the Atlantic Ocean. Europe pro- foodstuffs were among the most important Indian gifts vided the markets, the capital, and the technology; to the Europeans and to the rest of the world. Perhaps Africa furnished the labor; and the New World offered three-fifths of the crops cultivated around the globe its raw materials, especially its precious metals and its today originated in the Americas. Ironically, the intro- soil for the cultivation of sugar cane. For Europeans as duction into Africa of New World foodstuffs like maize, well as for Africans and Native Americans, the world manioc, and sweet potatoes may have fed an African after 1492 would never be the same, for better or worse. population boom that numerically, though not morally, more than offset the losses inflicted by the slave trade. In exchange the Europeans introduced Old World When Worlds Collide crops and animals to the Americas. Columbus returned to the Caribbean island of Hispaniola (present-day Haiti Two ecosystems—the fragile, naturally evolved net- and the Dominican Republic) in 1493 with seventeen works of relations among organisms in a stable envi- ships that unloaded twelve hundred men and a vir- ronment—commingled and clashed when Columbus tual Noah’s Ark of cattle, swine, and horses. The horses waded ashore. The reverberations from that historic soon reached the North American mainland through encounter—often called the Columbian exchange Mexico and in less than two centuries had spread as (see Figure 1.2)—echoed for centuries after 1492. The far as Canada. North American Indian tribes like the flora and fauna of the Old and New Worlds had been Apaches, Sioux, and Blackfeet swiftly adopted the separated for thousands of years. European explor- horse, transforming their cultures into highly mobile, ers marveled at the strange sights that greeted them, wide-ranging hunter societies that roamed the grassy including exotic beasts such as iguanas and “snakes Great Plains in pursuit of the shaggy buffalo. Columbus

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arrival, the population of the Taino natives in Hispan- iola dwindled from some 1 million people to about 200. Enslavement and armed aggression took their toll, but the deadliest killers were microbes, not muskets. The lethal germs spread among the New World peoples with the speed and force of a hurricane, swiftly sweep- ing far ahead of the human invaders; most of those afflicted never laid eyes on a European. In the centuries after Columbus’s landfall, as many as 90 percent of the Native Americans perished, a demographic catastrophe without parallel in human history. This depopula- tion was surely not intended by the Spanish, but it was nevertheless so severe that entire cultures and ancient ways of life were extinguished forever. Baffled, enraged, Image not available due to copyright restrictions and vengeful, Indian slaves sometimes kneaded tainted blood into their masters’ bread, to little effect. Perhaps it was poetic justice that the Indians unintentionally did take a kind of revenge by infecting the early explorers with syphilis, injecting that lethal sexually trans- mitted disease for the first time into Europe.

The Spanish Conquistadores

Gradually, Europeans realized that the American continents held rich prizes, especially the gold and silver of the advanced Indian civilizations in Mexico and Peru. Spain secured its claim to Columbus’s discovery in the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), dividing with Portugal the “heathen lands” of the New World (see Map 1.4). The lion’s share went to Spain, but Portugal received Text not available due to copyright restrictions compensating territory in Africa and Asia, as well as title to lands that one day would be Brazil. Spain became the dominant exploring and colonizing power in the 1500s. In the service of God, as well as in search of gold and glory, Spanish conquistadores (conquerors) fanned out across the Caribbean and even- also brought seedlings of sugar cane, which thrived in tually onto the mainland of the American continents the warm Caribbean climate. A “sugar revolution” con- (see “Makers of America: The Spanish Conquistadores,” sequently took place in the European diet, fueled by pp. 18–19). On Spain’s long roster of notable deeds, two the forced migration of millions of Africans to work the spectacular exploits must be headlined. Vasco Nuñez canefields and sugar mills of the New World. Balboa, hailed as the discoverer of the Pacific Ocean, Unwittingly, the Europeans also brought other waded into the foaming waves off Panama in 1513 organisms in the dirt on their boots and the dust on and boldly claimed for his king all the lands washed their clothes, such as the seeds of Kentucky bluegrass, by that sea (see Map 1.5). Ferdinand Magellan started dandelions, and daisies. Most ominous of all, in their from Spain in 1519 with five tiny ships. After beating bodies they carried the germs that caused smallpox, through the storm-lashed strait off the tip of South yellow fever, and malaria. Indeed, Old World diseases America that still bears his name, he was slain by the would quickly devastate the Native Americans. Dur- inhabitants of the Philippines. His one remaining ves- ing the Indians’ millennia of isolation in the Americas, sel creaked home in 1522, completing the first circum- most of the Old World’s killer maladies had disappeared navigation of the globe. from among them. But generations of freedom from Other ambitious Spaniards ventured into North those illnesses had also wiped out protective antibodies. America. In 1513 and 1521, Juan Ponce de León Devoid of natural resistance to Old World sicknesses, explored Florida, which he at first thought was an Indians died in droves. Within fifty years of the Spanish island. Seeking gold—and probably not the mythical

49530_01_ch01_0002-0023.indd 15 10/27/11 5:40 PM Arctic Circle

60°N ENGLAND NORTH Cartier Newfoundland 1535–1536 Cabot 1497 AMERICA EUROPE

. R FRANCE

p PORTUGAL

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s i De Soto SPAIN ASIA Coronado s s 1540–1542 i 1539–1542 M M e d Verrazano 1524 i t e r r a S e a n e a n Ponce de León s 1492 30°N 1513 olumbu Gulf of C Cabeza Mexico de Vaca Tropic of Cancer 1528–1536 West ATLANTIC ARABIA Tenochtitlán Cortés Indies C a OCEAN (Mexico City) 1519 r i b b e a n S e a CENTRAL 99 14 ci AFRICA Arabian AMERICA Balboa Vespuc 1513 Sea

Equator 0° 8

PACIFIC SOUTH 9 Pizarro 4 INDIAN 1531–1533 1 AMERICA – M OCEAN 7 OCEAN ag 9 ell ATLANTIC 4 an 1 ’s E a xp OCEAN ed m itio a Tropic of n G 1 51 a Capricorn 9 d – L 1 L o i 5 n i c 2 n s Spanish claims 2 e 30°S e a V

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1 1 4 4 0 1000 2000 Mi. 9 9 4 3 150°W 120°W 90°W 60°W 30°W 0° 30°E 60°E

Map 1.4 Principal Voyages of Discovery Spain, Portugal, France, and England reaped the greatest advantages from the New World, but much of the earliest exploration was done by Italians, notably Christopher Columbus of Genoa. John Cabot, another native of Genoa (his original name was Giovanni Caboto), sailed for England’s King Henry VII. Giovanni da VerrazanoHMCo Map was Ms00238 a Florentine employed by France. © Cengage Learning Kennedy 14e Bleeds top and right European Exploration, 1492–1542 Align left at type block kennedy_01_04_Ms00238 Align top at page trim Trim: 45p x 34p6 “fountain of1st youth”—he proof 1/18/08 instead met with death by Meanwhile in South America, the ironfisted con- an Indian arrow.2nd proof: In 3/7/08 1540–1542 Francisco Coronado, queror Francisco Pizarro crushed the Incas of Peru in Final: 3/25/08 in quest of fabled golden cities that turned out to be 1532 and added a huge hoard of booty to Spanish cof- adobe pueblos, wandered with a clanking cavalcade fers. By 1600 Spain was swimming in New World silver, through Arizona and New Mexico, penetrating as far mostly from the fabulously rich mines at Potosí in pres- east as Kansas. En route his expedition discovered two ent-day Bolivia, as well as from Mexico. This flood of awesome natural wonders: the Grand Canyon of the precious metal touched off a price revolution in Europe Colorado River and enormous herds of buffalo (bison). that increased consumer costs by as much as 500 per- Hernando de Soto, with six hundred armor-plated men, cent in the hundred years after the mid-sixteenth cen- undertook a fantastic gold-seeking expedition during tury. Some scholars see in this ballooning European 1539–1542. Floundering through marshes and pine bar- money supply the fuel that fed the growth of the eco- rens from Florida westward, he discovered and crossed nomic system known as capitalism. Certainly, New the majestic Mississippi River just north of its junction World bullion helped transform the world economy. It with the Arkansas River. After brutally mistreating the swelled the vaults of bankers from Spain to Italy, laying Indians with iron collars and fierce dogs, he at length the foundations of the modern commercial banking died of fever and wounds. His troops secretly disposed system. It clinked in the purses of merchants in France of his remains at night in the Mississippi, lest the Indi- and Holland, stimulating the spread of commerce and ans exhume and abuse their abuser’s corpse. manufacturing. And it paid for much of the burgeon-

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. M o R is d s a is r s ATLANTIC o NORTH i l p o

C p

AMERICA OCEAN

Santa Fé R .

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4 o 5 S 1 30°N San e – D 9 Diego 3 5 St. Augustine, 1565 1 C P on o Rio ce r d 120°W o G e n r L a a eó d n n o d , 1 , e 5 1 1 5 G u l f o f 3 4 0 – 20°N 1 M e x i c o 5 NEW PACIFIC 4 2 SPAIN OCEAN CUBA Corté s, 1519 Veracruz Map 1.5 Principal Early Span- 110°W Mexico City Caribbean Sea 70°W ish Explorations and Con- quests Note that Coronado 80°W 10°N N Balboa, traversed northern Texas and 0 250 500 Km. 1513 Oklahoma. In present-day eastern 0 250 500 Mi. SOUTH Kansas, he found, instead of the great golden city he sought, a drab Pizarro, AMERICA 1531–1533 encampment, probably of Wichita 100°W 90°W To Peru Indians. © Cengage Learning

HMCo Map Ms00236 No bleeds Kennedy, The American Pageant 14/e ©2010 ing Principalinternational Early Spanish trade Explorations with Asia, and Conquestswhose sellers had lit- distance farther on, he picked up the female Indian tle usekennedy_ for any 01_05_Ms00236 European good except silver. slave Malinche, who knew both Mayan and Nahuatl, Trim 30p0 x 20p6 1stThe proof islands 5/08/08 of the Caribbean Sea—the West Indies the language of the powerful Aztec rulers of the great as they2nd proofcame 7/2/08 to be called, in yet another perpetuation empire in the highlands of central Mexico. In addition of Columbus’sFinal: 8/7/08 geographic confusion—served as off- to his superior firepower, Cortés now had the advan- shore bases for the staging of the Spanish invasion of tage, through these two interpreters, of understanding the mainland Americas. Here supplies could be stored, the speech of the native peoples whom he was about and men and horses could be rested and acclimated, to encounter, including the Aztecs. Malinche eventu- before proceeding to the conquest of the continents. ally learned Spanish and was baptized with the Spanish The loosely organized and vulnerable native commu- name of Doña Marina. nities of the West Indies also provided laboratories for Near present-day Veracruz, Cortés made his final testing the techniques that would eventually subdue landfall. Through his interpreters he learned of unrest the advanced Indian civilizations of Mexico and Peru. within the Aztec empire among the peoples from The most important such technique was the institution whom the Aztecs demanded tribute. He also heard known as the encomienda. It allowed the government alluring tales of the gold and other wealth stored up to “commend,” or give, Indians to certain colonists in in the legendary Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán. He return for the promise to try to Christianize them. In lusted to tear open the coffers of the Aztec kingdom. all but name, it was slavery. Spanish missionary Bar- To quell his mutinous troops, he boldly burned his tolomé de Las Casas, appalled by the encomienda system in Hispaniola, called it “a moral pestilence invented by Bartolomé de Las Casas (1474–1566), a reform-minded Satan.” Dominican friar, wrote The Destruction of the Indies in 1542 to chronicle the awful fate of the Native The Conquest of Mexico Americans and to protest Spanish policies in the New World. He was especially horrified at the catastrophic effects of disease on the native peoples: In 1519 Hernán Cortés set sail from Cuba with sixteen fresh horses and several hundred men aboard Who of those in future centuries will believe eleven ships, bound for Mexico and for destiny. On this?“ I myself who am writing this and saw it the island of Cozumel off the Yucatán Peninsula, he and know the most about it can hardly believe rescued a Spanish castaway who had been enslaved for that such was possible. several years by the Mayan-speaking Indians. A short ”

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n 1492, the same year that Columbus sighted At first Spanish hopes for America focused on the I America, the great Moorish city of Granada, in Caribbean and on finding a sea route to Asia. Gradu- Spain, fell after a ten-year siege. For five centuries the ally, however, word filtered back of rich kingdoms on Christian kingdoms of Spain had been trying to drive the mainland. Between 1519 and 1540, Spanish con- the North African Muslim Moors (“the Dark Ones,” in quistadores swept across the Americas in two wide arcs Spanish) off the Iberian Peninsula, and with the fall of conquest—one driving from Cuba through Mexico of Granada they succeeded. But the lengthy Recon- into what is now the southwestern United States, the quista had left its mark on Spanish society. Centuries other starting from Panama and pushing south into of military and religious confrontation nurtured an Peru. Within half a century of Columbus’s arrival in obsession with status and honor, bred religious zealotry the Americas, the conquistadores had extinguished the and intolerance, and created a large class of men who great Aztec and Incan empires and claimed for church regarded manual labor and commerce contemptuously. and crown a territory that extended from Colorado to With the Reconquista ended, some of these men turned Argentina, including much of what is now the conti- their restless gaze to Spain’s New World frontier. nental United States. The military conquest of this vast region was achieved by just ten thousand men, organized in a series of private expeditions. Hernán Cortés, Francisco Pizarro, and other aspiring conquerors signed contracts with the Spanish monarch, raised money from investors, and then went about recruit- ing an army. Only a small minority of the conquistadores—leaders or fol- lowers—were nobles. About half were professional soldiers and sailors; the rest comprised peasants, artisans, and members of the middling classes. Most were in their twenties and early thirties, and all knew how to wield a sword. Diverse motives spurred these motley adventurers. Some hoped to win royal titles and favors by bringing new peoples under the Spanish flag. Others

Granger Collection sought to ensure God’s favor by spread- Conquistadores, ca. 1534 This illustration for a book called the Köhler Codex of ing Christianity to the pagans. Some Nuremberg may be the earliest depiction of the conquistadores in the Americas. It men hoped to escape dubious pasts, portrays men and horses alike as steadfast and self-assured in their work of and others sought the kind of histori- conquest. cal adventure experienced by heroes

ships, cutting off any hope of retreat. Gathering a force newcomers rode on the backs of “deer” (horses). The of some twenty thousand Indian allies, he marched superstitious Moctezuma also believed that Cortés on Tenochtitlán and toward one of history’s most dra- was the god Quetzalcoatl, whose return from the east- matic and fateful encounters. ern sea was predicted in Aztec legends. Expectant yet As Cortés proceeded, the Aztec chieftain Moct- apprehensive, Moctezuma allowed the conquistadores to ezuma sent ambassadors bearing fabulous gifts to wel- approach his capital unopposed. come the approaching Spaniards. These only whetted As the Spaniards entered the Valley of Mexico, the the conquistador’s appetite. “We Spanish suffer from a sight of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán amazed them. strange disease of the heart,” Cortés allegedly informed With 300,000 inhabitants spread over ten square miles, the emissaries, “for which the only known remedy is it rivaled in size and pomp any city in contemporary gold.” The ambassadors reported this comment to Europe. The Aztec metropolis rose from an island in Moctezuma, along with the astonishing fact that the the center of a lake, surrounded by floating gardens of

49530_01_ch01_0002-0023.indd 18 10/27/11 5:41 PM An Aztec View of the Conquest, 1531 Produced just a dozen years after Cortés’s arrival in 1519, this drawing by an Aztec artist pictures the Indians rendering tribute to their conquerors. The inclusion of the banner showing the Madonna and child also illustrates the early incorporation of Christian beliefs by the Indians. Library of Congress

of classical antiquity. Nearly all shared a lust for gold. infantryman’s one. The conquistadores lost still more As one of Cortés’s foot soldiers put it, “We came here power as the crown gradually tightened its control in to serve God and the king, and also to get rich.” One the New World. By the 1530s in Mexico and the 1550s historian adds that the conquistadores first fell on their in Peru, colorless colonial administrators had replaced knees and then fell upon the aborigines. the freebooting conquistadores. Armed with horses and gunpowder and preceded Nevertheless, the conquistadores achieved a kind of by disease, the conquistadores quickly overpowered immortality. Because of a scarcity of Spanish women in the Indians. But most never achieved their dreams the early days of the conquest, many of the conquistado- of glory. Few received titles of nobility, and many of res married Indian women. The soldiers who conquered the rank and file remained permanently indebted to Paraguay received three native women each, and Cor- the absentee investors who paid for their equipment. tés’s soldiers in Mexico—who were forbidden to consort Even when an expedition captured exceptionally rich with pagan women—quickly had their lovers baptized booty, the spoils were unevenly divided: men from into the Catholic faith. Their offspring, the “new race” the commander’s home region often received more, of mestizos, formed a cultural and a biological bridge and men on horseback generally got two shares to the between Latin America’s European and Indian races.

extraordinary beauty. It was connected to the main- 13, 1521. That same year a smallpox epidemic burned land by a series of causeways and supplied with fresh through the Valley of Mexico. The combination of con- water by an artfully designed aqueduct. quest and disease took a grisly toll. The Aztec empire Moctezuma treated Cortés hospitably at first, gave way to three centuries of Spanish rule. The tem- but soon the Spaniards’ hunger for gold and power ples of Tenochtitlán were destroyed to make way for the exhausted their welcome. “They thirsted mightily for Christian cathedrals of Mexico City, built on the site of gold; they stuffed themselves with it; they starved for the ruined Indian capital. And the native population it; they lusted for it like pigs,” said one Aztec. On the of Mexico, winnowed mercilessly by the invader’s dis- noche triste (sad night) of June 30, 1520, the Aztecs eases, shrank from some 20 million to 2 million people attacked, driving the Spanish down the causeways in less than a century. from Tenochtitlán in a frantic, bloody retreat. Cortés Yet the invader brought more than conquest and then laid siege to the city, and it capitulated on August death. He brought his crops and his animals, his

