An Applied Approach to Understanding People and Groups

Organizational Behavior in Sport Management An Applied Approach to Understanding People and Groups

Christopher R. Barnhill Natalie L. Smith and Brent D. Oja Organizational Behavior in Sport Management Christopher R. Barnhill Natalie L. Smith • Brent D. Oja

Organizational Behavior in Sport Management

An Applied Approach to Understanding People and Groups Christopher R. Barnhill Natalie L. Smith Georgia Southern University East Tennessee State University Statesboro, GA, USA Johnson City, TN, USA

Brent D. Oja University of Northern Colorado Greeley, CO, USA

ISBN 978-3-030-67611-7 ISBN 978-3-030-67612-4 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67612-4

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Part I Organizational Behavior in the Sports Industry

1 What Is Organizational Behavior ...... 3 1.1 What Is Organizational Behavior? ...... 3 1.1.1 History of Organizational Behavior in Sport ...... 4 1.1.2 Positive Organizational Behavior...... 5 1.1.3 Psychological Capital and the HERO Model ...... 5 1.2 Managers and Employees ...... 6 1.2.1 Who Are They? ...... 6 1.2.2 What Do Sport Employees Do? ...... 7 1.3 External In#uences of Organizational Behavior ...... 8 1.3.1 Resource Dependency ...... 8 1.3.2 Open Systems Theory ...... 9 1.3.3 Legitimacy and Institutional Theory ...... 10 1.4 Summary ...... 11 2 Unique Characteristics of Sport Organizations ...... 13 2.1 Introduction ...... 13 2.2 De !ning Organizations ...... 13 2.2.1 Identity and Permanency ...... 14 2.2.2 Instrumentality ...... 14 2.2.3 Membership ...... 14 2.2.4 Division of Labor ...... 15 2.2.5 Hierarchy of Authority ...... 15 2.2.6 Formal Policies and Procedures ...... 15 2.3 Sport Organizations ...... 15 2.3.1 Sport De!ned ...... 16 2.3.2 Sport as an Industry ...... 16 2.3.3 Organizational Identity ...... 17 2.4 Internal Organizational Factors ...... 18 2.4.1 Mission, Vision, and Values ...... 18 2.4.2 Organizational Culture ...... 18 2.4.3 Organizational Structure ...... 18 2.4.4 Organizational Size and Resources ...... 19 2.5 Sport and Culture ...... 20 2.5.1 Impact of Politics on Sport Organizations ...... 20 2.5.2 Impact of Sport Organizations on Their Communities 21 2.6 Summary ...... 21

v vi Contents

3 Diversity in Sport Organizations ...... 23 3.1 What Does It Mean to Be a Diverse Organization? ...... 23 3.1.1 Ethical Aspects ...... 24 3.1.2 Financial Aspects ...... 24 3.1.3 Legal Aspects ...... 24 3.1.4 Consumer/Participant Aspects ...... 25 3.2 Types of Diversity ...... 26 3.2.1 Demographic Differences ...... 26 3.2.2 Psycho-Social Differences ...... 27 3.2.3 Cultural Diversity ...... 27 3.3 Diversity Versus Inclusion ...... 28 3.4 Bene !ts of Diversity and Inclusion ...... 28 3.4.1 Organizational Success ...... 29 3.5 Or ganizational Aspects of Diversity and Inclusion ...... 30 3.5.1 Committees on Diversity and Inclusion ...... 30 3.5.2 Diversity and Inclusion Statements ...... 30 3.5.3 Diversity and Inclusion Recruitment ...... 30 3.5.4 Hiring Process ...... 31 3.5.5 Diversity and Inclusion Programming ...... 31 3.5.6 Organizational Culture and Structure ...... 32 3.6 Conclusion ...... 33

Part II Understanding the Organization

4 Organizational Structure ...... 37 4.1 Concepts of Structure Within Organizations ...... 37 4.1.1 Specialization ...... 38 4.1.2 Departmentalization ...... 38 4.1.3 Formalization ...... 39 4.1.4 Centralization ...... 39 4.1.5 Span of Control ...... 40 4.1.6 Chain of Command ...... 40 4.2 Type of Organizational Structures ...... 41 4.2.1 Simple Structure...... 41 4.2.2 Hierarchical or Bureaucratic Structure ...... 41 4.2.3 Matrix Organizational Structure ...... 42 4.2.4 Self-Managed Teams ...... 43 4.2.5 Fluid and Complex Structures ...... 43 4.3 In #uences and Issues in Sport Organizations ...... 44 4.3.1 In #uence of Sport’s Origin on Current Organizational Structures ...... 44 4.3.2 Small-Medium Enterprises in Sport...... 45 4.3.3 League and Coopetitive In#uences ...... 45 4.4 Conclusion ...... 46 5 Communication in Organizations ...... 49 5.1 Importance of Communication ...... 50 5.1.1 Communication De!ned ...... 50 Contents vii

5.2 The Communication Process ...... 51 5.3 Direction of Communication ...... 52 5.3.1 Downward Communication ...... 52 5.3.2 Upward Communication ...... 52 5.3.3 Horizontal Communication ...... 52 5.4 Communication Channels ...... 53 5.4.1 Oral Communication ...... 53 5.4.2 Written Communication...... 53 5.4.3 Nonverbal Communication ...... 54 5.4.4 Electronic Communication ...... 54 5.5 Communication and Cultural Norms ...... 56 5.6 Summary ...... 57 6 Organizational Culture ...... 59 6.1 Understanding Organizational Culture ...... 59 6.1.1 Organizational Culture De!ned ...... 59 6.2 Organizational Culture: Strength of In#uence ...... 61 6.3 Organizational Culture and Values ...... 61 6.3.1 Societal Values ...... 61 6.3.2 Sporting Values ...... 61 6.3.3 Personal Values ...... 62 6.4 Maintaining Organizational Culture ...... 63 6.4.1 Verbal & Written Cues ...... 63 6.4.2 Symbols & Actions ...... 63 6.4.3 Stories ...... 64 6.4.4 Artifacts ...... 64 6.4.5 Rituals ...... 65 6.4.6 Organizational Systems ...... 65 6.4.7 New Employees ...... 66 6.5 Altering Organizational Culture...... 66 6.6 Organizational Culture vs. Organizational Climate ...... 67 6.7 Conclusion ...... 68 7 Labor in Sport ...... 71 7.1 The Concept of Labor ...... 72 7.2 Perceptions of Labor ...... 72 7.2.1 History of Labor ...... 73 7.3 Legal Issues and Labor ...... 74 7.3.1 Interns and Volunteers ...... 76 7.3.2 Unions ...... 76 7.4 Student-Athletes as Employees ...... 77 7.5 Emotional Labor ...... 78 7.6 Summary ...... 79 8 Organizational Change ...... 81 8.1 Organizational Change ...... 81 8.1.1 Expected Change ...... 82 8.1.2 Forced Change ...... 82 8.1.3 Incremental versus Radical and Revolutionary versus Evolutionary Change ...... 83 viii Contents

8.1.4 Structural, Cultural, and Personnel Organizational Change ...... 84 8.2 Key Aspects of Organizational Change ...... 84 8.2.1 Resistance to Change ...... 85 8.2.2 Stress and Change ...... 86 8.2.3 Learning Organizations ...... 86 8.3 The Change Process ...... 87 8.3.1 Lewin’s Three-Step Model ...... 87 8.3.2 Kotter’s Eight-Step Plan...... 87 8.3.3 Inte grative Model of Organizational Change ...... 88 8.3.4 Other Models ...... 88 8.4 Summary ...... 89

Part III Getting to Know Employees and Volunteers of Sport Organizations

9 Personality and Fit ...... 93 9.1 Introduction ...... 93 9.2 Personality Frameworks ...... 93 9.2.1 Type A versus Type B ...... 94 9.2.2 The DISC Pro!le ...... 94 9.2.3 “Big Five” Model of Personality ...... 95 9.2.4 Myers–Briggs ...... 95 9.3 Belief Systems and Values ...... 96 9.4 Person-Environment Fit ...... 99 9.5 Summary ...... 101 10 Socialization and Perceptions of Individuals ...... 103 10.1 Introduction ...... 104 10.2 Socialization ...... 104 10.3 Perception ...... 106 10.4 The Perceiver ...... 107 10.4.1 Motives ...... 107 10.4.2 Attitudes ...... 107 10.4.3 Schema ...... 107 10.4.4 Bias ...... 108 10.5 The Situation ...... 109 10.5.1 Attitudes Toward the Organization ...... 109 10.5.2 Setting ...... 110 10.5.3 Nature of the Interaction ...... 110 10.5.4 Potential Consequences ...... 110 10.6 The Message Deliverer ...... 110 10.7 Psychological Contracts ...... 111 10.8 Summary ...... 112 11 Attitudes and Emotions of Employees ...... 115 11.1 Introduction ...... 115 11.2 Classical View of Emotions ...... 116 11.3 Emotions as Self-Constructions ...... 116 Contents ix

11.4 Emotional Intelligence ...... 118 11.4.1 Self-Emotional Appraisal ...... 118 11.4.2 Self-Management ...... 119 11.4.3 Social Awareness ...... 119 11.4.4 Relationship Management ...... 119 11.5 Emotions in the Sport Workplace ...... 120 11.5.1 Pride ...... 120 11.5.2 Passion ...... 121 11.5.3 Well-Being ...... 122 11.6 Summary ...... 123 12 Motivations of Individuals ...... 127 12.1 Motivation ...... 127 12.2 Theoretical Concepts ...... 128 12.2.1 Expectancy Theory ...... 128 12.2.2 Goal-Setting Theory ...... 129 12.2.3 Equity Theory ...... 129 12.2.4 Operant Conditioning and Reinforcement Theory . 130 12.2.5 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs ...... 130 12.2.6 Herzberg’s Motivation- Hygiene Theory ...... 131 12.2.7 Self-Determination Theory ...... 131 12.3 Motivation for One’s Potential ...... 133 12.4 New Concept: Grit ...... 134 12.5 Summary ...... 135 13 Behaviors and Creativity ...... 137 13.1 In-Role and Extra-Role Behaviors ...... 138 13.1.1 Organizational Citizenship Behaviors ...... 138 13.1.2 Creative Work Behaviors ...... 138 13.2 De !nition of Creativity in Management ...... 139 13.2.1 Elements of Creativity in the Sports Industry . . . . . 139 13.2.2 Domain-Relevant Skills ...... 140 13.2.3 Intrinsic Task Motivation ...... 140 13.2.4 Engagement in Creativity- Related Processes . . . . . 141 13.3 Being Innovative as a Sport Manager ...... 142 13.3.1 Sport Entrepreneurs ...... 142 13.4 Ho w Can You Be More Creative at Work?...... 143 13.4.1 Resource Allocation ...... 143 13.4.2 Autonomy ...... 143 13.4.3 Rest ...... 143 13.4.4 Eng aging in the Creative Process ...... 144 13.5 Summary ...... 145

Part IV Understanding Work Groups and Teams

14 Group and Team Development ...... 149 14.1 De !ning Work Groups and Teams ...... 150 14.1.1 Formal Groups ...... 150 14.1.2 Informal Groups ...... 151 x Contents

14.2 Work Teams ...... 151 14.3 Types of Teams ...... 152 14.3.1 Departmental Teams ...... 152 14.3.2 Functional Teams ...... 152 14.3.3 Self-Managed Teams ...... 153 14.3.4 Advisory Teams ...... 153 14.3.5 Problem-Solving Teams ...... 153 14.3.6 Skunkworks ...... 153 14.3.7 Virtual Teams ...... 153 14.4 Factors In#uencing Team (and Group) Success...... 154 14.4.1 Context ...... 154 14.4.2 Composition ...... 155 14.4.3 Work Design ...... 157 14.4.4 Process ...... 157 14.5 Team Norms ...... 158 14.6 Groupthink and Crisis of Agreement ...... 159 14.6.1 Groupthink ...... 159 14.6.2 Crisis of Agreement: The Abilene Paradox ...... 160 14.7 Stages of Team Development ...... 160 14.7.1 Stage 1: Forming ...... 160 14.7.2 Stage 2: Storming ...... 160 14.7.3 Stage 3: Norming ...... 160 14.7.4 Stage 4: Performing ...... 161 14.7.5 Stage 5: Adjournment ...... 161 14.8 Summary ...... 161 15 Creative and Innovative Teams ...... 165 15.1 Creativity and Innovation in Teams ...... 165 15.2 Supporting Creativity and Innovation ...... 166 15.2.1 Leader-Member Exchange ...... 166 15.2.2 Participative Safety ...... 166 15.2.3 Vision and Goal Clarity ...... 167 15.2.4 Support for Innovation ...... 167 15.2.5 Task Orientation ...... 168 15.2.6 Diversity and Inclusion ...... 168 15.2.7 Social Interaction ...... 168 15.2.8 Time ...... 169 15.2.9 Rewards ...... 169 15.3 Innovation Types ...... 170 15.3.1 Innovation as a Product ...... 170 15.3.2 Innovation as a Process ...... 170 15.4 Innovation in Organizations ...... 171 15.4.1 Creativity as the Beginning Steps ...... 171 15.4.2 Innovation Champion...... 172 15.5 Summary ...... 172 Contents xi

16 Conflict and Negotiation ...... 175 16.1 The Nature of Con#ict ...... 176 16.1.1 Task Con#ict ...... 177 16.1.2 Process Con#ict ...... 177 16.1.3 Relationship Con#ict ...... 178 16.1.4 Intercultural Con#ict ...... 178 16.2 What Creates Con#ict? ...... 178 16.2.1 Structural Factors ...... 178 16.2.2 Addressing Structural Factors ...... 180 16.2.3 Contextual Factors ...... 181 16.2.4 Addressing Contextual Factors ...... 182 16.2.5 Managerial Responses to Contextual-Based Conflict ...... 183 16.3 Negotiation ...... 184 16.3.1 Managing the Negotiation ...... 185 16.4 Summary ...... 185 17 Power and Politics in Sport Organizations ...... 189 17.1 Sources of Power and In#uence in Organizations ...... 189 17.1.1 Legitimate Power ...... 190 17.1.2 Expert Power ...... 190 17.2 Resource Acquisition ...... 190 17.2.1 Power and Resource Acquisition ...... 191 17.2.2 Resources and Legitimacy ...... 191 17.2.3 Episodic Power ...... 192 17.3 Organizational Politics ...... 192 17.3.1 Behavior Engagement ...... 194 17.4 Political Skill ...... 194 17.4.1 Social Astuteness ...... 195 17.4.2 Interpersonal In#uence ...... 195 17.4.3 Networking Ability ...... 196 17.4.4 Apparent Sincerity ...... 196 17.4.5 Political Skill Examples in Sport ...... 196 17.5 Summary ...... 197 18 Leadership in Sport Organizations ...... 201 18.1 Leadership ...... 202 18.2 Roles of Leaders ...... 202 18.2.1 Leadership Behavior ...... 203 18.3 Trait Theories of Leadership ...... 203 18.4 Behavioral Theories ...... 205 18.4.1 The Ohio State Studies ...... 205 18.4.2 The Michigan Studies ...... 206 18.4.3 The Managerial Grid ...... 206 18.5 The Contingency Perspective of Leadership ...... 206 18.5.1 Path-Goal Theory ...... 208 xii Contents

18.6 Inspirational Leadership ...... 209 18.6.1 Charismatic Leadership ...... 209 18.6.2 Transformational Leadership ...... 210 18.7 Moral Leadership ...... 213 18.7.1 Authentic Leadership ...... 213 18.7.2 Ethical Leadership ...... 214 18.7.3 Servant Leadership ...... 216 18.8 Summary ...... 217

Index 221 About the Authors

Christopher R. Barnhill, PhD Barnhill is Associate Professor of Sport Management at Georgia Southern University, where he also serves as Program Coordinator and Chair of the Sport Management Advisory Board. His primary research interests include topics related to employer-employee relations and sport management education. Before entering academia, Barnhill has held ticket sales and operations positions with the Florida (Miami) Marlins, East Tennessee State University Athletics, and Kansas State Athletics. Barnhill has received a Bachelor’s of Science in Sport Management from the University of Tennessee and a Master’s of Business Administration from East Tennessee State University. He holds a PhD in Sport Management from Ohio State University. You can !nd him on Twitter at @DrBarnhill.

Natalie L. Smith, PhD Smith is Assistant Professor of Sport and Recreation Management at East Tennessee State University, where she coordinates the Esports Management certi!cate. Her primary research interests include creativity and innovation in sports, #LiveitTeachit. Before entering academia, Smith has worked in operations and business development for both Sky Blue FC and the league of!ces of Major League Soccer. She also has industry experience in college athletics and non-pro!t management. Smith received her Bachelor’s degree from Pomona College, where she was also a member of the Sagehens Women’s soccer team. She holds a Master’s degree with the FIFA Master Program and also a PhD in Recreation, Sport, and Tourism with an emphasis in Sport Management from the University of Illinois. Find her on Twitter at @NatalieLSmith.

Brent D. Oja, PhD Oja is Assistant Professor of Sport Administration at the University of Northern Colorado. His research focuses on sport employee professional growth and development and the link to organizational performance. Before entering academia, Oja worked in equipment operations for the athletics departments at Iowa State, the University of Virginia, and the University of Colorado. Oja received dual Bachelor’s degree in History and Sport Studies from the University of Minnesota. He holds a Master’s degree in Sport Management from West Virginia University and a PhD in Education with an emphasis in Sport Management from the University of Kansas. You can !nd him on Twitter at @BrentOja.

xiii List of Figures

Fig. 3.1 Six-stage framework (Kim, J. [November, 2017]. How to design original, impactful diversity and inclusion programming. Presented at the Lever Talent Innovation Summit. Retrieved from: https://www.jennifer. kim/inclusion) ...... 32 Fig. 4.1 Simple organizational structure ...... 41 Fig. 4.2 Hierarchical organizational structure ...... 42 Fig. 5.1 The communication process ...... 51 Fig. 10.1 Factors in#uencing perception ...... 106 Fig. 14.1 Team effectiveness model ...... 154 Fig. 16.1 Negotiation range ...... 184 Fig. 18.1 The managerial grid. (Blake, R. R., & Mouton, J. S. (1982). A comparative analysis of situationalism and 9,9 management by principle. Organizational Dynamics, 10(4), 20–43) ...... 207 Fig. 18.2 Path-goal theory ...... 208 Fig. 18.3 Moral leadership approaches. (Lemoine, G. J., Hartnell, C. A., & Leroy, H. (2019). Taking Stock of Moral Approaches to Leadership: An Integrative Review of Ethical, Authentic, and Servant Leadership. Academy of Management Annals, 13, 148–187, https://doi. org/10.5465/annals.2016.0121) ...... 214

xv List of Tables

Table 4.1 Matrix organizational structure ...... 43 Table 6.1 Universal values ...... 62 Table 8.1 Employee defense mechanisms ...... 86 Table 10.1 Onboarding tactics ...... 105 Table 14.1 Calgary Stampeders departmental teams ...... 152 Table 15.1 Key aspects of supporting creativity and innovation ...... 166 Table 18.1 Leadership behavior menu ...... 203

xvii Part I Organizational Behavior in the Sports Industry

The sports industry shares many characteristics with other industries; yet, it is also so unique that it demands its own academic discipline. Similarly, managing a sport organization shares many similarities with managing an organization outside of sport but simultaneously presents challenges that are unique to the sports industry. In this unit, we introduce the concept of organizational behavior, the unique characteristics of sport organizations, and how human behavior shapes the functioning of sport organizations. Within this section, you will learn how internal and external stakeholders, politics, resource limitations, and organizational size in!uence organizational decisions. The unit concludes by exploring how the diversity of sport organizations play an important role in the modern sports industry and explores the ethical, "nancial, legal, and customer aspects of diversity and inclusion. These are the building blocks for any manager to understand organizational behavior in the sports industry. What Is Organizational Behavior 1

thought for an employee who identi!es with the c Learning Objectives After reading this organization. Suppose an employee does not chapter, students should be able to: believe they belong with an organization. In that • Explain the history of organizational case, it will be dif!cult for them to engage or behavior study in sport. even enjoy working for their employer fully. • Discuss the concept of positive organi- Attitudes and emotions can determine the zational behavior. quality of sport employees’ experiences. Suppose • Explain why working in sports is unique. an employee is upset or in a foul mood. In that • Discuss the concepts of legitimacy and case, there are likely to be negative repercussions isomorphism. for the employee and their coworkers. For example, try to imagine a time when you had to work with someone who was consistently angry. Did any of those emotions impact your emotions? Conversely, employees who nearly always come 1.1 What Is Organizational to work with a positive attitude are likely to be Behavior? well-received by others. Emotions are contagious, and having positive emotions in a workplace Organizational behavior is a robust paradigm that helps to create a constructive workplace environ- has predominantly grown from the !elds of psy- ment. Behaviors (actions), as one might assume, chology and sociology. Broadly, the study of are also critical to sport organizations. The sports organizational behavior seeks to inform scholars industry is known for its constant change and and practitioners about employees’ thoughts, movement; having employees with the desire and attitudes, and actions and their interpersonal rela- ability to react quickly and tend to a situation is tionships within a given organization. These vital to sport organizations’ livelihood. Similar to areas represent essential facets of the daily lives the value of positive emotions, relationships with of employees. Thoughts, or cognitions, encapsu- others can promote a promising organizational late how one thinks and their various opinions culture. Working with colleagues who are dif!- and held beliefs. For example, the recognition of cult to interact with makes for a dif!cult day at membership with a sport organization, a major work. On the other hand, working with those component of social identity theory, is a critical you genuinely enjoy can help sport employees

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 3 C. R. Barnhill et al., Organizational Behavior in Sport Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67612-4_1 4 1 What Is Organizational Behavior get through the long hours and ups and downs of sport organizations are managed and how such life in the sports industry. organizations’ management can be improved. You might ask yourself, “Does this really mat- Initial studies included topics such as leader- ter… it’s just work?” Consider your previous work ship, work environment factors such as stress, experiences, whether or not they took place inside burnout, and motivation.1 Perhaps due to the or outside the sport industry. Did you enjoy going heavy in"uence of coaching in sport, leadership to work each day? Did you have a poor relation- has long been a popular topic within sport man- ship with your supervisor(s)? Did you get along agement. Forms of leadership, including trans- with your coworkers? Was the work meaningful formational leadership and transactional and enjoyable? You may have different answers leadership, often in the form of coaches and ath- for each of those questions, but if you take the time letes, have seen a steady stream of scholarly to re"ect on the importance of each question, you attention. Chelladurai’s2 review of the will begin to see the value in organizational behav- Leadership Scale for Sport also included an ior. Personal experiences and relationships with argument to expand the scope of leadership coworkers are a hallmark of research within orga- within sport. Since then, theories involving nizational behavior, and this is due to the impor- leadership in sport have evolved and moved into tance of the topic regarding organizational exciting new areas, including leader-member effectiveness. While scholars of organizational exchange, servant leadership, authentic leader- behavior are concerned with organizational out- ship, psychological contracts, and political skill. comes, they also seek to improve employees’ work A recent review of leadership literature in sport experiences. Given this concern, organizational by Welty Peachey, Zhou, Damon, and Burton3 behavior scholars have developed mechanisms to details the growth and expansion of leadership improve employees’ experiences by enlisting con- in sport. As leadership has been a core feature cepts such as leadership, diversity, and interper- within sport organizational behavior, an entire sonal skills (all of which are covered in this chapter of this book is dedicated to the topic. textbook). This chapter begins with a brief intro- Leadership might be the most prominent area duction to organizational behavior in sport, fol- of research in sport organizational behavior but is lowed by an overview of an exciting new concept not the only area with a long history of scholar- that is beginning to gain popularity in sport man- ship. Scholars have begun to explore other areas agement, positive organizational behavior. Then, of organizational behavior in sport, including sport managers and employees will be discussed, diversity, motivation, organizational structures, with the intention of providing a glimpse into what attitudes, and communication. All of these topics, is required of various sport organization employ- plus many others, will be covered in this book. ees. This chapter concludes with a presentation on Another exciting aspect of studying organiza- some of the external in"uences (and their impacts) tional behavior in sport is the diverse set of par- on sport organizations. ticipants available to researchers. Previously, !tness and college recreation employees have been studied under the umbrella of sport orga- 1.1.1 History of Organizational nizational behavior. Recent trends in sport Behavior in Sport management have been concentrated on interviewing and surveying collegiate and profes- The !eld of sport management’s initial focus sional sport employees. As sport organizations was on the management of sport organizations, increase the value they place on their employees, and organizational behavior was a primary and by extension, expand their scope and capa- topic. Early scholars such as Chelladurai, Slack, bilities, there will likely be increased efforts to and Zeigler all brought forth critical discoveries study the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of that helped inform our understanding of how sport employees. 1.1 What Is Organizational Behavior? 5