49530_01_ch01_0002-0023.indd 19 10/27/11 5:41 PM 20 • Chapter 1 New World Beginnings, 33,000 b.c.e.–1769 c.e. Museo Nacional De Antropologia/INHA, Mexico, photo by Bob Schalkwijk, Mexico City Artist’s Rendering of Tenochtitlán Amid tribal strife in the fourteenth century, the Aztecs built a capital on a small island in a lake in the central Valley of Mexico. From here they oversaw the most powerful empire yet to arise in Mesoamerica. Two main temples stood at the city’s sacred center, one dedicated to Tlaloc, the ancient rain god, and the other to Huitzilopochtli, the tribal god, who was believed to require human hearts for sustenance.

language and his laws, his customs and his religion, But how secure were these imperial possessions? all of which proved adaptable to the peoples of Mex- Other powers were already sniffing around the edges ico. He intermarried with the surviving Indians, creat- of the Spanish domain, eager to bite off their share ing a distinctive culture of mestizos, people of mixed of the promised wealth of the new lands. The upstart Indian and European heritage. To this day Mexican English sent Giovanni Caboto (known in English as civilization remains a unique blend of the Old World John Cabot) to explore the northeastern coast of North and the New, producing both ambivalence and pride America in 1497 and 1498. The French king dispatched among people of Mexican heritage. Cortés’s translator, another Italian mariner, Giovanni da Verrazano, to Malinche, for example, has given her name to the Mex- probe the eastern seaboard in 1524. Ten years later ican language in the word malinchista, or “traitor.” But the Frenchman Jacques Cartier journeyed hundreds of Mexicans also celebrate Columbus Day as the Dia de la miles up the St. Lawrence River. Raza—the birthday of a wholly new race of people. To secure the northern periphery of their New World domain against such encroachments and to convert more Indian souls to Christianity, the Span- The Spread of Spanish America ish began to fortify and settle their North American borderlands. In a move to block French ambitions and Spain’s colonial empire grew swiftly and impressively. to protect the sea-lanes to the Caribbean, the Spanish Within about half a century of Columbus’s landfall, erected a fortress at St. Augustine, Florida, in 1565, thus hundreds of Spanish cities and towns flourished in founding the oldest continually inhabited European the Americas, especially in the great silver-producing settlement in the future United States. centers of Peru and Mexico. Some 160,000 Spaniards, In Mexico the tales of Coronado’s expedition mostly men, had subjugated millions of Indians. Majes- of the 1540s to the upper Rio Grande and Colorado tic cathedrals dotted the land, printing presses turned River regions continued to beckon the conquistadores out books, and scholars studied at distinguished uni- northward. A dust-begrimed expeditionary column, versities, including those at Mexico City and Lima, with eighty-three rumbling wagons and hundreds of Peru, both founded in 1551, eighty-five years before grumbling men, traversed the bare Sonora Desert from Harvard, the first college established in the English Mexico into the Rio Grande valley in 1598. Led by Don colonies. Juan de Oñate, the Spaniards cruelly abused the Pueblo

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120°W 115°W 110°W 105°W 100°W

O . M R C o T d K ra S Arkan California missions, lo Y sas R. Quivira o . 35°N 1769–1823 C

Taos Santa Fé Ca nadian R. Acoma R C ed SONORA Gila R. PACIFIC a R. b r DESERT B i r OCEAN l a l z o o , s Tucson 1 R 5 .

4 2 R P 30°N S El Paso i ec I o os E 1659 G R R r . R a N n A d e M d A e Mission

G D O u R ñ San Antonio a lf E 1718 t S o e I O , E f 1 R C C 5 O R a C 9 A l I R 8 if D I M o E r E N A n N T D i 25°N a T A R A L E L Map 1.6 Spain’s North 0 100 200 Km. Durango Present-day American Frontier, 1542–1823 0 100 200 Mi. MEXICO New Mexico © Cengage Learning

peoplesHMCo Map they encountered. No bleeds Kennedy, The American Pageant, 14/e ©2010 InSpain’s the NorthBattle American of Frontier, Acoma 1542-1823 inkennedy_ 1599, the 01_06_Ms00533 Spanish severed oneTrim: foot 30p x 23p6 of each survivor. 1st proof 5/16/08 They2nd proof proclaimed 7/2/08 the area toFinal: be 8/7/08 the province of New Mexico in 1609 and founded its capital at Santa Fé the following year (see Map 1.6). The Spanish settlers in New Mexico found a few furs and precious little gold, but they did discover a wealth of souls to be har- vested for the Christian religion. The Roman Catholic mission became the central institution in colonial New Mexico until the missionaries’ efforts to suppress native

religious customs provoked The Granger Collection, New York an Indian uprising called Arrival of Cortés, with Dona Marina, at Tenochtitlán in Popé’s Rebellion in 1680. 1519 This painting by a Mexican artist depicts Cortés in The Pueblo rebels destroyed every Catholic church in the dress of a Spanish gentleman. His translater Malinche, the province and killed a score of priests and hundreds whose Christian name was Marina, is given an honorable of Spanish settlers. In a reversal of Cortés’s treatment place at the front of the procession. She eventually married of the Aztec temples more than a century earlier, the one of Cortés’s soldiers, with whom she traveled to Spain Indians rebuilt a kiva, or ceremonial religious chamber, and was received by the Spanish court. on the ruins of the Spanish plaza at Santa Fé. It took

49530_01_ch01_0002-0023.indd 21 10/27/11 5:41 PM 22 • Chapter 1 New World Beginnings, 33,000 b.c.e.–1769 c.e.

nearly half a century for the Spanish fully to reclaim they also lost contact with their native cultures and New Mexico from the insurrectionary Indians. often lost their lives as well, as the white man’s diseases Meanwhile, as a further hedge against the ever- doomed these biologically vulnerable peoples. threatening French, who had sent an expedition under The misdeeds of the Spanish in the New World Robert de La Salle down the Mississippi River in the obscured their substantial achievements and helped 1680s, the Spanish began around 1716 to establish give birth to the Black Legend. This false concept settlements in Texas. Some refugees from the Pueblo held that the conquerors merely tortured and butch- uprising trickled into Texas, and a few missions were ered the Indians (“killing for Christ”), stole their gold, established there, including the one at San Antonio infected them with smallpox, and left little but misery later known as the Alamo. But for at least another cen- behind. The Spanish invaders did indeed kill, enslave, tury, the Spanish presence remained weak in this dis- and infect countless natives, but they also erected a tant northeastern outpost of Spain’s Mexican empire. colossal empire, sprawling from California and Florida To the west, in California, no serious foreign threat to Tierra del Fuego. They grafted their culture, laws, loomed, and Spain directed its attention there only religion, and language onto a wide array of native soci- belatedly. Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo had explored the eties, laying the foundations for a score of Spanish- California coast in 1542, but he failed to find San Fran- speaking nations. cisco Bay or anything else of much interest. For some Clearly, the Spaniards, who had more than a cen- two centuries thereafter, California slumbered undis- tury’s head start over the English, were genuine empire turbed by European intruders. Then in 1769 Spanish builders and cultural innovators in the New World. As missionaries led by Father Junipero Serra founded at compared with their Anglo-Saxon rivals, their colo- San Diego the first of a chain of twenty-one missions nial establishment was larger and richer, and it was that wound up the coast as far as Sonoma, north of destined to endure more than a quarter of a century San Francisco Bay. Father Serra’s brown-robed Francis- longer. And in the last analysis, the Spanish paid the can friars toiled with zealous devotion to Christianize Native Americans the high compliment of fusing with the three hundred thousand native Californians. They them through marriage and incorporating indigenous gathered the seminomadic Indians into fortified mis- culture into their own, rather than shunning and even- sions and taught them horticulture and basic crafts. tually isolating the Indians as their English adversaries These “mission Indians” did adopt Christianity, but would do.

Chapter Review KEY TERMS PEOPLE TO KNOW Canadian Shield (4) Tordesillas, Treaty of (15) Ferdinand of Aragon Malinche (Doña Marina) Incas (6) conquistadores (15) Isabella of Castile Moctezuma Aztecs (6) capitalism (16) Christopher Columbus Giovanni Caboto (John nation-states (8) encomienda (17) Francisco Coronado Cabot) Cahokia (8) noche triste (19) Francisco Pizarro Robert de La Salle three-sister farming (8) mestizos (20) Bartolomé de Las Casas Father Junipero Serra middlemen (11) Acoma, Battle of (21) Hernán Cortés caravel (11) Popé’s Rebellion (21) plantation (12) Black Legend (22) Columbian exchange (14)

To Learn More Mark A. Burkholder and Lyman L. Johnson, Colonial Latin Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human America (2000) Societies (1998) Alfred W. Crosby, Jr., The Columbian Exchange: Biological Tom Dillehay, The Settlement of the Americas: A New and Cultural Consequences of 1492 (1972) Prehistory (2000)

49530_01_ch01_0002-0023.indd 22 10/27/11 5:41 PM Chapter Review • 23

J. H. Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World (2006) Andrés Reséndez, A Land So Strange: The Epic Journey of Steven W. Hackel, Children of Coyote, Missionaries of Saint Cabeza de Vaca (2007) Francis: Indian-Spanish Relations in Colonial California, John Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the 1769–1850 (2005) Atlantic World, 1400–1800 (1992) Hugh Honour, The New Golden Land (1975) David J. Weber, Bárbaros: Spaniards and Their Savages in the Alice Beck Keyhoe, America Before the European Invasions Age of Enlightenment (2005) (2002) A complete, annotated bibliography for this Anthony Pagden, Peoples and Empires: A Short History chapter—along with brief descriptions of the of European Migration, Exploration, and Conquest, from People to Know—may be found on the American Greece to the Present (2003) Pageant website. The Key Terms are defined in a Glossary at the end of the text.

CHRONOLOGY

ca. 33,000– First humans cross into Americas from Asia 1513, 1521 Ponce de León explores Florida 8000 b.c.e. 1519–1521 Cortés conquers Mexico for Spain ca. 5000 Corn is developed as a staple crop in high- b.c.e. land Mexico 1522 Magellan’s vessel completes circumnaviga- tion of the world ca. 4000 First civilized societies develop in the b.c.e. Middle East 1524 Verrazano explores eastern seaboard of North America for France ca. 1200 Corn planting reaches present-day Ameri- b.c.e. can Southwest 1532 Pizarro crushes Incas

ca. 1000 c.e. Norse voyagers discover and briefly settle 1534 Cartier journeys up the St. Lawrence River in northeastern North America Corn cultivation reaches Midwest and 1539–1542 De Soto explores the Southeast and discov- southeastern Atlantic seaboard ers the Mississippi River

ca. 1100 c.e. Height of Mississippian settlement at 1540–1542 Coronado explores present-day Southwest Cahokia 1542 Cabrillo explores California coast for Spain ca. 1100– Christian crusades arouse European inter- 1565 Spanish build fortress at St. Augustine 1300 c.e. est in the East

1295 Marco Polo returns to Europe late 1500s Iroquois Confederacy founded, according to Iroquois legend late 1400s Spain becomes united ca. Spanish under Oñate conquer Pueblo 1488 Dias rounds southern tip of Africa 1598–1609 peoples of Rio Grande valley

1492 Columbus lands in the Bahamas 1609 Spanish found New Mexico

1494 Treaty of Tordesillas between Spain and 1680 Popé’s Rebellion in New Mexico Portugal 1680s French expedition down Mississippi River 1498 Da Gama reaches India under La Salle Cabot explores northeastern coast of North America for England 1769 Serra founds first California mission, at San Diego 1513 Balboa claims all lands touched by the Pacific Ocean for Spain

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49530_01_ch01_0002-0023.indd 23 10/27/11 5:41 PM Chapter 2 The Planting of English rAmerica 1500–1733

. . . For I shall yet live to see it [Virginia] an Inglishe nation.

Sir Walter Raleigh, 1602

s the seventeenth century dawned, scarcely Roman Catholic Church in the 1530s, launching the a hundred years after Columbus’s momentous English Protestant Reformation. Catholics bat- Alandfall, the face of much of the New World had already tled Protestants for decades, and the religious balance been profoundly transformed. European crops and live- of power seesawed. But after the Protestant Elizabeth stock had begun to alter the very landscape, touching ascended to the English throne in 1558, Protestantism off an ecological revolution that would reverberate for became dominant in England, and rivalry with Catho- centuries to come. From Tierra del Fuego in the south lic Spain intensified. to Hudson Bay in the north, disease and armed con- Ireland, which nominally had been under English quest had cruelly winnowed and disrupted the native rule since the twelfth century, became an early scene of peoples. Several hundred thousand enslaved Africans that rivalry. The Catholic Irish sought help from Catho- toiled on Caribbean and Brazilian sugar plantations. lic Spain to throw off the yoke of the new Protestant Eng- From Florida and New Mexico southward, most of the lish queen. But Spanish aid never amounted to much; New World lay firmly within the grip of imperial Spain. in the 1570s and 1580s, Elizabeth’s troops crushed the But north of Mexico, America in 1600 remained Irish uprising with terrible ferocity, inflicting unspeak- largely unexplored and effectively unclaimed by Euro- able atrocities upon the native Irish people. The English peans. Then, as if to herald the coming century of colo- crown confiscated Catholic Irish lands and “planted” nization and conflict in the northern continent, three them with new Protestant landlords from Scotland and European powers planted three primitive outposts in England. This policy also planted the seeds of the cen- three distant corners of the continent within three turies-old religious conflicts that persist in Ireland to the years of one another: the Spanish at Santa Fé in 1610, present day. Many English soldiers developed in Ireland the French at Québec in 1608, and, most consequen- a sneering contempt for the “savage” natives, an attitude tially for the future United States, the English at James- that they brought with them to the New World. town, Virginia, in 1607. Elizabeth Energizes England England’s Imperial Stirrings Encouraged by the ambitious Elizabeth I (see Table Feeble indeed were England’s efforts in the 1500s 2.1), hardy English buccaneers now swarmed out upon to compete with the sprawling Spanish Empire. As the shipping lanes. They sought to promote the twin Spain’s ally in the first half of the century, England goals of Protestantism and plunder by seizing Spanish took little interest in establishing its own overseas treasure ships and raiding Spanish settlements, even colonies. Religious conflict also disrupted England though England and Spain were technically at peace. in midcentury, after King Henry VIII broke with the The most famous of these semipiratical “sea dogs” was

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Elizabeth I (1533–1603), by George Gower, ca. 1588 In this “Armada Portrait” of Queen Elizabeth I, the artist proclaims her the Empress of the World. She was accused of being vain, fickle, prejudiced, and miserly, but Elizabeth proved to be an unusually successful ruler. She never married (hence, the “Virgin Queen”), although many romances were rumored and royal matches schemed. . The Gallery Collection/Corbis

the courtly Sir Francis Drake. He swashbuckled and manned, they inflicted heavy damage on the cum- looted his way around the planet, returning in 1580 bersome, overladen Spanish ships. Then a devastating with his ship heavily ballasted with Spanish booty. storm arose (the “Protestant wind”), scattering the crip- The venture netted profits of about 4,600 percent to pled Spanish fleet. his financial backers, among whom, in secret, was The rout of the Spanish Armada marked the Queen Elizabeth. Defying Spanish protest, she brazenly beginning of the end of Spanish imperial dreams, knighted Drake on the deck of his barnacled ship. though Spain’s New World empire would not fully col- The bleak coast of Newfoundland was the scene lapse for three more centuries. Within a few decades, of the first English attempt at colonization. This effort the Spanish Netherlands (Holland) would secure its collapsed when its promoter, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, lost his life at sea in 1583. Gilbert’s ill-starred dream inspired his gallant half-brother Sir Walter Raleigh to In the years immediately following the defeat of the try again in warmer climes. Raleigh organized an expe- Spanish Armada, the English writer Richard Hakluyt dition that first landed in 1585 on North Carolina’s (1552?–1616) extravagantly exhorted his countrymen to Roanoke Island, off the coast of Virginia—a vaguely cast off their “sluggish security” and undertake the defined region named in honor of Elizabeth, the “Vir- colonization of the New World: gin Queen.” After several false starts, the hapless Roa- There is under our noses the great and ample noke colony mysteriously vanished, swallowed up by country of Virginia; the inland whereof is found the wilderness. “ These pathetic English failures at colonization con- of late to be so sweet and wholesome a climate, trasted embarrassingly with the glories of the Spanish so rich and abundant in silver mines, a better Empire, whose profits were fabulously enriching Spain. and richer country than Mexico itself. If it shall Philip II of Spain, self-anointed foe of the Protestant please the Almighty to stir up Her Majesty’s Reformation, used part of his imperial gains to amass heart to continue with transporting one or two an “Invincible Armada” of ships for an invasion of Eng- thousand of her people, she shall by God’s as- land. The showdown came in 1588, when the lumber- sistance, in short space, increase her dominions, ing Spanish flotilla, 130 strong, hove into the English enrich her coffers, and reduce many pagans to Channel. The English sea dogs fought back. Using craft the faith of Christ. that were swifter, more maneuverable, and more ably ”

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Table 2.1 The Tudor Rulers of England* Name, Reign Relation to America Henry VII, 1485–1509 Cabot voyages, 1497, 1498 Henry VIII, 1509–1547 English Reformation began Edward VI, 1547–1553 Strong Protestant tendencies “Bloody” Mary, 1553–1558 Catholic reaction Elizabeth I, 1558–1603 Break with Roman Catholic Church final; Drake; Spanish Armada defeated *See Table 3.1, p. 48, for a continuation of the table.

independence, and much of the Spanish Caribbean would slip from Spain’s grasp. Bloated by Peruvian and Mexican silver and cockily convinced of its own invin- cibility, Spain had overreached itself, sowing the seeds of its own decline. England’s victory over the Spanish Armada also marked a red-letter day in American history. It damp- ened Spain’s fighting spirit and helped ensure Eng- land’s naval dominance in the North Atlantic. It started England on its way to becoming master of the world oceans—a fact of enormous importance to the American people. Indeed England now had many of The Granger Collection, New York the characteristics that Spain displayed on the eve of its Sir Walter Ralegh (Raleigh) (ca. 1552–1618), 1588 colonizing adventure a century earlier: a strong, unified A dashing courtier who was one of Queen Elizabeth’s national state under a popular monarch; a measure of favorites for his wit, good looks, and courtly manners, he religious unity after a protracted struggle between Prot- launched important colonizing failures in the New World. For this portrait, Raleigh presented himself as the queen’s estants and Catholics; and a vibrant sense of national- devoted servant, wearing her colors of black and white and ism and national destiny. her emblem of a pearl in his left ear. After seducing (and A wondrous flowering of the English national spirit secretly marrying) one of Queen Elizabeth’s maids of bloomed in the wake of the Spanish Armada’s defeat. honor, he fell out of favor but continued his colonial A golden age of literature dawned in this exhilarating ventures in the hopes of challenging Catholic Spain’s atmosphere, with William Shakespeare, at its forefront, dominance in the Americas. He was ultimately beheaded making occasional poetical references to England’s for treason. American colonies. The English were seized with rest- lessness, with thirst for adventure, and with curiosity about the unknown. Everywhere there blossomed a countryside, landlords were “enclosing” croplands for new spirit of self-confidence, of vibrant patriotism, and sheep grazing, forcing many small farmers into precari- of boundless faith in the future of the English nation. ous tenancy or off the land altogether. It was no acci- When England and Spain finally signed a treaty of dent that the woolen districts of eastern and western peace in 1604, the English people were poised to England—where Puritanism had taken strong root— plunge headlong into the planting of their own colo- supplied many of the earliest immigrants to America. nial empire in the New World. When economic depression hit the woolen trade in the late 1500s, thousands of footloose farmers took to the roads. They drifted about England, chronically unem- England on the Eve of Empire ployed, often ending up as beggars and paupers in cities like Bristol and London. England’s scepter’d isle, as Shakespeare called it, This remarkably mobile population alarmed many throbbed with social and economic change as the contemporaries. They concluded that England was bur- seventeenth century opened. Its population was dened with a “surplus population,” though present-day mushrooming, from some 3 million people in 1550 London holds twice as many people as did all of Eng- to about 4 million in 1600. In the ever-green English land in 1600.