The important thing to keep in mind as you goals, and when necessary, redirecting paths to read this book is that sport management has goals (hope) in order to succeed; and (4) when changed dramatically since its inception, and it is beset by problems and adversity, sustaining and almost assuredly likely to continue to evolve as bouncing back and even beyond (resilience) to we gain a deeper understanding of sport organi- attain success. zations and their employees. Many new exciting horizons await scholars and practitioners for further study and application to the sport workplace. 1.1.3 Psychological Capital and the One of those areas is positive organizational HERO Model behavior, of which we will turn to next. Human capital6 is a form of personal resources that are used to improve one’s circumstances. There are 1.1.2 Positive Organizational numerous forms of human capital. For example, Behavior intellectual capital is known as “what you know” or social capital, known as “who you know.” These An emerging paradigm in organizational behav- forms of human capital are quite common. One of ior is known as positive organizational behavior the more developed constructs to surface from POB (POB). This concept has been championed by is known as psychological capital which explores scholars such as Fred Luthans, Bruce Avolio, and “what one can become.” Psychological capital offers Carolyn Youssef-Morgan (although many other a new means to develop employees to meet their full scholars have endorsed this approach to OB). potential.7 Psychological capital is “an individual’s One of POB’s main functions is to create a growth positive psychological state of development charac- approach for organizations but, more speci!cally, terized by: (1) having con!dence (self-ef!cacy) to employees. Within POB, scholars seek to advance take on and put in the necessary effort to succeed at employees’ functionality and thereby promote a challenging tasks; (2) making a positive attribution competitive advantage for organizations.4 As (optimism) about succeeding now and in the future; such, POB has been de!ned as5 “the study and (3) persevering toward goals, and when necessary, application of positively orientated human redirecting paths to goals (hope) in order to succeed; resource strengths and psychological capacities and (4) when beset by problems and adversity, sus- that can be measured, developed, and effectively taining and bouncing back and even beyond (resil- managed for performance improvement in ience) to attain success8” (p. 2). As one can see, there today’s workplace” (p. 59). In short, POB focuses are currently four components to psychological on positive personal capabilities in order to capital, which stand for the HERO within (i.e., improve the experience of the employee and Hope, Ef!cacy, Resilience, and Optimism). simultaneously supporting the organization. Although Luthans et al. have called for other con- While POB scholarship is inclusive to any posi- structs (e.g., courage, authenticity, and creativity) to tively focused endeavor, speci!c theories have be studied within psychological capital, little is emerged from the paradigm. known about how such constructs can serve employees and organizations, speci!cally in the sports 9 c Psychological Capital An individual’s industry. positive psychological state of development is Yet, sport organizational scholars have begun characterized by: (1) having con!dence (self- to examine psychological capital within the ef!cacy) to take on and put in the necessary effort sports industry. One of the leading scholars in to succeed at challenging tasks; (2) making a this area of sport management is Dr. Minjung positive attribution (optimism) about succeeding Kim, who has published several studies of con- now and in the future; (3) persevering toward ceptual and empirical nature. Dr. Kim’s work 6 1 What Is Organizational Behavior includes the development of HEROES, which is 1.2.1 Who Are They? similar to the HERO model previously described, but the HEROES model has been developed spe- Employees of sport organizations are generally ci!cally for sport organization employees. thought of as anyone employed by an organiza- Interestingly, concepts such as meaningful work tion in the sport industry, but there are a few cave- and a supportive organizational climate have ats to that statement. Most scholars in sport been found to improve the hope, ef!ciency, resil- organizational behavior would not consider pro- ience, and optimism of sport organization fessional athletes to be “sport employees.” employees. More so, having such capacities can Instead, an emphasis has been traditionally improve sport employees’ well-being and job sat- placed on the managerial and administrative isfaction.10 Psychological capital is also being employees. Generally, administrators are those in expanded speci!cally in the sports industry by an organization who create and design policies, infusing the concept of authenticity to psycho- rules, campaigns, and so on. The managers are logical capital.11 In this work, the authors argued the employees who carry out the policies or cam- for creating A-HERO by stating that being true to paigns and are in charge of implementing the oneself (i.e., authenticity) is a vital component of administrators’ directives. Hence, the popular psychological capital. As such, employers and term “middle-management” is often associated employees should begin to consider how they with those who carry out the boss’s orders but present themselves and behave at work. Being have little if any authority to make large-scale authentic to one’s self could have positive in"u- decisions on their own. Many studies, particu- ences on their well-being. As scholars begin to larly in the leadership context, examine the lead- explore new concepts such as psychological capi- ership style of an athletics director (i.e., tal and authenticity (of course, many other vari- administrative) and the in"uence of that ables are being investigated), a unique opportunity leadership on the employees of the sport organi- is created for sport organizations to grow and zation (i.e., managerial). It is important to note prosper, not only !nancially, but culturally. Both that other areas of sport organizations’ personnel scholars and practitioners need to !nd common are also studied, including entry-level employees ground and merge their interests, and POB repre- and interns. sents one method to deliver positive in"uences on From a more individual standpoint, scholars sport organizations and employees. have begun to explore the psychological processes of sport employees. One such area that is receiving growing attention is the relationship 1.2 Managers and Employees between being a sport employee and being a fan of their organization’s team(s). There is an old If you are reading this book, you have likely con- adage in the sports industry: sport organizations sidered what life would be like as an employee of do not hire their fans. Many sport management a sport organization. Employment opportunities students have been warned not to wear their in sport are numerous, yet they are still dif!cult favorite team’s jersey to a job interview. The to acquire. To better understand what is required prevailing wisdom is that sport organizations of sport organization employees, this portion of seek to hire employees and not fans. They expect the chapter is designed to provide you with a bet- their employees to be working during games and ter understanding of sport organization employ- not cheering on the team or being distraught after ees’ quali!cations and job experiences. What a close loss. This is generally excellent advice, follows is a brief description of who sport organi- but recent research has been conducted that might zation employees are and then an explanation of tell a slightly different story. Through multiple what their roles consist of by providing a detailed studies, scholars have begun to posit a new con- account of their various duties. cept that suggests sport organization employees 1.2 Managers and Employees 7 do not identify as traditional fans of the team, but nization (e.g., General Manager, Athletics instead, they feel a strong linkage with sport in Director, or Team President). These positions general.12 Put another way, many sport organiza- take years of experience to attain (along with a bit tion employees are drawn to sport and relish the of luck and social connections!), which is for a opportunity to be involved in sport. This could good reason. The people in these positions are explain why so many employees of sport organi- required to make dif!cult and often arduous zations are willing to work evenings and week- choices, and having years of experience can go a ends, in addition to working the traditional long way to making the best possible decision for 40-hour workweek. They may enjoy being a part the organization. Individuals at this level of of a group that values sport and competition. administration are charged with designing the Another thought-provoking !nding concern- missions and plans of their organizations. This ing sport organization employees is how they could be a wide-ranging operation to install a react during sporting events. In describing new organizational culture, a new marketing accepted and inappropriate sport employee plan, or a speci!c fundraising campaign for a behaviors during March Madness, participants new arena. There are very few of these top-level in a recent study explained that they felt watch- leadership positions available, and worse yet, ing the games of March Madness was expected there is little job security meaning that if you earn behavior, and focusing on work instead of such a position one day, you could lose that job watching the games would bring concerns about very quickly! Professional sports are rife with not being able to !t in at the workplace. The examples of executives being removed from their study participants explained that there is an positions after just a few, or even one, season! appropriate level of decorum, such as getting The next level of sport employees includes the your job done during games and not being a aforementioned “middle” managers—those cheering fan or showing your emotions. Still, it employees who carry out the administrators’ was also crucial for other employees to be inter- directives. These positions are often “lost in the ested in sport and stay involved and knowledge- shuf"e” and not discussed by people outside of able about the sport organization’s team or the sports industry. These circumstances are why teams.13 This dichotomy presents a unique work many sport organization employees view their environment for sport employees. They are jobs as being “behind the scenes” and refer to expected to follow along with the team or teams, their positions as “thankless jobs.” This is a grim watch major sporting events, but not be emo- outlook on life as an employee, but the work tionally engaged when watching a game while environment of sport is not very different from they are “on the clock.” The sports industry is other industries in that middle managers feel undoubtedly unique, and these circumstances undervalued. However, some circumstances con- are one prominent example of how working in tribute to the distinction of the sports industry. sport is strikingly different from working for a One of the more prominent factors is the concept traditional business company. of time. Odio14 explained how sport is subjected to cyclical and seasonal characteristics, which are due to the nature of sport, more so than other 1.2.2 What Do Sport Employees Do? industries. That is, sport revolves around the various seasons for each sport. For example, in Sport employees hold a diverse set of jobs and collegiate athletics departments, the months of responsibilities. First, it is worthwhile to re- August and September are notoriously busy as examine the previous discussion on managers many sports (e.g., football, soccer, volleyball) are and administrators. Many readers of this book starting their seasons, and school is beginning as likely seek to, one day, be a leader of a sport orga- well. Conversely, the months of May and June 8 1 What Is Organizational Behavior are viewed as less hectic as many sports have !n- (i.e., industry). However, both organizational ished or are winding down, and school is also behavior and organizational theory are interre- ending for an extended time. The unique time lated in different manners. In this section, we will sequences can add increased stress for employees focus on how organizational environments affect and further separates sport organizations from sport organizations’ ability to achieve their goals those in other industries.15 and the method by which they can organize and Another layer of responsibility in sport orga- perform. nizations are those completed by entry-level employees and interns. Almost all aspiring sport c Resource Dependency Organizational employees begin their careers as interns, fre- attempts to manage constraints and uncertainty quently serving as interns multiple times at mul- that result from the need to acquire resources tiple sport organizations. The sports industry is from the environment. highly competitive, and it cannot be stressed enough that students who seek entry into the sport organizations should attempt to begin 1.3.1 Resource Dependency interning while they are an undergraduate student. Interns gain practical experience by per- Many theories exist that attempt to explain exter- forming duties such as selling tickets, assisting in nal in"uences on organizations, the vast majority marketing campaigns, helping with gameday of which describe how the organization’s environ- presentations, and, in some cases, having duties ment impacts its capacities, pro!tability, and similar to fulltime employees. While internships maneuverability. Two of the more prominent the- are often not a glamorous period in one’s profes- ories are resource dependency theory16 and insti- sional career, they are a needed step in the pro- tutional theory.17 Resource dependency theory is a cess. Beyond the practical experience, which reasonably straightforward concept in that the helps students build their resumes, internships theory proposes that organizations depend on and also expand students’ social networks by intro- are limited by the resources available to them ducing them to professionals in the !eld. Social within their environment to succeed and prosper. networks are often the mechanism through which In other words, “resource dependence predicts future job opportunities are accessed. While the that organizations will attempt to manage the con- hours are long and the pay is not great (many straints and uncertainty that result from the need interns are unpaid), interning in sport organiza- to acquire resources from the environment” (p. tions can help to provide a pathway to future xxiv).18 As Pfeffer and Salancik19 noted, organiza- employment in the sports industry. tional survival is based on the ability to be effective, namely acquiring resources from the organizational environment. The term “resources” 1.3 External In"uences is meant to convey anything that is of value to an of Organizational Behavior organization. The phrase “organizational environment” generally re"ects the geographic region Sport organizations are highly dependent on their and the industry of the organization and the prac- environments in their quest for success on and off tices thereof. Yet, the process of gathering the !eld, and this dependence means that their resources is not simple, given that resources internal management processes are impacted by within an organizational environment are !nite or their environments. The !eld of organizational limited. For example, there are only so many behavior is predominantly focused on the micro- potential fans in a given city or state; therefore, it (i.e., individuals) and, to a lesser extent, meso- is unlikely that a professional sport organization level (i.e., groups) groups. A related !eld of study will advertise in a neighboring (but separate) city is known as Organizational Theory, which is or state to grow their fanbase (i.e., resources). broader in scope and !xated on the macro-level Instead, that sport organization will need to com- 1.3 External In"uences of Organizational Behavior 9 pete with the other sport and entertainment orga- go to a game, and purchase tickets would be con- nizations of the city for patrons’ business. Another sidered inputs. Once they come to the arena and issue with acquiring resources from the organiza- experience the game, they are considered tional environment is that such environments throughputs. When the contest ends and the fans (especially the sport environment!) will experi- leave the arena, they are viewed as outputs. ence constant change and require adaptation. For For a sport organization to survive, they need example, a team could win a championship one to provide positive experiences during the game, year and lose many of their best players before the the throughput stage, for those fans to desire to next season. While this might be understandable return to another contest on a later date. Therefore, to most loyal fans, many possible sources of the throughput stage is critical as it provides the resource acquirement (i.e., other fans) could link between input and output and allows for the choose to spend their money (i.e., resources) with intercedences of resources in a constrained envi- a different local team or venue. As you can see, ronment. Without repeat customers, and those there would be many unique challenges that customers providing positive feedback to other would face this hypothetical sport organization as potential customers, it is incredibly dif!cult for a they began to prepare for the upcoming season sport organization to bring in enough resources to and still acquire enough resources to survive. pay for their expenses. Consequently, there are several external in"uences on sport organizations from this perspective. One example is the in"u- 1.3.2 Open Systems Theory ence on customer service and outreach as such many sport organizations have entire departments Another way to describe how resource develop- dedicated to community/public relations. Sport ment theory is believed to affect organizations is organizations also employ large-scale efforts in via open systems theory, which describes a pro- their marketing campaigns to garner attention cess whereby resources are taken in (i.e., inputs), and new consumers. These efforts can be seen at processed (i.e., throughputs), and put back into the collegiate level of sport as well as the profes- the environment (i.e., outputs) all within a sional level. More so, professional sport bounded environment. Importantly, throughputs organizations have begun to attempt to grow their are what an organization does to manipulate, fanbases internationally. change, or enhance a given input before submit- The National Football League (NFL) plays ting it back into the environment, with the hope games each year in the United Kingdom and of the resource becoming an input yet again. Mexico. The National Basketball Association Much like resource development theory’s empha- (NBA) has attempted to take advantage of its sis on exchange, open systems theory explains immense popularity in Asia, and Major League the interdependent activities (i.e., outputs to Baseball (MLB) has also played games in coun- inputs) of organizations and their environments.20 tries beyond North America. One professional Here is an example of how the theory works: a league that has taken advantage of an environ- professional basketball team that is preparing for ment full of untapped resources is the English an upcoming season will need to obtain enough Premier League (EPL). The various clubs play resources to pay their coaches, players, and staff, matches in the United States in the summer maintain the facility, pay for travel expenses, and months, and they have made a television deal a host of other costs. To gather the necessary with NBC to grow the popularity of the EPL in resources to pay for these expenses, the sport the United States. This tendency has extended to organization will need to go into the external collegiate football with the University of Notre environment and convince people to spend Dame playing games in Ireland. Although it money on team merchandise or tickets to games would not make much sense for the Denver beyond what they receive from media contracts. Broncos to advertise their organization in Kansas With an open systems perspective, fans decide to City, reaching international markets is one exam- 10 1 What Is Organizational Behavior ple of sport organizations attempting to grow all institutions, and organizations will alter their their popularity and reach new resources in the practices to achieve and maintain legitimacy. We form of fans. The throughput stage is vital to now turn to two popular theories that describe bringing fans back as future inputs, and the how organizations attempt to gain and preserve throughput stage can be de!ned by how well a their legitimacy. sport organization is run. This concept adds value to the study of organizational behavior. It can c Isomorphism Organizations tend to appear help a sport organization become more ef!cient or behave similarly in order to achieve and and provide better services to their fans. preserve legitimacy. c Legitimacy A generalized perception or assumption that the actions of an entity are 1.3.3.1 Isomorphism desirable, proper, or appropriate within some One area of institutional theory that has seen con- socially constructed system of norms, values, siderable scholarship in sport management is iso- beliefs, and de!nitions. morphism, which describes how organizations tend to appear or behave similarly in order to achieve and preserve legitimacy. There are three 1.3.3 Legitimacy and Institutional forms of isomorphism: coercive, normative, and Theory memetic.22 Coercive isomorphism results from binding rules and regulations that force organiza- Institutional theory is the other common form of tions to become or appear to be similar. An exam- external control on sport organizations. The insti- ple of coercive isomorphism would be sports tutional theory perspective is concerned not with leagues with policies that govern uniforms and resource acquisition, but rather with the attain- roster sizes. This presents to the public that all of ment and perpetuation of institutional legitimacy. the teams are part of a larger, equal group of Put another way, the institutional theory view is organizations. that the appearance as a legitimate entity is valued and drives the success of an organization. c Coercive Isomorphism Similarities between Several aspects of institutional theory have had organizations resulting from compliance to rules considerable attention and have signi!cant appli- and regulation. cation to the sports industry. These forms include isomorphism and institutional work, both of c Normative Isomorphism Similarities between which will be explained below. But !rst, the con- organizations that are the result of commonly cept of legitimacy needs to be discussed. accepted business practices, tradition, and industry Suchman21 de!ned legitimacy as a “generalized culture. perception or assumption that the actions of an entity are desirable, proper, or appropriate within c Memetic Isomorphism Similarities between some socially constructed system of norms, val- organizations cause by imitation or replication of ues, beliefs, and de!nitions” (p. 574). As such, successful practices. legitimacy is determined by society and can change depending on the beliefs of society. All Another form of isomorphism is normative, institutions (including organizations) seek legiti- which entails following speci!c resources such macy, as it serves as a stamp of approval from as professional certi!cations, quali!cations, or relevant groups. Without legitimacy, organiza- licensure. An example of normative isomorphism tions will predictably suffer. After all, people in the sports industry can be seen in collegiate tend not to do business with organizations that sport. Many athletic departments require a mas- they deem to be not legitimate. Therefore institu- ter’s degree for head coaches. The last form of tional theory posits that legitimacy is the goal of isomorphism is memetic, which is true to its 1.4 Summary 11 name. Organizations will mimic successful orga- tutional maintenance would be the practice of nizations to gain legitimacy. There are numerous tailgating before football games. Tailgating is a examples of memetic isomorphism in the sports popular ritual for many football consumers; industry, much of which is done unknowingly. removing the opportunity to do so would harm The NFL is known as a “copycat league” where the sport organization’s legitimacy, and conse- teams will use plays or design their rosters in an quently, such practices are supported and encour- attempt to appear legitimate by following the aged by sport organizations. lead of the most successful teams. Institutional disruption occurs when institu- Another example is the explosion of multi- tions or practices are deemphasized or removed ple uniforms and helmets in college football altogether. This is done when a given institution made popular by the University of Oregon or practice is no longer viewed as legitimate. An Ducks. Once the Ducks became known as a example of institutional disruption is the recent successful team and brand, the practice of using efforts that both professional and collegiate foot- multiple helmets and uniforms was accepted as ball have made to make the game safer by alter- legitimate because of the positive impact it had ing their tackling rules. on recruiting and on the !eld. Consequently, almost all college football teams now have multiple helmets and uniforms in an attempt to 1.4 Summary appear to be as similar as possible to a successful team. Sport organizations are inherently controlled by their environments. The two perspectives dis- 1.3.3.2 Institutional Work cussed provide different viewpoints, one where and Disruption sport organizations are controlled by the amount The !nal form of institutional theory that will be or lack of resources and the other by whether or discussed, although there are many more, is not a sport organization is viewed as legitimate known as institutional work. This form of institu- based on the perceptions of those within the tional theory has been described as the means by institutional environment. Moving forward, it is which institutions are created, maintained, or dis- important to take into account the ability of the rupted.23 As such, institutional work explains sport organization to support its employees is what organizations actually do in their attempts often dictated by the environment. There simply to reach and keep a desired level of legitimacy. may not be enough resources available to sup- New organizations, or those that are recon!gur- port employees fully. Perhaps implementing ing, are often in the creation stage where they are programs that are not well known or unproven likely to engage in memetic isomorphism by would be seen as weird and illegitimate by peer organizing their front of!ce staff in a similar institutions or other employees, which would manner to already successful organizations by make the organization appear less attractive to hiring employees with ties to successful individu- some employees. Regardless, sport organiza- als. In the maintenance stage, organizations seek tions need to be aware of how their environment to preserve or retain their legitimacy. This is an impacts their capabilities and limitations. active process whereby organizations must remain aware of their institutional environment Discussion Questions to appear to be legitimate. Also, institutions that have gained legitimacy will perform rituals that 1. How has the study of organizational behavior support the existing belief and rule systems.24 Put in the sports industry evolved? another way, these organizations will reproduce 2. What are the differences between the HERO, the actions and customs deemed legitimate as HEROES, and A-HERO models? long as the institutional environment believes 3. Why is legitimacy important to sport such actions legitimate. A sport example of insti- organizations? 12 1 What Is Organizational Behavior

4. Distinguish between coercive, normative, and Sport Management Review, 18(4), 583–595; Oja, B. D., Bass, J. R., & Gordon, B. S. (2020). Identities memetic isomorphism. Provide examples of in the sport workplace: Development of an instrument each. to measure sport employee identi!cation. Journal of Global Sport Management, 5(3), 262–284. 13. Oja, B. D., Hazzaa, R. N., Wilkerson, Z., & Bass, J. R. Notes (2018). March Madness in the Collegiate Sport Workplace. Journal of Intercollegiate Sport, 11(1), 1. Soucie, D., & Doherty, A. (1996). Past endeavors and 82–105. future perspectives for sport management research. 14. Odio, M. A. (2019). The Role of Time in Building Quest, 48(4), 486–500. Sport Management Theory. Journal of Global Sport 2. Chelladurai, P. (1990). Leadership in sports: A review. Management, 1–17. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 21(4), 15. Kim, M., Perrewé, P. L., Kim, Y. K., & Kim, A. C. H. 328–354. (2017). Psychological capital in sport organizations: 3. Peachey, J. W., Zhou, Y., Damon, Z. J., & Burton, L. J. Hope ef!cacy, resilience, and optimism among (2015). Forty years of leadership research in sport employees in sport (HEROES). European Sport management: A review, synthesis, and conceptual Management Quarterly, 17(5); Odio, M. A. (2019). framework. Journal of Sport Management, 29(5), The Role of Time in Building Sport Management 570–587. Theory. Journal of Global Sport Management, 1–17. 4. Luthans, F., Youssef-Morgan, C. M., & Avolio, B. J. 16. Pfeffer, J., & Salancik, G. R. (2003). The external (2015). Psychological capital and beyond. Oxford control of organizations: A resource dependence per- University Press, USA. spective. Stanford University Press. 5. Luthans, F. (2002). Positive organizational behavior: 17. Meyer, J. W., & Rowan, B. (1977). Institutionalized Developing and managing psychological strengths. organizations: Formal structure as myth and cere- Academy of Management Executive, 16, 57–72. mony. American journal of sociology, 83(2), 340– 6. Becker, G. S. (1964). Human capital: A theoretical 363; Washington, M., & Patterson, K. D. (2011). and empirical analysis with special reference to edu- Hostile takeover or joint venture: Connections cation. Columbia University Press. between institutional theory and sport management 7. Luthans, F., Youssef-Morgan, C. M., & Avolio, B. J. research. Sport Management Review, 14(1), 1–12. (2015). Psychological capital and beyond. Oxford 18. Pfeffer, J., & Salancik, G. R. (2003). The external University Press, USA. control of organizations: A resource dependence per- 8. Luthans, F., Youssef-Morgan, C. M., & Avolio, B. J. spective. Stanford University Press. (2015). Psychological capital and beyond. Oxford 19. Pfeffer, J., & Salancik, G. R. (2003). The external University Press, USA. control of organizations: A resource dependence per- 9. Luthans, F., Youssef-Morgan, C. M., & Avolio, B. J. spective. Stanford University Press. (2015). Psychological capital and beyond. Oxford 20. Scott, W. R. (2003). Organizations: Rational. Natural, University Press, USA. and Open Systems, 5. 10. Kim, M., Kim, A. C. H., Newman, J. I., Ferris, G. R., 21. Suchman, M. C. (1995). Managing legitimacy: & Perrewé, P. L. (2019). The antecedents and conse- Strategic and institutional approaches. Academy of quences of positive organizational behavior: The role Management Review, 20(3), 571–610. of psychological capital for promoting employee 22. Washington, M., & Patterson, K. D. (2011). Hostile well-being in sport organizations. Sport Management takeover or joint venture: Connections between insti- Review, 22(1), 108–125. tutional theory and sport management research. Sport 11. Oja, B. D., Kim, M., Perrewé, P. L., & Anagnostopoulos, Management Review, 14(1), 1–12. C. (2019). Conceptualizing A-HERO for sport employ- 23. Lawrence, T., Suddaby, R., & Leca, B. (2011). ees’ well-being. Sport, Business and Management: An Institutional work: Refocusing institutional studies of International Journal, 9(4), 363–380. https://doi. organization. Journal of Management Inquiry, 20(1), org/10.1108/SBM- 10- 2018- 0084. 52–58. 12. Oja, B. D., Bass, J. R., & Gordon, B. S. (2015). 24. Lawrence, T. B., & Suddaby, R. (2006). 1.6 institu- Conceptualizing employee identi!cation with sport tions and institutional work. The Sage Handbook of organizations: Sport Employee Identi!cation (SEI). Organization Studies, 215–254. Unique Characteristics of Sport Organizations 2

regarding the lack of adequately trained individu- c Learning Objectives After reading this als to work in the sports industry. O’Malley rec- chapter, students should be able to: ognized that business principles had to be adapted • Identify components of organizations. by sport managers to meet the unique needs of • Distinguish sport organizations from sport organizations.1 This chapter explores the other types of organizations. unique characteristics of sport organizations. • Identify internal and external factors that Beginning with the de!nitions of organizations in"uence behaviors of sport organizations. and sport organizations, this chapter will then discuss the impacts of organizational size, bureaucratic structures, and !nancial constraints on the behavior of sport organizations and their employees. The second half of this chapter will 2.1 Introduction further explore the environments in which sport organizations function, including sociocultural In Chap. 1, we de!ned organizational behavior impacts of sport organizations on their communi- and explored some of the internal and external ties and in"uences of public scrutiny on organi- factors that in"uence the behaviors of employees zational practices. and managers. As you likely grasped, effective managers develop an understanding of how their c Organization Organizations are groups of actions, the organization’s actions, and the orga- people, working interdependently, and providing nization’s external environment in"uence the specialized contributions toward a common end behaviors of employees. You may have also or purpose. noticed that many of the theories discussed in this book are based on broader management and organizational theory. So, why the need for a 2.2 De"ning Organizations book on organizational behavior in sport? Sport management is a subdiscipline of man- Organizations are groups of people, working agement. It evolved from conversations that interdependently, and providing specialized Brooklyn Dodgers owner, Walter O’Malley, had contributions toward a common end or pur- with university professors Clifford Brownell pose.2 This broad de!nition allows for many (Columbia University) and James Mason different groups of people to meet the de!nition (University of Miami and Ohio University) of an organization, including athletic teams,

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 13 C. R. Barnhill et al., Organizational Behavior in Sport Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67612-4_2 14 2 Unique Characteristics of Sport Organizations community sport organizations, governing or even in the local community, but eventually, agencies, and many other sport-based entities. even the hardest working individual is limited However, not every group of people can be con- in the resources they can access. As an organi- sidered an organization. Chelladurai outlined zation, Girls on Run can use its size to access several attributes that delineate organizations resources and organizational knowledge to rep- from other groups.3 licate successful procedures across many communities. ◄

2.2.1 Identity and Permanency 2.2.3 Membership To be considered an organization, an entity must have a separate and distinct identity from those Organizations maintain controls on who can with which it is associated. Further, if a member become a member. These controls include entry leaves, the organization must continue to exist procedures, requirements to maintain member- and function toward its goals. In other words, ship, and systems to replace members that leave the organization is bigger than any of its the organization. Suppose you browse job and members. internship postings on job boards such as Jim Delany served as Commissioner of the Teamwork Online. In that case, you will notice Big Ten Conference from 1989 through 2020. that most include minimum and/or preferred During this period, Delany oversaw many quali!cations such as education levels, experi- changes to the Big Ten, including expansion to ence levels, and skillsets desired. These require- 14 member schools and the creation of the Big ments allow organizations to sort applicants and Ten Network. He also used traditional and new select interview candidates as part of their entry media effectively to advocate for the conference procedures. Sport organizations receive an abun- and was often seen as the public face of the Big dance of applications for open jobs. In 2018, the Ten. However, when Delany decided to step Chick-!l-a Peach Bowl received over 700 appli- down, the Big Ten Conference did not cease to cations from students interested in joining the exist. Instead, he was replaced by a new com- organization as an intern. Thus, entry procedures missioner, Kevin Warren. Delany will long be are needed to make selection processes effective associated with the Big Ten, but his identity and and ef!cient. the identity of the Big Ten Conference are Once new employees are hired, organiza- distinct.4 tions use appraisal methods such as performance appraisals to determine to evaluate the individual’s position within the organization. 2.2.2 Instrumentality Evaluations can be used by managers to shift members between roles or remove members Instrumentality refers to an organization’s abil- from the organization. It is important to note ity to achieve goals beyond the scope of what that organizational members are often employ- members can accomplish individually. Through ees, but members can have many other af!lia- effective use of processes and coordination/allo- tions with their organization. The previous cation of resources, organizations can take chapter pointed out that unpaid interns are con- advantage of economies of scope and econo- sidered employees by many sport organiza- mies of scale.5 This is particularly true of larger tions. Sports councils and other community organizations.6 sport organizations rely heavily on volunteers.8 Girls on the Run uses sport to strengthen It is not uncommon for experienced volunteers con!dence in elementary and middle school- to be placed in positions of authority or age girls.7 It is quite possible for a coach to assigned interdependent tasks to achieve the have an impact on children at his or her school desired outcome. A youth hockey tournament, 2.3 Sport Organizations 15 for example, may have volunteers in charge of positions of authority, as well as which members !nding teams to compete, scheduling games, and functions that position oversees. Some orga- arranging of!cials, running concessions, and nizations include many layers of bureaucracy, accounting for !nances. Although these mem- while others are relatively "at. This concept will bers are volunteers, sport organizations still be discussed further later in this chapter as well put processes to control who is occupying as in Chap. 4. these positions.

2.2.6 Formal Policies 2.2.4 Division of Labor and Procedures

Organizations divide labor to create ef!ciencies Policies and procedures allow managers to con- in work"ow. Labor division allows organizations trol the behaviors of employees, protect organiza- to take advantage of members’ specialized tional norms, and create consistency in processes knowledge in a rational manner consistent with throughout the organization. Most organizations organizational goals. It is the division of labor utilize policy manuals and other formal docu- that enables organizations to achieve instrumen- ments designed to educate members on organiza- tality or possibly economies of scope. tional rules. Organizations may also create Like many professional sport organizations, policies that govern who is to complete tasks and the National Women’s Soccer League (NWSL) how tasks are to be completed. Formal policies franchise, North Carolina Courage, divides its and procedures assist managers by outlining employees into the following functions: ticket authority and providing provisions for fair and sales, corporate partnerships, creative and mar- equal treatment. keting, operations, communications, broadcasting, merchandising, !nance, and team operations.9 Employees working in creative and marketing 2.3 Sport Organizations generate plans to develop community interest in the team, the ticket of!ce staff makes sales and The features outlined by Chelladurai are com- delivers tickets to customers, and the merchan- mon to organizations in any industry. Sport orga- dise of!ce sells team-branded apparel at the nizations share similarities with non-sport games. These departments work together to organizations. Business functions such as mar- ensure they present a consistent brand to the pub- keting, sales, !nancial management, strategic lic but undertake their primary functions inde- management, and regulatory compliance are just pendently to create ef!ciency. The organization as crucial for Manchester United as they are for utilizes economies of scope when using these Coca-Cola. Yet, Walter O’Malley and many other same departments to serve their partner club’s sports industry practitioners continue to argue needs, North Carolina FC. ◄ that sport organizations are unique. Chapter 1 emphasized some of the broader external and industry-related factors that contrib- 2.2.5 Hierarchy of Authority ute to this perspective. The remainder of this chapter will provide a more detailed examination Synchronization of interdependent members and of macro and micro industrial environmental fac- their responsibilities requires individuals to serve tors that shape sport organizations’ behaviors. as administrators and managers whose task is to We will also introduce sociocultural issues to the coordinate processes and employee functions. conversation. However, to understand what Individuals in management roles must have the makes sports organizations unique, we must !rst necessary authority to make decisions that affect de!ne the concept of a sport organization. This is the tasks of others. Organizational charts indicate actually a dif!cult task. 16 2 Unique Characteristics of Sport Organizations

2.3.1 Sport De"ned missions. In reality, what has been de!ned as or accepted as sport evolves with societal norms. Sport can be de!ned as of!cially governed, com- Once accepted as a mainstream sport, events petitive physical activity in which participants such as gladiator matches in ancient Rome are are motivated by internal and external rewards.10 considered barbaric by modern standards. If we use this de!nition for sport organizations, Esports, which are still seen by many as prob- that would mean sport organizations are organi- lematic because they do not promote physical zations that govern competitive physical activi- activity, is increasingly accepted as a form of ties in which participants are motivated by sport. Because societal perceptions of sport are internal and external rewards. By this de!nition, "uid, including a strict description of sport in leagues, conferences, associations, and other the de!nition of sport organizations is impracti- bodies that govern professional and amateur cal. If we cannot rely on the academic de!ni- competition would be considered sport organizations to set the book’s scope, maybe economic tions. Teams, clubs, and franchises would also categorizations will help. likely meet the de!nition as they could be regarded as participants. Unfortunately, this de!nition of sport organi- 2.3.2 Sport as an Industry zation is inadequate as it does not capture the full nature of sport. For example, esports is an emerg- Estimates of the global sports industry size in ing sector within the sports industry, although terms of value-added to the economy range from some argue that it lacks the physical component $489 billion12 to $1.5 trillion.13 Economists strug- necessary to be de!ned as sport. Yet, many tradi- gle to generate an accurate estimate of the sports tional sports franchises such as the Los Angeles industry’s size because the sports industry is not Lakers and Manchester City FC have invested in classi!ed as a separate segment of the economy esports teams. During the shutdowns caused by by the world’s governments. The US Department the spread of Covid-19, leagues such as NASCAR of Commerce classi!es sport under the broad and the United Soccer League (USL) turned to segment of arts, entertainment, and recreation. esports as a way to provide content when tradi- Organizations such as for-pro!t recreation pro- tional operations were not an option. In a similar viders and professional spectator sports fran- vein, organizations that use sport and physical chises are included within this segment. However, activity to affect their communities, such as Girls sport-related businesses can fall into numerous on the Run and Sport for Good, fall short of the segments based on the Bureau of Economic proposed de!nition. Their activities are not com- Analysis (BEA) guidelines.14 Major sporting petition-based. Equipment manufacturers, media, equipment and apparel manufacturers such as and other entities that aid in producing and pro- Nike and Adidas are categorized into the retail moting sport would also be excluded because they trade segment of the US economy. Sports facili- do not provide governance. ties could be classi!ed as arts, entertainment, and A broader de!nition of sport offered by the recreation segment, but may also be classi!ed as European Sports Charter11 states, “Sport means part of the government or real estate segments. all forms of physical activity which, through Amateur sport organizations may be classi!ed in casual or organized participation, aim at the government, educational services, or non- expressing or improving physical !tness and pro!t segments of the economy. Therefore, if we mental well-being, forming social relationships use the BEA de!nitions of the sports industry, or obtaining results in competition at all levels.” organizations such as the US Olympic Committee This de!nition captures organizations, such as would be excluded. Economic classi!cation is community agencies but still excludes organiza- also of no help for identifying the scope of the tions that support or facilitate sport participation sports industry. Luckily, organizational behavior such as manufacturers and regional sports com- theory provides an answer! 2.3 Sport Organizations 17 c Organizational Identity Organizational Using organizational identity as the de!ning identity is the organizational members’ factor in determining which organizations qual- perceptions of “who” the organization is, and ify as sport organizations may seem daunting “how” the organization is different from other for studying organizational behavior. The sports organizations. industry becomes a huge tent. Large international corporations such as Nike and small organizations, such as community recreation 2.3.3 Organizational Identity departments, identify as sport organizations. However, because organizational identity is From an organizational behavior perspective, strongly tied to employees’ in-role and extra- neither the academic and economic de!nitions role behaviors (i.e., actions they take on behalf are relevant in determining which organizations of the organization), attitudes toward their job are sport organizations. Organizations seek to (i.e., how they feel about working for an organi- differentiate themselves from other organiza- zation), and cognitions (i.e., how they interpret tions, both within and outside of their identi!ed the organization’s messages and actions), schol- industries.15 Organizations such as Soccer in the ars argue it could be one of the most important Streets, Reviving Baseball in the Inner Cities factors in understanding organizations.17 (RBI), and Sport for Good are non-pro!t organi- Additionally, as you understand how external zations that work to provide opportunity to disad- factors related to resource limitations and socio- vantaged youth in inner-city Atlanta. However, cultural issues in"uence many sport organiza- each holds its own organizational identities. tions similarly, you will be able to apply Soccer in the Streets is an independent, grass- organizational behavior theories to issues facing roots organization that builds soccer !elds and sport organizations across the sports industry’s classrooms for youth. RBI is a non-pro!t af!li- broad spectrum. At the same time, you will ated with Major League Baseball and the Atlanta appreciate that organizations in any sector are Braves that build athletic !elds and sponsors actually quite unique regardless of how similar baseball and softball leagues for youth. Sport for they appear to an outsider. In other words, the Good Atlanta is af!liated with Laureus, an inter- St. Louis Blues and Detroit Redwings are two national non-pro!t sport development organiza- distinct organizations despite both being mem- tion that uses sport to achieve numerous bers of the National Hockey League (NHL). Yet, community initiatives. perhaps shockingly, they also likely share some Although the aforementioned organizations similarities with the Durham Bulls (MiLB) and may not !t perfectly with the academic or eco- Chunichi Dragons (Nippon Professional nomic de!nitions of sport organizations, employ- Baseball). ees at these organizations generally view To be a successful sport manager, you will themselves as sport employees (social identity need to understand your organization’s identity theory) and their organizations as sport organiza- and will likely have a role in helping shape it. You tions (organizational identity). Organizational will also need to adapt and apply your knowledge identity is the organizational members’ percep- of organizational behavior to the circumstances tions of “who” the organization is and “how” the your organization confronts, be they internal, organization is different from other organiza- uniquely based on your organization’s identity, or tions.16 In other words, if the employees of an external forces confronting all sport organiza- organization feel like sport is a de!ning charac- tions. Throughout the remainder of this chapter, teristic of the organization’s culture, mission, we’ll explore some of the internal characteristics brand, or identity, the organization is a sport of sport organizations and factors in the organiza- organization. How outsiders perceive the organi- tional environment that in"uence sport organiza- zation as a sport organization is irrelevant. tions’ behaviors. 18 2 Unique Characteristics of Sport Organizations

2.4 Internal Organizational organization, as well as the patterns of communi- Factors cation, coordination, work"ow, and authority designations that direct organizational activi- As mentioned in the previous section, every sport ties.19 Organizational structure, often illustrated organization is unique. Organizational mission, in the form of an organizational chart, creates the culture, and structure, to name a few, are all division of labor and supports specialization and unique to the organization but have signi!cant departmentalization. in"uences on the behavior of administrators, managers, and other organizational members. c Specialization Separation of labor based on This section will provide a brief overview of job attributes and competencies. these factors. A more in-depth discussion is available in Chap. 6. An effective organizational structure can create a more ef!cient organization. Using a college athletics department as an example, compliance, 2.4.1 Mission, Vision, and Values facility management, ticket sales, marketing, and fundraising are critical functions of the organiza- All organizations should have a reason for their tion. It would not make sense for one individual to existence (mission), ambitions for their future do more than one of these jobs because there is (vision), and ethical underpinnings for how they little overlap in the competencies needed from one will achieve current and future goals (values). Often job to the next. Some people are better salespeo- espoused in written documents shared with the pub- ple, while others are better at oversight. It makes lic, mission, vision, and value statements can shape more sense for the salesperson to sell tickets while organizational identi!cation, therefore in"uencing the person who is better at oversight applies their employees’ attitudes and behaviors. They can also competencies in the compliance of!ce. This sepa- in"uence external perceptions of the organization, ration of labor based on job attributes and compe- potentially in"uencing perceptions of potential tencies is known as specialization. employees before they enter the organization. c Departmentalization Grouping similar specialized positions to take advantage of similar 2.4.2 Organizational Culture work"ows.

Organizational culture refers to the shared values Departmentalization occurs when similar spe- and assumptions held by organizational members cialized positions are grouped to take advantage regarding how employees should act and how of similar work"ows. In the athletic department work should be conducted.18 In other words, example, it may make sense to group people in organizational culture is the shared beliefs or ticket sales, marketing, fundraising into a depart- norms that in"uence the workplace atmosphere. ment since all of the positions are unique but Organizational culture often manifests in rituals interrelated. Departmentalization can improve and ceremonies such as “Casual Fridays” or communication. Oversight of this department by “Ringing the Bell” following a sale. an upper level manager (i.e., Associate Athletic Director for External Relations) creates a hierarchy within the organizational structure. 2.4.3 Organizational Structure As you will learn in Chap. 4, there are many different organizational structures used by sport All organizations have, to some degree, a formal organizations. In general, organizational struc- hierarchy of oversight. Organizational structure tures can be classi!ed by organizational “height.” refers to the division of labor within the Tall organizational structures have many differ- 2.4 Internal Organizational Factors 19 ent levels of management (bureaucracy). In "at organizational structure with two to four levels sport, large organizations, including manufactur- of bureaucracy, but because the organization has ers and elite professional and amateur sport, gen- numerous youth teams, a women’s team, and a erally have taller structures. Smaller organizations walking football team, the structure is wider than are usually "atter, meaning that they have less you would see in North American professional distance between upper management and lower sports franchises. Community sport and many level employees. The width of an organization’s other smaller sport organizations may have a com- structure is dictated by the number of functional pletely "at structure with only one level between areas in which the organization is engaged. management and employees. In "atter organizational structures, information is more likely to "ow Example directly from executives to lower tier employees or vice versa, and organizations tend to be less formal Atlanta United’s organizational structure contains due to frequent interaction between employees nine bureaucratic levels from the organization’s across management levels and departments. owner: Owner → President → Vice President → Director → Assistant Director → Manager → Coordinator → Assistant → Associate. The organi- 2.4.4 Organizational Size zation is also reasonably broad, containing 14 differ- and Resources ent departments. Suppose we take a look at AMBSE, Atlanta United’s parent !rm. In that case, we !nd a Large professional sport organizations tend to complex organization that also includes the Atlanta draw the most attention from industry outsiders. Falcons (NFL), Mercedes Benz Stadium (Venue), The New York Yankees, FC Barcelona, and Los PGA Superstores (Retail), Mountain Sky Ranch Angeles Lakers are known by fans worldwide and (Tourism), The Arthur M. Blank Family Foundation often skew public perceptions of sport organiza- (Non- Pro!t), and AMB Group (Financial) creating a tions. In fact, many sport management students very complex organizational structure. ◄ have dreams of working for a handful of teams, but the industry is much more diverse than the Organizational structure, along with organiza- EPL, NFL, and Nike. Barnhill and Smith20 high- tional culture, affects communication. In more lighted that a majority of sport organizations !t formal organizations, communication only the de!nition of small business enterprises. That occurs top-down through channels that run from means they have less than 50 employees and oper- authority !gure to next level subordinate. Cross- ating with limited resources and limited pro!t departmental communication occurs only at the margins.21 This is particularly true if we remove executive level. Lower tier employees in formal sport operations personnel (coaches, athletes, organizations rarely, if ever, directly interact with trainers, scouts, etc.) from the equation and focus executive-level employees. In less formal organi- on business operations. Small organizations tend zations, communication may "ow more directly to be "at, informal organizations with frequent across departments, but formal communication interactions between executives and other channels remain important to information "ow. employees. Frequent interaction in"uences the Smaller organizations have fewer levels of psychological contract that employees form with bureaucracy. Minor league/lower division profes- the organization.22 Limited resources can also cre- sional clubs and lower tier competitive amateur ate an atmosphere where creativity and other ben- sport organizations have "atter organizational e!cial employee behaviors are valued. At the structures. The Durham Bulls (MiLB) have only same time, employees are more likely to see their three to four levels of management between the ideas rejected, not because they are viewed as bad team president and interns. National Pro Fastpitch’s ideas, but because the organization lacks resources league of!ce has three levels of management from (human, !nancial, time) to implement them. commissioner to intern. Similarly, Oxford United Research has indicated that some organizational of the English Football League, League One has a behavior theories developed through studies at 20 2 Unique Characteristics of Sport Organizations larger organizations become unreliable in smaller organization’s mission as having value. organizations. This creates a challenge in sport. Correspondingly, outside support for the organization can affect how employees view their employer and career, in"uencing attitudes and 2.5 Sport and Culture behaviors. More broadly, sport organizations may be In Chap. 1, we noted that, like all organizations, used as symbols in broader political issues. Fights sport organizations are controlled by their envi- for racial and gender equality and LGBTQ rights ronment. This is particularly true in terms of have often seen sport organizations become sym- resource acquisition, where sport organizations bols of progress or discrimination. Because of compete with other organizations for both their in"uence, sport organizations can in"uence employees and !nancial resources. However, public opinion. Therefore actions such as the unlike some other industries, sport organizations Brooklyn Dodgers signing Jackie Robinson also make direct impacts on their external envi- become emblematic of larger movements hap- ronments. In this section, we’ll introduce some of pening in society. This can occur without inten- the ways sport organizations are acted upon or tion or action of the organization. For some sport act themselves act upon their external environ- organizations, such as many women’s teams, ments. We will also explore how organizational mere existence can be seen as political by some interactions with their environments can impact citizens. relationships with current and future employees. Understanding emotional attachments the public can have with teams and athletes, sport organizations can !nd themselves co-opted by 2.5.1 Impact of Politics on Sport politicians and fans into larger political move- Organizations ments. Nelson Mandela used South Africa’s National Rugby team’s popularity to increase Sport organizations rely on local, regional, or unity between Black and White South Africans national governments for support. This support during the 1995 Rugby World Cup.23 US can take many forms. For community sport President, Donald Trump, has used sport orga- organizations, their entire budget may be a line- nizations such as NASCAR and the NFL to sig- item in the city budget. These same organiza- nal his positions on various political issues, tions may also be affected by the availability of drawing distinction between he and his government grants or programs. For example, a opponents.24 sport organization may contribute to a commu- Fans also co-opt teams to signal political nity program with a broad initiative to improve af!liation. The El Classico rivalry between FC local residents’ health and welfare. Votes by the Barcelona and Real Madrid can be traced to the city council or community residents can dramat- Spanish Civil War. Catalonians sided with FC ically alter access to funding depending on the Barcelona to represent their region and culture political climate. During recessions, municipali- while Real Madrid became the favorite of ties reduced funding for non-essential services, Spanish Nationalists. Today, Catalonia "ags and and community sport organizations can be tar- chants are prevalent at FC Barcelona home gets for cuts. matches.25 The question is, how do these politi- Government support also comes in the form cal !ghts affect organizations? Employees look of legitimacy. Public support from community for alignment between their values and the val- of!cials can legitimize a sport organization’s ues of their employer. In many cases, profes- efforts in the eyes of other community organiza- sional and amateur sport organizations attempt tions. This can make it easier for that organiza- to maintain neutrality. Political !ghts involving tion to seek support from sponsors, donors, and their organization can alter employees’ work- other community members who now view the based feelings. 2.6 Summary 21

2.5.2 Impact of Sport Organizations organizations, must maintain cultures and on Their Communities develop organizational structures that attract talented employees and allow them to perform their Many organizations use community outreach ini- roles productively. However, sport organizations tiatives or corporate wealth to in"uence their are generally smaller than other organizations. communities. Relative to the overall size of the They must contend with outsized cultural and industry, sport organizations have an outsized sociopolitical in"uences while also dealing with impact on culture. As such, sport organizations limited access to resources. These factors have a tremendous ability to in"uence their own together in"uence organizational behavior. communities, beyond the scope of their own outreach and !nancial investment. Sometimes, this Discussion Questions can take the form of politics or community activism. 1. Why are academic and economic de!nitions Sport for development organizations exist to of sport inadequate for determining which in"uence their communities by using sport to organizations qualify as sport organizations? create positive health, social, and economic out- 2. What attributes delineate organizations from comes in their communities. Similarly, sports other types of workgroups? commissions exist to bring events that have posi- 3. How could you determine if a community tive economic impacts and also market their development non-pro!t quali!ed as a sport communities to potential tourists. Governing organization? bodies, amateur and professional teams, equip- 4. What is the difference between specialization ment and apparel manufacturers, and other sport- and departmentalization? associated organizations are also increasing 5. How does society affect sport organizations? community outreach efforts and other forms of How do sport organizations affect society? corporate social responsibility programs. Increasingly, sport organizations are willing to Notes use their standing to in support of political causes. Whether it is Nike’s support of social justice 1. Mason, J. G., Higgins, C., & Owen, J. (1981). Sport organizations, the WNBA’s Take A Seat, Take A administration education 15 years later. Athletic Stand initiative, or local sports organizations sup- Purchasing and Facilities, 44–45; Ohio University porting local ballot initiatives, sport organiza- (n.d.). Walter O’Malley: History of the Founder. Retrieved from http://https://business.ohio.edu/4812. tions’ political stances have the power to in"uence aspx. community members but also alienate fans and 2. Chelladurai, P. (2014). Managing Organizations for customers who disagree. These stances are indi- Sport and Physical Activity: A Systems Perspective cators of an organization’s values for current and (4th ed.). Routledge; McShane, S., & Von Glinow, M. (2018). Organizational Behavior (8th ed.). McGraw potential employees, possibly in"uencing per- Hill. ceptions of organizational !t. 3. Chelladurai, P. (2014). Managing Organizations for Sport and Physical Activity: A Systems Perspective (4th ed.). Routledge. 4. Rosenthal, P. (2019, March 7). The Big Ten grew big- 2.6 Summary ger and richer under Jim Delany—but that’s not a full accounting of his legacy. Chicago Tribune. A sport organization is an organization where 5. Babiak, K., Heinze, K.L., & Thibault, L. Management employees identify as sport organization concepts and practice in sport organizations. In Pedersen P.M. & Thibault, L. (Editors). Contemporary employees. In many ways, sport organizations Sport Management (6th Edition), Human Kinetics, are similar to organizations in other industries. 2017; Miozzo, M., Lehrer, M., DeFillippi, R., Sport organizations select employees, structure Grimshaw, D., & Ordanini, A. (2012). Economies of and divide labor to create ef!ciencies, and con- Scope through Multi- unit Skill Systems: The Organization of Large Design Firms. British Journal trol processes. Sport organizations, like all of Management, 23(2), 145–164. 22 2 Unique Characteristics of Sport Organizations

6. Wicker, P., Breuer, C., Lamprecht, M., & Fischer, A. and change. Academy of Management Annals, 7(1), (2014). Does club size matter: An examination of 123–193. https://doi.org/10.1080/19416520.2013.7 economies of scale, economies of scope, and organi- 62225. zational problems. Journal of Sport Management, 17. Marique, G., Stinglhamber, F., Desmette, D., 28(3), 266–280. Caesens, G., & De Zanet, F. (2013). The relation- 7. Girlsontherun.org. ship between perceived organizational support and 8. Harman, A., & Barnhill, C. (2018, November). affective commitment: A social identity perspec- Psychological contract development in community sport tive. Group & Organization Management, 38(1), organizations. Paper accepted for presentation at the bi- 68–100. annual Psychological Contract Small Group Conference, 18. Schein, E. H. (2010). Organizational culture and Melbourne, Australia. leadership (Vol. 2). John Wiley & Sons. 9. nccourage.com. 19. McShane, S., & Von Glinow, M. (2018). 10. Coakley, J. (2021). Sports in Society: Issues and Organizational Behavior (8th ed.). McGraw Hill. Controversy (13th ed.). McGraw Hill. 20. Barnhill, C. R., & Smith, N. L. (2019). 11. Council of Europe (2001). Recommendation No. R Psychological contract fulfillment and innovative (92) 13 Rev of the Committee of Ministers to Member work behaviors in sport-based SBEs: The mediat- States on the Revised European Sports Charter. ing role of organizational citizenship. International 12. Business Insider (2019, July 17). Increasing Journal of Sport Management and Marketing, Sports Sponsorships Will Drive the Global 19(1/2), 106–128. Sports Market to $614 Billion by 2022: The 21. Small Business Council (2004) Evaluation of Business Research Company. Retrieved from Government Employment Regulations and Their Impact https://markets.businessinsider.com/news/ on Small Business, Small Business Council, London. stocks/increasing- sports- sponsorships- will- drive- the- 22. Atkinson, C. (2008) ‘An exploration of small !rm global- sports- market- to- 614- billion- by- 2022- psychological contracts’, Work, Employment and the- business- research- company- 1028360019#. Society, 22(3), 447–465 [online] https://doi. 13. Plunket Research, Ltd. (n.d.). Sports & Recreation org/10.1177/0950017008093480. Business Statistics Analysis, Business and Industry 23. Smith, D. (2012, December 8). Francois Pienaar: Statistics. Retrieved from https://www.plun- ‘When the whistle blew, South Africa changed kettresearch.com/statistics/sports- industry/. forever.’ The Guardian. Retrieved from https:// 14. Bureau of Economic Analysis (n.d.). Industry List A. www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/08/nelson- Retrieved from https://apps.bea.gov/regional/rims/ mandela- francois- pienaar-rugby- world- cup. rimsii/download/372IndustryListA.pdf. 24. Thrush, G., & Haberman, M. (2017, September 25). 15. Gioia, D. A., Price, K. N., Hamilton, A. L., & Thomas, Trump’s N.F.L. Critique a Calculated Attempt to J. B. (2010). Forging an identity: An insider-outsider Shore Up His Base. New York Times. Retrieved from study of processes involved in the formation of orga- https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/25/us/politics/ nizational identity. Administrative Science Quarterly, trump- nascar- n"- protests.html. 55(1), 1–46. 25. Fitzpatrick, R. (2012). El Clasico: Barcelona v Real 16. Gioia, D. A., Patvardhan, S. D., Hamilton, A. L., & Madrid: Football’s Greatest Rivalry. Bloomsbury Corley, K. G. (2013). Organizational identity formation Publishing. Diversity in Sport Organizations 3

3.1 What Does It Mean c Learning Objectives After reading this to Be a Diverse chapter, students should be able to: Organization? • De!ne the terms diversity and inclusion in sport organizations. Diversity is brought up more than ever in orga- • Identify sport-speci!c examples to each nizations, including sport organizations. of the four major areas of diversity and Partially these conversations are occurring inclusion. because in many countries, such as the United • Analyze current issues and solutions to States, census demographics indicate there is or improving diversity and inclusion in the soon will be no majority ethnic group,1 but also sports industry. due to cultural shift and the rise of social media. Those conversations have often stopped at asking how many people of different ethnicities or genders an organization has. Diversity is so Calvin Claggett: Associate Director of much more than counting demographic num- External Operations, ETSU Athletics bers. There needs to be conversations around To listen to the interview lived experiences and perceptions of inclusivity, and these experiences are impacted by multiple levels, such as at the individual level, the social level, structurally, and societally.2 Therefore, for a sport organization to be truly diverse, it must not only include employees from different demographic groups; it should also strive to be representative of the community that it serves. This chapter explores diversity in sport organizations by examining essential aspects of diverse organizations, as well as systems and practices that facilitate the development of Supplementary Information The online version of this diversity within an organization. In the next sec- chapter (https://doi.org/10.1007/978- 3- 030- 67612- 4_3) tion, we will be talking about these topics as contains supplementary material, which is available to they relate to sport organizations. authorized users.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 23 C. R. Barnhill et al., Organizational Behavior in Sport Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67612-4_3 24 3 Diversity in Sport Organizations