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At the same time, laws of primogeniture decreed

S 0 25 50 Km. that only eldest sons were eligible to inherit landed u sq Areas settled by 1650 u e estates. Landholders’ ambitious younger sons, among h 0 25 50 Mi. a Areas settled by 1675 n n 40°N them Gilbert, Raleigh, and Drake, were forced to seek a . Areas settled by 1700 R R . re their fortunes elsewhere. Bad luck plagued their early, a w a P l lone-wolf enterprises. But by the early 1600s, the joint- o e

t D o M m A stock company, forerunner of the modern corpora- a R c Y D R L e . E A l tion, was perfected. It enabled a considerable number N a N w I D a of investors, called “adventurers,” to pool their capital. L r e L B L Annapolis a Peace with a chastened Spain provided the oppor- y A 1648 F R tunity for English colonization. Population growth pro- SHENANDOAH VALLEYa N p p a vided the workers. Unemployment, as well as a thirst h a n n for adventure, for markets, and for religious freedom, o ck R. St. Mary’s 1634 provided the motives. Joint-stock companies provided (capital to 1694) 38°N the financial means. The stage was now set for a his- VIRGINIA y a

B toric effort to establish an English beachhead in the N

e Henrico 1611 A . k es R Williamsburg still uncharted North American wilderness. m a E Ja 1633 e C Jamestown 1607 p

a O (capital to 1699) s

Fort Henry (Petersburg) h C I 1645 C Yorktown T England Plants the Jamestown 1691 Hampton 1691 N Norfolk A Seedling L 1682 T A 76°W In 1606, two years after peace with Spain, the hand of PIEDMONT E destiny beckoned toward Virginia. A joint-stock com- N I L pany, known as the Virginia Company of London, L 36°N L received a charter from King James I of England for a A F TIDEWATER settlement in the New World. The main attraction was the promise of gold, combined with a strong desire to find a passage through America to the Indies. Like most 78°W joint-stock companies of the day, the Virginia Com- pany was intended to endure for only a few years, after Map 2.1 Early Maryland and Virginia © Cengage Learning which its stockholders hoped to liquidate it for a profit. This arrangement put severe pressure on the luckless colonists, who were threatened with abandonment in HMCo the wilderness if they did not quickly strike it rich on Kennedywhere 14eIndians attacked them. PushingNo bleeds on up the bay, Chesapeake Expansion the company’s behalf. Few of the investors thought kennedy_02_01_Ms00244the tiny band of colonists eventually chose a location in terms of long-term colonization. Apparently no 20p6on thex 30p6 wooded and malarial banks of the James River, one even faintly suspected that the seeds of a mighty named in honor of King James I. The site was easy to Overtake: 4/16/08 nation were being planted. defend, but it was mosquito-infested and devastatingly The charter of the Virginia Company is a signifi- unhealthful. There, on May 24, 1607, about a hundred cant document in American history. It guaranteed to English settlers, all of them men, disembarked. They the overseas settlers the same rights of Englishmen that called the place Jamestown (see Map 2.1). they would have enjoyed if they had stayed at home. The early years of Jamestown proved a nightmare for This precious boon was gradually extended to subse- all concerned—except the buzzards. Forty would-be col- quent English colonies, helping to reinforce the colo- onists perished during the initial voyage in 1606–1607. nists’ sense that even on the far shores of the Atlantic, Another expedition in 1609 lost its leaders and many of they remained comfortably within the embrace of its precious supplies in a shipwreck off Bermuda. Once traditional English institutions. But ironically, a cen- ashore in Virginia, the settlers died by the dozens from tury and a half later, their insistence on the “rights of disease, malnutrition, and starvation. Ironically, the Englishmen” fed hot resentment against an increas- woods rustled with game and the rivers flopped with ingly meddlesome mother country and nourished their fish, but the greenhorn settlers, many of them self-styled appetite for independence. “gentlemen” unaccustomed to fending for themselves, Setting sail in late 1606, the Virginia Company’s wasted valuable time grubbing for nonexistent gold three ships landed near the mouth of Chesapeake Bay, when they should have been gathering provisions.

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George Percy (1580–1631) accompanied Captain John Smith on his expedition to Virginia in 1606–1607. He served as deputy governor of the colony in 1609–1610 and returned to England in 1612, where he wrote A Discourse of the Plantation of Virginia about his experiences: Our men were destroyed with cruel diseases “as swellings, burning fevers, and by wars, and some departed suddenly, but for the most part they died of mere famine. There were never Eng- lishmen left in a foreign country in such misery as we were in this new discovered Virginia.” Virginia was saved from utter collapse at the start largely by the leadership and resourcefulness of an intrepid young adventurer, Captain John Smith. Tak- ing over in 1608, he whipped the gold-hungry colonists into line with the rule “He who shall not work shall not eat.” He had been kidnapped in December 1607 and subjected to a mock execution by the Indian chieftain Powhatan, whose daughter Pocahontas had “saved” Smith by dramatically interposing her head between National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian/Art Resource, NY his and the war clubs of his captors. The symbolism of this ritual was apparently intended to impress Smith Pocahontas (ca. 1595–1617) Taken to England by her husband, she was received as a princess. She died when with Powhatan’s power and with the Indians’ desire preparing to return, but her infant son ultimately reached for peaceful relations with the Virginians. Pocahontas Virginia, where hundreds of his descendants have lived, became an intermediary between the Indians and the including the second Mrs. Woodrow Wilson. settlers, helping to preserve a shaky peace and to pro- vide needed foodstuffs. Still, the colonists died in droves, and living skel- James River by a long-awaited relief party headed by a etons were driven to desperate acts. They were reduced new governor, Lord De La Warr. He ordered the settlers to eating “dogges, Catts, Ratts, and Myce” and even to back to Jamestown, imposed a harsh military regime digging up corpses for food. One hungry man killed, on the colony, and soon undertook aggressive military salted, and ate his wife, for which misbehavior he was action against the Indians. executed. Of the four hundred settlers who managed Disease continued to reap a gruesome harvest to make it to Virginia by 1609, only sixty survived the among the Virginians. By 1625 Virginia contained “starving time” winter of 1609–1610. only some twelve hundred hard-bitten survivors of the Diseased and despairing, the remaining colonists nearly eight thousand adventurers who had tried to dragged themselves aboard homeward-bound ships in start life anew in the ill-fated colony. the spring of 1610, only to be met at the mouth of the

The authorities meted out harsh discipline in the young Cultural Clashes in the Chesapeake Virginia colony. One Jamestown settler who publicly criticized the governor was sentenced to When the English landed in 1607, the chieftain Pow- hatan dominated the native peoples living in the be disarmed [and] have his arms broken and James River area. He had asserted supremacy over a few “his tongue bored through with an awl [and] shall dozen small tribes, loosely affiliated in what somewhat pass through a guard of 40 men and shall be grandly came to be called Powhatan’s Confederacy. The butted [with muskets] by every one of them and English colonists dubbed all the local Indians, some- at the head of the troop kicked down and footed what inaccurately, the Powhatans. Powhatan at first out of the fort. may have considered the English potential allies in ” his struggle to extend his power still further over his

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Indian rivals, and he tried to be conciliatory. But relations between the Indians and the English remained The wife of a Virginia governor wrote to her sister in tense, especially as the starving colonists took to raid- England in 1623 of her voyage: ing Indian food supplies. For our Shippe was so pestered with people The atmosphere grew even more strained after Lord and“ goods that we were so full of infection that De La Warr arrived in 1610. He carried orders from the after a while we saw little but throwing folkes Virginia Company that amounted to a declaration of over board: It pleased god to send me my helth war against the Indians in the Jamestown region. A vet- eran of the vicious campaigns against the Irish, De La till I came to shoare and 3 dayes after I fell sick Warr now introduced “Irish tactics” against the Indi- but I thank god I am well recovered. Few else ans. His troops raided Indian villages, burned houses, are left alive that came in that Shippe. confiscated provisions, and torched cornfields. A peace ” settlement ended this First Anglo-Powhatan War in 1614, sealed by the marriage of Pocahontas to the It had been the Powhatans’ calamitous misfortune colonist John Rolfe—the first known interracial union to fall victim to three Ds: disease, disorganization, and in Virginia. disposability. Like native peoples throughout the New A fragile respite followed, which endured eight World, they were extremely susceptible to European- years. But the Indians, pressed by the land-hungry borne maladies. Epidemics of smallpox and measles whites and ravaged by European raced mercilessly through their vil- diseases, struck back in 1622. A lages. The Powhatans also—despite series of Indian attacks left 347 set- the apparent cohesiveness of “Pow- tlers dead, including John Rolfe. hatan’s Confederacy”—lacked the In response the Virginia Company unity with which to make effective issued new orders calling for “a opposition to the comparatively perpetual war without peace or well-organized and militarily dis- truce,” one that would prevent the ciplined whites. Finally, unlike the Indians “from being any longer a Indians whom the Spaniards had people.” Periodic punitive raids encountered to the south, who could systematically reduced the native be put to work in the mines and had population and drove the survi- gold and silver to trade, the Powhat- vors ever farther westward. ans served no economic function In the Second Anglo- for the Virginia colonists. They pro- Powhatan War in 1644, the vided no reliable labor source and, Indians made one last effort to after the Virginians began growing dislodge the Virginians. They their own food crops, had no valu- were again defeated. The peace able commodities to offer in com- treaty of 1646 repudiated any merce. The natives, as far as the thought of assimilating the Virginians were concerned, could native peoples into Virginia soci- be disposed of without harm to ety or of peacefully coexisting the colonial economy. Indeed the with them. Instead it effectively Indian presence frustrated the colo- banished the Chesapeake Indi- nists’ desire for a local commodity ans from their ancestral lands the Europeans desperately wanted: and formally separated Indian land. from white areas of settlement— the origins of the later reservation system. By 1669 an official The Indians’ census revealed that only about New World two thousand Indians remained A Carolina Indian Woman and Child, by in Virginia, perhaps 10 percent John White The artist was a member of The fate of the Powhatans foreshad- of the population the original the Raleigh expedition of 1585. Notice owed the destinies of indigenous English settlers had encountered that the Indian girl carries a European doll, peoples throughout the continent in 1607. By 1685 the English con- illustrating the mingling of cultures that as the process of European settle- sidered the Powhatan peoples had already begun. Granger Collection, New York ment went forward. Native Ameri- extinct. cans, of course, had a history well

49530_02_ch02_0024-0040.indd 29 10/27/11 5:40 PM 30 • Chapter 2 The Planting of English America, 1500–1733 Det Kongelige Bibliotek or The Royal Library in Copenhagen, Denmark Carolina Indians German painter Philip Georg Friedrich von Reck drew these Yuchi Indians in the 1730s. The blanket and rifle show that trade with the English settlers had already begun to transform Native American culture.

before Columbus’s arrival. They were no strangers to large-scale European colonization disrupted Native change, adaptation, and even catastrophe, as the rise American life on a vast scale, inducing unprecedented and decline of civilizations such as the Mississippi- demographic and cultural transformations. ans and the Anasazis demonstrated. But the shock of Some changes were fairly benign. Horses—stolen, strayed, or purchased from Spanish invaders—cata- lyzed a substantial Indian migration onto the Great Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) in a 1753 letter to Peter Plains in the eighteenth century. Peoples such as the Collinson commented on the attractiveness of Indian Lakotas (Sioux), who had previously been sedentary life to Europeans: forest dwellers, now moved onto the wide-open plains. When an Indian child has been brought up There they thrived impressively, adopting an entirely among“ us, taught our language and habituated new way of life as mounted nomadic hunters. But the to our customs, yet if he goes to see his relations effects of contact with Europeans proved less salutary and make one Indian ramble with them, there is for most other native peoples. Disease was by far the biggest disrupter, as Old no persuading him ever to return. [But] when World pathogens licked lethally through biologically white persons of either sex have been taken defenseless Indian populations. Disease took more prisoners by the Indians, and lived awhile than human life; it extinguished entire cultures and among them, though ransomed by their friends, occasionally helped shape new ones. Epidemics often and treated with all imaginable tenderness to robbed native peoples of the elders who preserved the prevail with them to stay among the English, yet oral traditions that held clans together. Devastated in a short time they become disgusted with our Indian bands then faced the daunting task of literally manner of life, and the care and pains that are reinventing themselves without benefit of accumulated necessary to support it, and take the first good wisdom or kin networks. The decimation and forced opportunity of escaping again into the woods, migration of native peoples sometimes scrambled them from whence there is no reclaiming them. together in wholly new ways. The Catawba nation ” of the southern Piedmont region, for example, was

49530_02_ch02_0024-0040.indd 30 10/27/11 5:40 PM formed from splintered remnants of several different groups uprooted by the shock of the Europeans’ arrival. Trade also transformed Indian life, as traditional barter-and-exchange networks gave way to the temp- tations of European commerce. Firearms, for example, conferred enormous advantages on those who could purchase them from Europeans. The desire for firearms thus intensified competition among the tribes for access to prime hunting grounds that could supply the skins and pelts that the European arms traders wanted. The result was an escalating cycle of Indian-on-Indian violence, fueled by the lure and demands of European trade goods. Native Americans were swept up in the expanding Atlantic economy, but they usually struggled in vain to control their own place in it. One desperate band of Virginia Indians, resentful at the prices offered by Brit- ish traders for their deerskins, loaded a fleet of canoes with hides and tried to paddle to England to sell their goods directly. Not far from the Virginia shore, a storm swamped their frail craft. Their cargo lost, the few survivors were picked up by an English ship and sold into slavery in the West Indies. Indians along the Atlantic seaboard felt the most ferocious effects of European contact. Farther inland, native peoples had the advantages of time, space, and numbers as they sought to adapt to the European

incursion. The Algonquins in the Great Lakes area, for Rare Book Division, The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundation instance, became a substantial regional power. They Advertisement for a Voyage to America, 1609 bolstered their population by absorbing various surrounding bands and dealt from a position of strength with the few Europeans who managed to penetrate the to plant ever more tobacco. Relentlessly, they pressed interior. As a result, a British or French trader wanting the frontier of settlement up the river valleys to the to do business with the inland tribes had little choice west, abrasively edging against the Indians. but to conform to Indian ways, often taking an Indian Virginia’s prosperity was finally built on tobacco wife. Thus was created a middle ground, a zone where smoke. This “bewitching weed” played a vital role in both Europeans and Native Americans were compelled putting the colony on firm economic foundations. But to accommodate to one another—at least until the tobacco—King Nicotine—was something of a tyrant. It Europeans began to arrive in large numbers. was ruinous to the soil when greedily planted in successive years, and it enchained the fortunes of Virginia to the fluctuating price of a single crop. Fatefully, tobacco Virginia: Child of Tobacco also promoted the broad-acred plantation system and with it a brisk demand for fresh labor. John Rolfe, the husband of Pocahontas, became father In 1619, the year before the Plymouth Pilgrims of the tobacco industry and an economic savior of the landed in New England, what was described as a Dutch Virginia colony. By 1612 he had perfected methods warship appeared off Jamestown and sold some twenty of raising and curing the pungent weed, eliminating Africans. The scanty record does not reveal whether much of the bitter tang. Soon the European demand they were purchased as lifelong slaves or as servants for tobacco was nearly insatiable. A tobacco rush swept committed to limited years of servitude. However it over Virginia, as crops were planted in the streets of transpired, this simple commercial transaction planted Jamestown and even between the numerous graves. So the seeds of the North American slave system. Yet exclusively did the colonists concentrate on planting blacks were too costly for most of the hard-pinched the yellow leaf that at first they had to import some of white colonists to acquire, and for decades few were their foodstuffs. Colonists who had once hungered for brought to Virginia. In 1650 Virginia counted but three food now hungered for land, ever more land on which hundred blacks, although by the end of the century

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blacks, most of them enslaved, made up approximately would thus purchase toleration for his own fellow wor- 14 percent of the colony’s population. shipers. But the heavy tide of Protestants threatened to Representative self-government was also born in submerge the Catholics and place severe restrictions on primitive Virginia, in the same cradle with slavery and them, as in England. Faced with disaster, the Catholics in the same year—1619. The Virginia Company autho- of Maryland threw their support behind the famed Act rized the settlers to summon an assembly, known as of Toleration, which was passed in 1649 by the local the House of Burgesses. A momentous precedent representative assembly. was thus feebly established, for this assemblage was the Maryland’s new religious statute guaranteed tol- first of many miniature parliaments to flourish in the eration to all Christians. But, less liberally, it decreed soil of America. the death penalty for those, like Jews and atheists, who As time passed, James I grew increasingly hostile denied the divinity of Jesus. The law thus sanctioned to Virginia. He detested tobacco, and he distrusted the less toleration than had previously existed in the settle- representative House of Burgesses, which he branded a ment, but it did extend a temporary cloak of protection “seminary of sedition.” In 1624 he revoked the charter to the uneasy Catholic minority. One result was that of the bankrupt and beleaguered Virginia Company, when the colonial era ended, Maryland probably shel- thus making Virginia a royal colony directly under his tered more Roman Catholics than any other English- control. speaking colony in the New World.