3.1.1 Ethical Aspects with new, creative ideas are more important than ever. As was introduced in the previous chapter, While the sports industry often focuses on the employees align themselves with organizations !nancial or legal aspects of diversity (covered that share similar values. One of the bene!ts for later in this chapter), managers must also con- organizations that demonstrates their value of a sider diversity as an ethical issue. What is the diverse workforce is improved performance right thing to do according to your ethical prin- from employees who feel valued by their organi- ciples? Ethics vary from one person to another. zation. Employees may also work harder for For managers, the bottom line (i.e., pro!t) can organizations that they think values them as indi- often in"uence their ethical decision-making pro- viduals.6 There could be some !nancial costs cess. However, other in"uences can include but associated with having a diverse employee are not limited to friendships, power dynamics, group, such as physical changes to the work- public pressure, and biases. The Rooney Rule in place to accommodate a physical disability or the NFL, for example, is the requirement that a scheduling dif!culties due to differing religious Black candidate must be interviewed for a coach- holiday schedules. However, these are usually ing vacancy. The rule continues to be stymied by outweighed by the bene!ts of decreased a pervasive culture of “you end up calling your employee turnover, increased creativity, and bet- friends, and the typical coach has not been ter customer service. exposed to many black coaches,” as legendary 3 coach Bill Walsh highlighted. If a GM chooses c Discrimination Prejudiced treatment of and/ to only speak to their friends about hiring, it may or systematic exclusion of a particular group. violate an established rule, but it is also an ethical decision. Each coach has made an ethical decision when seeking out new candidates. 3.1.3 Legal Aspects Unfortunately, there is a long history of unethical treatment in sport management for people based In a large portion of the world, there are legal on race, gender, or sexuality. For example, since requirements related to diversity. These federal, the beginning of the NCAA, sexist and racists state, and local regulations usually focus on elim- beliefs were a part of college athletics.4 We will inating discrimination. Discrimination is the talk more in later chapters about ethical leader- prejudiced treatment of and/or systematic exclu- ship and other ethical considerations. sion of a particular group. For example, it is illegal in the United States to discriminate based on someone’s age, sex, and physical ability. A key 3.1.2 Financial Aspects component of these laws is the willingness to enforce these rules. In the United States, !ling Diversity is also impacted by and impacts the complaints with the Equal Employment !nancial aspects of sport organizations. Opportunity Commission (EEOC) can be a help- Researchers have found that diverse organiza- ful way for employees to signal that an organizations are more successful !nancially and on the tion is discriminating. Suing an organization can !eld.5 For example, a more diverse organization be a powerful way to enforce legislation. For with employees that are representative of all example, in 2017, a former athletic administrator neighborhoods in the community may generate and former coach successfully sued the University ideas to understand why ticket purchase patterns of Iowa for sex discrimination, highlighting the differ across the neighborhoods and generate dif- continued work that needs to be done surround- ferent marketing plans based on employees’ ing discrimination in college athletics. Title IX insights. As sport organizations deal with a more and the Americans with Disabilities Act are two competitive landscape for sponsorship money, examples of legislation that impact sport organi- viewership, grants, or participants, coming up zations in the United States. 3.1 What Does It Mean to Be a Diverse Organization? 25

3.1.3.1 Title IX of the Educational reasonable accommodation in hiring, too. Amendments Reasonable accommodation is a legal term, Part of the Educational Amendments of 1972, which means organizations must accommodate Title IX is a federal law regarding equal access to an individual’s needs within reason. For example, educational opportunities for women and bars the volunteer manager of a running event com- discrimination based on sex in any educational pany is focused on successfully managing the institution or program that receives federal sup- hundreds of volunteers it takes to put on a large port. Initially, this act was about giving women 10 k race. Many would assume that person would access to law and medical schools (until 1972, need to be able to walk and lift a certain amount many of these schools had only a small number of weight, often seen in job descriptions for these of slots for women to be admitted). However, it is operations roles. However, as management is the now better known for its in"uential part in the allocation and coordination of resources, why growth of college sports in the United States. couldn’t a person in a wheelchair accomplish this Despite being a federal statute for nearly 50 years, task. A reasonable accommodation would be for there are still examples of college athletic depart- other volunteers to move items around the event. ments violating this law. Dozens of high schools Beyond hiring, think about ways organizations and universities have been successfully sued for can be more accommodating to their consumers Title IX violations. In recent instances, San Diego or participants with disabilities. Simple things State University settled with a former coach for like subtitling social media videos can signal to $4 million, and St. Cloud State University in potential participants, consumers, and employees Minnesota was ordered to pay over $1 million in that the organization cares about them. legal fees after six of their student-athletes were sued over Title IX violations. Title IX violations are often blamed on the !nancial costs associated 3.1.4 Consumer/Participant Aspects with running women’s sports. This is despite the fact that men’s sports generally have more As sport continues to globalize and access to expenses than women’s sports. Compliance with technology allows anyone to become fans of any Title IX is nearly always more cost effective than sport, customer bases and participant pools are paying out settlements once violations occur. diversifying for most sports. The globalization of the game of golf provides an example. Increased c Reasonable Accommodation Organizations interest in the Ladies Professional Golf must provide accommodations for disabilities of Association (LPGA) in countries such as South otherwise quali!ed individuals unless the Korea has permanently altered the fan base and accommodation would cause an undue hardship. participant pools in women’s golf. The increased popularity of the LPGA in South Korea can be 3.1.3.2 The Americans traced to the success of golfers such as Se Ri Pak with Disabilities Act in the 1990s and early 2000s. This leads to an The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 in"ux of interest in the sport and more South (ADA) is another example of federal legislation Korean golfers qualifying for the tour. Today, to eliminate discrimination against a speci!c South Korea hosts its own regional LPGA tour demographic. There are many similar laws in and a major tournament on the main LPGA tour. countries like Canada, the UK, and others. Even within organizations that value diversity, Because this act was not passed until 1990, many implementing actions that demonstrate values facilities are still not ADA compliant. If an orga- and give voice to underrepresented populations nization avoids major renovations on a facility, can be challenging. Recruiting applicant pools then it is not required to make buildings or facili- that mirror communities is important as it allows ties ADA compliant. Knowledge of the ADA is organizations to hire quali!ed employees while vital in facility planning, but the ADA also covers maintaining diversity. By hiring people who 26 3 Diversity in Sport Organizations re"ect your fan base, your fan base may feel bet- gender, social class, religion, and so on and those ter represented and increase their loyalty to your identities can interconnect to distinctly impact brand.7 Note of warning, though, hiring one per- their lived experience. son of a group will not provide access to the entire group. For example, if we want gender Another aspect of diversity to understand is diversity in the boardroom, having only one intersectionality. Intersectionality means people woman-identi!ed person will not in"uence out- experience simultaneous identities, such as their comes, due to gender norms and the vast differ- race, gender, social class, religion, and so on. ences within the subscribed group. Yet, research Those identities can interconnect to distinctly indicates that having as few as two or more mem- impact their lived experience.9 Indeed research bers from underrepresented groups provides a into the experience of Black, female athletic signi!cant impact in terms of decision-making directors in American college athletics found that and productivity.8 most experienced multiple challenges based on stereotypes that intersected their gender and 10 c Stereotype Positive or negative attributes race. There are numerous ways to think about assigned to a particular group. diversity, including demographic differences, psycho-social differences, and cultural differences. Some of these differences are more appar- 3.2 Types of Diversity ent as you meet someone, whereas others may need to be revealed by the individual. Diversity is often portrayed as having representa- tives from multiple races, genders, or sexual orientations on staff. While these are elements of 3.2.1 Demographic Di"erences diversity, this view is incomplete. As managers, it is essential to understand our employees and all Demographic differences are based on age, race, the different ways we are categorized by others or religion, socioeconomic class, gender, sex, physi- ourselves. Stereotypes are attributes assigned to a cal ability, and sexual orientation. These are the particular group and can be negative or positive. categories that might be checked off on a census Think about stereotypes surrounding extroverts, survey or an employment application. When for example. Stereotypical behaviors for extro- thinking about demographic differences, there verts include having a loud, gregarious nature, are often categories related to our cultural his- thinking before they speak, and having the need tory. For example, race in the United States is to be around people all the time. This may be true often categorized by federal or state regulations for some extroverts but not all meet this descrip- (i.e., box-checking) grouped into these catego- tion. People are not merely an extrovert or an ries: American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian, introvert, it is a more complicated spectrum. If Black or African American, Native Hawaiian or we make assumptions about an employee by their Paci!c Islander, White, or more than one race, perceived extroversion, we could pigeonhole whereas, Hispanic or Latinx is an ethnic category. them into speci!c work tasks. This could be lim- However, in other countries, they may have dif- iting an organization’s success. While that exam- ferent categories related to race. For example, in ple is a simple one, more harmful stereotypes New Zealand, individuals are grouped into ethnic hurt whole groups of people. It is important to be groups of European, Asian, Maori, and other self-aware about any stereotyping you might be Paci!c Islander. Over 16% of New Zealanders doing of your coworkers, participants, or identify as Maori, the original people of the consumers. country. History, geography, and culture can in"uence how a country or industry categorizes c Intersectionality People experience people into demographic groups. These can also simultaneous identities, such as their race, be contentious. For example, some individuals do 3.2 Types of Diversity 27 not identify with being only male or only female, differences include the extroversion-introversion but some governments ask only for individuals to spectrum, or big-thinkers versus detail-oriented, identify as such. This was the case in the 2016 but there are many more tools to use. Like all Canadian Census; the Canadian government aspects of diversity, balance the use of typologies asked individuals for their “sex” and gave the to better understand employees with seeing each option for male or female. However, reports indi- person as complex and ever-changing. While cate in 2021, the census will ask about sex at sometimes steady, personality traits can change birth and current gender in separate questions.11 depending on the context, environment, and The sex of an individual is referring to the bio- time.12 Do not use these differences to create in- logical attributes of an individual, whereas gen- group, out-group scenarios, but to increase your der refers to the socially constructed roles, organization’s diversity and inclusion. behaviors, and expressions that are prescribed to each sex. All of these demographic differences c Cultural Diversity Cultural diversity relates to play a role in an employee’s lived experiences the norms, behaviors, and values that permeate a within and beyond your organization. particular culture. These could include cultural elements from our national origin, region, hometown, c Sex The sex of an individual is referring to language, family culture, religion, or social class. the biological attributes of an individual. c Gender Gender refers to the socially 3.2.3 Cultural Diversity constructed roles, behaviors, and expressions that are prescribed to each sex. Another way to think about diversity is cultural diversity. We all have different cultural experiences. Cultural diversity relates to the norms, 3.2.2 Psycho-Social Di"erences behaviors, and values that permeate a particular culture. These could include cultural elements When we think about psycho-social differences, from our national origin, region, hometown, lan- there are several areas to consider. Usually, one guage, family culture, religion, or social class. cannot tell psycho-social differences without get- Different combinations of these elements can ting to know a person. Many organizations ask intersect to create unique cultures. Residents their employees to take different personality tests. from across the state of Georgia share similar These tests can help individuals become more cultural norms due to shared geographic history. aware of their tendencies and personality traits, as However, residents of Atlanta, Georgia, share well as learn more about their coworkers. Rather many similar cultural norms with New Yorkers than trying to have all the same personality types because both cities are very large metropolitan in the same workgroup or organization, consider areas. Residents of rural Vidalia, Georgia, cannot how each personality brings something positive to relate to some of the norms shared between the table. Understanding the psycho-social differ- Atlanta and New York. ences within an organization or workgroup can Cultural differences can also play a role in help prepare for how each person may react to sport participation. For example, historically in change or uncertainty, or how communication the United Kingdom, soccer was considered a styles may lead to expectation gaps. working-class sport played in urban areas like There are a number of archetypes that people Liverpool and Manchester, whereas rugby was use to differentiate psycho-social differences. For played more by upper-middle and upper-class example, the Enneagram Typology has recently men at private boarding schools. Beyond sport, emerged as a popular typology, and many organi- class-related cultural norms can in"uence norms zations use the historically popular Myers-Briggs and behaviors around clothing or music choices. Test. Other ways to think about psycho-social These are not always uniform within a speci!c 28 3 Diversity in Sport Organizations social identity, but people often prescribe stereo- other hand, inclusion refers to making everyone types to these differences. in the organization feel involved and valued. In other words, diversity means you get into the c Prejudice Having negative attitudes toward party. Inclusion means you are asked to dance. someone based on their culture or other social Several organizations study diversity in sport identities. organizations. Annually, The Institute for Diversity and Ethics in Sport (TIDES) reports on Stereotypes about people can lead to negative diversity percentages within various sport organi- feelings and behaviors. Having negative attitudes zations in college athletics and professional toward someone, based on their culture or other sports leagues, and the Tucker Center for social identities, is called prejudice. Sometimes it Research on Girls & Women in Sport creates a isn’t a negative feeling toward other groups, but similar report card on women in coaching. Both instead is a positive bias toward those within your these centers provide relevant diversity demo- own group. That positive bias can still result in graphic data, where we can compare organiza- prejudice against other groups because you over- tions and observe changes over time, but these do value those within your own group. Let’s think not give a picture of how inclusive these organi- about an example some of you might have expe- zations are. While diversity is important, inclu- rienced: student-athletes as dumb jocks. If you sion supersedes it by effectively engaging all are a college athlete or know a college athlete, employees in the organization’s vision, strate- you likely know they re"ect the overall student gies, and day-to-day operations. Indeed, organi- population; some college athletes are great stu- zations are less effective if they engage in dents, while others are not. However, hiring man- compliance diversity strategies rather than proac- agers may believe the stereotype of dumb jocks tive, inclusive strategies.13 Feelings of inclusion and be prejudiced against every college athlete. are not monolithic in an organization. This unfairly hurts former college athletes in Relationship building, providing employees a their hiring prospects. In contrast, a hiring man- voice, and demonstrating a commitment to ager, who was a college athlete themselves, could employees’ growth are essential inclusion have a positive bias for anyone who also played a strategies. college sport. This unfairly hurts non-athletes in the hiring pool. There is plenty of evidence that prejudice exists in sport organizations. Now let’s 3.4 Bene#ts of Diversity think beyond merely how many different types of and Inclusion people we have in our organization, but also how they feel they !t within the company. Perhaps you already care about diversity and inclusion in your current and future organiza- c Diversity Having an assortment of tions. In some sport organizations, however, demographics, cultures, and psycho-social types traditions and nostalgia reign supreme, so get- present in the organization. ting people to care about making organizations more diverse may be dif!cult. Offensive nick- c Inclusion Inclusion refers to making everyone names, traditions, or slogans historically asso- in the organization feel involved and valued. ciated with the team can discourage some people from applying, hindering diversity recruitment efforts and limiting pools of quali- 3.3 Diversity Versus Inclusion !ed applicants. Some managers may also believe that people from other cultures, races, As mentioned, diversity means having an assort- or genders are not interested in their organiza- ment of demographics, cultures, and psycho- tion’s sport. Hiring managers may face push- social types present in the organization. On the back from others within the organization who 3.4 Bene"ts of Diversity and Inclusion 29 do not value or are threatened by a diverse success. They have a greater sense of urgency, workforce. These obstacles can be overcome focus, and enthusiasm for their tasks than less through outreach and ethical persuasion, but engaged employees. managers may also have to convince their col- However, organizations must exhibit an actual leagues of the bene!ts of fostering a diverse, commitment to diversity. Statements are not inclusive workforce. enough to generate engagement and may hurt the organization if not backed with action. Suppose an organization made claims to be diverse and inclu- 3.4.1 Organizational Success sive, but didn’t achieve that. How frustrating would that be to employees? As you will see in later chap- One of the most signi!cant bene!ts of diversity is ters, not following through on organizational com- often better organizational performance and suc- mitments can substantially damage employees’ cess toward achieving organizational goals. attitudes toward the organization and workplace There are many ways to evaluate organizational behaviors. Frustration and a lack of feeling that success. One common way to evaluate organiza- everyone is in this together can spur employees to tional success is !nancially analyzing pro!t mar- disengage, making them less productive or willing gins. Sport organizations may also measure to go above and beyond for your organization. success through increased participant numbers, shareholder value, on-!eld success, community Example or environmental impact, or various participant- based outcomes. Thus, organizations like a local Women have historically been denied access to YMCA or local recreation department could top-level leadership roles in sport organizations. measure success in the number of members, rev- Many still have senior staffs that are entirely male enue, or community partnerships. An NFL fran- and mostly white. Imagine being a part of one of chise could count successful performance based these organizations and being vocal about the on pro!ts, franchise values, or victories. need to have female representation in leadership. Regardless of which goals the organization Your colleagues are also vocal and it appears the uses to measure its success, diversity and inclu- organization is listening when a highly quali!ed sion help achieve that success. There are a few woman, Mary, is hired for a senior leadership possible reasons for this success through diver- position. Mary is excited and ready to join the sity and inclusion. leadership team with ideas to improve the com- First, by expanding their applicant pool, pany. You are excited to be a part of her depart- organizations increase their chances of !nding ment. However, at senior leadership meetings, the best-quali!ed candidate. In less diverse Mary is consistently talked over. Her ideas are sports industry segments, accessing a larger either ignored or repeated by a male colleague, applicant pool can provide an organization who receives the credit for those ideas. ◄ with a competitive advantage due to greater human capital access. Secondly, employees’ After reading the example, how do you think diverse experiences can bring new ideas to Mary will begin to feel about her new organiza- organizations or new ways to consider a prob- tion? How will you and the rest of your depart- lem. Those new ideas could build a competitive mental colleagues feel about their manager being advantage for the organization and help it grow discounted because of her sex? Maybe not right its share of the marketplace. As has been men- away, but eventually, Mary will move on. So tioned several times throughout the book, might you and your colleagues. The organization employees want to work for organizations that has spent valuable time and money hiring and share similar values. How does that bene!t the training someone new but didn’t get to enjoy the organization? Engaged employees are more bene!ts of those new ideas. As you can see, orga- invested in their roles and the organization’s nizations that ignore diversity and inclusion are 30 3 Diversity in Sport Organizations not just falling short on ethical and legal obliga- 3.5.2 Diversity and Inclusion tions. They are missing out on opportunities to Statements improve the organization’s overall success. Increasingly, sport organizations are producing diversity and inclusion statements. These 3.5 Organizational Aspects statements aim to demonstrate the organization’s of Diversity and Inclusion dedication to diversity and/or inclusion to both internal and external stakeholders. Diversity and If an organization decides to become more inclusion statements signal organizational values diverse, and more importantly, more inclusive, to both employees (internal) and participants, there are several aspects to consider. First, it consumers, businesses, or community partners should seek feedback from people within the (external). Such statements can be an effective organization. Employees who identify as part of way to communicate organizational values to an underrepresented or marginalized group often prospective applicants. However, suppose the have ideas on making their organizations more actions of the organization are contrary to these diverse and inclusive.14 In fact, they’ve likely statements. In that case, it can be harmful to been trying to share them with the organization employee morale or external partnerships and for a while but have been ignored. Committees/ hurt recruitment and hiring efforts. task forces, public statements, recruitment, hiring, programming, and structural/policy changes are possible avenues for improving diversity and 3.5.3 Diversity and Inclusion inclusion. As you can see, all elements of an Recruitment organization should be touched by diversity and inclusion efforts. Let’s take a look at common The only way to increase diversity within an actions in the sports industry. organization is to hire a diverse workforce. Organizations must be intentional in their recruiting practices. An oft-cited argument for lack of 3.5.1 Committees on Diversity diversity is the absence of interest by a particular and Inclusion group; however, the issue is generally related to inadequate efforts in the recruitment process. As Cooper et al.15 argued in their research about One of the most common recruitment efforts is to college athletics that having committees dedi- post a job announcement on a sport-related job cated to diversity and inclusion efforts are a board (i.e., Teamwork Online, Sports Job Finder, great beginning step within any sport organiza- etc.). Research has found that men are likely to tion. They also note that committees should apply for a posted position if they meet at least include internal and external stakeholders such 60% of the listed quali!cations whereas women as athletes, employees, and partners. The key generally only apply to positions in which they aspect being that these committees or task already meet 100% of quali!cations. According forces are “given organizational power to create to the study, which included more than 1000 pro- policies, practices and methods of evaluation to fessionals, women don’t apply because they fol- reduce and eliminate systematic racism and low the hiring post’s written guidelines.16 As a sexism and improve diversity and inclusion” result, applicant pools are overloaded with men, (p. 11). These committees, when given partly because men are more willing to apply resources, can help shape the organizational when they are less than quali!ed, and also statements, recruitment efforts, and hiring pro- because women already receive few opportuni- cesses, as well as programming and structure of ties to achieve quali!cations jobs in the sports sport organizations. industry. Organizations can remove this barrier 3.5 Organizational Aspects of Diversity and Inclusion 31 by focusing less on achieved quali!cations and ing on implicit bias believe they are making the more on talent and potential. To seek out the best best and fairest decisions without any intention to possible talent, organizations should expand their do harm. recruitment beyond posting the job online. There are ways to either acknowledge our Sport organizations can learn more about implicit biases or reduce its impact on the hiring applicants’ potential through conversation and process. One way is to simply acknowledge that interaction. To gain access to more diverse talent decision-makers are biased and learn to recognize pools, organizations can consider conferences, them. Organizations can have their hiring commit- clubs, mentoring programs, and other physical tees take implicit bias tests, which can reveal locations where you are more likely to meet biases toward speci!c groups. This allows hiring diverse groups of people. For example, in esports, managers to better recognize when their decisions 22% of African-Americans in the United States are discriminatory. Another possible consideration indicated fanship of esports, yet the professional would be to create a rating system based on each teams and managers are primarily white and of the criteria of job announcement, or adopt some Asian.17 If esports organizations want to seek out form of analytical or scienti!c assessment to eval- more African American representation, creating uate candidates. This will reduce bias for an in- mentoring programs, hosting conferences, and group member (maybe the son of a friend), who is recruiting at events will be more effective than clearly not as quali!ed as other candidates. posting on job boards. Increasingly, sport organi- Organizations must also reexamine their inter- zations are hosting hiring events where potential view processes to eliminate implicit bias. Search applicants must pay to attend. This strategy is a committees should be expanded to include broad successful revenue-generating strategy but also representation. Having a diverse hiring committee prohibits applicants from lower socioeconomic allows for collaboration and discussion of candi- classes from entering the applicant pool. dates that include more viewpoints. In addition, interview questions should be standardized for all c Explicit Bias Biases that one is consciously candidates. This ensures that all applicants are eval- aware of and willingly allows to in"uence uated on the same criteria. Finally, organizations decision-making. can ask candidates to complete a task so they can be assessed directly on job-related skills or potential. c Implicit Bias Predispositions that unconsciously guide decision-making. Example

Men’s sports leagues have a long-held bias 3.5.4 Hiring Process against women’s ability to coach male athletes. Acknowledging that bias, several teams in the How does an organization choose the right candi- NFL, NBA, and MLB have hired women for date from its applicant pool? One thing to con- coaching positions in recent years. Katie Sowers sider is the implicit bias of hiring managers. We became the !rst female to coach in a Super Bowl, often think about explicit bias, which is the acting when she coached as an offensive assistant for on a bias of which one is consciously aware. the San Francisco 49ers in Super Bowl LIV. ◄ Explicit biases are very harmful because they result in blatant discrimination, but they are also more visible to all involved parties. Implicit 3.5.5 Diversity and Inclusion biases are predispositions that unconsciously Programming guide our decision-making. We often do not even realize we have them which is what makes Diversity trainings are becoming more common implicit bias so damaging. Hiring managers act- for both incoming and current employees. These 32 3 Diversity in Sport Organizations are meant to help encourage inclusivity and help In the later stages, employees begin choosing people understand their biases. However, some- to address bias, even if it makes them uncomfort- times they can be detrimental if not done produc- able. In the informed stage, employees develop tively. The classic American TV show The Of!ce an understanding of the issues surrounding their had an episode about a disastrous way to do biases and start making efforts to make changes diversity training. In the episode, managers drew in their own attitudes. At the empowered stage, attention to racial, gender, and LGBTQ stereo- individuals now feel more comfortable acknowl- types but did not discuss the dangers of holding edging their biases publicly. They care less about such prejudices. In the end, everyone in the of!ce their own reputation compared to making felt more awkward around each other than they changes in the organization. In the !nal stage, had before. It is satire, so an exaggeration, but employees join the !ght for change within the there are stories of real diversity training going organization. horribly wrong. This generally makes life worse To ensure programming is successful, organi- for those within the organization, especially those zations must keep in mind a few important from underrepresented groups. lessons. First, the effort to mitigate bias should Recognizing how training efforts may be not fall on the shoulders of the marginalized implemented in a context-speci!c way, under- group. This is unfair, and the extra work may hurt standing the inter-personal dynamics of each their careers. Second, training must be an ongo- workgroup is most effective. While not addressing process, championed by the organization. ing the larger structural issues, the Six-stage Once- a- month workshops are generally not use- framework (Fig. 3.1) can help design individual- ful. Most importantly, initiatives should garner a ized education modules for employees. Various sense of belonging for everyone in the organiza- employees within your organization will be tion, focus on both a top-down and bottom-up somewhere along this spectrum (and in different approach, and involve small actions regularly to places depending on the type of diversity). Thus, build real and lasting feelings of inclusiveness for knowing their stage has utility in building more all the employees. effective and useful programming. As Kim mentions18 in the early stages of the framework, individuals seek psychological safety 3.5.6 Organizational Culture as their default placement. Although it is hard to and Structure imagine people being unaware of bias, most do not automatically explore prejudices in society unless In the previous chapter, you were introduced to they are affected. Once they become aware, the the concepts of organizational culture and struc- apathetic stage is one of acknowledgment but also ture. Both can encourage or discourage diversity downplaying the impact bias has on others. At this and inclusion. Building diversity and inclusion stage, you may hear an employee say, “Well, we into the organizational culture and championing all have problems,” or “I just have too much going initiatives as essential organizational functions on to care right now.” The third stage, curious, is inform employees of their importance. Tangible when employees will begin to ask questions. programs, such as the Bill Walsh Diversity in Statements like “I want to learn more, but I am Coaching Fellowships in the NFL19 and afraid of saying the wrong thing” is common. NASCAR’s Drive for Diversity, signal organiza-

Unaware Apathetic Curious Informed Empowered Advocate

Fig. 3.1 Six-stage framework (Kim, J. [November, 2017]. How to design original, impactful diversity and inclusion programming. Presented at the Lever Talent Innovation Summit. Retrieved from: https://www.jennifer.kim/inclusion) 3.6 Conclusion 33 tional commitments to inclusion that are evident Discussion Questions to employees from underrepresented groups and employees from privileged populations. 1. Think about the different aspects and types of Structural changes like the ones referenced can diversity written in this chapter. How do you be powerful mechanisms for change. But small identify in terms of race, gender, sexual orien- changes to policy and norms to be more inclusive tation, or socioeconomic status? What other also make signi!cant impacts. types of identity are important aspects to who Many organizations hold important meet- you are as a person? ings at 8:00 am. This seems rather benign. 2. Recall a time when you did not feel included Holding meetings at 8:00 am allows people to or noticed someone else was not being complete the meeting and move into their day. included in a team or work setting. How did it However, for parents, especially single parents, make you feel? What concrete, speci!c ways or parents who are the primary caregiver, early could you help someone feel more included in meetings can be a considerable obstacle to their your sport organization? success and growth. It places parents in a posi- 3. Part of inclusion in an organization is getting tion where they may be unable to get their chil- to know your coworkers and building empa- dren to school and make that early meeting. thy for them and their lived experiences. List This seemingly innocent organizational tradi- different ways you would get to know and tion could signal that the organization does not build empathy for your coworkers. value their family to working parents. Similarly, a tradition of socializing at a local pub after Notes work can effectively build morale and improve team cohesion. However, employees who 1. Kotkin, J. (August, 2010). The Changing abstain from drinking for religious, health, or Demographics of America. Smithsonian Magazine. addiction issues may feel left out, especially if Retrieved from: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/ travel/the- changing- demographics- of- work-based discussions are conducted. Simply america- 538284/. altering organizational policies or rotating 2. Olushola-Ogunrinde, J., & Carter-Francique, A. R. team-building activities so that more can par- (2020). Beyond the Xs and Os. In (Eds. Bradbury, S., ticipate goes a long way toward making every- Lusted, J., & van Sterkenburg, J.) ‘Race’, Ethnicity one feel included. and Racism in Sports Coaching. London: Routledge. 3. Proxmire, D. (December, 2008). Coaching Diversity: The Rooney Rule, Its Application and Ideas for Expansion. American Constitution Society for Law 3.6 Conclusion and Policy. Retrieved from: https://www.acslaw.org/ wp- content/uploads/old- uploads/originals/docu- As you can see, diversity and inclusion are ments/Proxmire_Issue_Brief.pdf. essential parts of today’s sports industry. No 4. Cooper, J. N., Newton, A. C., Klein, M., & Jolly, S. (2020). A Call for Culturally Responsive matter what part of the industry you choose to Transformational Leadership in College Sport: An work in, conversations are being had about this Anti-ism Approach for Achieving Equity and important topic. There are many opportunities Inclusion. Frontiers in Sociology, 5, 65, 1–17. and challenges when it comes to diversity and 5. Cunningham, G. B., & Melton, E. N. (2011). The ben- inclusion in the sports industry. There is now e!ts of sexual orientation diversity in sport organizations. Journal of Homosexuality, 58(5), 647–663. overwhelming evidence from both academic and 6. Cooper, J. N., Newton, A. C., Klein, M., & Jolly, S. industry- sponsored research indicating that (2020). A Call for Culturally Responsive diversity and inclusion are bene!cial to both Transformational Leadership in College Sport: An employee well- being and the bottom line (i.e., Anti-ism Approach for Achieving Equity and pro!t margins). Thus, you will see references to Inclusion. Frontiers in Sociology, 5, 65, 1–17. diversity and inclusion in nearly every chapter of 7. Cooper, J. N., Newton, A. C., Klein, M., & Jolly, S. this textbook. (2020). A Call for Culturally Responsive 34 3 Diversity in Sport Organizations

Transformational Leadership in College Sport: An Division IA intercollegiate athletics. Journal of Sport Anti-ism Approach for Achieving Equity and Management, 15(1), 10–50. Inclusion. Frontiers in Sociology, 5, 65, 1–17. 14. Singer, J. N., & Cunningham, G. B. (2018). A collec- 8. Loop, P. & DeNicola, P (Feb., 2019). You’ve Committed tive case study of African American male athletic to Increasing Gender Diversity on Your Board. Here’s directors’ leadership approaches to diversity in col- How to Make it Happen. Harvard Business Review. lege sport. Journal of Intercollegiate Sport, 11(2), Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2019/02/youve- 269–297. committed- to- increasing- gender- diversity- on- your- 15. Cooper, J. N., Newton, A. C., Klein, M., & Jolly, S. board- heres- how- to- make- it- happen. (2020). A Call for Culturally Responsive Transformational Leadership in College Sport: An Anti- 9. Walker, N. A., & Melton, E. N. (2015). The tipping ism Approach for Achieving Equity and Inclusion. point: The intersection of race, gender, and sexual ori- Frontiers in Sociology, 5, 65, 1–17. entation in intercollegiate sports. Journal of Sport Management, 29(3), 257–271. 16. Mohr, T. S. (August, 2014). Why women don’t 10. McDowell, J., & Carter-Francique, A. (2017). An apply for jobs unless they’re 100% quali!ed. Harvard Business Review intersectional analysis of the workplace experiences . Retrieved from: https:// of African American female athletic directors. Sex hbr.org/2014/08/why- women- dont- apply- for- jobs- Roles, 77(5–6), 393–408. unless- theyre- 100- quali!ed. 11. Leblanc, D. (April, 2020) Ottawa adding new census 17. Peterson, L. (March, 2018). Why aren’t more questions on gender, Indigenous, linguistic, and eth- black kids going pro in esports? The Undefeated. nic minorities. The Globe and Mail. Retrieved from: Retrieved from: https://theundefeated.com/features/ https://www.theglobeandmail.com/politics/article- ottawa- why- arent- more- black- kids- going- pro- in- esports/. adding- new- census- questions- on- gender- indigenous- 18. Kim, J. (November, 2017). How to Design Original, canadians/. Impactful Diversity and Inclusion Programming. 12. Damian, R. I., Spengler, M., Sutu, A., & Roberts, Presented at the Lever Talent Innovation Summit. B. W. (2019). Sixteen going on sixty-six: A longitudi- Retrieved from: https://www.jennifer.kim/inclusion. nal study of personality stability and change across 19. Agyemang, K., & DeLorme, J. (2010). Examining the 50 years. Journal of Personality and Social Dearth of Black Head Coaches at the NCAA Football Psychology, 117(3), 674 Bowl Subdivision Level: A Critical Race Theory and 13. Fink, J. S., Pastore, D. L., & Riemer, H. A. (2001). Do Social Dominance Theory Analysis. Journal of Issues differences make a difference? Managing diversity in in Intercollegiate Athletics, 3, 35–52. Part II Understanding the Organization

In their essence, organizations in sport are groups of people segmented and structured in a manner to accomplish tasks. The ef!ciency with which managers structure the employees can greatly in"uence the success of an organization. Therefore, understanding the organization is vital to organizational success. This unit will explore how organizations are structured and communication channels function in sport organizations. Next, we’ll examine how organizational culture is created and experienced by organizational members. Finally, we’ll discuss the key aspects of organizational change. Organizations are dynamic and complicated. In the sports industry, society provides them with great prominence. As such, their behaviors and changes are in"uenced by and are critiqued by their external environment. Organizational Structure 4

other teammates. In sports with high degrees of c Learning Objectives After reading this specialization and complex playing structures, chapter, students should be able to: positions may also tell us which grouping the player belongs. In soccer, a player’s position also • Identify the six fundamental building lets us know if they are a defender, mid"elder, or blocks of organizational structure. a forward player. In football, the position tells us • Comprehend the in!uence of sport’s if the player is on the offensive or defensive side history on organizational structure in the of the ball. It also communicates how close to the sports industry. line of scrimmage they position themselves. • Compare and contrast different organi- Much like teams, employees are placed in a spe- zational structures in sport. ci"c role, and that role may be a part of a larger grouping of employees with similar functions. How people are placed within an organization in!uences communication patterns, culture, and execution of organizational goals. Dr. Miriam Merrill: Director of Athletics, Pomona-Pitzer Colleges As you begin reading this chapter, you may To listen to the interview wonder, what is the best organizational structure. As you will see, there is no correct structure for sport organizations. The optimal organizational structure depends on an organization’s vision and goals. Organizational structures are the patterns 4.1 Concepts of Structure Within or grouping of tasks and individuals that deter- Organizations mine reporting relationships. Imagine an organization with a strict hierarchical structure, where Look at your favorite team’s roster. In most entry-level employees rarely interact with the sports, players are assigned a position that de"nes president, CEO, or athletic director. That organi- their role and dictates how they interact with zational structure means the power resides mainly

Supplementary Information The online version of this chapter (https://doi.org/10.1007/978- 3- 030- 67612- 4_4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 37 C. R. Barnhill et al., Organizational Behavior in Sport Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67612-4_4 38 4 Organizational Structure with the middle managers, who relay information This helps the employee become more ef"cient at and directives between those entry-level workers executing those tasks and introduces creative and those in top leadership positions. Conversely, ideas because of their focus on one particular with a !atter organizational structure, meaning topic. middle managers are not a part of the design, the Specialization is more common in larger sport communication patterns are quite different. New organizations that have resources to hire people interns may "nd themselves in meetings with that serve only one role. In smaller sport organi- upper administration to discuss strategy. In deter- zations, specialization is dif"cult to achieve as mining which organizational structure is most resource limitations prohibit "rms from hiring important, "rms should account for six building enough workers to complete all organizational blocks to organizational structure: specialization, functions. Thus, employees have to complete departmentalization, formalization, centraliza- roles in multiple functional areas. More recently, tion, span of control, and chain of command. This smaller organizations have begun outsourcing chapter will begin by addressing each block. The functions that require specialization, such as later parts of the chapter will explore the in!u- ticket sales. However, larger organizations also ence of sport on these organizational structures outsource work when the required specialization and different structure options for a sport is far outside of the organization’s primary func- organization. tion. For example, Major League Baseball Advanced Media paid several NYU computer c Organizational Structure Organizational science professors to develop Statcast, an innova- structures are the patterns or grouping of tasks tive visual analytics tool.1 Although specializa- and individuals that determine reporting tion is a critical component in organizational relationships. ef"ciency, it can have adverse outcomes. One issue with increasing specialization is a lack of !exibility in the organization. Individuals who c Specialization Specialization refers to the only have expertise in one area cannot be easily degree to which the tasks of an organization are assigned new tasks that don’t "t within their broken down into speci"c roles. knowledge area. In addition, if employees become bored in their role due to a lack of task variety, they can actually become less engaged 4.1.1 Specialization and less productive.

In the front of"ce of most Class A-level Minor League Baseball teams, one person is in charge 4.1.2 Departmentalization of the team’s ticket operations. Their duties would include selling tickets, processing ticket Departmentalization is de"ned as grouping roles orders, and overseeing gameday operations of the and tasks within the organization’s structure to box of"ce. In a larger organization, such as an accomplish speci"c elements of its operational MLB franchise, ticket sales are a separate depart- needs. The idea is to group employees with simi- ment from box of"ce operations. Further, the lar functions or related processes to make work- ticket sales department likely has workers solely !ow, decision-making, and communication more focused on selling single-game tickets, season ef"cient. Deciding which roles to group into a tickets, group tickets, or premium tickets. This is department can vary based on the organization’s an example of specialization. Specialization size and focus, as well as the nature of the task. refers to the degree to which the tasks of an orga- Suppose we look at the departmentalization of nization are broken down into speci"c roles. ticket operations across the industry. Ticket oper- Specialization allows individuals to become ations is generally tasked with seating allocation, highly knowledgeable in their particular roles. ticketing software selection, printing and distri- 4.1 Concepts of Structure Within Organizations 39 bution of tickets, and gameday gate operations. If zations that experience a lot of employee turn- we were to survey organizational structures over desire more formality. When an individual across the industry, we would see ticket opera- leaves the organization, it may be dif"cult for the tions personnel placed in sales of"ces, marketing organization to replace them, as their supervisors of"ces, business operations, and facility opera- may not be aware of their whole task list. tions. If ticket operations and facility operations Employee turnover has long been an issue for were together, department meetings would sport organizations.5 Depending on the formal- include discussions of people !ow and security, ization level required for a role, sport organiza- in business operations, discussions would be tions often ask current employees to write out focused on accounting of revenues, whereas with their duties, including those not previously for- sales or marketing, department meetings would malized. This allows the organization to under- include conversations around incoming groups stand better what tasks will not be ful"lled should and increase in suite sales. Each of those impacts the person leave. the ticket operations staff, but in different ways. Beyond turnover, formalization can help It is not to say ticket operations wouldn’t learn employees and administrators manage expectations. about both of these task areas regardless of their When an employee is encouraged to do whatever is department grouping, but departmental groups asked of them and more, it can create frustration, expedite this information sharing. While depart- confusion, and burnout. Formalization of tasks mentalization can lead to several issues (see allows employees to understand what is within Chap. 14), effective use of the tactic does increase their role and what is beyond. However, similar to ef"ciency. Therefore, thinking about the most many of these other elements of organizational effective and ef"cient way to group an organiza- structure, too much formalization can create tion’s tasks can improve organizational success. extreme rigidity, making organizations in!exible to shifts in their environment. Organizations should c Formalization Formalization is the degree to seek a balance based on their needs and their opera- which the organization relies on and documents tional environment. operating procedures to maintain structure. c Centralization Centralization refers to the consolidation of decision-making in an 4.1.3 Formalization organization.

Formalization is the degree to which the organization relies on and documents operating proce- 4.1.4 Centralization dures to maintain structure.2 Job duties, listed in both position announcements and human Centralization refers to the consolidation of resource manuals, represent a level of formaliza- decision- making in an organization. If the tion within the organization’s structure, but for- decision- making process requires consistent malization can take many other forms. Many approval from a singular role, such as president or factors in!uence the degree of formality within a CEO, then the organization is highly centralized. sport organization. For many long-time, amateur- Contrariwise, when decision-making responsibil- run community sport organizations, there is a ity lies with department heads and other middle struggle between complete !exibility and increas- managers, we can say that the organization is ing formalization, due to pressure from funding decentralized. Many non-pro"t and community resources.3 But, access to resources is not the sport organizations adopt decentralized structures only driving in formalization. As discussed in where a signi"cant amount of decision-making is Chap. 2, most sport organizations are relatively done by a governing board of directors, who are small. Smaller organizations have little need nor democratically elected by the association mem- capacity to formalize.4 On the other hand, organi- bers. These organizations seek to involve as many 40 4 Organizational Structure stakeholders as possible, and maintain a fair and have a coordinator and an intern under their span inclusive environment. This relates back to their of control, but manage a signi"cantly higher missions as a community- focused organization. number of people on the day of an event. An issue with decentralized decision-making is it Determining each manager’s capabilities to coor- can slow down decision-making and could create dinate employees, along with organizational sub-unit competition. needs and directives, will allow sport organiza- Conversely, a highly centralized organization tions to develop proper spans of control and can be more agile in its decision-making pro- become more ef"cient in staf"ng. cesses. Many sport organizations leave decisions regarding player acquisition up to speci"c individuals. This allows them to beat out other teams 4.1.6 Chain of Command when a coveted talent becomes available. Smaller organizations and those with more visionary Chain of command refers to the line of authority leadership are also more likely to adopt a central- that extends from upper-level management ized structure. In a highly centralized organiza- through middle management to lower tiered tion, employees in those decision-making roles employees. Depending on the organization’s take on increased importance. structure and formality, the chain of command dictates who reports to whom. Often, the chain of c Span of Control The number of employees command also dictates communication !ow who report to a manager. through the organizational structure. The chain of command is ever-present, giving managers oversight over daily decisions like approving adver- 4.1.5 Span of Control tising campaigns, employee travel, and other routine functions. But, the chain of command in In organizations with a hierarchical structure, one sport organizations is also highly evident and rel- person may manage three to four people, but in evant during time-sensitive situations and crises. !atter organizations, individuals may directly When dif"cult decisions need to be made, it manage ten to "fteen people. The number of becomes clearer to most employees why it is rel- employees who report to an individual within an evant. For example, the Covid-19 pandemic organization’s structure is their span of control. forced sport organizations to make very tough When hiring individuals for a supervisory posi- choices about if, when, and how to play games. tion, it is important to think about a potential Decisions were made based on the chain of com- applicant’s span of control capabilities. After all, mand for each organization, which looked very managing two to three direct reports is quite dif- different in the German Bundesliga compared to ferent than overseeing the 15 employees. NCAA athletic programs. Even within various Similarly, managing entry-level employees is athletic departments, there were differences quite different from overseeing highly experi- based on structure. Coaches and operations staff enced workers. Determining the appropriate span reported to athletic directors, who, in turn, of control for managers depends on a number of reported to university presidents. University pres- elements, such as geographic distance, level of idents are usually governed by a board of trust- competency, and complexity of tasks. Span of ees, and potentially the state government. Most control considerations are more important in college athletic programs also belong to a confer- hierarchical structures than in other typologies ence. The NCAA and most universities deferred discussed later in this chapter. Unique to event- to their conferences to make decisions regarding based organizations, such as many sport organi- competition during the pandemic. Universities zations, is how an employee’s span of control and their athletic departments then made deci- shifts between game day and non-game day. In sions using their own chains of command to day-to-day operations, a game day manager may determine how to react to conference decisions. 4.2 Type of Organizational Structures 41

Understanding who has decision-making power in organizations can help employees or potential employees better comprehend how decisions are made.

4.2 Type of Organizational Structures

After understanding the elements of organizations, let’s discuss the different organizational structure types and how sport may in!uence these structures. Most organizations adopt one of Fig. 4.1 Simple organizational structure the following organizational structures: simple, bureaucratic/hierarchical, matrix, and self- season canceled due to the Covid-19 pandemic. managed team structures. Sport’s history and cul- The front of"ce quickly pivoted as an organization ture have in!uenced how many sport organizations and used their stadium to host high school tourna- are structured. As sport becomes more global- ments and other events. The quick pivot allowed ized, professionalized, and competitive, sport the organization to earn revenue while being unable organizations have adapted their organizational to perform its primary function. Having only two structures to meet new goals. full-time employees, the organization was able to make decisions quickly and act decisively. ◄

4.2.1 Simple Structure 4.2.2 Hierarchical or Bureaucratic A simple organizational structure is often found in Structure smaller sport organizations. For example, in a minor league hockey franchise, there may only be In larger organizations, hierarchical structures a general manager (GM) and an assistant general often emerge. These structures rely on layers of manager (AGM) as full-time employees. They reporting mechanisms (bureaucracies) to create a may also have game day staff and interns, but the laddered pyramid within its chain of command. organization’s front of"ce structure would still be This structure usually is highly organized, which relatively simple, with everyone reporting to either creates formality within reporting structures and the GM or AGM. As seen in Fig. 4.1, there are not communication channels. As seen in Fig. 4.2, a multiple layers of communication. Everything singular person or a small group of upper-level generally !ows through one or two people. administrators possess "nal decision-making This structure makes the organization extraor- power. Authority and decision-making capabili- dinarily !uid and !exible. As everyone is in close ties recede further down the structure. proximity and communicate frequently, they are Remembering the section on departmental- able to shift duties as the situation arises. An ization, these organizations are generally seg- example of this, when MiLB canceled the 2020 mented into departments. There are clear lines season, most MiLB franchises shifted quickly to of work delineation and who is in command of survive. If an organization grows larger, a simple what area. Departments are often clustered by structure can still be effective if it maintains a a specialization. For example, in Fig. 4.2, there strong organizational culture and effective com- is a marketing department, a ticket sales depart- munication channels. ment, a sponsorship or business development The Johnson City Cardinals, a rookie league department, and an operations department. af"liate of the St. Louis Cardinals, had their 2020 Depending on the organization’s size, these 42 4 Organizational Structure

Fig. 4.2 Hierarchical organizational structure department or work team groupings can be tially confusing expectations for employees highly specialized. With their clear chain of housed within these structures as they no longer command, hierarchical structures can reduce know whom to report to and who is making deci- anxiety for individual roles, make individual sions. This informality has been accelerated by employees more replaceable, and quickly exe- modern communication (see Chap. 5). cute directives from above. Analyzing an organizational structure on both Hierarchical structures are not right for every paper, and in reality, provides utility for leaders. organization, and the structure’s bureaucracy The hierarchical structure creates clarity for presents problems in some scenarios. The struc- employees and organizes long lists of tasks. ture makes the organization less adaptable or However, it also limits adaptability and could quick to change, an issue in today’s ever- changing create problematic power dynamics. society. Ideas from lower tiered employees are often drowned out in the numerous layers of the chain of command. Additionally, depending on 4.2.3 Matrix Organizational its rigidity, the hierarchical structure makes it Structure easier to cover up abuse by individuals. See sexual abuse scandals at Michigan State and USA As the name suggests, a matrix organizational Gymnastics. Organizational mechanisms for structure consists of people and projects built into reporting abuse or addressing other serious issues a matrix, where individuals will report to multi- are essential in hierarchical structures. ple stakeholders depending on the project or pro- An important note regarding hierarchical cess. As seen in Table 4.1, the operations director structures, an organization can appear on paper answers to a different event director for each and in written policy to be highly bureaucratic event. They may also manage a different team for but function much differently. Informal commu- each event, depending on what is needed. nication channels allow for information to bypass This type of structure gives organizations the formal chain of command. This creates poten- !exibility in utilizing individual skills for mul- 4.2 Type of Organizational Structures 43

Table 4.1 Matrix organizational structure Event A Event B Event C Event A director Event B director Event C director Marketing director Marketing team Marketing team Marketing team Sponsorship director Sponsorship team Sponsorship team Sponsorship team Public relations director PR team PR team PR team Operations director Operations team Operations team Operations team tiple projects or teams. For organizations with command and span of control, a self-managed multiple geographic locations, having someone team structure provides a great deal of latitude for leading in each geographic location can address employees to organize themselves and tasks to location-speci"c issues. For an organization achieve the goals set forth by the organization. In headquartered in Paris but hosting events in fact, some organizations allow the self-managed Toronto, London, and Melbourne, it makes team to set its own goals. We see examples of this sense to have project leaders headquartered at all throughout sports. For instance, head coaches each site. At the same time, support staff in often enable their players to have input on team Paris may be working with each project leader goals. Similarly, ticket sales departments can have as needed. tremendous input regarding revenue goals. This This structure also occurs frequently in the strategy allows upper administration, be they a sports industry when there is a need for a highly coach or director of ticket sales, to gauge what suc- specialized workgroup. For example, sport orga- cess looks like to the team. This approach enables nizations that host multiple teams, such as FC top-level administrators to become facilitators Bayern Munich or The Ohio State University ath- rather than using the typical top-down approach. letics, must support the needs of individual teams. Self-managed teams can increase employee Coaches and other specialized support staff serve engagement because the employees helped shape in dedicated roles to their team. That is, the bas- the roles and goals of the group. This is based on ketball coaches only coach basketball and soccer the assumption that humans enjoy autonomy in coaches only coach soccer. On the other hand, their work rather than only working for money. athletic trainers may serve multiple teams within This makes self-managed teams an interesting the organization and report to different leaders option for sport organizations since many sport for each team. Thus, the trainer for rowing reports employees are highly identi"ed with either the to both the head of sports performance and the sport or team they work for.7 However, self- rowing team’s head coach. Matrix structures can managed teams can also be hard to execute, par- be a great use of resources, leveraging the time ticularly if there is confusion or fear of change and expertise across multiple teams or work- within the group. A great deal of autonomy can be groups. Communication is fundamental within dif"cult for employees who have never experi- these types of organizational structures. enced such freedom, so clarity of expectation and Destructive forms of con!ict between managers consistency of action by the team leader is funda- of different projects or teams (see Chap. 16) can mental to team success.8 These structures offer create dif"cult situations for those within the options but are only as effective as they are imple- matrix structure. mented and aligned with the organization’s vision.