Maryland: Catholic Haven The West Indies: Way Station to Mainland America Maryland—the second plantation colony but the fourth English colony to be planted—was founded in While the English were planting the first frail colonial 1634 by Lord Baltimore, of a prominent English Catho- shoots in the Chesapeake, they also were busily colo- lic family. He embarked upon the venture partly to reap nizing the islands of the West Indies. Spain, weakened financial profits and partly to create a refuge for his fel- by military overextension and distracted by its rebel- low Catholics. Protestant England was still persecuting lious Dutch provinces, relaxed its grip on much of the Roman Catholics; among numerous discriminations, a Caribbean in the early 1600s. By the mid-seventeenth couple seeking wedlock could not be legally married by century, England had secured its claim to several West a Catholic priest. Indian islands, including the large prize of Jamaica in Absentee proprietor Lord Baltimore hoped that 1655. the two hundred settlers who founded Maryland at Sugar formed the foundation of the West Indian St. Marys, on Chesapeake Bay, would be the vanguard economy. What tobacco was to the Chesapeake, sugar of a vast new feudal domain. Huge estates were to be cane was to the Caribbean—with one crucial dif- awarded to his largely Catholic relatives, and gracious ference. Tobacco was a poor man’s crop. It could be manor houses, modeled on those of England’s aris- planted easily, it produced commercially marketable tocracy, were intended to arise amidst the fertile for- leaves within a year, and it required only simple pro- ests. As in Virginia, colonists proved willing to come cessing. Sugar cane, in contrast, was a rich man’s crop. only if offered the opportunity to acquire land of their own. Soon they were dispersed around the Chesapeake region on modest farms, and the haughty land barons, African slaves destined for the West Indian sugar mostly Catholic, were surrounded by resentful back- plantations were bound and branded on West country planters, mostly Protestant. Resentment flared African beaches and ferried out in canoes to the into open rebellion near the end of the century, and the waiting slave ships. An English sailor described the Baltimore family for a time lost its proprietary rights. scene: Despite these tensions Maryland prospered. Like Virginia, it blossomed forth in acres of tobacco. Also The Negroes are so wilful and loth to leave like Virginia, it depended for labor in its early years their“ own country, that have often leap’d out of mainly on white indentured servants—penniless per- the canoes, boat and ship, into the sea, and sons who bound themselves to work for a number of kept under water till they were drowned, to years to pay their passage. In both colonies it was only avoid being taken up and saved by our boats, in the later years of the seventeenth century that black which pursued them; they having a more slaves began to be imported in large numbers. dreadful apprehension of Barbadoes than we Lord Baltimore, a canny soul, permitted unusual can have of hell. freedom of worship at the outset. He hoped that he ”

49530_02_ch02_0024-0040.indd 32 10/27/11 5:40 PM Granger Collection (above) Sugar Mill in Brazil, by Frans Post, ca. 1640; (left) Saccharum Officinarum (sugar cane)

The Barbados slave code (1661) declared, If any Negro or slave whatsoever shall offer “any violence to any Christian by striking or the like, such Negro or slave shall for his or her first offence be severely whipped by the Constable. For his second offence of that nature he shall be severely whipped, his nose slit, and be burned in some part of his face with a hot iron. And being brutish slaves, [they] deserve not, for the baseness of their condition, to be tried by the legal trial of twelve men of their peers, as the subjects of England are. And it is further enacted and ordained that if any Negro or other slave Library of Congress under punishment by his master unfortunately It had to be planted extensively to yield commercially shall suffer in life or member, which seldom viable quantities of sugar. Extensive planting, in turn, happens, no person whatsoever shall be liable required extensive and arduous land clearing. And the to any fine therefore. cane stalks yielded their sugar only after an elaborate ” process of refining in a sugar mill. The need for land and for the labor to clear it and to run the mills made African peoples throughout the New World in the three sugar cultivation a capital-intensive business. Only and a half centuries following Columbus’s discovery. wealthy growers with abundant capital to invest could To control this large and potentially restive slave succeed in sugar. population, English authorities devised formal “codes” The sugar lords extended their dominion over the that defined the slaves’ legal status and their masters’ West Indies in the seventeenth century. To work their prerogatives. The notorious Barbados slave code of sprawling plantations, they imported enormous num- 1661 denied even the most fundamental rights to slaves bers of enslaved Africans—more than a quarter of a and gave masters virtually complete control over their million in the five decades after 1640. By about 1700, laborers, including the right to inflict vicious punish- black slaves outnumbered white settlers in the English ments for even slight infractions. West Indies by nearly four to one, and the region’s pop- The profitable sugar-plantation system soon ulation has remained predominantly black ever since. crowded out almost all other forms of Caribbean agri- West Indians thus take their place among the numerous culture. The West Indies increasingly depended on the children of the African diaspora—the vast scattering of North American mainland for foodstuffs and other

49530_02_ch02_0024-0040.indd 33 10/27/11 5:40 PM 34 • Chapter 2 The Planting of English America, 1500–1733

basic supplies. And smaller English farmers, squeezed he eventually recalled it in 1640, the members were out by the greedy sugar barons, began to migrate to the mutinous. Finding their great champion in the Puri- newly founded southern mainland colonies. A group tan-soldier Oliver Cromwell, they ultimately beheaded of displaced English settlers from Barbados arrived Charles in 1649, and Cromwell ruled England for in Carolina in 1670. They brought with them a few nearly a decade. Finally, Charles II, son of the decapi- enslaved Africans, as well as the model of the Barbados tated king, was restored to the throne in 1660. slave code, which eventually inspired statutes govern- Colonization had been interrupted during this ing slavery throughout the mainland colonies. Caro- period of bloody unrest. Now, in the so-called Restora- lina officially adopted a version of the Barbados slave tion period, empire building resumed with even greater code in 1696. Just as the West Indies had been a testing intensity—and royal involvement (see Table 2.2). Car- ground for the encomienda system that the Spanish had olina, named for Charles II, was formally created in brought to Mexico and South America, so the Carib- 1670, after the king granted to eight of his court favor- bean islands now served as a staging area for the slave ites, the Lords Proprietors, an expanse of wilderness system that would take root elsewhere in English North ribboning across the continent to the Pacific. These America. aristocratic founders hoped to grow foodstuffs to provision the sugar plantations in Barbados and to export non-English products like wine, silk, and olive oil. Colonizing the Carolinas Carolina prospered by developing close economic ties with the flourishing sugar islands of the English Civil war convulsed England in the 1640s. King West Indies. In a broad sense, the mainland colony was Charles I had dismissed Parliament in 1629, and when but the most northerly of those outposts. Many original

Table 2.2 The Thirteen Original Colonies Name Founded by Year Charter Made Royal 1775 Status 1606 Royal (under the crown) 1. Virginia London Co. 1607{ 1609 1624 1612 2. New Hampshire John Mason and 1623 1679 1679 Royal (absorbed by Mass., 1641–1679) others 3. Massachusetts Puritans ca. 1628 1629 1691 Royal Plymouth Separatists 1620 None (Merged with Mass., 1691) Maine F. Gorges 1623 1639 (Bought by Mass., 1677) 4. Maryland Lord Baltimore 1634 1632 _____ Proprietary (controlled by proprietor) 5. Connecticut Mass. emigrants 1635 1662 _____ Self-governing (under local control) New Haven Mass. emigrants 1638 None (Merged with Conn., 1662) 6. rhode Island R. Williams 1636 1644 _____ Self-governing { 1663 7. Delaware Swedes 1638 None _____ Proprietary (merged with Pa., 1682; same governor, but separate assembly, granted 1703) 8. N. Carolina Virginians 1653 1663 1729 Royal (separated informally from S.C., 1691) 9. New York Dutch ca. 1613 Duke of York 1664 1664 1685 Royal 10. New Jersey Berkeley and 1664 None 1702 Royal Carteret 11. Carolina Eight nobles 1670 1663 1729 Royal (separated formally from N.C., 1712) 12. Pennsylvania William Penn 1681 1681 _____ Proprietary 13. Georgia Oglethorpe and 1733 1732 1752 Royal others

49530_02_ch02_0024-0040.indd 34 10/27/11 5:40 PM The Colonial South • 35

Carolina settlers, in fact, had emigrated from Barbados, bringing that island’s slave system with them. They also established a vigorous slave trade in Carolina itself. Fort and trading post VIRGINIA Enlisting the aid of the coastal Savannah Indians, they 0 100 200 Km.

Roa forayed into the interior in search of captives. The n 0 100 200 Mi. o ke Lords Proprietors in London protested against Indian R. NORTH slave trading in their colony, but to no avail. Manacled CAROLINA New Indians soon were among the young colony’s major 1712 Bern 1710 35°N exports. As many as ten thousand Indians were dis- Campbelltown Sa GEORGIA v SOUTH a Roanoke I. patched to lifelong labor in the West Indian canefields Grant to Trustees n n CAROLINA 1585 of Georgia 1732 a h 1670 and sugar mills. Others were sent to New England. One R . N Rhode Island town in 1730 counted more than two Fort Augusta Fort hundred Indian slaves from Carolina in its midst. Moore Dorchester In 1707 the Savannah Indians decided to end their Charles Town (Charleston) 1670 alliance with the Carolinians and to migrate to the back- Savannah ATLANTIC 1733 country of Maryland and Pennsylvania, where a new OCEAN colony founded by Quakers under William Penn prom- Car Fort King George olina Grant 1663 ised better relations between whites and Indians. But the Fort St. Andrew NEW Fort William Carolinians determined to “thin” the Savannahs before SPAIN Fort St. George they could depart. A series of bloody raids all but anni- 30°N hilated the Indian tribes of coastal Carolina by 1710.

After much experimentation, rice emerged as the Carolina Grant 1665 principal export crop in Carolina. Rice was then an 80°W exotic food in England; no rice seeds were sent out from London in the first supply ships to Carolina. But rice was grown in Africa, and the Carolinians were soon paying Map 2.2 Early Carolina and Georgia Settlements premium prices for West African slaves experienced in © Cengage Learning

rice cultivation. The Africans’ agricultural skill and their HMCo No bleeds relative immunity to malaria (thanks to a genetic trait Kennedy, The American Pageant 14/e ©2010 Early Carolina and Georgia Settlements that also, unfortunately, made them and their descen- kennedy_02_02_Ms00245and religious dissenters. Many of them had been repelled dants susceptible to sickle-cell anemia) made them ideal Trimby the20p6 rarefied x 23p6 atmosphere of Virginia, dominated as it laborers on the hot and swampy rice plantations. By 1stwas proof: by 5/08/08 big-plantation gentry belonging to the Church 2nd proof: 7/03/08 1710 they constituted a majority of Carolinians. Final:of England. 8/7/08 North Carolinians, as a result, have been Moss-festooned Charles Town—also named for the called “the quintessence of Virginia’s discontent.” The king—rapidly became the busiest seaport in the South. newcomers, who frequently were “squatters” without Many high-spirited sons of English landed families, legal right to the soil, raised their tobacco and other deprived of an inheritance, came to the Charleston area crops on small farms, with little need for slaves. and gave it a rich aristocratic flavor. The village became Distinctive traits developed rapidly in North Car- a colorfully diverse community, to which French Prot- olina. The poor but sturdy inhabitants, regarded as estant refugees, Jews, and others were attracted by reli- riffraff by their snobbish neighbors, earned a reputa- gious toleration. tion for being irreligious and hospitable to pirates. Nearby, in Florida, the Catholic Spaniards abhorred Isolated from neighbors by raw wilderness and stormy the intrusion of these Protestant heretics. Carolina’s Cape Hatteras, “graveyard of the Atlantic,” the North frontier was often aflame. Spanish-incited Indians Carolinians developed a strong spirit of resistance to brandished their tomahawks, and armor-clad warriors authority. Their location between aristocratic Virginia of Spain frequently unsheathed their swords during the and aristocratic South Carolina caused the area to be successive Anglo-Spanish wars. But by 1700 Carolina dubbed “a vale of humility between two mountains was too strong to be wiped out. of conceit.” Following much friction with governors, North Carolina was officially separated from South Carolina in 1712, and subsequently each segment The Emergence of North Carolina became a royal colony (see Map 2.2). North Carolina shares with tiny Rhode Island sev- The wild northern expanse of the huge Carolina grant eral distinctions. These two outposts were the most bordered on Virginia. From the older colony there democratic, the most independent-minded, and the least drifted down a ragtag group of poverty-stricken outcasts aristocratic of the original thirteen English colonies.

49530_02_ch02_0024-0040.indd 35 10/27/11 5:40 PM Makers of America The Iroquois

ell before the crowned heads of Europe turned two leaders, Deganawidah and Hiawatha. This proud W their eyes and their dreams of empire toward and potent league vied initially with neighboring Indi- North America, a great military power had emerged ans for territorial supremacy, then with the French, Eng- in the Mohawk Valley of what is now New York State. lish, and Dutch for control of the fur trade. Ultimately, The Iroquois Confederacy, dubbed by whites the infected by the white man’s diseases, intoxicated by his “League of the Iroquois,” bound together five Indian whiskey, and intimidated by his muskets, the Iroquois nations—the Mohawks, the Oneidas, the Onondagas, struggled for their very survival as a people. the Cayugas, and the Senecas (see Map 2.3). According The building block of Iroquois society was the long- to Iroquois legend, it was founded in the late 1500s by house. This wooden structure deserved its descriptive name. Only twenty-five feet in breadth, the longhouse stretched from eight to two hundred feet in length.

75°W Each building contained three to five fireplaces, around Fort MONTAGNAIS Québec which gathered two nuclear families consisting of par- N ents and children. All families residing in the long- ALGONQUIN house were related, their connections of blood running exclusively through the maternal line. A single long- NEW FRANCE KI NA Montréal E B house might shelter a woman’s family and those of her . A 0 50 100 Km. e R 45°N nc re mother, sisters, and daughters—with the oldest woman w Lake a L Champlain 0 50 100 Mi. t. being the honored matriarch. When a man married, he S NEW left his childhood hearth in the home of his mother to HURON CY A ENGLAND R D E . join the longhouse of his wife. Men dominated in Iro- R D MOHAWK N E t

F u Ontario A ke N c quois society, but they owed their positions of promi- La i O L t C M c S R ONONDAGAI e O ONEIDA oh nence to their mothers’ families. SENECA aw n CAYUGA U k OQ R. E IR n

H o MAHICAN C As if sharing one great longhouse, the five nations T

E Fort Orange

L. Erie N joined in the Iroquois Confederacy but kept their

R W own separate fires. Although they celebrated together E n o N s

d and shared a common policy toward outsiders, they

u H . remained essentially independent of one another. On R na D n e

a l the eastern flank of the league, the Mohawks, known eh a u w q s a New Amsterdam r as the Keepers of the Eastern Fire, specialized as mid- u e

S R . 40°N 40°N dlemen with European traders, whereas the outlying 72°W Senecas, the Keepers of the Western Fire, became fur suppliers. Map 2.3 Iroquois Lands and European Trade Centers, ca. After banding together to end generations of vio- 1590–1650 © Cengage Learning lent warfare among themselves, the Five Nations van- quished their rivals, the neighboring Hurons, Eries, HMCo Map Ms00246 MAKERS OF AMERICA Kennedy, The American Pageant 14/e ©2010 No bleeds Iroquois Lands and European Trade Centers, c. 1590–1650 No fades kennedy_ 02_03_Ms00246 Trim 20p6 x 22p0 1st proof 5/8/08 2nd proof: 7/3/08 Final: 8/7/08 Rev. 8/7/08—cm: eliminate fades Courtesy of the Peabody Essex Museum, Salem, MA An Iroquois Canoe In frail but artfully constructed craft like this, the Iroquois traversed the abundant waters of their confederacy and traded with their neighbors, Indians as well as whites.