4.2.4 Self-Managed Teams 4.2.5 Fluid and Complex Structures

A somewhat-new structural option is the self- When observing sport organizations’ struc- managed team, "rst popularized in the 1990s by tures, it becomes evident that many organiza- Taco Bell. 6 Moving away from a focus on chain of tions use elements of more than one type. For 44 4 Organizational Structure example, in a college athletic department or a forces employees to have multiple duties or multi-sport club, there may be a matrix style for place non- full- time employees in decision-mak- the sport performance staff, a bureaucratic ing roles. There is also the concept of coopeti- structure for the coaching or operations depart- tion, that is, the unique element of the sports ments, and a self-managed team structure for industry where organizations compete on the the sales department. It is about what will make "eld but are also business partners. League the organization most effective in meeting its structures and the simultaneous competition and needs and goals. cooperation create organizational structures More frequently, sport organizations are mov- where various interests from different organiza- ing beyond separate structures for different tions are represented. departments toward blurred or hybrid con"gura- tions. Changes to the operating environment, in terms of business environment, organizational 4.3.1 In"uence of Sport’s Origin missions, and in employees’ expectations, are on Current Organizational forcing even the most traditional sport organiza- Structures tions to rethink their structures. For example, as sports fans have adopted more globalized con- Sport was originally formed through loosely orga- sumption habits and access to "nancial capital nized clubs and associations. These associations has tightened, smaller sport organizations with had voting processes, thus major decisions were local and regional followings have had to adapt. made through a democratic process. These origins In recent years the Scottish soccer clubs in exis- still in!uence many sport organization’s structures. tence for over a hundred years have had to Research regarding Swedish sport clubs found restructure in a variety of ways, such as becom- con!ict between the professionalization of these ing a social enterprise or owned by the club’s and the historical precedent of democratic deci- foundation.9 Other clubs have merged, blending sion-making processes. The hierarchical structure cultures and structures.10 The emergence of sport made these clubs more ef"cient, but the association development and peace organizations has created structure made the clubs more democratic.12 As we structures that adopt from voluntary organiza- mentioned before, understanding the goals and tions, health organizations, or governmental vision of a sport organization is crucial to deter- organizations, and non-governmental organiza- mine what structures are most appropriate. tions (NGOs).11 Internal and external forces will Another aspect of sport history that has funda- continue to affect sport organizations’ structures, mentally shaped sport organizations, especially in as will the desire to spur innovation, creativity, the Olympic movement and intercollegiate athlet- and entrepreneurial outcomes. ics, is the idea of amateurism. The founders of the Olympic movement built sport organizations around the concept of amateurs competing against 4.3 In"uences and Issues each other. Sport organizations today are still in Sport Organizations in!uenced by that history. A whole department within almost every college athletics program In sport organizations, the organization’s his- addresses compliance with NCAA rules related to tory, resources, and size can signi"cantly affect keeping college athletics an amateur endeavor. the structure. Unique aspects within the struc- Whether or not that is successful is not the point tures of sport organizations, such as the creation of this example. Amateurism remains a powerful of the Senior Woman Administrator role in in!uence in the structure of college athletic pro- intercollegiate athletics, were shaped by the his- grams. Likewise, as a part of Title IX-impacted tory of codifying modern sport. As discussed higher education, college athletics has created a throughout the text, the generally smaller size of unique role, the Senior Woman Administrator sport organizations limits bureaucracy but also (SWA). An SWA is a designation provided by the 4.3 In"uences and Issues in Sport Organizations 45

NCAA to help provide women with more repre- entirely up to the leadership of that organization. sentation in leadership. The actual functioning of However, for sport organizations that are af"li- this role is disputed.13 Regardless, college athlet- ated with a league or conference, structure is ics provides a useful example of how sport’s ori- highly in!uenced by their af"liation. For exam- gins can in!uence organizational structure. ple, Major League Soccer (MLS) has a single- entity ownership structure. This makes it quite different from most other soccer leagues in the 4.3.2 Small-Medium Enterprises world, which are formed as associations of clubs. in Sport MLS clubs essentially operate as one organization.16 English Premier League (EPL) clubs are Despite being one of the largest and most pow- highly independent, but their association in the erful sport organizations globally, FIFA only EPL and the Football Association (FA) demand reports having 947 employees in 2019.14 some behaviors that are in the interest of the col- Conversely, the cumulative number of grass- lective. Coopetition is the idea used in manage- roots sport employees is more extensive than ment or economics, to refer to organizations that FIFA, yet each one may consist of one to a both compete and cooperate simultaneously. dozen employees. Therefore, it has been argued From the earliest studies of sport management that the vast majority of sport organizations are and economics, this has been argued as one of the actually small-medium enterprises.15 Why does differentiation factors in sport.17 this matter? For one, working in a smaller sport organization means the specialization, depart- Example mentalization, and centralization capabilities may be limited based on the number of employ- The National Lacrosse League (NLL) is a new ees versus the number of tasks required to professional men’s lacrosse league with 13 teams achieve the organization’s goals. A ticket man- in the United States and Canada. Those teams ager may also be in charge of accounting and compete against each other on the "eld, being an social media. The organization’s size may obvious and fundamental part of sport. However, require a !exible organizational structure, one consider that if they didn’t cooperate as organiza- for standard operating procedure and one for tions. (1) Those on-"eld competitions would game-day events. Similarly, if a non-pro"t never exist. Teams have to cooperate on multiple sport-for-development organization realizes the levels, including an agreed-upon set of rules, organization needs to increase its grants to time and location for the game, what are the pun- maintain the level of programming to reach its ishments for breaking agreed upon rules, and goals, but it does not have a grant writer on staff, who will be enforcing these rules. Without coop- this may alter role descriptions as needed. The eration, ground rules for competition would not resource constraints associated with smaller be set. (2) Without "nancial cooperation, some organizational size provide both opportunity franchises would founder while others prosper. and challenge to building a useful structure for The NLL has teams in Rochester and Buffalo, small-medium sport enterprises. New York. Those cities are only about an hour apart. They may be inadvertently, or purposely, compete for fans’ attention and af"liation. If one 4.3.3 League and Coopetitive team, say Rochester, had more on-"eld success, In"uences they are likely to become more popular. That would certainly bene"t the owners and front Many sport organizations are stand-alone enter- of"ce of the Rochester team. League-wide agree- prises, such as Nike, the multi-national sporting ments mean Rochester’s also bene"ts the Buffalo goods company, or a local afterschool youth franchise through increased league awareness, sports program. Their organizational structure is league-wide sponsorship agreements, and better 46 4 Organizational Structure attendance when Rochester plays in Buffalo. organization achieve the vision and goals they set Television rights and licensing agreements help out. Organizational structure is only as effective both popular and less popular teams. ◄ as the people in it.

Another way a sport organization may coop- Discussion Questions erate as it relates to organizational structure is through role designation. Teams may cooperate, 1. Which types of sport organizations might or be forced to cooperate, as it relates to certain choose a simple organizational structure? roles within each front of"ce. Leagues often What types of organizations might adopt a require organizations to place personnel in matrix structure? de"ned roles, thus de"ning elements of their 2. Explain how historical factors have in!uenced structures. These positions are often related to the structures of sport organizations. competition-speci"c roles, but not always. 3. Explain the concept of coopetition. How does When social media "rst rose in popularity for it in!uence sport organizations? marketing purposes, some leagues eager to engage with their fans or increase their visibility Notes required their teams to have someone running social media accounts. 1. Boulton, C., & Hickins, M. (2014, March). Billy In other incidences, league-wide trends can Beane Expects Big Things from MLB’s Big Data require changes to structure without a mandate. Play. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from http:// When analytics, such as sabermetrics in baseball, blogs.wsj.com/cio/2014/03/05/billy- beane- expects- big- things- from- mlbs- big- data- play/. were "rst adopted by sport organizations, not 2. Hitt, M. A., Miller, C. C., Colella, A., Triana, M. every team jumped on board.18 Over time, many (2017). Organizational Behavior (5th ed.). Wiley. organizations have created departments and 3. Nichols, G., Wicker, P., Cuskelly, G., & Breuer, C. handed substantial decision-making authority to (2015). Measuring the formalization of community sports clubs: Findings from the UK, Germany and analytics personnel. Australia. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 7(2), 283–300. 4. Nichols, G., & James, M. (2008). One size does not "t 4.4 Conclusion all: Implications of sports club diversity for their effectiveness as a policy tool and for government support. Managing Leisure, 13(2), 104–114. As Dr. Merrill, the AD at Pomona-Pitzer 5. Anderson, B. (2020, October). Why MLB has a brain Athletics, pointed out in her interview at the drain problem in front of"ces; and how COVID-19 beginning of this chapter that while she plans to pandemic accelerated it. CBS Sports. Retrieved from https://www.cbssports.com/mlb/news/why- mlb- build a collaborative organizational structure, the has- a- brain- drain- problem- in- front- offices- key to her success is the engagement of her and- how- the- covid- 19- pandemic- accelerated- it/. employees and a clear understanding of the orga- 6. Heskett, J. (2006, September). Are We Ready for nization’s vision and goals. As we will discuss Self- Management? Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from https://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/are- we- ready- for- later in the unit (Chap. 8), being able to adapt an self- management. organization to the changing context or external 7. Oja, B. D., Bass, J. R., & Gordon, B. S. (2015). environment, while simultaneously maintaining Conceptualizing employee identi"cation with sport alignment with the organization’s vision, is fun- organizations: Sport Employee Identi"cation (SEI). Sport Management Review, 18(4), 583–595. damental. When thinking about organizational 8. Graham, J., & Trenda"lova, S. (2016). Implementing structure, remember to consider the six elements Self- Managed Teams at Western Field University: A outlined in the chapter, as well as compare and Human Resource and Leadership Case Study. Case contrast the structure types mentioned above. Studies in Sport Management, 5(1), 64–72. 9. Adams, A., Morrow, S., & Thomson, I. (2017). Consider alternative structures not addressed in Changing boundaries and evolving organizational this chapter. Understand their strengths and forms in football: Novelty and variety among Scottish weaknesses and how they might help a sport clubs. Journal of Sport Management, 31(2), 161–175. 4.4 Conclusion 47

10. Byun, J., Leopkey, B., & Ellis, D. (2020). Examining 14. FIFA Annual Report (2019). FIFA. Retrieved from post- merger sociocultural integration in sport. https://img.fifa.com/image/upload/ksndm8om- European Sport Management Quarterly, 1–22. 7duu5h8qxlpn.pdf. 11. Misener, K. E., & Misener, L. (2017). Grey is the new 15. Barnhill, C. R., & Smith, N. L. (2019). Psychological black: Advancing understanding of new organiza- contract ful"lment and innovative work behaviours of tional forms and blurring sector boundaries in sport employees in sport-based SBEs: The mediating role of management. Journal of Sport Management, 31(2), organisational citizenship. International Journal of 125–132. Sport Management and Marketing, 19(1–2), 106–128. 12. Fahlén, J., & Stenling, C. (2019). (Re) conceptual- 16. Coates, D., Frick, B., & Jewell, T. (2016). Superstar izing institutional change in sport management con- salaries and soccer success: The impact of designated texts: The unintended consequences of sport players in Major League Soccer. Journal of Sports organizations’ everyday organizational life. Economics, 17(7), 716–735. European Sport Management Quarterly, 19(2), 17. Neale, W. C. (1964). The peculiar economics of pro- 265–285. fessional sports. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 13. Tiell, B., & Dixon, M. (2008). Roles and tasks of the 78(1), 1–14. senior woman administrator (SWA) in intercollegiate 18. Wolfe, R., Wright, P., & Smart, D. (2006). Radical athletics: A role congruity perspective. Journal for the HRM innovation and competitive advantage: The Study of Sports and Athletes in Education, 2(3), moneyball story. Human Resource Management, 339–361. 45(1), 111–145. Communication in Organizations 5

c Learning Objectives After reading The Interns Have an Idea this chapter, students should be able to: When you’re sitting in the pub after a match, everyone has a revolutionary idea. • Identify the elements of the communi- This time, it might be true. The interns for cation process. AFC Wimbledon meet at Murbury’s Pub • Delineate between upward, downward, following each home match. The last few and horizontal communication. visits have been the setting for lively dis- • Identify and discuss various communi- cussions regarding numerous topics, cation channels. including how to solve the bottleneck at the stadium entrance. As part of their match day duties, the interns help check bags, hand out promotional items, and take tick- Gerald Jones: Founder and CEO, 5G ets at the stadium entrance. At each match, Sports & Entertainment: Strategic they are met with complaints from angry Partnerships Consultant, NextUp fans who want to get in quicker. Partners LLC The interns have an idea that they think To listen to the interview can correct the issue, but getting their message up the chain of command is dif!cult. AFC Wimbledon has a very formal, very bureaucratic structure. Norms are for communication to be conducted with your immediate supervisor, who then relays ideas up the chain to management. Before the last match, several of the interns tried to share their ideas with the game operations director. That conversation is now the topic of discussion. “He just won’t listen. He rolled his eyes and started to walk away before we Supplementary Information The online version of this !nished speaking. How can we get our chapter (https://doi.org/10.1007/978- 3- 030- 67612- 4_5) contains supplementary material, which is available to message to someone who will hear us?” authorized users.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 49 C. R. Barnhill et al., Organizational Behavior in Sport Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67612-4_5 50 5 Communication in Organizations

5.1 Importance • Development of ticket and merchandise of Communication offerings? • Implementation of successful marketing and Did you ever play the game “telephone” as a promotional campaigns? child? In the game, one person whispers a mes- • Responding to the concerns of community sage to another, who then repeats the message to members, customers, or stakeholders? another, who then does the same until the last • Coordination of the actions of employees? person in the room hears the message. When the • Motivation of employees and volunteers? last receiver of the message compares what they • Expressing of concerns regarding social issues heard to what the !rst person initially whispered, affecting their communities? there is usually great laughter amongst the participants due to the discrepancies between the c Formal Channels Communication channels two. The longer the game’s communication chain follow authority chains of organizational structures is, the more the message will change between the and are often outlined in organizational charts. beginning and the end of the game. Discovering how to communicate is one of the c Informal Channels Communication channels !rst things we learn as humans. There are likely not explicitly designated by the organization. people in your life with whom you can communicate seamlessly using only visual cues and ges- As you can see, organizations really cannot tures. Yet, you may struggle to !nd words with conduct even their most basic functions without others to help them understand what you want communicating. As discussed throughout this them to know. In this chapter, we will discuss book (see Chap. 10), communication is often chal- communication in sport organizations. We will lenging, resulting in misunderstandings that can begin by discussing the communication process derail a project or even rupture relationships. On before transitioning into examinations of differ- the other hand, effective communication enhances ent communication methods. But, before you employees’ identi!cation with the organization.3 read this chapter, take a minute and play a game In an effort to facilitate ef!cient communication, of telephone as a class. most organizations develop formal communication channels to facilitate information exchanges c Communication Communication is the between members. Formal channels generally fol- sharing of information between parties to convey low authority chains of organizational structures a message and achieve a common understanding. and are often outlined in organizational charts (See Chap. 4). However, since sports organizations are usually smaller and "atter organizations, formal 5.1.1 Communication De"ned channels can be less relevant. Informal channels, that is, those not explicitly designated by the orga- Communication is the sharing of information nization, including social media networks and between parties to convey a message and achieve messaging applications, now play a signi!cant a common understanding.1 Organizational behav- role in communication for all organizations, espe- ior and communication scholar Joann Keyton cially sport organizations. argued that organizations could not exist without 2 communication. While that may sound extrem- c Sender The person or entity that wants to ist, which of the following could a sport organi- communicate a message. zation achieve without communication? c Encoding Placing a message in text, images, • Planning of events? symbols, emojis, gestures, or another form of • Creation of programs? communication so that it can be sent to the receiver. 5.2 The Communication Process 51

5.2 The Communication Process c Communication Channel The medium used to send a message. The communication process4 (Fig. 5.1) begins with the sender of a message. The sender has information The channel is the medium used to send the which they would like to convey to another party. It message. A sender may ask themselves, if they could be an idea for a new program offering at a should use a formal channel like a memo, com- community center, a promotional campaign for an pany email, or meeting, or if they should use an NBA club, or details of a task to be completed informal channel like a text message. Choosing a before an event. The sender wishes to communicate channel is not that dissimilar to an advertiser try- their idea via a message. To convey the information, ing to determine if their advertisement should be the sender must identify to whom they want to send on television, radio, or Twitter. Just as with adver- the information, and how to send the information. tising, the chosen channel should be the one that Encoding involves creating a message to convey the is most likely to reach the target audience. information. During encoding, the sender chooses However, the channel should also be the one that the best way to convey the information’s meaning to will allow the message to be perceived in the way their audience. Encoding most commonly involves it is intended.6 placing the message into text, but messages can be encoded into images, emojis, symbols, and many c Receiver The intended audience for the other forms of communication. Next time you walk message. through a sports facility, take a moment to identify all of the ways organizations encode information. If c Decoding The process through which the you see a stick !gure of a man or woman outside of receiver attempts to interpret the message’s a door, what does it mean? In addition to picking the meaning. visual or audio form of the message, encoding also involves picking the proper tone. Saying “you’re The receiver is the intended audience for the great” can have different meanings depending message. Decoding occurs when the receiver on the tone used when saying the words. attempts to interpret the message’s meaning.7 As Communication competence, that is, the messen- Chap. 10 discusses, many different psychologi- ger’s ability to convey a message clearly, is a major cal, sociocultural, and structural factors in"uence predictor of the interacting parties’ satisfaction with how messages are interpreted. The factors are one another. Managers’ communication compe- represented by noise in the model. For example, tency is signi!cantly related to employees’ job sat- if the sender is excited about their idea, their isfaction.5 Obviously, choosing the right message encoding will be different from their encoding if and encoding it correctly is essential. they are frustrated. Similarly, the receiver’s perception will be impacted by their emotions dur- c Communication Competence The messenger’s ing decoding. Noise can be anything that affects ability to convey a message clearly. message interpretation. Thus, contradictory mes-

Fig. 5.1 The communication process 52 5 Communication in Organizations sages from within the organization, others’ opin- communication process, helping in the sense- ions, or even distractions caused by personal making process.11 It also allows employees with matters can interfere with the process. problems or concerns to report those to the orga- The !nal stage of the communication process nization.12 Additionally, upward communication is feedback, which allows for further discussion allows subordinates to convey knowledge up the and message clari!cation. Feedback is actually a chain of command. Frontline workers, lower- loop in which the communication process "ips. level managers, volunteers, and others who The original receiver becomes the sender and contribute directly to the organization’s opera- vice versa. Thus, the parties go back and forth, tional functions develop knowledge regarding relaying ideas and conveying their understand- their roles that are often greater than those pos- ings, all while being acted on by the noise of their sessed by direct supervisors. For example, a internal and external environments. Director of Facility Operations, who is concerned about the budget, may explore purchasing a different fertilizer brand for the stadium’s grass 5.3 Direction of Communication playing surface. However, the Turf Manager has direct knowledge of how various products affect Encoding and decoding of messages, and the the facility’s grass surfaces’ quality. Suppose the type of noise that in"uences the process often Turf Manager cannot communicate their knowl- depend on the direction of communication. edge to the Director of Facility Operations. In Communication can "ow downward, upward, or that case, the playing surface could be damaged. horizontally through an organization. As important as upward communication is for an organization, many employees feel like they cannot communicate with those who are 5.3.1 Downward Communication higher on the organizational chart.13 These feelings may be based on actual experiences such as Downward communication "ows from some- reprimands or instances where they were one at a higher level in the organization’s struc- ignored by their bosses. However, many lower- ture to someone at a lower level. Downward level employees are either intimidated to com- communication is used to provide instruction municate upward or do not know how to access and evaluation, and informs employees of orga- the proper channels. In some collectivist cul- nizational goals and initiatives.8 Downward tures, upward communication may be looked communication is critical for the function of all down upon socially.14 Managers can offset these types of organizations, but it is especially feelings by demonstrating their concern for sub- important for service organizations, the cate- ordinates’ ideas, including subordinates in deci- gory to which most sport organizations belong.9 sion-making processes, giving credit to Frontline workers, such as ticket sellers, event subordinates for successful ideas, and creating staff, volunteers, and many others in the sports an organizational atmosphere where arti!cial industry that deal directly with customers, barriers between employees are removed. For receive their training and instruction through upward communication that may be sensitive in downward communication. nature (i.e., whistleblowing, reporting harassment, etc.), organizations can create anonymous channels for employees to access. 5.3.2 Upward Communication

Communication that "ows upward from subordi- 5.3.3 Horizontal Communication nates to management is considered upward communication.10 Upward communication is vital for Horizontal communication occurs between an organization to function ef!ciently. First, it employees who are at similar levels within an allows subordinates to provide feedback in the organization’s bureaucracy. This can include col- 5.4 Communication Channels 53 leagues within the same work unit or with col- phonic delivery. Oral communication can be leagues in other work units. Horizontal delivered more quickly than other forms of com- communication is absolutely vital within sport munication. It also provides the advantage of organizations. Imagine a marketing department immediate feedback. The receiver can clarify any trying to implement a game-day promotion with- potential misinterpretations of the message by out communicating with the event operations asking follow-up questions, and as long as the staff. The results would be a farce. sender allows, free-"owing exchanges of ideas Horizontal communication allows basic orga- are possible. nizational functions to occur ef!ciently as it leads Formal forms of oral communication include to colleagues sharing ideas and resources. one-on-one communication, speeches, group dis- Horizontal communication can also lead to new cussions, and virtually any other oral communica- idea generation. For example, an NBA team may tion format that is sanctioned by the organization. see employees in its community outreach depart- Informal oral communication occurs outside of ment communicate with colleagues in the public channels formally recognized by the organization. relations and ticketing departments to create an This can include informal conversations within event that bene!ts underserved youth in the city the work setting, such as discussions at the water while at the same time providing good publicity. cooler or in a break room. Informal oral commu- Complex events and cross-organizational initia- nication can also occur outside the workplace— tives are only possible through horizontal commu- for example, conversations between colleagues at nication. As crucial as horizontal communication a restaurant after work. can be, it isn’t easy to achieve. Formality within Informal oral communication can be harmful organizational structures produces barriers that to the organization. Rumor spreading and gossip inhibit messaging between employees in different can fuel dysfunctional con"ict within the orga- departments. Horizontal communication can be nization. Informal oral communication can also improved by exploring less formal structures or by be exclusionary. Women, people of color, grouping departments that interact frequently. LGBTQ individuals, and other marginalized groups are often excluded from informal oral conversations. As a result, excluded employees 5.4 Communication Channels are denied access to social and political capital within the organization.15 The organization also The direction of communication has historically loses out as it does not gain from the ideas, cre- been determined by the formal communication ativity, and knowledge of excluded individuals. channels offered by the organization as well as On the other hand, if informal oral communica- organizational norms. Relaxation of cultural tion remains inclusive, water cooler conversa- norms toward formality and new technologies tions, weekend brainstorms via cell phone, and have altered how communication occurs in the other idea exchanges generated via informal workplace. As noted earlier in this chapter, discussions can lead to enhanced organizational choosing the proper communication channel to productivity. reach your intended audience is essential in the communication process. This section will explore oral, written, nonverbal, and electronic commu- 5.4.2 Written Communication nication in both formal and informal forms. Memos, letters, policy manuals, bulletins, faxes, ideas on a whiteboard, and other forms of tangible 5.4.1 Oral Communication communication constitute written communication. Written communication offers the sender and The most common form of communication, oral receiver a veri!able copy of the communication. If communication, includes all spoken forms of a discrepancy arises, both parties can refer to the communication conducted in person or via tele- original communication for understanding. 54 5 Communication in Organizations

Written communication holds several advan- Nonverbal communication is not limited to tages over oral communication. First, it can con- the sender. The receiver’s nonverbal cues also tain more detailed information than oral send a message back to the sender. Facial expres- communication. Because the receiver can contin- sions and the receiver’s body posture can provide uously access written communication, initial the sender with feedback regarding comprehen- retention is not a concern.16 Thus, a sender might sion, interest in the subject, and feelings toward describe a new ticketing promotion orally, but the speaker’s ideas. When a receiver makes eye they can detail the plan in a written document. contact and nods along with a speaker’s key Second, receivers spend longer analyzing written points, it indicates that the receiver is actively lis- words than audio communication; thus, written tening and digesting the message’s content.18 On communication is more likely to stir the receiver’s the other hand, an eye-roll tells the speaker that critical thinking processes. Critical thought is an the receiver doesn’t agree with or doesn’t care essential component of idea generation. Third, about the shared information.19 most forms of written communication are formal or considered formal by the receiver. Thus, receiv- c Emotional Contagion Unconscious mimicry ers are more likely to interpret written communi- of another’s body language, facial expressions, cation as important and are more likely to trust it. and other emotional behaviors. Written communication does have some disad- vantages. First, it is slow. It takes time to craft a clear Unlike oral and written communication forms, written document. Second, written communication senders and receivers are less conscious of their does not create a mechanism for feedback. The nonverbal messaging. Written and oral communi- sender generally has no foolproof way of knowing cation requires individuals to think about what their message was received, and the receiver cannot they want to say and how they want to say it. Yet, quickly respond. Misunderstandings can take hours people rarely think about how their hand move- to resolve when oral communication takes minutes. ments or body posture during conversations.20 A To many, the time disadvantage of written commu- form of noise that can in"uence nonverbal com- nication has made them replaceable by electronic munication is emotional contagion—unconscious forms of communication, such as email. Thus, cer- mimicry of another’s body language, facial tain forms of written communication like faxes and expressions, and other emotional behaviors.21 For memos have become obsolete. example, suppose a coworker is sharing about a stressful situation. In that case, we are likely to adopt a facial expression and voice in"ection that 5.4.3 Nonverbal Communication demonstrates empathy. If a colleague is angry, the chances are that we will adopt a more serious pos- Nonverbal communication includes facial gestures, ture and show anger with our expressions. hand gestures, body language, voice in"ection, and Emotional contagion is an unconscious effort to physical distance between the sender and receiver. make a connection with another. It demonstrates Nonverbal communication provides additional con- that we are listening and that we care about what text for the receiver that helps with interpretation. the sender is saying. Emotional contagion has For example, the statement, “We need to provide an been shown to strengthen interof!ce relationships event plan to the city commission,” can be under- as its presence re"ects a bond between parties.22 stood differently if it is said with a relaxed tone versus a more serious tone. A serious tone may lead the receiver to believe that the event plan is a top prior- 5.4.4 Electronic Communication ity, but a more casual tone could be interpreted as an informative but not urgent piece of information. Electronic communications are forms of oral and Similarly, a message can be interpreted differently if written communication that are enhanced by the speaker is smiling versus frowning, or making electronic means. Email, text messages, video eye contact versus looking away.17 conferencing, social media, and many other rap- 5.4 Communication Channels 55 idly emerging forms of communication are ally have to turn off their microphones to avoid frankly just evolutions of older communication feedback or static. Once the audience turns off forms. Email has taken the place of letters and their videos, the speaker has no avenues left to of!ce memos, video conferencing has taken the receive feedback. Speakers often report feeling as place of meetings and phone calls, text messages if they’re talking into the ether in this scenario. On have taken the place of face-to-face conversa- the receiver’s end, the ability to turn off micro- tions, and social media platforms such as phones and video provides an opportunity to mul- LinkedIn and Twitter have become accepted titask undetected by others on the video call. forms of networking. Although each of these new Distractions from other work limit the receivers’ forms of communication shares traits with its abilities to listen and comprehend messages. predecessors, electronic forms of communication are provided their own category because they 5.4.4.2 Messaging Applications also alter the communication process in some Messaging applications such as SMS, WhatsApp, way. Let’s take a look at some of the more com- and Remind allow colleagues to have conversa- mon forms of electronic communication and how tions that would typically occur over the phone or they impact the communication process. in face-to-face environments. Messaging allows workers to share thoughts in real-time. This 5.4.4.1 Video Conferencing allows for colleagues to collaborate and share Video conferencing was growing in acceptance as a brainstorms as they happen. On the negative side, communication tool over the last decade. However, it is extremely dif!cult to convey emotions via the Covid-19 pandemic accelerated the adoption of messaging applications. Further, the medium’s platforms like Zoom, WebEx, and Google Meet, instant nature can create frustration for senders with each reporting record usage during the !rst when receivers do not reply quickly. For messag- nine months of 2020.23 Zoom saw its usage increase ing to be effective, senders should keep the fol- 556% increase between January and September, lowing in mind:26 2020.24 Video conferencing has opened up opportunities for remote work and virtual teams by allow- • Ask yourself, is texting the best medium for ing nearly any form of oral communication to take this conversation: Texting can be convenient, place in a virtual setting. They also offer opportuni- but it is not suitable for complex discussions. ties to record meetings, which creates a record simi- • Keep texts short: If your text is long, a phone lar to a written communication form. call or email is probably more appropriate. Video conferencing throws up some chal- • Be considerate: Texting after hours and on lenges compared to traditional oral communica- weekends puts pressure on the receiver to tion forms. Nonverbal cues, which often help respond during personal time. receivers decode messages, are dif!cult to deci- • Avoid emojis: Emojis are not effective con- pher via video conferencing. Similarly, senders veyors of emotion. The receiver often misun- can have a dif!cult time deciphering nonverbal derstands them. feedback from receivers. During a video confer- • Use proper grammar: Texts are informal. This ence, participants tend to look at their screen can make some feel more comfortable using instead of their cameras; therefore, eye contact is colloquial or slang verbiage. This can create not present. Other active listening cues are also confusion if the receiver doesn’t understand challenging to detect. Participants can make their your terminology. active listening cues more present by leaning slightly forward toward their camera and nodding 5.4.4.3 Email along to the conversation. Accompanying chat Email has replaced letters, memos, and faxes features can also help with feedback.25 within the workplace. Not only is it quicker than A second, more problematic issue with video other forms of written communication, it also conferencing is the feature that allows partici- creates a natural archive that can be referenced as pants to turn off their cameras. Receivers gener- needed. Email is appropriate when:27 56 5 Communication in Organizations