49530_02_ch02_0024-0040.indd 36 10/27/11 5:40 PM . Marilyn Angel Wynn/Nativestock Pictures/Corbis The Longhouse (Reconstruction) This photo shows a modern-day reconstruction of an Iroquois Indian longhouse typical of the kind built by many tribes in the Northeastern United States and parts of Canada. Bent saplings and sheets of elm bark made for sturdy, weathertight shelters. Longhouses were typically furnished with deerskin-covered bunks and shelves for storing baskets, pots, fur pelts, and corn.

and Petuns. Some other tribes, such as the Tuscaroras in tatters. Many Iroquois, especially the Mohawks, from the Carolina region, sought peaceful absorp- moved to new lands in British Canada; others were rel- tion into the Iroquois Confederacy. The Iroquois fur- egated to reservations in western New York. ther expanded their numbers by means of periodic Reservation life proved unbearable for a proud “mourning wars,” whose objective was the large-scale people accustomed to domination over a vast terri- adoption of captives and refugees. But the arrival of tory. Morale sank; brawling, feuding, and alcoholism gun-toting Europeans threatened Iroquois supremacy became rampant. Out of this morass arose a prophet, an and enmeshed the confederacy in a tangled web of Iroquois called Handsome Lake. In 1799 angelic figures diplomatic intrigues. Throughout the seventeenth and clothed in traditional Iroquois garb appeared to Hand- eighteenth centuries, they allied alternately with the some Lake in a vision and warned him that the moral English against the French and vice versa, for a time decline of his people must end if they were to endure. successfully working this perpetual rivalry to their He awoke from his vision to warn his tribespeople to own advantage. But when the American Revolution mend their ways. His socially oriented gospel inspired broke out, the confederacy could reach no consensus many Iroquois to forsake alcohol, to affirm family val- on which side to support. Each tribe was left to decide ues, and to revive old Iroquois customs. Handsome independently; most, though not all, sided with the Lake died in 1815, but his teachings, in the form of the British. The ultimate British defeat left the confederacy Longhouse religion, survive to this day.

49530_02_ch02_0024-0040.indd 37 10/27/11 5:40 PM 38 • Chapter 2 The Planting of English America, 1500–1733

Although northern Carolina, unlike the colony’s the founders was the dynamic soldier-statesman James southern reaches, did not at first import large numbers Oglethorpe, who became keenly interested in prison of African slaves, both regions shared in the ongoing reform after one of his friends died in a debtors’ jail. tragedy of bloody relations between Indians and Euro- As an able military leader, Oglethorpe repelled Spanish peans. Tuscarora Indians fell upon the fledgling settle- attacks. As an imperialist and a philanthropist, he saved ment at New Bern in 1711. The North Carolinians, aided “the Charity Colony” by his energetic leadership and by by their heavily armed brothers from the south, retali- heavily mortgaging his own personal fortune. ated by crushing the Indians in the Tuscarora War, The hamlet of Savannah, like Charleston, was a selling hundreds of them into slavery and leaving the melting-pot community. German Lutherans and kilted survivors to wander northward to seek the protection Scots Highlanders, among others, added color to the of the Iroquois. The Tuscaroras eventually became the pattern. All Christian worshipers except Catholics Sixth Nation of the Iroquois Confederacy. In another enjoyed religious toleration. Many missionaries armed ferocious encounter four years later, the South Carolin- with Bibles and hope arrived in Savannah to work ians defeated and dispersed the Yamasee Indians. among debtors and Indians. Prominent among them With the conquest of the Yamasees, virtually all was young John Wesley, who later returned to England the coastal Indian tribes in the southern colonies had and founded the Methodist Church. been utterly devastated by about 1720. Yet in the inte- Georgia grew with painful slowness and at the end rior, in the hills and valleys of the Appalachian Moun- of the colonial era was perhaps the least populous of tains, the powerful Cherokees, Creeks, and Iroquois the colonies. The development of a plantation economy (see “Makers of America: The Iroquois,” pp. 36–37) was thwarted by an unhealthy climate, by early restric- remained. Stronger and more numerous than their tions on black slavery, and by demoralizing Spanish coastal cousins, they managed for half a century more attacks. to contain British settlement to the coastal plain east of the mountains. The Plantation Colonies

Late-Coming Georgia: Certain distinctive features were shared by England’s The Buffer Colony southern mainland colonies: Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. Broad- Pine-forested Georgia, with the harbor of Savannah acred, these outposts of empire were all in some degree nourishing its chief settlement, was formally founded devoted to exporting commercial agricultural products. in 1733. It proved to be the last of the thirteen colonies Profitable staple crops were the rule, notably tobacco to be planted—126 years after the first, Virginia, and 52 and rice, though to a lesser extent in small-farm North years after the twelfth, Pennsylvania. Chronologically Carolina. Slavery was found in all the plantation colo- Georgia belongs elsewhere, but geographically it may nies, though only after 1750 in reform-minded Georgia. be grouped with its southern neighbors. Immense acreage in the hands of a favored few fostered The English crown intended Georgia to serve a strong aristocratic atmosphere, except in North Caro- chiefly as a buffer. It would protect the more valu- lina and to some extent in debtor-tinged Georgia. The able Carolinas against vengeful Spaniards from Florida wide scattering of plantations and farms, often along and against the hostile French from Louisiana. Georgia stately rivers, retarded the growth of cities and made indeed suffered much buffeting, especially when wars the establishment of churches and schools both dif- broke out between Spain and England in the European ficult and expensive. In 1671 the governor of Virginia arena. As a vital link in imperial defense, the exposed actually thanked God that no free schools or printing colony received monetary subsidies from the British presses existed in his colony. government at the outset—the only one of the “origi- All the plantation colonies permitted some reli- nal thirteen” to enjoy this benefit in its founding stage. gious toleration. The tax-supported Church of England Named in honor of King George II of England, became the dominant faith, though it was weakest of Georgia was launched by a high-minded group of phi- all in nonconformist North Carolina. lanthropists. In addition to protecting their neighbor- These colonies were in some degree expansionary. ing northern colonies and producing silk and wine, “Soil butchery” by excessive tobacco growing drove they were determined to carve out a haven for wretched settlers westward, and the long, lazy rivers invited souls imprisoned for debt. They were also determined, at penetration of the continent—and continuing confron- least at first, to keep slavery out of Georgia. The ablest of tation with Native Americans.

49530_02_ch02_0024-0040.indd 38 10/27/11 5:40 PM Chapter Review • 39 Chapter Review KEY TERMS PEOPLE TO KNOW Protestant Reformation (24) Second Anglo-Powhatan Henry VIII Pocahontas Roanoke Island (25) War (29) Elizabeth I Lord De La Warr Spanish Armada (25) House of Burgesses (32) Sir Francis Drake John Rolfe primogeniture (27) Act of Toleration (32) Sir Walter Raleigh Lord Baltimore joint-stock company (27) Barbados slave code (33) James I Oliver Cromwell Virginia Company (27) squatters (35) Captain John Smith James Oglethorpe charter (27) Iroquois Confederacy (36) Powhatan Hiawatha Jamestown (27) Tuscarora War (38) First Anglo-Powhatan Yamasee Indians (38) War (29) buffer (38)

CHRONOLOGY

1558 Elizabeth I becomes queen of England 1634 Maryland colony founded

ca. 1565–1590 English crush Irish uprising 1640s Large-scale slave-labor system established in English West Indies 1577 Drake circumnavigates the globe 1644 Second Anglo-Powhatan War 1585 Raleigh founds “lost colony” at Roanoke Island 1649 Act of Toleration in Maryland Charles I beheaded; Cromwell rules 1588 England defeats Spanish Armada England

1603 James I becomes king of England 1660 Charles II restored to English throne

1604 Spain and England sign peace treaty 1661 Barbados slave code adopted

1607 Virginia colony founded at Jamestown 1670 Carolina colony created

1612 Rolfe perfects tobacco culture in 1711–1713 Tuscarora War in North Carolina Virginia 1712 North Carolina formally separates from 1614 First Anglo-Powhatan War ends South Carolina

1619 First Africans arrive in Jamestown 1715–1716 Yamasee War in South Carolina Virginia House of Burgesses established 1733 Georgia colony founded 1624 Virginia becomes royal colony

49530_02_ch02_0024-0040.indd 39 10/27/11 5:40 PM 40 • Chapter 2 The Planting of English America, 1500–1733.

To Learn More Ira Berlin, Generations of Captivity: A History of African David B. Quinn, England and the Discovery of America, American Slaves (2003) 1481–1620 (1974) ———, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Daniel K. Richter, Facing East from Indian Country: A Native Slavery in North America (1998) History of Early America (2003) Kathleen Brown, Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, and Anxious Nancy Shoemaker, A Strange Likeness: Becoming Red and Patriarchs: Gender, Race, and Power in Colonial Virginia White in Eighteenth-Century North America (2004) (1996) Alan Taylor, American Colonies: The Settling of North Colin G. Calloway, New Worlds for All: Indians, Europeans, America (2001) and the Remaking of America (1997) Camilla Townsend, Pocahontas and the Powhatan Dilemma Ralph Davis, The Rise of the Atlantic Economies (1973) (2004) Jack P. Greene, Pursuits of Happiness: The Social Development of Early Modern British Colonies and the A complete, annotated bibliography for this Formation of American Culture (1988) chapter—along with brief descriptions of the April Lee Hatfield,Atlantic Virginia: Intercolonial Relations People to Know—may be found on the American in the Seventeenth Century (2004) Pageant website. The Key Terms are defined in a Edmund S. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom Glossary at the end of the text. (1975)

Go to the CourseMate website at www.cengagebrain.com for additional study tools and review materials—including audio and video clips—for this chapter.

49530_02_ch02_0024-0040.indd 40 10/27/11 5:40 PM Chapter 3 Settling ther Northern Colonies 1619–1700

God hath sifted a nation that he might send Choice Grain into this Wilderness.

William Stoughton [of Massachusetts Bay], 1699

lthough colonists both north and south in ways that profoundly affected the thought and char- were bound together by a common language acter of generations of Americans yet unborn. Calvin- Aand a common allegiance to Mother England, they ism became the dominant theological credo not only established different patterns of settlement, different of the New England Puritans but of other American economies, different political systems, and even differ- settlers as well, including the Scottish Presbyterians, ent sets of values—defining distinctive regional charac- French Huguenots, and communicants of the Dutch teristics that would persist for generations. The promise Reformed Church. of riches—especially from golden-leaved tobacco— Calvin spelled out his basic doctrine in a learned drew the first settlers to the southern colonies. But to Latin tome of 1536, entitled Institutes of the Christian the north, in the fertile valleys of the middle Atlantic Religion. God, Calvin argued, was all-powerful and region and especially along the rocky shores of New all-good. Humans, because of the corrupting effect England, it was not worldly wealth but religious devo- of original sin, were weak and wicked. God was also tion that principally shaped the earliest settlements. all-knowing—and he knew who was going to heaven and who was going to hell. Since the first moment of creation, some souls—the elect—had been destined The Protestant Reformation for eternal bliss and others for eternal torment. Good Produces Puritanism works could not save those whom predestination had marked for the infernal fires. Little did the German friar Martin Luther suspect, But neither could the elect count on their predeter- when he nailed his protests against Catholic doctrines mined salvation and lead lives of wild, immoral aban- to the door of Wittenberg’s cathedral in 1517, that he don. For one thing, no one could be certain of his or her was shaping the destiny of a yet unknown nation. status in the heavenly ledger. Gnawing doubts about Denouncing the authority of priests and popes, Luther their eternal fate plagued Calvinists. They constantly declared that the Bible alone was the source of God’s sought, in themselves and others, signs of conversion, word. He ignited a fire of religious reform (the “Prot- or the receipt of God’s free gift of saving grace. Conver- estant Reformation”) that licked its way across Europe sion was thought to be an intense, identifiable personal for more than a century, dividing peoples, toppling experience in which God revealed to the elect their sovereigns, and kindling the spiritual fervor of millions heavenly destiny. Thereafter they were expected to lead of men and women—some of whom helped to found “sanctified” lives, demonstrating by their holy behavior America. that they were among the “visible saints.” The reforming flame burned especially brightly in These doctrines swept into England just as King the bosom of John Calvin of Geneva. This somber and Henry VIII was breaking his ties with the Roman Cath- severe religious leader elaborated Martin Luther’s ideas olic Church in the 1530s, making himself the head of

49530_03_ch03_0041-0059.indd 41 10/27/11 5:39 PM 42 • Chapter 3 Settling the Northern Colonies, 1619–1700

the Church of England. Henry would have been con- threatened to harass the more bothersome Separatists tent to retain Roman rituals and creeds, but his action out of the land. powerfully stimulated some English religious reform- ers to undertake a total purification of English Christi- anity. Many of these Puritans, as it happened, came The Pilgrims End Their from the commercially depressed woolen districts (see Pilgrimage at Plymouth p. 26). Calvinism, with its message of stark but reas- suring order in the divine plan, fed on this social The most famous congregation of Separatists, fleeing unrest and provided spiritual comfort to the economi- royal wrath, departed for Holland in 1608. During the cally disadvantaged. As time went on, Puritans grew ensuing twelve years of toil and poverty, they were increasingly unhappy over the snail-like progress of increasingly distressed by the “Dutchification” of their the Protestant Reformation in England. They burned children. They longed to find a haven where they could with pious zeal to see the Church of England wholly live and die as English men and women—and as puri- de-catholicized. fied Protestants. America was the logical refuge, despite The most devout Puritans, including those who the early ordeals of Jamestown, and despite tales of eventually settled New England, believed that only New World cannibals roasting steaks from their white “visible saints” (that is, persons who felt the stirrings victims over open fires. of grace in their souls and could demonstrate its pres- A group of the Separatists in Holland, after nego- ence to their fellow Puritans) should be admitted tiating with the Virginia Company, at length secured to church membership. But the Church of England rights to settle under its jurisdiction. But their crowded enrolled all the king’s subjects, which meant that the Mayflower, sixty-five days at sea, missed its destination “saints” had to share pews and communion rails with and arrived off the stony coast of New England in 1620, the “damned.” Appalled by this unholy fraternizing, a with a total of 102 persons. One had died en route—an tiny group of dedicated Puritans, known as Separat- unusually short casualty list—and one had been born ists, vowed to break away entirely from the Church of and appropriately named Oceanus. Fewer than half of England. the entire party were Separatists. Prominent among King James I, a shrewd Scotsman, was head of the nonbelongers was a peppery and stocky soldier of both the state and the church in England from 1603 fortune, Captain Myles Standish, dubbed by one of his to 1625. He quickly perceived that if his subjects could critics “Captain Shrimp.” He later rendered indispens- defy him as their spiritual leader, they might one day able service as an Indian fighter and negotiator. defy him as their political leader (as in fact they would The Pilgrims did not make their initial landing at later defy and behead his son, Charles I). He therefore Plymouth Rock, as commonly supposed, but undertook

Plymouth Plantation Carefully restored, the modest village at Plymouth looks today much as it did nearly four hundred years ago. Picture Research Consultants & Archives

49530_03_ch03_0041-0059.indd 42 10/27/11 5:39 PM Religion in the Bay Colony • 43

a number of preliminary surveys. They finally chose for their site the shore of inhospitable Plymouth Bay. This William Bradford (1590–1657) wrote in Of Plymouth area was outside the domain of the Virginia Company, Plantation, and consequently the settlers became squatters. They Thus out of small beginnings greater things were without legal right to the land and without spe- “have been produced by His hand that made all cific authority to establish a government. things of nothing, and gives being to all things Before disembarking, the Pilgrim leaders drew up that are; and, as one small candle may light a and signed the brief Mayflower Compact. Although setting an invaluable precedent for later written con- thousand, so the light here kindled hath shone stitutions, this document was not a constitution at unto many, yea in some sort to our whole all. It was a simple agreement to form a crude gov- nation. ernment and to submit to the will of the majority ” under the regulations agreed upon. The compact was signed by forty-one adult males, eleven of them with the exalted rank of “mister,” though not by the servants and two seamen. The pact was a promising step The Bay Colony Bible toward genuine self-government, for soon the adult Commonwealth male settlers were assembling to make their own laws in open-discussion town meetings—a vital laboratory The Separatist Pilgrims were dedicated extremists— of liberty. the purest Puritans. More moderate Puritans sought to The Pilgrims’ first winter of 1620–1621 took a reform the Church of England from within. Though grisly toll. Only 44 out of the 102 survived. At one resented by bishops and monarchs, they slowly gath- time only 7 were well enough to lay the dead in their ered support, especially in Parliament. But when frosty graves. Yet when the Mayflower sailed back to Charles I dismissed Parliament in 1629 and sanctioned England in the spring, not a single one of the coura- the anti-Puritan persecutions of the reactionary Arch- geous band of Separatists left. As one of them wrote, “It bishop William Laud, many Puritans saw catastrophe is not with us as with other men, whom small things in the making. can discourage.” In 1629 an energetic group of non-Separatist Puri- God made his children prosperous, so the Pilgrims tans, fearing for their faith and for England’s future, believed. The next autumn, that of 1621, brought boun- secured a royal charter to form the Massachusetts Bay tiful harvests and with them the first Thanksgiving Day Company. They proposed to establish a sizable settle- in New England. In time the frail colony found sound ment in the infertile Massachusetts area, with Bos- economic legs in fur, fish, and lumber. The beaver and ton soon becoming its hub. Stealing a march on both the Bible were the early mainstays: the one for the sus- king and church, the newcomers brought their char- tenance of the body, the other for the sustenance of the ter with them. For many years they used it as a kind soul. Plymouth proved that the English could maintain of constitution, out of easy reach of royal authority. themselves in this uninviting region. They steadfastly denied that they wanted to separate The Pilgrims were extremely fortunate in their from the Church of England, only from its impurities. leaders. Prominent among them was the cultured Wil- But back in England, the highly orthodox Archbishop liam Bradford, a self-taught scholar who read Hebrew, Laud snorted that the Bay Colony Puritans were “swine Greek, Latin, French, and Dutch. He was chosen gov- which rooted in God’s vineyard.” The Massachusetts ernor thirty times in the annual elections. Among Bay Colony was singularly blessed. The well-equipped his major worries was his fear that independent, non- expedition of 1630, with eleven vessels carrying nearly Puritan settlers “on their particular” might corrupt his a thousand immigrants, started the colony off on a godly experiment in the wilderness. Bustling fishing larger scale than any of the other English settlements. villages and other settlements did sprout to the north Continuing turmoil in England tossed up additional of Plymouth, on the storm-lashed shores of Massachu- enriching waves of Puritans on the shores of Massa- setts Bay, where many people were as much interested chusetts in the following decade. During the Great in cod as God. Migration of the 1630s, about seventy thousand ref- Quiet and quaint, the little colony of Plymouth was ugees left England (see Map 3.1). But not all of them never important economically or numerically. Its pop- were Puritans, and only about twenty thousand came ulation numbered only seven thousand by 1691, when, to Massachusetts. Many were attracted to the warm still charterless, it merged with its giant neighbor, the and fertile West Indies, especially the sugar-rich island Massachusetts Bay Colony. But the tiny settlement of of Barbados. More Puritans came to this Caribbean islet Pilgrims was big both morally and spiritually. than to all of Massachusetts.

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0 1000 2000 Km. 60°W 30°W 56°N ENGLAND 0 1000 2000 Mi. SCOTLAND 0 om : : 25,00 Fr nd England gla To New En 00 9,0 NORTH 18 0 AMERICA : 50,00 EUROPE apeake To Ches 0 : 4,00 muda To Ber 00 ,0 54°N 0 30°N 11 s: ie nd I r i s h t I Tropic of Cancer N o r t h es S e a W S e a To IRELAND ENGLAND C a r i AFRICA E b b e a N A n S e a S N T A NORFOLK N ATLANTIC G SOUTH L I A AMERICA OCEAN 52°N WALES SUFFOLK HERTFORDSHIRE ESSEX Woolen 0 50 Km. Bristol London Districts WILTSHIRE KENT Map 3.1b The Great English Migration, ca. 1630– 0 50 Mi. SOMERSET 1642 Much of the early history of the United States was DEVON DORSET written by New Englanders, who were not disposed to Woolen l HMCoemphasize the larger exodus of English migrantsNo bleeds to the Carib- Districts n n e C h a 50°N E n g l i s h Kennedy,bean islands. The American When thePageant mainland 14/e ©2010 colonists declared indepen- The Great English Migration 6°W 4°W dence in 1776, they hoped that these island outposts would FRANCE kennedy_03_01b_Ms00248 Main sources of migration Trimjoin 20p6them, x 16p0but the existence of the British navy had a dissuad- 2°W 0° 2°E 1sting proof: effect. 5/08/08 © Cengage Learning 2nd proof: 7/03/08 Final: 8/1/08 Map 3.1a Sources of the Puritan “Great Migration” to New England, 1620–1650 The shaded areas indicate the main sources of the migration. © Cengage Learning HMCo Map No bleeds Building the Bay Colony kennedy, The American Pageant 14/e ©2010 Sources of the Puritan “Great Migration” to These common convictions deeply shaped the infant New England, 1620 –1650 colony’s life. Soon after the colonists’ arrival, the fran- kennedy_03_01a Many fairly prosperous, educated persons immi- chise was extended to all “freemen”—adult males Trim 20p6 x 25p0 grated to the Bay Colony, including John Winthrop, who belonged to the Puritan congregations, which First proof: 06/11/08 a well-to-do pillar of English society, who became in time came to be called collectively the Congrega- 2nd proof: 7/14/08 theFinal: colony’s 8/7/08 first governor. A successful attorney and tional Church. Unchurched men remained voteless in manor lord in England, Winthrop eagerly accepted the provincial elections, as did all women. On this basis offer to become governor of the Massachusetts Bay Col- about two-fifths of adult males enjoyed the franchise ony, believing that he had a “calling” from God to lead in provincial affairs, a far larger proportion than in the new religious experiment. He served as governor or contemporary England. Town governments, which deputy governor for nineteen years. The resources and conducted much important business, were even more skills of talented settlers like Winthrop helped Massa- inclusive. There all male property holders, and in some chusetts prosper, as fur trading, fishing, and shipbuild- cases other residents as well, enjoyed the priceless boon ing blossomed into important industries, especially fish of publicly discussing local issues, often with much and ships. The Massachusetts Bay Colony rapidly shot heat, and of voting on them by a majority-rule show to the fore as both the biggest and the most influential of hands. of the New England outposts. Yet the provincial government, liberal by the stan- Massachusetts also benefited from a shared sense of dards of the time, was not a democracy. The able Gov- purpose among most of the first settlers. “We shall be ernor Winthrop feared and distrusted the “commons” as a city upon a hill,” a beacon to humanity, declared as the “meaner sort” and thought that democracy was Governor Winthrop. The Puritan bay colonists the “meanest and worst” of all forms of government. believed that they had a covenant with God, an agree- “If the people be governors,” asked one Puritan cler- ment to build a holy society that would be a model for gyman, “who shall be governed?” True, the freemen humankind. annually elected the governor and his assistants, as

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well as a representative assembly called the General aimed at making sure these pleasures stayed simple by Court. But only Puritans—the “visible saints” who repressing certain human instincts. In New Haven, for alone were eligible for church membership—could be example, a young married couple was fined twenty shil- freemen. And according to the doctrine of the cove- lings for the crime of kissing in public, and in later years nant, the whole purpose of government was to enforce Connecticut came to be dubbed “the Blue Law State.” (It God’s laws—which applied to believers and nonbeliev- was so named for the blue paper on which the repressive ers alike. Moreover, nonbelievers as well as believers laws—also known as “sumptuary laws”—were printed.) paid taxes for the government-supported church. Yet, to the Puritans, life was serious business, and Religious leaders thus wielded enormous influence hellfire was real—a hell where sinners shriveled and in the Massachusetts “Bible Commonwealth.” They shrieked in vain for divine mercy. An immensely popu- powerfully influenced admission to church member- lar poem in New England, selling one copy for every ship by conducting public interrogations of persons twenty people, was clergyman Michael Wigglesworth’s claiming to have experienced conversion. Prominent “Day of Doom” (1662). Especially horrifying were his among the early clergy was fiery John Cotton. Edu- descriptions of the fate of the damned: cated at England’s Cambridge University, a Puritan They cry, they roar for anguish sore, citadel, he emigrated to Massachusetts to avoid and gnaw their tongues for horrour. But get away persecution for his criticism of the Church without delay, of England. In the Bay Colony, he devoted Christ pitties not your cry: his considerable learning to defending the Depart to Hell, there may you yell, and roar government’s duty to enforce religious Eternally. rules. Profoundly pious, he sometimes preached and prayed up to six hours in a single day. Trouble in the Bible But the power of the preachers was not absolute. A congregation Commonwealth had the right to hire and fire its minister and to set his salary. Cler- The Bay Colony enjoyed a high degree gymen were also barred from hold- of social harmony, stemming from ing formal political office. Puritans common beliefs, in its early years. in England had suffered too much But even in this tightly knit commu- at the hands of a “political” Angli- nity, dissension soon appeared. Quak- can clergy to permit in the New ers, who flouted the authority of the World another unholy union Puritan clergy, were persecuted with of religious and government fines, floggings, and banishment. power. In a limited way, the In one extreme case, four Quakers bay colonists thus endorsed who defied expulsion, one of them a the idea of the separation of woman, were hanged on the Boston church and state. Common. The Puritans were a worldly A sharp challenge to Puritan ortho- lot, despite—or even because doxy came from Anne Hutchinson. She of—their spiritual intensity. Like was an exceptionally intelligent, strong- Anne Hutchinson, Dissenter John Winthrop, they believed in willed, and talkative woman, ultimately Mistress Hutchinson (1591–1643) the doctrine of a “calling” to do the mother of fourteen children. Swift held unorthodox views that and sharp in theological argument, she God’s work on earth. They shared challenged the authority of the in what was later called the “Prot- clergy and the very integrity of the carried to logical extremes the Puritan estant ethic,” which involved seri- Puritan experiment in the doctrine of predestination. She claimed ous commitment to work and to Massachusetts Bay Colony. An that a holy life was no sure sign of salva- engagement in worldly pursuits. outcast in her day, she has been tion and that the truly saved need not Legend to the contrary, they also judged a heroine in the eye of bother to obey the law of either God or enjoyed simple pleasures: they ate history. This statue in her honor, man. This assertion, known as antino- plentifully, drank heartily, sang erected in the nineteenth century, mianism (from the Greek, “against the songs occasionally, and made love now graces the front of the Boston, law”), was high heresy. Massachusetts, Statehouse. Secretary of mostly monogamously. Like other Brought to trial in 1638, the quick- Commonwealth of Massachusetts State House/Picture peoples of their time in both Amer- witted Hutchinson bamboozled her Research Consultants & Archives ica and Europe, they passed laws clerical inquisitors for days, until she

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eventually boasted that she had come by her beliefs some of whom could not bear the stifling theological through a direct revelation from God. This was even atmosphere of the Bay Colony. Many of these restless higher heresy. The Puritan magistrates had little choice souls in “Rogues’ Island,” including Anne Hutchinson, but to banish her, lest she pollute the entire Puritan had little in common with Roger Williams—except experiment. With her family, she set out on foot for being unwelcome anywhere else. The Puritan clergy Rhode Island, though pregnant. She finally moved to back in Boston sneered at Rhode Island as “that sewer” New York, where she and all but one of her household in which the “Lord’s debris” had collected and rotted. were killed by Indians. Back in the Bay Colony, the Planted by dissenters and exiles, Rhode Island pious John Winthrop saw “God’s hand” in her fate. became strongly individualistic and stubbornly indepen- More threatening to the Puritan leaders was a dent. With good reason “Little Rhody” was later known personable and popular Salem minister, Roger Wil- as “the traditional home of the otherwise minded.” liams. Williams was a young man with radical ideas Begun as a squatter colony in 1636 without legal stand- and an unrestrained tongue. An extreme Separatist, he ing, it finally established rights to the soil when it secured hounded his fellow clergymen to make a clean break a charter from Parliament in 1644. A huge bronze statue with the corrupt Church of England. He also chal- of the “Independent Man” appropriately stands today on lenged the legality of the Bay Colony’s charter, which the dome of the statehouse in Providence. he condemned for expropriating the land from the Indians without fair compensation. As if all this were not enough, he went on to deny the authority of civil New England Spreads Out government to regulate religious behavior—a seditious blow at the Puritan idea of government’s very purpose. The smiling valley of the Connecticut River, one of the Their patience exhausted by 1635, the Bay Colony few highly fertile expanses of any size in all New Eng- authorities found Williams guilty of disseminating land, had meanwhile attracted a sprinkling of Dutch “newe & dangerous opinions” and ordered him ban- and English settlers. Hartford was founded in 1635 ished. He was permitted to remain several months lon- (see Map 3.2). The next year witnessed a spectacular ger because of illness, but he kept up his criticisms. The outraged magistrates, fearing that he might organize a 72°W 70°W rival colony of malcontents, made plans to exile him to 44°N England. But Williams foiled them. MAINE 1623 The Rhode Island “Sewer” NEW Portsmouth HAMPSHIRE

Aided by friendly Indians, Roger Williams fled to the 1679 1 4 7

6 7

1 6 Rhode Island area in 1636, in the midst of a bitter winter. 0 50 100 Km. 1

At Providence the courageous and far-visioned Williams N 0 50 . 100 Mi. R

Salem built a Baptist church, probably the first in America. He t u

c i MASSACHUSETTS t Cambridge established complete freedom of religion, even for Jews c e BAY Boston

n 1630 and Catholics. He demanded no oaths regarding reli- o 1 Plymouth

C 6

42°N 9 (Pilgrims) gious beliefs, no compulsory attendance at worship, no 1

Springfield taxes to support a state church. He even sheltered the PLYMOUTH .

R Hartford Providence 1620

abused Quakers, although disagreeing sharply with n Portsmouth

o s CONNECTICUT RHODE d their views. Williams’s endorsement of religious toler- u 1635–1636 ISLAND ance made Rhode Island more liberal than any of the H 1636 New Haven ATLANTIC other English settlements in the New World, and more NEW OCEAN HAVEN advanced than most Old World communities as well. 1638 Colonies absorbed by Those outcasts who clustered about Roger Williams Long Island Massachusetts Bay Colony enjoyed additional blessings. They exercised simple Colonies founded by migrants from Massachusetts Bay Colony manhood suffrage from the start, though this broad- minded practice was later narrowed by a property qual- ification. Opposed to special privilege of any sort, the Map 3.2 Seventeenth-Century New England Settlements intrepid Rhode Islanders managed to achieve remark- The Massachusetts Bay Colony was the hub of New England. able freedom of opportunity. HMCo No bleeds AKennedy,ll earlier The colonies American grew Pageant into it;14/e all ©2010 later colonies grew out of Other scattered settlements soon dotted Rhode it.17th © Cengage C New Learning England Settlements Island. They consisted largely of malcontents and exiles, kennedy_03_02_Ms00249 Trim 20p6 x 23p6 1st proof: 5/08/08 2nd proof: 7/03/08 Final: 8/1/08

49530_03_ch03_0041-0059.indd 46 10/27/11 5:39 PM The Expansion of New England • 47

beginning of the centuries-long westward movement across the continent. An energetic group of Boston Puritans, led by the Rever- end Thomas Hooker, swarmed as a body into the Hartford area, with the ailing Mrs. Hooker carried on a horse litter. Three years later, in 1639, the settlers of the new Connecticut River colony drafted in open meeting a trailblazing document known as the Fundamental Orders. It was in effect a modern constitution, which established a regime democratically Rhode Island Historical Society controlled by the “substantial” citi- Attack on a Pequot Fort During the Pequot War of zens. Essential features of the Fundamental Orders were 1637, engraving by J. W. Barber, 1830 This was the first war between natives and Europeans in British North later borrowed by Connecticut for its colonial charter America. It culminated in the Puritan militia’s vicious and ultimately for its state constitution. burning out and slaughtering of nearly three hundred Another flourishing Connecticut settlement began Pequot men, women, and children. The defeat of the to spring up at New Haven in 1638. It was a prosperous Pequots eliminated armed resistance to the new community, founded by Puritans who contrived to set settlements of New Haven and Guildford. The Connecticut up an even closer church-government alliance than in Valley would not see significant “Indian troubles” again for Massachusetts. Although only squatters without a char- forty years, when the Indians of New England united in ter, the colonists dreamed of making New Haven a bus- their final stand against the encroachments of English tling seaport. But they fell into disfavor with Charles II settlers, King Philip’s War. as a result of having sheltered two of the judges who had condemned his father, Charles I, to death. In 1662, to the acute distress of the New Havenites, the crown granted a by contact with English fishermen, had swept through charter to Connecticut that merged New Haven with the the coastal tribes and killed more than three-quarters more democratic settlements in the Connecticut Valley. of the native people. Deserted Indian fields, ready for Far to the north, enterprising fishermen and fur- tillage, greeted the Plymouth settlers, and scattered traders had been active on the coast of Maine for a skulls and bones provided grim evidence of the impact dozen or so years before the founding of Plymouth. of the disease. After disheartening attempts at colonization in 1623 In no position to resist the English incursion, the by Sir Ferdinando Gorges, this land of lakes and forests local Wampanoag Indians at first befriended the set- was absorbed by Massachusetts Bay after a formal pur- tlers. Cultural accommodation was facilitated by chase in 1677 from the Gorges heirs. It remained a part Squanto, a Wampanoag who had learned English from of Massachusetts for nearly a century and a half before a ship’s captain who had kidnapped him some years becoming a separate state. earlier. The Wampanoag chieftain Massasoit signed a Granite-ribbed New Hampshire also sprang from treaty with the Plymouth Pilgrims in 1621 and helped the fishing and trading activities along its narrow coast. them celebrate the first Thanksgiving after the autumn It was absorbed in 1641 by the grasping Bay Colony, harvests that same year. under a strained interpretation of the Massachusetts As more English settlers arrived and pushed inland charter. The king, annoyed by this display of greed, into the Connecticut River valley, confrontations arbitrarily separated New Hampshire from Massachu- between Indians and whites ruptured these peaceful setts in 1679 and made it a royal colony. relations. Hostilities exploded in 1637 between the Eng- lish settlers and the powerful Pequot tribe. Besieging a Pequot village on Connecticut’s Mystic River, English Puritans Versus Indians militiamen and their Narragansett Indian allies set fire to the Indian wigwams and shot the fleeing survivors. The spread of English settlements inevitably led to The slaughter wrote a brutal finish to thePequot War, clashes with the Indians, who were particularly weak in virtually annihilated the Pequot tribe, and inaugurated New England. Shortly before the Pilgrims had arrived four decades of uneasy peace between Puritans and at Plymouth in 1620, an epidemic, probably triggered Indians.