• It is dif!cult to reach the audience via other be appropriate. Avoid religion-based signoffs as communication methods. Face-to-face and they may offend a receiver with beliefs that are telephone conversations are more suitable different from your own. when available. When constructing your email, it is essential • The information is not time-sensitive. to keep your message clear and brief. Begin by • To share a work !le. stating the purpose of the email. This allows the • To reach a large audience quickly. reader to understand the context of the accompa- • You need a record of the communication. nying message. Next, separate thoughts by paragraph. If you need more than a few paragraphs, Do not use email when:28 consider sending multiple messages instead of one long message. Wrap up your message by let- • Your message is long or complicated. ting the receiver know what type of response you Receivers are less likely to dedicate time to desire.31 For example, “please email me the report long or complicated emails. Oral communica- by Tuesday,” or “Let me know which meeting tion is best for complicated information. time best !ts your schedule.” Finally, before you • The message is con!dential. Email leaves a send your email, proofread. If your email is a record. It should never be considered a private reply to another email, make sure only to use medium. reply all if appropriate. It rarely is. • Your message contains an emotional message. Like other forms of written communication, emotion is not easily detectable in written 5.5 Communication and Cultural form. Norms

Emails are more effective when crafted appro- I’m sure that you know that the term “football” priately. The subject line should be informative refers to entirely different sports in the United and attention-grabbing.29 “Hello” does not tell States and the United Kingdom. Did you know the reader what the message is about. On the that the word “trainer,” which refers to a medical other hand, “Meeting Next Thursday?” conveys position in the United States, refers to running information to the receiver that you are asking to shoes in the United Kingdom? Physiotherapists schedule a meeting. Next, work emails should in the United Kingdom, they’re trainers in the contain appropriate greetings and signoffs. When United States. These are just a few of the sports- communicating upward, use formal or profes- related terms that could cause confusion between sional titles unless the receiver has indicated to be colleagues from the United States and the United less formal. It is not appropriate to email your Kingdom. There are many more terms and say- boss with a greeting of “Hi, Judy” unless she has ings that could be problematic. If you are visiting told you to use her !rst name. For men, Mr. is England from the United States and want to know appropriate, and Ms. is an appropriate greeting where a Londoner purchased a pair of pants, you for women. If the receiver is non-binary or you better ask about their trousers; otherwise, you are unsure of the receiver’s gender identi!cation, will be asking where they purchased their you can use their !rst initial and last name (Dear underwear. P. Fisher). If the receiver has a professional title, The sports industry is a global industry that you can use their title instead of a gendered salu- reaches across national boundaries and cultures. tation (Dear Coach Patterson). Commonly Cultural norms not only affect how words and accepted signoffs in the English language are not phrases are understood or translated, they also gendered. Appropriate signoffs include sincerely, create numerous other communication barriers regards, cordially, and best wishes, to name a that can affect the availability of communication few.30 Depending on your organizational culture, channels and perceptions of messages.32 a team-related signoff such as “Go Giants!” could Organizational cultures in North America and 5.6 Summary 57

Western Europe are becoming less formal rela- Discussion Questions tive to Asia and Eastern Europe, where organizational cultures are more structured. Organizational 1. What are the critical elements of the commu- cultures in South America tend to be more relaxed nication process? compared to cultures elsewhere in the world.33 In 2. How does the direction of communication more structured organizational cultures, commu- affect the communication process? nication occurs through formal channels. 3. In what circumstances should the sender of a Informal communication is discouraged. Thus, message opt for an oral communication chan- an employee in Canada trying to communicate nel? Written channel? with a partner in Japan may !nd it more challeng- 4. How do nonverbal cues in"uence message ing to interact outside of recognized channels. Of decoding? course, this is a generalization, and organizations 5. What challenges do video conference, mes- can develop unique cultures. Sport organizations saging applications, and email present? that work with international partners or diversify their organization by adding employees from Notes other cultures need to be aware of cultural norms that may affect communications before relation- 1. Hitt, M. A., Miller, C., Colella, A., & Triana, M. ships are built. (2017). Organizational Behavior (5th ed.). Wiley. 2. Keyton, J. (2011). Communication and Organizational In addition to the communication channel, the Culture: A Key to Understanding Work Experiences medium can also be in"uenced by culture. Some (2nd ed.). Sage Publishing. cultures value face-to-face interaction more than 3. Neill, M. S., Men, L. R., & Yue, C. A. (2020). How others. A text message will be well received in communication climate and organizational identi!cation impact change. Corporate Communications: An some cultures, whereas other cultures may expect International Journal, 25(2), 281–298. a phone call or an email. More importantly, mes- 4. Berlo, D. K. (1960). The Process of Communication. sage content often needs adjusting to reach across Rinehart & Winston. cultural norms. As the !rst paragraph in this sec- 5. Steele, G. A., & Plenty, D. (2015). Supervisor– Subordinate Communication Competence and Job tion illustrated, language barriers can exist and Communication Satisfaction. International between cultures that share a common language. Journal of Business Communication, 52(3), 294. When communication occurs across multiple https://doi.org/10.1177/2329488414525450. languages, certain words and idioms may not 6. Chen, I.-S. (2011). Choosing the right channels of communication and moderating stress levels dur- translate to the same meaning. Even certain ges- ing organizational change. International Journal of tures and other nonverbal communications have Management and Innovation, 3(1), 43–44. different meanings in other cultures. It is essen- 7. Berlo, D. K. (1960). The Process of Communication. tial to be sensitive to cultural differences when Rinehart & Winston; Clevenger, T., & Matthews, J. 34 (1971) The Speech Communication Process. Scott communicating. Foresman. 8. Anderson, J., & Level, D. A. (1980). The Impact of Certain Types of Downward Communication on Job 5.6 Summary Performance. Journal of Business Communication, 17(4), 51–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 002194368001700405. Communication is one of the most important 9. Trent, S. B., Allen, J. A., & Prange, K. A. (2020). functions that any organization undertakes. It Communicating our way to engaged volunteers: A seems simple, like riding a bike. But, just like rid- mediated process model of volunteer communication, engagement, and commitment. Journal of Community ing a bike, it is easy to make a mistake that has Psychology, 48, 2174–2190. serious consequences. Knowing how communi- 10. Simpson, R. L. (1959). Vertical and horizontal com- cation differs depending on the direction it "ows munication in formal organizations. Administrative through the organizational chart allows for a bet- Science Quarterly, 188–196. 11. Tourish, D., & Robson, P. (2006). Sensemaking and ter understanding of the communication process. the distortion of critical upward communication Picking the correct medium is vital for message in organizations. Journal of Management Studies, comprehension, but so is cultural knowledge. 43(4), 711–730. 58 5 Communication in Organizations

12. Hitt, M. A., Miller, C., Colella, A., & Triana, M. 25. Navarro, J. (2020, March 31). Tips for improv- (2017). Organizational Behavior (5th ed.). Wiley. ing communication during video conferencing. 13. Hitt, M. A., Miller, C., Colella, A., & Triana, M. Psychology Today. Retrieved from https://www. (2017). Organizational Behavior (5th ed.). Wiley. psychologytoday.com/us/blog/spycatcher/202003/ 14. Suh, J., Harrington, J., & Goodman, D. (2018). tips- improving- communication- during- video- Understanding the link between organizational com- conferencing. munication and innovation: An examination of public, 26. Live and Learn (2019, October 16). 7 tips for effec- nonpro!t, and for-pro!t organizations in South Korea. tive communication using chat and text. Retrieved Public Personnel Management, 47(2), 217–244. from https://livelearn.ca/article/digital- citizenship/7- 15. McGuire, G. M. (2000). Gender, race, ethnicity, and tips- for- effective- communication- and- etiquette- networks: The factors affecting status of employees’ using- chat- and- text/. network members. Work and Occupations, 27(4), 27. The Writing Center, University of North Carolina 501–523. at Chapel Hill (n.d.). Effective email communica- 16. Robbins, S. P., & Judge, T. A. (2019). Organizational tion. Retrieved from https://writingcenter.unc.edu/ Behavior (18th ed.). Pearson. tips- and- tools/effective- e- mail- communication/. 17. Gentry, W. A., & Kuhnert, K. W. (2007). Sending 28. The Writing Center, University of North Carolina signals: Nonverbal communication can speak vol- at Chapel Hill (n.d.). Effective email communica- umes. Leadership in Action, 27(5), 3–7. https://doi. tion. Retrieved from https://writingcenter.unc.edu/ org/10.1002/lia.1220; Lybarger, J. E., Rancer, A. S., & tips- and- tools/effective- e- mail- communication/. Lin, Y. (2017). Superior–Subordinate Communication 29. Indeed (2020, May 21). How to write a profes- in the Workplace: Verbal Aggression, Nonverbal sional email. Retrieved from https://www.indeed. Immediacy, and Their Joint Effects on Perceived com/career- advice/career- development/how- to- Superior Credibility. Communication Research write- a- professional- email; The Writing Center, Reports, 34(2), 124–133. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill 18. Lipetz, L., Kluger, A. N., & Bodie, G. D. (2020). (n.d.). Effective email communication. Retrieved Listening is Listening is Listening: Employees’ from https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips- and- tools/ Perception of Listening as a Holistic Phenomenon. effective- e- mail- communication/. International Journal of Listening, 34(2), 71–96. 30. Indeed (2020, May 21). How to write a profes- https://doi.org/10.1080/10904018.2018.1497489. sional email. Retrieved from https://www.indeed. 19. Ganguly, S. (2017). Understanding Nonverbal Cues: com/career- advice/career- development/how- to- A Key to Success in Interviews. IUP Journal of Soft write- a- professional- email; The Writing Center, Skills, 11(2), 62–72. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill 20. Gentry, W. A., & Kuhnert, K. W. (2007). Sending (n.d.). Effective email communication. Retrieved signals: Nonverbal communication can speak vol- from https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips- and- tools/ umes. Leadership in Action, 27(5), 3–7. https://doi. effective- e- mail- communication/. org/10.1002/lia.1220. 31. Hitt, M. A., Miller, C., Colella, A., & Triana, M. 21. Banerjee, P., & Srivastava, M. (2019). A Review of (2017). Organizational Behavior (5th ed.). Wiley; Emotional Contagion: Research Propositions. Journal Indeed (2020, May 21). How to write a profes- of Management Research, 19(4), 250–266. sional email. Retrieved from https://www.indeed. 22. Kelly, J. R., & Barsade, S. G. (2001). Mood and emo- com/career- advice/career- development/how- to- tions in small groups and work teams. Organizational write- a- professional- email; The Writing Center, behavior and human decision processes, 86(1), 99–130. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill 23. Barrett, B. (2020, August 11). How Google Meet (n.d.). Effective email communication. Retrieved weathered the work-from-home explosion. Wired. from https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips- and- tools/ Retrieved from https://www.wired.com/story/ effective- e- mail- communication/. how- google- meet- weathered- work- from- home- 32. Smallwood, M. G. (2020). The Need for Cross- explosion/;Novet, J. (2020, March 17). Cisco says Cultural Communication Instruction in U.S. Business Webex video-calling service is seeing record usage Communication Courses. Business & Professional too, even as competitor Zoom draws all the atten- Communication Quarterly, 83(2), 133–152. https:// tion. CNBC. Retrieved from https://www.cnbc. doi.org/10.1177/2329490620903730. com/2020/03/17/cisco- webex- sees- record- usage- 33. Cheng,Y. J., & Groysberg (2020, January 8). How corpo- during- coronavirus- expansion- like- zoom.html. rate cultures differ around the world. Harvard Business 24. Liedtke, M. (2020, August 31). Zoom rides pandemic Review. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2020/01/ to another quarter of explosive growth. ABC News. how- corporate- cultures- differ- around- the- world. Retrieved from https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/ 34. McShane, S., & Von Glinow, M. (2021). wireStory/zoom- rides- pandemic- quarter- explosive- Organizational Behavior: Emerging Knowledge. growth- 72734420. Global Reality. McGraw Hill. Organizational Culture 6

c Learn Objectives After reading this 6.1 Understanding chapter, students should be able to: Organizational Culture

• Differentiate between integrated, differ- Imagine it is your !rst day on the job at a sport entiated, and fragmented organizational organization. Someone comments, while giving culture. a tour of the of!ce, “Yeah, we work hard around • Identify the underlying values that here, but we also play hard.” That is an example shape sport organizational culture, of organizational culture. The organization may including personal, societal, and sport- not have ‘work hard, play hard’ in its of!cial ing values. handbook or as part of its mission statement. • Detect symbols, stories, written cues, But based on what was communicated to a new verbal cues, and rituals that encompass employee, a culture of long hours in the of!ce an organizational culture in sport. punctuated by socializing is part of the ethos at • Review the success of an organizational your new employer. This chapter will discuss change based on the clarity and consis- what organizational culture is, how it is sig- tency of action and communication. naled and reinforced to individuals in the organization, how it relates to organizational climate, and what employees do to maintain or change it. Anthony Horton: Vice President of Ticketing & Strategy, Arizona Coyotes To listen to the interview 6.1.1 Organizational Culture De!ned

Organizational culture is a complicated concept. Schein’s1 generally accepted de!nition states that organizational culture is “a pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solves its Supplementary Information The online version of this problems of external adaption and internal integra- chapter (https://doi.org/10.1007/978- 3- 030- 67612- 4_6) contains supplementary material, which is available to tion, that has worked well enough to be considered authorized users. valid, and therefore, to be taught to new members

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 59 C. R. Barnhill et al., Organizational Behavior in Sport Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67612-4_6 60 6 Organizational Culture as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in c Hierarchy Culture An organizational culture relation to those problems” (p. 12). Schein’s de!- focused on rules, regulations, mechanisms that nition emphasizes that employees create the social promote ef!ciency and uniformity. environment of an organization, not the organization itself. Although Schein’s de!nition is wide- c Adhocracy Culture An organizational culture spread, the focus on a shared experience can that is focused on #exibility, entrepreneurship, overlook profound differences in how individuals and creativity. experience their work. Instead, Martin2 provides a broader perspective on the organizational culture c Market Culture A results-focused concept. Martin describes organizational culture organizational culture emphasizing competition as a three- perspective construct. amongst employees.

1. Integration—The shared aspects of an organi- Another perspective analyzes organizational zational culture. culture through a competing values framework 2. Differentiation—Cultural elements as inter- which outlines four organizational culture arche- preted differently by subgroups. types: clan, adhocracy, market, and hierarchy 3. Fragmentation—There is both consistency culture types.3 Clan culture epitomizes a family- and inconsistency in employees’ experiences like atmosphere, where leaders are considered and interpretations of cultural elements. mentors, and the organization is held together by loyalty and commitment.4 Hierarchy culture is By observing an organization’s culture all about the rules, regulations, mechanisms that through these three lenses, we can better under- promote ef!ciency and uniformity. A hierarchy stand how an organization’s culture is experi- culture also maintains an internal focus. On the enced by employees. other hand, adhocracy culture is focused on #exibility, entrepreneurship, with an emphasis on c Organizational Culture A multilevel concept creativity. Market culture is all about the result. describing the shared and con#icting experiences It’s a culture focused on goals and achievement of employees working for an organization. with an emphasis on competition and winning. Colyer5 recommended an organization equally c Integration Elements of organizational balanced between all four quadrants. However, culture that garner broad consensus amongst this may not always be ideal, depending on the employees relating to their own experiences. goals of an organization. The various frameworks regarding organizational culture or orga- c Di!erentiation Aspects of subcultures or nizational climate can provide a structure for differential perspectives on various elements of analyzing a sport organization’s work environ- organizational culture held by groups within the ment. However, these are complicated concepts organization. and unique to each context. Despite the complexity of organizational culture, there is a con- c Fragmentation Ambiguous elements of nection between managing organizational organizational culture based on inconsistencies, culture and improvements in organizational ironies, and paradoxes within employees’ effectiveness. Organizational culture is essential, experiences. and perhaps even more important than other key organizational elements such as organizational 6 c Clan Culture A family-like atmosphere, where structure. Therefore, learning the different leaders are considered mentors and the organization aspects of organizational culture in sport can be is held together by loyalty and commitment. bene!cial for any manager. 6.3 Organizational Culture and Values 61

6.2 Organizational Culture: 6.3.1 Societal Values Strength of In#uence Sport organizations are not immune to what’s Organizational culture can be a mechanism for happening around them. Societal expectations reinforcing how the !rm desires to execute its or sport industry shifts can end up shaping orga- vision and goals. Rather than constantly looking nizational culture. For example, the sports over employees’ shoulders to make sure they are industry was always viewed as recession-proof. behaving according to the organization’s values, This means that sports leagues would be rela- organizational culture can signal to everyone what tively sustainable even in a recession because is expected of them. When employees understand highly identi!ed fans will sacri!ce other goods and agree with the elements of an organization’s before they stop purchasing sport products or culture, it can make communication smoother, participating in their chosen sports. This meant actions more cohesive, and interactions with exter- that even in times of great societal change, nal stakeholders more consistent across the organi- major sports such as men’s soccer, men’s bas- zation. Imagine a well-coordinated sports team, ketball, or American football would remain rel- passing the ball or puck in a way that seems to atively the same. Historically, this was never anticipate the moves of every person on the !eld/ true. Sports leagues and organizations have court/ice/pitch. A strong organizational culture pro- always felt the impact of economic downturns vides an avenue for better understanding across the and other societal events.11 A fresh reminder organization of what that organization represents. that sports are not recession-proof impacted the Researchers found sport organizations with stron- industry in 2020. The Covid-19 pandemic ger cultures performed better on the !eld and expe- forced sports to essentially shut down, with bil- rienced higher attendance levels than their peers.7 lions of dollars lost in revenue. At the same However, a strong organizational culture can time, worldwide social unrest forced sport orga- also be problematic if it reinforces negative behav- nizations to stake a position in ongoing !ghts iors. Consider the experiences of women with the for racial justice. These major external forces NFL’s Washington franchise8 and with the Dallas pushed sport organizations to adjust how things Mavericks of the NBA.9 Both organizations had are done internally. Even the most traditional cultures that reinforced notions that women were organizational cultures found being adaptable to second-class citizens that led to hostile work envi- change was the only mechanism for survival. In ronments. Sexist and bigoted attitudes can be found addition to pandemics, recessions, and social in organizations of every industry. However, there unrest, sport organization’s values can be in#u- seems to be an overwhelming culture of sexism and enced by national identity, geographic location, acceptability of harassment in many professional technology, and religion. sport organizations.10 Therefore, managers need to learn how all employees experience the organization’s culture throughout the !rm. Doing so allows 6.3.2 Sporting Values managers to understand potential harmful cultural elements better. More speci!cally, for sport organizations, sport itself engenders certain values that can shape organizational culture. The emphasis on winning 6.3 Organizational Culture is not surprising in sport. The structure of most and Values sports involves competition between two or more parties until a winner is decided. While winning Organizational culture relies on underlying val- and losing is a feature in many sports, it is not ues and assumptions from those within the orga- always the case. Initially, Tough Mudder chal- nization. These values and assumptions are lenge course events had no winners in their races. in#uenced by external forces, sport-speci!c val- It was about all the participants completing rather ues, and the organization’s values. than competing. This encouraged participants to 62 6 Organizational Culture help each other overcome obstacles. A similar 4. Values serve as standards or criteria to culture can be found in many community sport follow. organizations and in organizations like the 5. Values are ordered by importance. Special Olympics. However, for many organiza- 6. The relative importance of multiple values tions, winning is the ultimate goal. In addition to guides actions. competing and winning as underlying sport values, the value of being a team player also persists Schwartz14 also identi!ed 10 universal values, in many sporting cultures. This subservience to including self-direction, stimulation, hedonism, the team’s good, while also competing against achievement, power, conformity, tradition, outside groups, can shape a sport organization’s benevolence, security, and universalism See working culture. The emphasis on team identi!- Table 6.1. cation through colors, mascots, and other sym- Schwartz’s15 theory has been a popular indi- bols appears to be a unique and pervasive sporting vidual values framework due to its international culture element that reinforces the notion of team universality, including in sport management.16 and unity.12 Sometimes values can be contradictory between individuals and the organizations in which they c Individual Values Beliefs a person might work. For example, the value of being a team have about how they should act or behave. player (i.e. loyal) can come into con#ict with the value of being kind to others, if the team president or the head coach is asking an employee to 6.3.3 Personal Values do something that the employee knows will hurt others. There are many examples of this con#ict The personal values of individuals can shape an organization’s culture. For example, the International Olympic Committee’s organiza- Table 6.1 Universal values tional culture is still shaped by the personal val- 1. Self-Direction Independence of thought and ues of its founder, Pierre du Coubertin. His action deriving from the need for initial values of amateurism, moderate competi- control or mastery. 2. Stimulation The desire for excitement, tion, and sport as a mechanism for peace freshness, challenges in life. between nations are still present in the Olympics 3. Hedonism The desire to seek pleasure and and sport organizations in general today. This is grati!cation. why news of bribes related to hosting the 4. Achievement A drive to obtain personal Olympic Games and evidence of doping create success, demonstrate competence, and to excel, such an uproar. They feel antithesis to the initial relative to social standards. values of the founder of the modern Olympics. 5. Power The desires to control resources Learning about the values espoused by the and achieve social status over founders of any organization can provide pow- others. erful insight into what were the foundations of 6. Conformity Restraint over impulses that can harm others or be viewed the organizational culture. negatively in society. Individual values are beliefs a person might 7. Tradition Respect for, and acceptance of have about how they should act or behave. customs. Schwartz13 espoused six main features of values: 8. Benevolence A desire to enhance the welfare of others. 1. Values are beliefs linked inextricably to affect. 9. Security The desire to live in a safe, stable society, and maintain social 2. Values refer to desirable goals that motivation relationships. to act. 10. Universalism An appreciation, tolerance, and 3. Values transcend speci!c actions and acceptance of others with a situations. desire to protect their welfare. 6.4 Maintaining Organizational Culture 63 when looking at the recent scandals in sport (see are treated poorly by their superiors. Beyond Baylor football17 or USA Gymnastics18). How word choice, the complexity of words used, or organizations signal their culture can help what words are considered professional, such as employees or stakeholders identify these under- swear words, can all signal or encourage desired lying organizational values. behaviors in employees. Also, the tone of voice is often used to reinforce norms. An acceptance of shouting in the of!ce, use of sarcasm in meet- 6.4 Maintaining Organizational ings, even the pauses in between phrases, can all Culture communicate to employees the organization’s culture, as you learned in Chap. 5. There are many avenues to learn about or rein- Word choice and consistent phrases can be force an organization’s culture, including verbal both written and spoken. Reading through the cues, nonverbal cues, as well as actions such as written documents of an organization can shed rituals. Sometimes knowing what is important in light on the organizational culture. Training the culture of an organization is obvious from manuals for onboarding new employees help words, actions, and symbolism around organiza- new employees quickly understand the organi- tion facilities. Perhaps it is a phrase written on a zation’s culture, but for current employees, wall that can be seen by many employees. An there are also annual statements, dress codes, example of this is the large TNT painted at the policies on sick leave or promotion, and other Miami Dolphins (NFL) practice facility, which company documents. For example, written poli- means Takes No Talent. The head coach reported cies regarding hairstyles can convey a hostile it was meant to remind players that they aren’t work environment if those policies do not lacking in talent, but what it takes to succeed is include cultural differences related to hair tex- effort and hard work.19 This is an easy to spot culture. Alternatively, by avoiding any policy, some tural symbol; however, there are also many less workgroups can verbally encourage or discour- obvious aspects of efforts throughout every orga- age hairstyles, which may end up in opposition nization—each designed to maintain organiza- to the perspective of the organization’s leader- tional culture. ship. Another example common in sport organizations is wearing sporting clothes to work. In particular, what is the appropriateness of wear- 6.4.1 Verbal & Written Cues ing the jersey or logo of an opposing team? For many regional college athletic programs, this is One element of organizational culture is the ver- a common occurrence where a #agship school bal and written cues. In both verbal and written may dominate the fan identity of that state. Each words, word choices can convey cultural norms leader in the organization, or the organization as and values. Here is one example to consider. How a whole, needs to decide what actions, if any, to often is the word ‘family’ used in written cues, take. An organization encourages and reinforces such as marketing materials or company value values and organizational culture through its statements, or verbal cues such as during leader- written and verbal cues, and thus should be ship speeches at an organization? The use of the taken seriously. term family can convey a sense of community and a place friendly to families. What can be confusing to employees is when they hear this word 6.4.2 Symbols & Actions spoken about frequently, but the organization does not demonstrate actions in support of the As Chap. 5 noted, much of communication is espoused values. For example, an organization nonverbal. Body language or symbols can carry continuously uses the term family, but employees incredible weight in an organization. They sig- are refused time off to address family concerns or nal a multitude of attitudes or overarching val- 64 6 Organizational Culture ues of the organization. Symbols are objects that 2020, it was announced a National Women’ stand in for words or an idea. In soccer, the star Soccer League (NWSL) franchise was coming to over the federation or team crest represents a Los Angeles. This new organization’s !rst action championship. Every Brazilian national soccer was to tell their origin story and thus communi- team jersey has !ve stars on it, symbolizing cate their values and vision. The story was about their men’s team’s !ve World Cup wins. This a unique collaboration between actresses such as conveys a culture of soccer excellence in Brazil Natalie Portman and Eva Longoria, entrepre- to anyone who sees the national team crest. neurs Kara Nortmann and Alexis Ohanian, and Interestingly, the women’s national team also some of the best retired women’s soccer players, wears that symbol, although they have never such as Mia Hamm and Abby Wambach.21 won a tournament. To many, this nonverbal cue This storytelling communicates to any future represents the cultural disvalue of women’s soc- employees what they should expect when hired cer within the Brazilian federation. Symbols can by Angel City. Whether on purpose or otherwise, play as in#uential a role as logos or mascots. the storyteller is communicating organizational These visual cues provide brand recognition and culture elements to the listener. Is it a story about nostalgia related to the sport organization. For scrappiness, resiliency, innovation, triumph, or smaller sport organizations, changing away hardship? Pay attention to the themes and mes- from a logo or mascot perceived to have locally sages being communicated because it is part of speci!c connotations can have !nancial conse- the organization’s culture. quences.20 For those within the organization, symbols provide a touchpoint reminder of the large organizational culture. 6.4.4 Artifacts Beyond symbols, other nonverbal cues can communicate the values of an organization. For Artifacts in the sports industry are not referring example, answering emails at all hours of the to old clay pots in a museum, the common night or on weekends communicates that work- image conjured up by the word, but they play a ing long hours is an expected part of that organi- similar role. Artifacts are physical objects used zation’s culture. Even if the team leader verbally to convey cultural values to an organization’s espouses work-life balance, by working them- stakeholders. Sport organizations have used selves at all hours, they are setting an example artifacts to convey norms and values to its that employees feel pressured to follow. Inviting employees, participants, consumers, and fans. only white men to a meeting signals to people of Think about the statues at every stadium. They color and women that they are not included or are used to communicate the organization’s his- valued by the organization. While these are seem- tory, and thus values, to those who pass by. For ingly small actions, they all add up to creating an example, The University of Tennessee–Martin organizational culture over time and thus are erected one of the !rst statues of a female sports powerful. !gure, that of former women’s basketball head coach Pat Summitt, along with two other in#u- ential women in basketball, Nadine Gearin and 6.4.3 Stories Bettye Giles. She played at the university before becoming the winningest coach in basketball For thousands of years, stories have communi- and winning 8 National Championships with the cated societal values and culture to the members University of Tennessee-Knoxville. The statues of a community. Whether they are !ctional sto- positioned outside their arena remind fans, play- ries, or rooted in actual events, stories are told ers, coaches, and staff of Summitt’s legacy in over and over again to convey what is expected of women’s basketball. It also communicates the those who live within a society. This is also the importance of women’s sports to the athletic case in sport organizations. In the summer of program. 6.4 Maintaining Organizational Culture 65