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Lashed by critics in England, the Puritans made many heretical or otherwise undesirable characters. some feeble efforts at converting the remaining Indi- Shockingly, one of the Maine towns had made a tailor ans to Christianity, although Puritan missionary zeal its mayor and had even sheltered an excommunicated never equaled that of the Catholic Spanish and French. minister of the gospel. A mere handful of Indians were gathered into Puritan Weak though it was, the confederation was the first “praying towns” to make the acquaintance of the Eng- notable milestone on the long and rocky road toward lish God and to learn the ways of English culture. colonial unity. The delegates took tottering but long- The Indians’ only hope for resisting English overdue steps toward acting together on matters of encroachment lay in intertribal unity—a pan-Indian intercolonial importance. Rank-and-file colonists, for alliance against the swiftly spreading English settle- their part, received valuable experience in delegating ments. In 1675 Massasoit’s son, Metacom, called King their votes to properly chosen representatives. Philip by the English, forged such an alliance and Back in England the king had paid little atten- mounted a series of coordinated assaults on English tion to the American colonies during the early years of villages throughout New England. Frontier settlements their planting. They were allowed, in effect, to become were especially hard hit, and refugees fell back toward semiautonomous commonwealths. This era of benign the relative safety of Boston. When the war ended in neglect was prolonged when the crown, struggling to 1676, fifty-two Puritan towns had been attacked, and retain its power, became enmeshed during the 1640s in twelve destroyed entirely. Hundreds of colonists and civil wars with the parliamentarians. many more Indians lay dead. Metacom’s wife and But when Charles II was restored to the English son were sold into slavery; he himself was captured, throne in 1660 (see Table 3.1), the royalists and their beheaded, and drawn and quartered. His head was car- Church of England allies were once more firmly in the ried on a pike back to Plymouth, where it was mounted saddle. Puritan hopes of eventually purifying the old on grisly display for years. English church withered. Worse, Charles II was deter- King Philip’s War slowed the westward march of mined to take an active, aggressive hand in the man- English settlement in New England for several decades. agement of the colonies. His plans ran headlong against But the war inflicted a lasting defeat on New England’s the habits that decades of relative independence had Indians. Drastically reduced in numbers, dispirited, bred in the colonists. and disbanded, they thereafter posed only sporadic Deepening colonial defiance was nowhere more threats to the New England colonists. glaringly revealed than in Massachusetts. One of the king’s agents in Boston was mortified to find that royal orders had no more effect than old issues of the Lon- Seeds of Colonial Unity don Gazette. Punishment was soon forthcoming. As a and Independence slap at Massachusetts, Charles II gave rival Connecticut in 1662 a sea-to-sea charter grant, which legalized the A path-breaking experiment in union was launched in 1643, when four colonies banded together to form the New England Confederation. The English Civil War was then deeply distracting old England, throwing the colonists upon their own resources. The Table 3.1 The Stuart Dynasty in England* primary purpose of the confederation was defense Name, Reign Relation to America against foes or potential foes, notably the Indians, the French, and the Dutch. Purely intercolonial problems, James I, 1603–1625 Va., Plymouth founded; Separatists persecuted such as runaway servants and criminals who had fled from one colony to another, also came within the Charles I, 1625–1649 Civil wars, 1642–1649; Mass., jurisdiction of the confederation. Each member col- Md. founded ony, regardless of size, wielded two votes—an arrange- (Interregnum, 1649–1660) Commonwealth; Protectorate ment highly displeasing to the most populous colony, (Oliver Cromwell) Massachusetts Bay. Charles II, 1660–1685 The Restoration; Carolinas, Pa., The confederation was essentially an exclusive N.Y. founded; Conn. Chartered Puritan club. It consisted of the two Massachusetts James II, 1685–1688 Catholic trend; Glorious colonies (the Bay Colony and bantam-sized Plym- Revolution, 1688 outh) and the two Connecticut colonies (New Haven and the scattered valley settlements). The Puritan William & Mary, 1689–1702 King William’s War, 1689–1697 leaders blackballed Rhode Island as well as the Maine (Mary died 1694) outposts. These places, it was charged, harbored too *See p. 26 for predecessors; p. 101 for successors.

49530_03_ch03_0041-0059.indd 48 10/27/11 5:39 PM Confederation and Dominion in New England • 49

70°W Andros’s Dominion

Massachusetts State Archives of New England MAINE 0 100 200 Km. (MASS.)

0 100 200 Mi. NEW HAMPSHIRE ATLANTIC FIVE NATIONS OCEAN (IROQUOIS) MASSACHUSETTS BAY PLYMOUTH N.Y. CONN. R.I.

PA. EAST JERSEY 40°N WEST JERSEY MD. N Massachusetts Historical Society Sir Edmund Andros (1637–1714); a Boston Broadside Urging Him to Surrender, 1689 after being expelled from New England, Andros eventually returned to the New Map 3.3 Andros’s Dominion of New World as governor of Virginia (1692–1697). England © Cengage Learning

HMCo Map No bleeds Kennedy, The American Pageant 14/e ©2010 squatter settlements. The very next year, the outcasts in More importantly,Andros’s Dominion the Dominion in New England of New England Rhode Island received a new charter, which gave kingly was designed tokennedy promote_03_03 urgently needed efficiency in sanction to the most religiously tolerant government the administrationtrim - 15p0 of the x 16p0 English Navigation Laws. 1st proof 6/11/08 yet devised in America. A final and crushing blow fell Those laws reflected2nd proof: the 7/14/08 intensifying colonial rivalries on the stiff-necked Bay Colony in 1684, when its pre- of the seventeenthFinal: 8/7/08 century. They sought to stitch Eng- cious charter was revoked by the London authorities. land’s overseas possessions more tightly to the moth- erland by throttling American trade with countries not ruled by the English crown. Like colonial peoples Andros Promotes the First everywhere, the Americans chafed at such confine- American Revolution ments, and smuggling became an increasingly common and honorable occupation. Massachusetts suffered further humiliation in 1686, At the head of the new dominion stood autocratic when the Dominion of New England was created Sir Edmund Andros, an able English military man, con- by royal authority (see Map 3.3). Unlike the home- scientious but tactless. Establishing headquarters in grown New England Confederation, it was imposed Puritanical Boston, he generated much hostility by his from London. Embracing at first all of New England, open affiliation with the despised Church of England. it was expanded two years later to include New York The colonists were also outraged by his noisy and Sab- and East and West Jersey. The dominion also aimed at bath-profaning soldiers, who were accused of teaching bolstering colonial defense in the event of war with the the people “to drink, blaspheme, curse, and damn.” Indians and hence, from the imperial viewpoint of Par- Andros was prompt to use the mailed fist. He ruth- liament, was a statesmanlike move. lessly curbed the cherished town meetings; laid heavy

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restrictions on the courts, the press, and the schools; Old Netherlanders and revoked all land titles. Dispensing with the popular assemblies, he taxed the people without the consent at New Netherland of their duly elected representatives. He also strove to enforce the unpopular Navigation Laws and suppress Late in the sixteenth century, the oppressed people smuggling. Liberty-loving colonists, accustomed to of the Netherlands unfurled the standard of rebellion unusual privileges during long decades of neglect, were against Catholic Spain. After bloody and protracted goaded to the verge of revolt. fighting, they finally succeeded, with the aid of Protes- The people of old England soon taught the people tant England, in winning their independence. of New England a few lessons in resisting oppression. In The seventeenth century—the era of Rembrandt 1688–1689 they engineered the memorable Glorious and other famous artists—was a golden age in Dutch (or Bloodless) Revolution. Dethroning the despotic history. This vigorous little lowland nation finally and unpopular Catholic James II, they enthroned the emerged as a major commercial and naval power, and Protestant rulers of the Netherlands, the Dutch-born then it ungratefully challenged the supremacy of its William III and his English wife, Mary II, daughter of former benefactor, England. Three great Anglo-Dutch James II. naval wars were fought in the seventeenth century, with When the news of the Glorious Revolution reached as many as a hundred ships on each side. The sturdy America, the ramshackle Dominion of New England Dutch dealt blows about as heavy as they received. collapsed like a house of cards. A Boston mob, catching The Dutch republic also became a leading colo- the fever, rose against the existing regime. Sir Edmund nial power, with by far its greatest activity in the East Andros attempted to flee in women’s clothing but was Indies. There it maintained an enormous and profitable betrayed by boots protruding beneath his dress. He was empire for over three hundred years. The Dutch East hastily shipped off to England. India Company was virtually a state within a state and Massachusetts, though rid of the despotic Andros, at one time supported an army of 10,000 men and a did not gain as much from the upheaval as it had fleet of 190 ships, 40 of them men-of-war. hoped. In 1691 it was arbitrarily made a royal colony, Seeking greater riches, this enterprising company with a new charter and a new royal governor. The per- employed an English explorer, Henry Hudson. Disre- manent loss of the ancient charter was a staggering garding orders to sail northeast, he ventured into Dela- blow to the proud Puritans, who never fully recovered. ware Bay and New York Bay in 1609 and then ascended Worst of all, the privilege of voting, once a monopoly the Hudson River, hoping that at last he had chanced of church members, was now to be enjoyed by all qual- upon the coveted shortcut through the continent. But, ified male property holders. as the event proved, he merely filed a Dutch claim to a England’s Glorious Revolution reverberated through- magnificently wooded and watered area. out the colonies from New England to the Chesapeake. Much less powerful than the mighty Dutch East Inspired by the challenge to the crown in old England, India Company was the Dutch West India Company, many colonists seized the occasion to strike against which maintained profitable enterprises in the Carib- royal authority in America. Unrest rocked both New bean. At times it was less interested in trading than in York and Maryland from 1689 to 1691, until newly raiding and at one fell swoop in 1628 captured a fleet of appointed royal governors restored a semblance of Spanish treasure ships laden with loot worth $15 mil- order. Most importantly, the new monarchs relaxed the lion. The company also established outposts in Africa royal grip on colonial trade, inaugurating a period of and a thriving sugar industry in Brazil, which for sev- “salutary neglect” when the much-resented Naviga- eral decades was its principal center of activity in the tion Laws were only weakly enforced. New World. Yet residues remained of Charles II’s effort to New Netherland, in the beautiful Hudson River assert tighter administrative control over his empire. area, was planted in 1623–1624 on a permanent basis More English officials—judges, clerks, customs offi- (see Map 3.4). Established by the Dutch West India cials—now staffed the courts and strolled the wharves Company for its quick-profit fur trade, it was never of English America. Many were incompetent, corrupt more than a secondary interest of the founders. The hacks who knew little and cared less about Ameri- company’s most brilliant stroke was to buy Manhattan can affairs. Appointed by influential patrons in far- Island from the Indians (who did not actually “own” it) off England, they blocked the rise of local leaders to for virtually worthless trinkets—twenty-two thousand positions of political power by their very presence. acres of what is now perhaps the most valuable real Aggrieved Americans viewed them with mounting estate in the world for pennies per acre. contempt and resentment as the eighteenth century New Amsterdam—later New York City—was a com- wore on. pany town. It was run by and for the Dutch company,

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0 50 100 Km.

Tadoussac 1600 0 50 100 Mi.

M ICM E AC C Beauport N 1634 A R Québec 1608 F

KI A N Trois-Rivières 1634 W E B E A 45°N N UIN Fort Richelieu 1642 NQ GO AL Montréal 1642

. R ce n re w . Lake R a N L t Champlain A t. u C S c I i N t D H O c R N A U e

H A n

M L MASSACHUSETTS n

o G io BAY r C N

a N t E Salem 1630 n . O E W L Rensselaerwyck 1630 Boston 1630

Fort Orange 1614 Plymouth 1620 N PO S M E K I O AN H T W PLYMOUTH O O A E OK U N W H E E K N T Q ID E ON A O R Esopus 1653 R C ON I AY DA L Hudson N RHODE ISLAND U A A G GA R. EG A N H SE O CONNECTICUT N D M EC A

NEW HAVEN Yonkers 1646 40°N

New Amsterdam 1626 S U SQ U E Delaware H N A E NN R. P A NA LE

NEW SWEDEN Courtesy, The Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum Fort Christina 1638 Tinicum 1643 Fort Casimir 1651 Fort Nya Elfsborg 1643 A Woman, by Gerret Duyckinck this portrait, painted N A N between 1690 and 1710, depicts a prosperous woman in T IC Swaanendael 1631 O colonial New York. Her elegant dress of silk and lace, coral K (Destroyed, 1632) ATLANTIC MARYLAND E jewelry, and Chinese fan, and the Turkish rug beneath her St. Mary’s 1634 C OCEAN 70°W h e arm, testify to the luxurious tastes and ties to international PO s WH a ATAN p e markets common among the “Hudson River lords.” a Area of Dutch settlement k VIRGINIA e

B a Area of English settlement y Jamestown Area of French settlement 1607 Area of Swedish settlement patroonships, were granted to promoters who agreed 75°W to settle fifty people on them. One patroonship in the Albany area was slightly larger than the later state of Map 3.4 Early Settlements in the Middle Colonies, with Rhode Island. HMCoFounding Map MS00252 Dates © Cengage Learning Colorful little New Amsterdam attracted a cosmo- No bleeds Kennedy, The American Pageant 14/e ©2010 politan population, as is common in seaport towns. European Colonization in the Middle and North Atlantic in 1650 Twenty-three Jews arrived in 1654, refugees from reli- kennedy_03_04_Ms00252in the interests of the stockholders. The investors had gious persecution in Catholic Brazil—a harbinger of Trim:no enthusiasm20p6 x 37p for religious toleration, free speech, or the city’s later reputation as a haven for the homeless 1st proof 7/03/08 Final:democratic 8/7/08 practices; and the governors appointed by and the harried. A French Jesuit missionary, visiting in the company as directors-general were usually harsh the 1640s, noted that eighteen different languages were and despotic. Religious dissenters who opposed the offi- being spoken in the streets. New York’s later babel of cial Dutch Reformed Church were regarded with sus- immigrant tongues was thus foreshadowed. picion, and for a while Quakers were savagely abused. In response to repeated protests by the aggravated colonists, a local body with limited lawmaking power was Friction with English finally established. and Swedish Neighbors This picturesque Dutch colony took on a strongly aristocratic tint and retained it for generations. Vast Vexations beset the Dutch company-colony from feudal estates fronting the Hudson River, known as the beginning. The directors-general were largely

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incompetent. Company shareholders demanded their Dutch Residues in New York dividends, even at the expense of the colony’s welfare. The Indians, infuriated by Dutch cruelties, retaliated Lacking vitality, and representing only a secondary with horrible massacres. As a defense measure, the commercial interest of the Dutch, New Netherland lay hard-pressed settlers on Manhattan Island erected a under the menacing shadow of the vigorous English stout wall, from which Wall Street derives its name. colonies to the north. In addition, it was honeycombed New England was hostile to the growth of its Dutch with New England immigrants. Numbering about one- neighbor, and the people of Connecticut finally ejected half of New Netherland’s ten thousand souls in 1664, intruding Hollanders from their verdant valley. The they might in time have seized control from within. Swedes also trespassed on Dutch preserves, from 1638 The days of the Dutch on the Hudson were num- to 1655, by planting the anemic colony of New Swe- bered, for the English regarded them as intruders. In den on the Delaware River (see Map 3.4). This was the 1664, after the imperially ambitious Charles II had golden age of Sweden, during and following the Thirty granted the area to his brother, the Duke of York, a Years’ War of 1618–1648, in which its brilliant King strong English squadron appeared off the decrepit Gustavus Adolphus had carried the torch for Protes- defenses of New Amsterdam. A fuming Peter Stuyves- tantism. This outburst of energy in Sweden caused it to ant, short of all munitions except courage, was forced enter the costly colonial game in America, though on to surrender without firing a shot. New Amsterdam was something of a shoestring. thereupon renamed New York, in honor of the Duke Resenting the Swedish intrusion on the Delaware, of York. England won a splendid harbor, strategically the Dutch dispatched a small military expedition in located in the middle of the mainland colonies, and 1655. It was led by the ablest of the directors-general, the stately Hudson River penetrating the interior. With Peter Stuyvesant, who had lost a leg while soldiering the removal of this foreign wedge, the English banner in the West Indies and was dubbed “Father Wooden now waved triumphantly over a solid stretch of terri- Leg” by the Indians. The main fort fell after a bloodless tory from Maine to the Carolinas. siege, whereupon Swedish rule came to an abrupt end. The conquered Dutch province tenaciously retained The colonists were absorbed by New Netherland. many of the illiberal features of earlier days. An auto- New Sweden, never important, soon faded away, cratic spirit survived, and the aristocratic element gained leaving behind in later Delaware a sprinkling of Swed- strength when certain corrupt English governors granted ish place names and Swedish log cabins (the first in immense acreage to their favorites. Influential land- America), as well as an admixture of Swedish blood. owning families—such as the Livingstons and the De

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49530_03_ch03_0041-0059.indd 52 10/27/11 5:39 PM The Dutch Plant New York • 53 , unidentified artist, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Bequest of Quaker Meeting Maxim Karolik. 64.456. Photograph . 2008 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Haverford College Library, Quaker Collection Quakers in the Colonial Era Quakers, or Friends, were renowned for their simplicity of architecture, dress, manner, and speech. They also distinguished themselves from most other Protestant denominations by allowing women to speak in Quaker meetings and to share in making decisions for the church and the family.

Lanceys—wielded disproportionate power in the affairs on in the presence of their “betters” and addressed oth- of colonial New York. These monopolistic land poli- ers with simple “thee”s and “thou”s, rather than with cies, combined with the lordly atmosphere, discouraged conventional titles. They would take no oaths because many European immigrants from coming. The physical Jesus had commanded, “Swear not at all.” This pecu- growth of New York was correspondingly retarded. liarity often embroiled them with government officials, The Dutch peppered place names over the land, for “test oaths” were still required to establish the fact including Harlem (Haarlem), Brooklyn (Breuckelen), and that a person was not a Roman Catholic. Hell Gate (Hellegat). They likewise left their imprint on The Quakers, beyond a doubt, were a people of the gambrel-roofed architecture. As for social customs deep conviction. They abhorred strife and warfare and and folkways, no other foreign group of comparable size refused military service. As advocates of passive resis- has made so colorful a contribution. Noteworthy are tance, they would turn the other cheek and rebuild Easter eggs, Santa Claus, waffles, sauerkraut, bowling, their meetinghouse on the site where their enemies had sleighing, skating, and kolf (golf)—a dangerous game torn it down. Their courage and devotion to principle played with heavy clubs and forbidden in settled areas. finally triumphed. Although at times they seemed stub- born and unreasonable, they were a simple, devoted, democratic people, contending in their own high- Penn’s Holy Experiment minded way for religious and civic freedom. in Pennsylvania William Penn, a wellborn and athletic young Eng- lishman, was attracted to the Quaker faith in 1660, A remarkable group of dissenters, commonly known when only sixteen years old. His father, disapproving, as Quakers, arose in England during the mid-1600s. administered a sound flogging. After various adven- Their name derived from the report that they “quaked” tures in the army (the best portrait of the peaceful when under deep religious emotion. Officially they Quaker has him in armor), the youth firmly embraced were known as the Religious Society of Friends. the despised faith and suffered much persecution. The Quakers were especially offensive to the authori- courts branded him a “saucy” and “impertinent” fel- ties, both religious and civil. They refused to support low. Several hundred of his less fortunate fellow Quak- the established Church of England with taxes. They ers died of cruel treatment, and thousands more were built simple meetinghouses, congregated without a fined, flogged, or cast into dank prisons. paid clergy, and “spoke up” themselves in meetings Penn’s thoughts naturally turned to the New when moved. Believing that they were all children in World, where a sprinkling of Quakers had already fled, the sight of God, they kept their broad-brimmed hats notably to Rhode Island, North Carolina, and New

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In a Boston lecture in 1869, Ralph Waldo Emerson Quaker Pennsylvania (1803–1882) declared, and Its Neighbors

The sect of the Quakers in their best repre- Penn formally launched his colony in 1681. His task “sentatives appear to me to have come nearer to was simplified by the presence of several thousand the sublime history and genius of Christ than “squatters”—Dutch, Swedish, English, Welsh—who any other of the sects. were already scattered along the banks of the Delaware ” River. Philadelphia, meaning “brotherly love” in Greek, was more carefully planned than most colonial cities Jersey. Eager to establish an asylum for his people, he and consequently enjoyed wide and attractive streets. also hoped to experiment with liberal ideas in govern- Penn farsightedly bought land from the Indians, ment and at the same time make a profit. Finally, in including Chief Tammany, later patron saint of New 1681, he managed to secure from the king an immense York’s political Tammany Hall. His treatment of the grant of fertile land, in consideration of a monetary native peoples was so fair that the Quaker “broad brims” debt owed to his deceased father by the crown. The went among them unarmed and even employed them king called the area Pennsylvania (“Penn’s Woodland”) as baby-sitters. For a brief period, Pennsylvania seemed in honor of the sire. The modest son, fearing that crit- the promised land of amicable Indian–white relations. ics would accuse him of naming it after himself, sought Some southern tribes even migrated to Pennsylvania, unsuccessfully to change the name. seeking the Quaker haven. But ironically, Quaker tol- Pennsylvania was by far the best advertised of all erance proved the undoing of Quaker Indian policy. the colonies. Its founder—the “first American advertis- As non-Quaker European immigrants flooded into the ing man”—sent out paid agents and distributed count- province, they undermined the Quakers’ own benevo- less pamphlets printed in English, Dutch, French, and lent policy toward the Indians. The feisty Scots-Irish German. Unlike the lures of many other American real were particularly unpersuaded by Quaker idealism. estate promoters, then and later, Penn’s inducements Penn’s new proprietary regime was unusually lib- were generally truthful. He especially welcomed for- eral and included a representative assembly elected by ward-looking spirits and substantial citizens, including the landowners. No tax-supported state church drained industrious carpenters, masons, shoemakers, and other coffers or demanded allegiance. Freedom of worship manual workers. His liberal land policy, which encour- was guaranteed to all residents, although Penn, under aged substantial holdings, was instrumental in attract- pressure from London, was forced to deny Catho- ing a heavy inflow of immigrants. lics and Jews the privilege of voting or holding office.

Penn’s Treaty, by Edward Hicks the peace-loving Quaker founder of Pennsylvania made a serious effort to live in harmony with the Indians, as this treaty- signing scene illustrates. But the westward thrust of white settlement eventually caused friction between the two groups, as in other colonies. Gilcrease Museum, Tulsa, Oklahoma

49530_03_ch03_0041-0059.indd 54 10/27/11 5:39 PM Quaker Pennsylvania and Its Neighbors • 55

The death penalty was imposed only for treason and was named after Lord De La Warr, the harsh military murder, as compared with some two hundred capital governor who had arrived in Virginia in 1610. Harbor- crimes in England. ing some Quakers, and closely associated with Penn’s Among other noteworthy features, no provision prosperous colony, Delaware was granted its own was made by the peace-loving Quakers of Pennsylva- assembly in 1703. But until the American Revolution, it nia for a military defense. No restrictions were placed remained under the governor of Pennsylvania. on immigration, and naturalization was made easy. The humane Quakers early developed a strong dislike of black slavery, and in the genial glow of Pennsylvania The Middle Way in the Middle some progress was made toward social reform. Colonies With its many liberal features, Pennsylvania attracted a rich mix of ethnic groups. They included The middle colonies—New York, New Jersey, Dela- numerous religious misfits who were repelled by the ware, and Pennsylvania—enjoyed certain features in harsh practices of neighboring colonies. This Quaker common. refuge boasted a surprisingly modern atmosphere in an In general, the soil was fertile and the expanse of unmodern age and to an unusual degree afforded eco- land was broad, unlike rock-bestrewn New England. nomic opportunity, civil liberty, and religious freedom. Pennsylvania, New York, and New Jersey came to be Even so, “blue laws” prohibited “ungodly revelers,” known as the “bread colonies,” by virtue of their heavy stage plays, playing cards, dice, games, and excessive exports of grain. hilarity. Rivers also played a vital role. Broad, languid Under such generally happy auspices, Penn’s brain- streams—notably the Susquehanna, the Delaware, and child grew lustily. The Quakers were shrewd business- the Hudson—tapped the fur trade of the interior and people, and in a short time the settlers were exporting beckoned adventuresome spirits into the backcountry. grain and other foodstuffs. Within two years Philadel- The rivers had few cascading waterfalls, unlike New phia claimed three hundred houses and twenty-five England’s, and hence presented little inducement to hundred people. Within nineteen years—by 1700—the milling or manufacturing with water-wheel power. colony was surpassed in population and wealth only by A surprising amount of industry nonetheless long-established Virginia and Massachusetts. hummed in the middle colonies. Virginal forests William Penn, who altogether spent about four abounded for lumbering and shipbuilding. The pres- years in Pennsylvania, was never fully appreciated by ence of deep river estuaries and landlocked harbors his colonists. His governors, some of them incompe- stimulated both commerce and the growth of seaports, tent and tactless, quarreled bitterly with the people, such as New York and Philadelphia. Even Albany, more who were constantly demanding greater political con- than a hundred miles up the Hudson, was a port of trol. Penn himself became too friendly with James II, some consequence in colonial days. the deposed Catholic king. Thrice arrested for treason, The middle colonies were in many respects midway thrust for a time into a debtors’ prison, and afflicted by between New England and the southern plantation a paralytic stroke, he died full of sorrows. His endur- group. Except in aristocratic New York, the landhold- ing monument was not only a noble experiment in ings were generally intermediate in size—smaller than government but also a new commonwealth. Based on in the plantation South but larger than in small- civil and religious liberty, and dedicated to freedom of farm New England. Local government lay somewhere conscience and worship, it held aloft a hopeful torch in between the personalized town meeting of New Eng- a world of semidarkness. land and the diffused county government of the South. Small Quaker settlements flourished next door to There were fewer industries in the middle colonies than Pennsylvania. New Jersey was started in 1664 when two in New England, more than in the South. noble proprietors received the area from the Duke of Yet the middle colonies, which in some ways were York. A substantial number of New Englanders, includ- the most American part of America, could claim certain ing many whose weary soil had petered out, flocked to distinctions in their own right. Generally speaking, the new colony. One of the proprietors sold West New the population was more ethnically mixed than that Jersey in 1674 to a group of Quakers, who here set up of other settlements. The people were blessed with an a sanctuary even before Pennsylvania was launched. unusual degree of religious toleration and democratic East New Jersey was also acquired in later years by the control. Earnest and devout Quakers, in particular, Quakers, whose wings were clipped in 1702 when the made a compassionate contribution to human freedom crown combined the two Jerseys in a royal colony. out of all proportion to their numbers. Desirable land Swedish-tinged Delaware consisted of only three was more easily acquired in the middle colonies than counties—two at high tide, the witticism goes—and in New England or in the tidewater South. One result

49530_03_ch03_0041-0059.indd 55 10/27/11 5:39 PM Examining the Evidence A Seventeenth-Century Valuables Cabinet In 1999 a boatyard worker on Cape than the price was the history of its have kept jewelry, money, deeds, and Cod and his sister, a New Hampshire creator and its owners embodied in writing materials. Surely they prized teacher, inherited a small (20-pound, the piece. Salem cabinetmaker James the chest as a sign of refinement to 16½-inch-high) chest that had always Symonds (1636–1726) had made the be shown off in their best room, a stood on their grandmother’s hall chest for his relatives Joseph Pope sentiment passed down through the table, known in the family as the (1650–1712) and Bathsheba Folger next thirteen generations even as “Franklin chest.” Eager to learn more (1652–1726) to commemorate their the Popes’ identities were lost. The about it, they set out to discover the 1679 marriage. Symonds carved chest may have become known as original owner, tracing their fam- the Popes’ initials and the date on the “Franklin chest” because Bath- ily genealogy and consulting with the door of the cabinet. He also sheba was Benjamin Franklin’s aunt, furniture experts. In January 2000 put elaborate S curves on the sides but also because that identification this rare seventeenth-century cabi- remarkably similar to the Manner- appealed more to descendants net, its full provenance now known, ist carved oak paneling produced ashamed that the Quaker Popes, appeared on the auction block and in Norfolk, England, from which his whose own parents had been per- sold for a record $2.4 million to the own cabinetmaker father had emi- secuted for their faith, were virulent Peabody Essex Museum in Salem, grated. Behind the chest’s door are accusers during the Salem witch Massachusetts. No less extraordinary ten drawers where the Popes would trials of 1692. Christies Images, Inc.

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was that a considerable amount of economic and social By the time Franklin arrived in the City of Broth- democracy prevailed, though less so in aristocratic New erly Love, the American colonies were themselves York. “coming to life.” Population was growing robustly. Modern-minded Benjamin Franklin, often regarded Transportation and communication were gradually as the most representative American personality of his improving. The British, for the most part, contin- era, was a child of the middle colonies. Although it is ued their hands-off policies, leaving the colonists to true that Franklin was born a Yankee in puritanical fashion their own local governments, run their own Boston, he entered Philadelphia as a seventeen-year-old churches, and develop networks of intercolonial trade. in 1720 with a loaf of bread under each arm and imme- As people and products crisscrossed the colonies with diately found a congenial home in the urbane, open increasing frequency and in increasing volume, Ameri- atmosphere of what was then North America’s biggest cans began to realize that—far removed from Mother city. One Pennsylvanian later boasted that Franklin England—they were not merely surviving, but truly “came to life at seventeen, in Philadelphia.” thriving.

Varying Viewpoints Europeanizing America or Americanizing Europe? he history of discovery and colonization raises perhaps Timothy Silver, have enhanced understanding of the cultural the most fundamental question about all American as well as the physical transformations that resulted from Thistory. Should it be understood as the extension of European contact. An environment of forests and meadows, for exam- civilization into the two continents of the New World or as the ple, gave way to a landscape of fields and fences asE uropeans gradual development of uniquely “American” cultures? An sought to replicate the agricultural villages they had known in older school of thought tended to emphasize the European- Europe. Aggressive deforestation even produced climatic ization of America. Historians of that persuasion paid close changes, as treeless tracts made for colder winters, hotter attention to the situation in Europe, particularly England and summers, and earth-gouging floods. Ramon Gutierrez’s When Spain, in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.T hey also Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away (1991) has expanded focused on the exportation of the values and institutions of the colonial stage to include interactions between Spanish the mother countries to the new lands in the western sea. settlers and Native Americans in the Southwest. Although some historians also examined the transforming J. H. Elliott’s magisterial work Empires of the Atlantic World effect of America on Europe, this approach, too, remained (2006) makes brilliant use of the comparative approach to essentially Eurocentric. illuminate the worlds of the British and Spanish Empires. Spain More recently, historians have concentrated on the distinc- had a grand imperial plan that it pursued with notable consis- tiveness of America. The concern with European origins has tency: exclude Jews and Moors (Muslims) from its domains, evolved into a comparative treatment of European settle- convert the native peoples to Catholicism, follow military ments in the New World. England, Spain, Holland, and France conquest with military rule, and eventually defer to colonial now attract more attention for the divergent kinds of societies elites for the orderly administration of its possessions. Britain they fostered in America than for the way they commonly had no comparably systematic plan. It showed relatively little pursued Old World ambitions in the New. The newest trend to interest in converting the Indians, tolerated all kinds of immi- emerge is a transatlantic history that views European empires grants to its colonies, long left them alone to cultivate institu- and their American colonies as part of a process of cultural tions of self-government and representative democracy, and cross-fertilization affecting not only the colonies but Europe when it eventually tried to tighten its imperial grip, pressured and Africa as well. local elites into open revolt. The two empires left consequen- This less Eurocentric approach has also changed the way tial and contrasting legacies of political stability in the United historians explain the colonial development of America. States and chronic political turmoil in Latin America. As one Rather than telling the story of colonization as the imposition reviewer summarized the argument, “George Washington of European ways of life through “discovery” and “conquest,” could draw on an inherited political culture, whereas [the great historians increasingly view the colonial period as one of Latin American liberator] Simón Bolívar had to invent one.” “contact” and “adaptation” between European, African, and The variety of American societies that emerged out of the Native American ways of life. Scholars, including Richard interaction of Europeans, Africans, and Native Americans is White, Alfred Crosby, William Cronon, Karen Kupperman, and now well appreciated. Early histories by esteemed historians

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like Perry Miller exaggerated the extent to which the New “typical” English migrant to the New World. English colonists England Puritan experience defined the essence of America. migrated both singly and in families, and for economic, social, Not only did these historians overlook non-English experi- political, and religious reasons. ences, but they failed to recognize the diversity in motives, Recent studies have also paid more attention to the con- methods, and consequences that existed even within English flicts that emerged out of this diversity in settler populations colonization. The numbers alone tell an interesting story. By and colonial societies. This perspective emphasizes the con- 1700 about 220,000 English colonists had immigrated to the tests for economic and political supremacy within the colo- Caribbean, about 120,000 to the southern mainland colonies, nies, such as the efforts of the Massachusetts Bay elite to ward and only about 40,000 to the middle Atlantic and New Eng- off the challenges of religious “heretics” and the pressures that land colonies (although by the mid-eighteenth century, those an increasingly restless lower class put on wealthy merchants headed for the latter destination would account for more than and large landowners. Nowhere was internal conflict so preva- half of the total). lent as in the ethnically diverse middle colonies, where fac- Studies such as Richard S. Dunn’s Sugar and Slaves (1972) tional antagonisms became the defining feature of public life. emphasize the importance of the Caribbean in early English The picture of British colonial North America that is emerg- colonization efforts and make clear that the desire for eco- ing from all this new scholarship is of a society unique—and nomic gain, more than the quest for religious freedom, fueled diverse—from inception. No longer simply Europe trans- the migration to the Caribbean islands. Similarly, Edmund S. planted, British America by 1700 is now viewed as an out- Morgan’s American Slavery, American Freedom (1975) stresses growth of many intertwining roots—of different European the role of economic ambition in explaining the English peo- and African heritages, of varied encounters with native peopling of the Chesapeake and the eventual importation of ples and a wilderness environment, and of complicated mix- African slaves to that region. Studies by Bernard Bailyn and tures of settler populations, each with its own distinctive set David Hackett Fischer demonstrate that there was scarcely a of ambitions. Chapter Review KEY TERMS Calvinism (41) Great Migration (43) English Civil War (48) patroonships (51) predestination (41) antinomianism (45) Dominion of New Quakers (53) conversion (41) Fundamental Orders (47) England (49) blue laws (55) Puritans (42) Pequot War (47) Navigation Laws (49) Separatists (42) King Philip’s War (48) Glorious (or Bloodless) Mayflower Compact (43) New England Revolution (50) Massachusetts Bay Confederation (48) salutary neglect (50) Colony (43)

PEOPLE TO KNOW Martin Luther Massasoit Henry Hudson John Calvin Metacom (King Philip) Peter Stuyvesant William Bradford Charles II Duke of York John Winthrop Sir Edmund Andros William Penn Anne Hutchinson William III Roger Williams Mary II

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CHRONOLOGY

1517 Martin Luther begins Protestant 1639 Connecticut’s Fundamental Orders drafted Reformation 1642–1648 English Civil War 1536 John Calvin of Geneva publishes Institutes of the Christian Religion 1643 New England Confederation formed

1620 Pilgrims sail on the Mayflower to Plymouth 1650 William Bradford completes Of Plymouth Bay Plantation

1624 Dutch found New Netherland 1655 New Netherland conquers New Sweden

1629 Charles I dismisses Parliament and perse- 1664 England seizes New Netherland from cutes Puritans Dutch East and West Jersey colonies founded 1630 Puritans found Massachusetts Bay Colony 1675–1676 King Philip’s War 1635–1636 Roger Williams convicted of heresy and founds Rhode Island colony 1681 William Penn founds Pennsylvania colony

1635–1638 Connecticut and New Haven colonies 1686 Royal authority creates Dominion of New founded England

1637 Pequot War 1688–1689 Glorious Revolution overthrows Stuarts and Dominion of New England 1638 Anne Hutchinson banished from Massa- chusetts colony

To Learn More Patricia Bonomi, A Factious People: Politics and Society in Jenny Hale Pulsipher, Subjects unto the Same King: Indians, Colonial New York (1971) English, and the Contest for Authority in Colonial New Timothy H. Breen, Puritans and Adventurers (1980) England (2005) Jon Butler, Awash in a Sea of Faith: Christianizing the Christina Snyder, Slavery in Indian Country: The Changing American People (1990) Face of Captivity in Early America (2010) John Demos, The Unredeemed Captive: A Family Story from Harry Stout, The New England Soul: Preaching and Culture in Early America (1994) Colonial New England (1986) David Hall, Worlds of Wonder, Days of Judgment: Popular Religious Belief in Early New England (1989) A complete, annotated bibliography for this Japp Jacobs, The Colony of New Netherland: A Dutch chapter—along with brief descriptions of the Settlement in Seventeenth-Century America (2009) People to Know—may be found on the American Donna Merwick, The Shame and the Sorrow: Dutch- Pageant website. The Key Terms are defined in a Amerindian Encounters in New Netherland (2006) Glossary at the end of the text. Edmund S. Morgan, Roger Williams: The Church and State (1967)

Go to the CourseMate website at www.cengagebrain.com for additional study tools and review materials—including audio and video clips—for this chapter.

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