Statues are obvious and large symbols of an level of authenticity in a ritual. As they are organization’s culture, but there are smaller exam- meant to symbolize the organizational culture ples as well. Displaying trophies that the team has and connect employees emotionally to their won, or photos of past successful players attempts organization, one must remember rituals need to to convey a winning culture. However, some be true to the organization’s ethos. research indicates this can be interpreted in a variety of ways by participants.22 Individual employees may display autographed memorabilia to convey a 6.4.6 Organizational Systems sense of importance due to their proximity to a sporting celebrity. Looking around the of!ces in a Organizations can reinforce their cultural values sport organization, one can observe types of physi- and norms through policies and systems. For cal objects that may convey both organizational example, disciplinary policies like the NFL’s sus- culture as well as individual values. pension rules related to domestic violence and their suspensions related to marijuana use are attempts to enforce the desired culture. By creat- 6.4.5 Rituals ing policies and doling out suspensions for each of these actions, the NFL is communicating to Whether it is ringing a bell when someone players and the public what they stand for and closes a ticket sale or lunch break group work- what they are less concerned about. The NFL outs, ritual activities can reinforce organiza- wants to be seen as an organization that opposes tional culture. Rituals can be seemingly both domestic violence and marijuana use. The mundane activities, but they communicate val- interesting part of how systems can play a part in ues, create feelings of an in-group and identity, communicating values is when these policies are and build emotional ties between employees. compared. Players have seen larger game suspen- Varying in formality, rituals provide opportuni- sions for marijuana use than for domestic vio- ties for explicit communication of values but lence. Individuals in the organization could infer also a celebration of the organizational culture. stopping marijuana use is more important than In e-sports, a simple ritual has become part of stopping violence against women. Even if that the whole culture of e-sports, not just one orga- value assessment was not their intention in creat- nization. Before each match, players or fans ing the policies, systems in organizations could often say or type out GLHF. Which means communicate values and culture to both internal ‘Good Luck, Have Fun.’ This small ritual can and external stakeholders. signal to those who love e-sports that they are a Organizations can also build out reward sys- part of something larger than themselves.23 In tems that reinforce organizational culture. It another example, sport organization employees doesn’t need to be only monetary either. The cri- talked about how the organization’s gifts when teria for an employee award can provide an an employee had a baby signaled the organiza- opportunity to communicate elements of an orga- tion cared about them as people.24 These can nization’s culture. Let’s say the leader of a sport vary in terms of the level of publicness as well. organization seeks to increase collaboration While those gifts may have been sent individu- within the organization. Providing incentives for ally, another organization may use a year-end collaboration can help build that. A typical exam- meeting to hand out logoed gear to top perform- ple of this as a mechanism is in ticket sales. ers in front of the whole organization. Individual incentives encourage a competitive Unchecked, rituals can be damaging if they spirit between colleagues, whereas team-level reinforce abuse or are counter to the desired cul- sales goals encourage helping each other out to ture. Rituals such as hazing tell newcomers that close sales. Both have their bene!ts and down- they are unwelcome or that the organization has sides, but it is key for a manager to consider how an abusive culture. A key element, as well, is the these systems reinforce organizational culture. 66 6 Organizational Culture

6.4.7 New Employees 6.5 Altering Organizational Culture New employees can maintain culture through a few avenues. First, hiring managers can try to Now that we spent all this time talking about attract individuals who would maintain the cur- maintaining a culture, it is imperative we also dis- rent culture of an organization. Now, as men- cuss how to alter an organizational culture. tioned previously, creating an incredibly strong Changing an organizational culture requires effort (i.e., integrated) organizational culture has fall- and consistency. In some industries, researchers backs. Suppose an organization only recruits found 80% of reorganizations failed to achieve people who !t into the organizational culture. their intended goals.25 Don’t despair too much they might miss out on interesting, divergent when thinking about your future leadership roles. ideas if the organization values a hierarchical, There are examples of leaders turning their orga- tradition-focused culture. However, if the organizations around and building effective, positive nizational culture reinforces inclusion and organizational cultures. Organizational change divergent thinking values, then hiring individu- will be discussed in more depth in another chap- als who espouse those ideas would still bring ter, but speci!c to organizational culture, using innovation to the organization. Beyond hiring, the same elements to reinforced culture as out- new employee programming provides a key lined above can also help change a culture. touchpoint for organizations. Not all organizational cultures are altered Training of new employees occurs in almost based on the desires and motivation of its leader- every organization, some more formally than ship. External forces can play a powerful in others. However, consider other programming changing organizational culture. Societal shifts or actions those within an organization do on cultural issues place pressure on an organiza- related to new employees. This can include tion through its stakeholders, be they fans or how a new employee is introduced to their co- sponsors, which can be mechanisms to force or workers, after- work social activities, or organi- inspire change. When problems related to organization-level programming versus team-based zational culture for the Dallas Mavericks was programming. A powerful way to communi- reported on in February of 2018, employees cate organizational culture is in that !rst week talked about issues related to acceptance of of employment, or even beforehand. Imagine harassment and domestic violence within the an employee starts at an organization in a organizational culture. While this culture had month, and they are in town looking at places been in place for years, public outrage surround- to live when their supervisor texts and invites ing the news led to substantial changes within the the new hire out to trivia with some of their organizational culture of the team’s front of!ce.26 future colleagues. That simple gesture can As mentioned previously, organizational cul- communicate a culture of fun, caring about ture is a complex concept, involving multiple employees as humans, and community. Also, stakeholders, complicated interpretations and while orientations help new employees under- shifting levels of buy-in, and layers of meaning. stand the organizational culture, the training Utilizing the elements outlined above, employees manuals can be a helpful written reminder. It is can alter organizational culture. Building new often overwhelming to learn and experience rituals collaboratively with employees can everything in the !rst week of employment increase feelings of autonomy and identi!cation somewhere new; so written communication with the organization. One recent experiment that employees can refer back to, helps rein- found that a democratically designed ritual could force organizational culture. be an effective way to build the desired organiza- 6.6 Organizational Culture vs. Organizational Climate 67 tional culture.27 New policies, artifacts, and sym- on psychological underpinnings, can be mea- bols can also signal a change of culture. sured using quanti!able measures.29 This per- Another important element in altering organi- spective assumes someone can objectively zational culture is clarity of communication and measure organizational climate without bias action. For example, if a manager wants the from their values. This perspective also assumes workplace to be more fun, it would help to give that organizational climate can be manipulated some examples or provide activities that de!ne more easily by the organization. what fun means. While the manager might have A more simplistic explanation of culture versus imagined playful jokes and lunch break nerf bas- climate would be that culture is the way things are, ketball competitions, another employee might and climate is the way we feel about it. Organizations have imagined beer pong and complex pranks can use both concepts to determine an organiza- played on interns. Obviously, these different ver- tion’s culture and its impact (climate) on employ- sions of fun would lead to different perceptions ees. Work environment is often studied through the of culture. Words can have multiple meanings, so lens of organizational culture in sport management. providing explicit examples can help everyone be Maitland, Hills, and Rhind30 conducted a system- on the same page. Paying attention to the com- atic review of organizational culture in sport man- munication process (Chap. 5) can help ensure agement literature, !nding that questionnaires and that your message is received as intended. other forms of quantitative insight allow organiza- Finally, consistency in behavior and word is tions to determine how employees feel about vari- incredibly useful for employees to understand ous culture and climate elements. Thus, the how the organization’s culture will change. It is research could make it easier for managers to the classic phrase, talk the talk and walk the walk. manipulate how the organization operates. Suppose an organization has a history of discuss- The purpose of highlighting differences ing change, only to return to the status quo, it will between culture and climate perspectives is not to be harder to get employees to buy into new persuade but to help anyone thinking about their efforts. For example, if your organization desires work environment consider the purpose of their to build a more anti-racist organizational culture, observations or programming. By understanding if following through on diversity statements with the perception of organizational culture is one of systematic and consistent action would be a pow- prediction and control, getting to a mutual under- erful change mechanism. standing, or exposing and removing cultural domi- nation, managers can better understand the purpose of any programming or analysis conducted. 6.6 Organizational Culture vs. Consider any team or group you’ve been a part Organizational Climate of. Think about what was perceived to help or hurt the success of that group. Consider whether A concept similar to organizational culture is what was said by the leader of the group aligned organizational climate. The climate in an organi- with everyone’s experience in the group. Viewing zation “represents signals individuals receive organizational culture more as a climate that can concerning organizational expectations for be manipulated or reinforced and is experienced behavior and potential outcomes of behavior.”28 by everyone uniformly is easier for managers. In other words, the organizational climate repre- There is less complexity in that viewpoint. sents how employees feel about the work envi- However, there is also utility in understanding ronment whereas culture is a broader organizational culture as everyone experiences it. representation of what the organization actually Valuing everyone in the organization as an indi- represents. Both constructs are measurable, but vidual can uncover biases, discrimination, and organizational culture is broader, more abstract, other detrimental actions or feelings that harm and is generally explored from a qualitative per- individuals in the group. spective. Organizational climate, which is based 68 6 Organizational Culture

6.7 Conclusion 5. Colyer, S. (2000). Organizational culture in selected Western Australian sport organizations. Journal of Sport Management, 14(4), 321–341. Whether considering joining an organization or 6. Zheng, W., Yang, B., & McLean, G. N. (2010). you are currently part of an organization, take a Linking organizational culture, structure, strategy, critical eye to these elements discussed. and organizational effectiveness: Mediating role of Organizational culture and climate are complex knowledge management. Journal of Business Research, 63(7), 763–771. aspects of an organization. It is an intangible con- 7. Choi, Y. S., & Scott, D. K. (2008). Assessing organ- cept experienced through tangible elements. isational culture using the competing values frame- Analyzing the integrative, differentiated, and work within American Triple-A baseball. International Journal of Sport Management and fragmented aspects of an organization’s culture Marketing, 4(1), 33–48. through the elements of verbal and written cues, 8. Kaufman, E., Muntean, P., & Robinson, L. (2020, symbols, rituals, stories, and systems can give July 18). At least 15 women are accusing Washington insight into how the organization can improve. Redskins staffers of sexual harassment, report says. CNN. Retrieved from https://www.cnn.com/ This could be through reinforcing or altering cul- 2020/07/16/us/washington- redskins- sexual- tural elements. Anyone who claims to build or harassment- allegations/index.html change organizational culture easily misses out 9. Evans, M. (2018, September 19). Investigation into on fundamental aspects of the concept. Dallas Mavericks reveals sexual misconduct over 20 years. NPR. Retrieved from https://www.npr. org/2018/09/19/649615551/investigation- into- Discussion Questions dallas- mavericks- reveals- sexual- misconduct- over- 20- years 1. What do you value in a team? How do you 10. Hindman, L. C., & Walker, N. A. (2020). Sexism in professional sports: How women managers experi- convey that value? Write down your thoughts ence and survive sport organizational culture. Journal and list out words, artifacts, symbols, and sto- of Sport Management, 34(1), 64–76. ries that you use to communicate what you 11. Surdham, D.G. (2011) Wins, Losses, and Empty value in a team. Seats: How Baseball Outlasted the Great Depression. University of Nebraska Press. 2. Imagine you desired to have employees who 12. Smith, A. C., & Shilbury, D. (2004). Mapping cultural feel a sense of ful!llment as part of your orga- dimensions in Australian sporting organisations. nizational culture. How would you go about Sport Management Review, 7(2), 133–165. helping achieve that desire? What symbols 13. Schwartz, S. H. (2012). An overview of the Schwartz theory of basic values. Online Readings in Psychology would you use to convey that? What rituals and Culture, 2(1), 2307–0919. would you consider creating to help facilitate 14. Schwartz, S. H. (2012). An overview of the Schwartz this feeling? theory of basic values. Online Readings in Psychology 3. Pick a sport organization that you care about or and Culture, 2(1), 2307–0919. 15. Schwartz, S. H. (2012). An overview of the Schwartz work for currently. What feelings or words come theory of basic values. Online Readings in Psychology to mind when you think of them? Then take each and Culture, 2(1), 2307–0919. word and pick out speci!c examples of why you 16. Trail, G., & Chelladurai, P. (2002). Perceptions of wrote down those feelings or words. intercollegiate athletic goals and processes: The in#u- ence of personal values. Journal of Sport Management, 16(4), 289–310.; Peachey, J. W., & Bruening, J. Notes (2012). Are your values mine? Exploring the in#u- ence of value congruence on responses to organiza- 1. Schein, E.H. (1992). Organizational Culture and tional change in a Division I intercollegiate athletics Leadership: A Dynamic View (2nd ed.). Jossey-Bass. department. Journal of Intercollegiate Sport, 5(2), 2. Martin, J. (2002). Organizational culture: Mapping 127–152. the terrain. Sage. 17. Brown, S. (2018, October 2). It’s Been 2 Years Since 3. Cameron, K. S., & Quinn, R. E. (2005). Diagnosing Scandal Erupted at Baylor. Yet the Allegations and changing organizational culture. Jossey-Bass. Continue. The Chronicle of Higher Education. 4. Eckenhofer, E. M., & Ershova, M. (2011). Organizational Retrieved from https://www.chronicle.com/article/ culture as the driver of dense intra-organizational net- its- been- 2- years- since- scandal- erupted- at- baylor- yet- works. Journal of Competitiveness, 3(2), 28–42. the- allegations- continue/ 6.7 Conclusion 69

18. Stiernberg, B. (2020, July 20). USA Gymnastics’ 25. Heidari-Robinson, S., & Heywood, S. (2016). Culture of Abuse Runs Far Deeper Than Larry Getting reorgs right. Harvard Business Review, Nassar. Inside Hook. Retrieved from https://www. 94(11), 84–89. insidehook.com/article/sports/usa- gymnasticss- 26. Towsend, B. (Sept 2018). One year later: How history- of- abuse the Mavs’ culture transformed from ‘corrosive’ to 19. Wolfe (June 2019). Brian Flores experience: T.N.T. inclusive. The Dallas Morning News. Retrieved wall, one-line mantras and more in Miami. ESPN. from: https://www.dallasnews.com/sports/maver- Retrieved from https://www.espn.com/blog/miami- icks/2019/09/18/one-year-later-how-the-mavs-cul- dolphins/post/_/id/29333/brian- flores- experience- ture-transformed-from-corrosive-to-inclusive/ t- n- t- wall- one- line- mantras- and- more- in- miami 27. Ozenc, F. K., & Hagan, M. (2018). Ritual design: Crafting 20. Agha, N., Goldman, M., & Dixon, J. C. (2016). team rituals for meaningful organizational change. Advan- Rebranding: The effect of team name changes on club ces in Intelligent Systems and Computing, 585, 1–12. revenue, European Sport Management Quarterly, 28. Scott, S. G., & Bruce, R. A. (1994). Determinants of 16(5), 673–693. innovative behavior: A path model of individual inno- 21. Sigal, J. (2020, July 21). Los Angeles awarded NWSL vation in the workplace. Academy of Management expansion with star-studded ownership group, eyes Journal, 37(3), 580–607. 2022 start. MLS. Retrieved from https://www.mlssoc- 29. Denzin, N. K., Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (2005). cer.com/post/2020/07/21/los- angeles- awarded- nwsl- Paradigmatic controversies, contradictions, and expansion- star- studded- ownership- group- eyes- 2022- emerging con#uences. The Sage handbook of qualita- start tive research. Sage Publications, 163–188.; Ehrhart, 22. Mills, C., & Hoeber, L. (2013). Exploring organiza- M., & Schneider, B. (2016, December 22). tional culture through artifacts in a community !gure Organizational Climate and Culture. Oxford Research skating club. Journal of Sport Management, 27(6), Encyclopedia of Psychology. Retrieved 20 Oct. 2020, 482–496. from https://oxfordre.com/psychology/view/10.1093/ 23. Li, R. (2016). Good Luck Have Fun: The Rise of acrefore/9780190236557.001.0001/acrefore- Esports. Skyhorse Publishing. 9780190236557- e- 3. 24. Smith, A. C., & Shilbury, D. (2004). Mapping cultural 30. Maitland, A., Hills, L. A., & Rhind, D. J. (2015). dimensions in Australian sporting organisations. Organisational culture in sport–A systematic review. Sport Management Review, 7(2), 133–165. Sport Management Review, 18(4), 501–516. Labor in Sport 7

c Learning Objectives After reading Lessons from the Pandemic this chapter, students will be able: Sitting on her back porch, Alaina felt a sense of calm. What a strange feeling to • Comprehend the history of labor and its have in 2020! It had been a long six-months. in!uence on the sport workplace. Alaina and her colleagues in the Charlotte • Examine how the law has shaped labor Checkers marketing and promotions depart- in the United States. ment were preparing for the AHL playoffs • Discuss the pros and cons of viewing col- when the pandemic hit. Fourteen-hour days legiate student-athletes as employees. were the norm, and then, everything • Explain how not all labor is physical. stopped. Alaina and her team were told to stay away from the of"ce. The season was canceled. The team’s of"ces were shut down and have yet to fully reopen. In the Lauren Aldridge: Compliance months that followed, Alaina and the other Coordinator, University of Mississippi department heads were given limited access Athletics to their of"ces, but her team has worked To listen to the interview from home since April. Why did Alaina feel so calm this morning? Working from home was far from ideal. Meetings are harder. Zoom fatigue is real. Those impromptu brainstorming ses- sions in the break room don’t happen when you eat lunch on your own. But, there were some elements that were unexpected when the pandemic started. Her team was rested, which is something that they now talk about often. They never realized how tired they were. They were able to carry out most elements of their jobs without being Supplementary Information The online version of this in the of"ce. Perhaps because of the rest, or chapter (https://doi.org/10.1007/978- 3- 030- 67612- 4_7) the ability to work in comfortable places, contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. the team had thought of some innovative

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 71 C. R. Barnhill et al., Organizational Behavior in Sport Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67612-4_7 72 7 Labor in Sport

7.2 Perceptions of Labor promotions to try once fans return. Everyone wants normal to return. The long Hard work is a virtue that is held throughout hours will come back, but perhaps some nations and cultures. We all value those who lessons will be learned from the pandemic. work hard. Although working hard is something that we can all agree is a “good” thing, when does it become “too much of a good thing”? In discussing the "nances and commercialization of 7.1 The Concept of Labor American higher education and the role that athletics departments play within such intuitions, an This chapter is dedicated to a very important and interesting perspective of exploitation has been yet commonly overlooked concept in sport man- raised.1 Bass and colleagues make a persuasive agement: labor. The concept of labor affects all of argument that labor, and more so, who does the us, as we all need to work in order to earn wealth, actual physical labor, are socially constructed which in turn allows us to purchase the goods and norms. From this perspective is the dichotomy of services necessary to live the lives we want. We those in the leisure class who are also known as will discuss a common idea during this chapter: “the capitalists” and the actual workers (i.e., does one work to live, or do we live to work? laborers). The capitalists (keep in mind that capi- What this concept asks is, have we as a society talist in this sense is not a re!ection of an eco- properly balanced our priorities, so employees nomic system but rather used to depict a certain can work a reasonable number of hours as well as class of individuals) have the power to force the be paid an amount of money that enables them to laborers to make things for them, which can then enjoy meaningful time with their families or par- be sold for greater pro"ts than what was paid to ticipate in leisure activities? Or, have society and acquire the raw materials and labor. It is also its economic systems created an environment important to keep in mind that this viewpoint whereby some individuals are paid so little that includes labors producing physical goods (i.e., they have to take multiple jobs or work so many products) but also contributing to services, which hours that they are unable to enjoy leisure time or is more pertinent to the sports industry. Regardless activities? Of note are the two components to this of a product or service perspective, the end result perspective: time and wages. Both are needed for is a form of exploitation. employees to enjoy a healthy work-life balance. Imagine a scenario where a capitalist contacts This chapter is organized into several sections. homeowners in a neighborhood and agrees to First, we will discuss perceptions of labor both have their lawns mowed twice a month at $50 a inside and outside of sport. Although this book is month each. The capitalist recognizes that there centered on the sport industry, it is valuable to is a college in town that has many undergrads have an in-depth understanding of how labor is who are eager to make an extra few dollars to par- interpreted and managed by organizations. We ticipate in their favorite social activities. The will explore a brief history of labor in the United capitalist contacts several college students and States because of the prominence of the sport offers to pay them $30 for each lawn that they industry in the U.S. Other topics include legal mow twice a month. For the college students, issues and the unique challenges that sport orga- they now have an additional avenue to "nance nizations and their employees face from a labor their social lives, but for the capitalist, they have perspective. Not all labor is physical, and so we just made $20 per lawn each month for minimal will also review how emotional labor impacts (in this case almost no) labor. This is a form of sport employees. Overall, this chapter is meant to (legal) exploitation, and it is not the point to have convey the importance of labor to sport organiza- a legal discussion (yet). Instead, this example tions and its employees, but also to help you demonstrates how a capitalist can accumulate understand how the concept of labor impacts wealth without any (or at least comparable) labor your professional and personal lives. and the increasing gaps between "nancial classes. 7.2 Perceptions of Labor 73

More so, when capitalists are able to accumulate United States to the pyramids in Egypt (many wealth with limited physical labor, this allows more examples exist), slavery was used to more time to set up similar mechanisms to advance the will and the wealth of many in power. acquire even more wealth. In turn, with more Slavery and indentured servitude are both repre- wealth comes more in!uence. Later in this chap- hensible social systems, and because of their sin- ter, we will discuss an increasingly popular and ister natures, the institutions that supported them divisive topic that pertains to labor and potential were eventually removed or weakened (there exploitation in the sports industry: college have been allegations of modern-day slave labor student- athletes as employees. For now, we will in constructing the facilities for the World Cup in turn our attention to the expectations of labor for Qatar).2 Another example of a social arrangement sport employees. designed to manage labor is the concept of serf- It is no secret that sport employees (and even dom in the feudal system, which has been used in more so interns) are required to work long and a variety of time periods and geographic loca- arduous hours. More so, these hours commonly tions but perhaps the most well-known is medi- occur at odd times as sporting events are in and of eval Europe. This system broadly involved surfs themselves leisure activities or events, at least for (i.e., peasants) harvesting grains and other agri- spectators and consumers. Because sport events cultural goods for those who held land and main- are leisure activities for many, they usually take tained castles or other forms of shelter. In place during evenings or on weekends. While this feudalism, the surf would provide their agricul- may be convenient for sport fans and spectators, tural goods in exchange for protection from it also means that sport organization employees knights if bandits or vandals came into the area. are forced to spend their evenings and weekends Although an improvement, this was still not a at work. This creates a dif"cult proposition for great system for the laborers. sport employees when the sports they work in are Another signi"cant advancement occurred in full swing. They often have to work during the during the Industrial Revolution, which saw a “traditional” workday to prepare for that evening transition from labor occurring in the "elds and or the coming weekend sport events. These cir- farms that produced the food for society to labor cumstances result in the reality that sport employ- in the factories that enabled signi"cant technical ees consistently work 80 or more hours in a week, advancements for individuals, including cars and and the traditional 40-hour workweek is a luxury home appliances, which made our lives much reserved for the off-season. On that note, let’s easier and convenient. The technological take a look back at the history of labor and its advances of the Industrial Revolution also saw relationship with the law. harsh working conditions for employees, which included long hours and unsafe working conditions. Moreover, employees had little to no bar- 7.2.1 History of Labor gaining power for wages, hours, or working conditions. Instead, those who owned businesses The concept of labor has a long and complicated had so much power that they were able to set history which includes some truly awful displays wages and hours. These circumstances would of treatment of people and a disregard for human- eventually change globally as workers gained ity. Our focus in this section will be on the mod- more power and in!uence. ern applications of labor, but this does not In the United States, the labor movement has diminish the struggle or importance of those who had stops and starts. Before exploring the various battled through cruel and unjust conditions as legal issues of labor in the United States, it is this chapter is also meant to describe how labor important to "rst understand the recent historical impacts all individuals. However, it is essential developments. Steven Greenhouse3 has chroni- for a history of labor to acknowledge the in!u- cled the labor movement in the United States. ence of slavery. From the plantations in the One of the signature moments in the American 74 7 Labor in Sport labor movement was the conclusion of World side of the realm of management. This is because War II and the Great Depression. Greenhouse4 management interacts with almost every aspect explained how the might of American labor, par- of an organization. To highlight the importance ticularly in the car manufacturing industry, was a of management, we would point out that all areas product of the American consumer’s desire to of organizations, including marketing, "nance, purchase items like cars and a lack of European ticketing, and legal (just to name a few), all competition as the region had been decimated by require some degree of management and coordi- war and would take decades to return to promi- nation to be fully functional. The reverse is true nence. As a result of the lack of competition and for legal issues as the law dictates how organiza- a strong desire for their products, car factories’ tions can be managed. Thus, we will now turn our employees had unprecedented power that allowed attention to how the law impacts sport organiza- them, through the use of labor unions, to negoti- tions’ management and speci"cally how the law ate favorable agreements for wages and hours in!uences employment in sport organizations. with their employers. Because of these favorable One of the landmark moments in the history of agreements, America had a robust middle class labor was the passing of the Fair Labor Standards that enjoyed leisure activities because of their Act (FLSA). You may have never heard of this law strong wages and amble time away from work. but rest assured that this law has and will continue Today’s work environment has seen a drop in to impact you as you move forward in your career. labor power, unionization, wages, and an increase As we learned in the history of labor section, in productivity. In other words, American workers have not always enjoyed weekends or a employees’ productivity has grown over the past standardized work week in terms of hours, and yet few decades, and yet their wages have actually when the FLSA was enacted, workers in the gotten smaller.5 The reason for this is compli- United States were able to enjoy newfound cated and ranges from circumstances such as advancements in their labor rights. As we will increased foreign competition, changes to review, there are exceptions to the rules that are put employment law, and corporate greed.6 Despite forth in the FLSA, but we will start with a look at these changes to labor in the United States that a few of the highlights of the FLSA and how they have harmed the laborer’s interest, American will in!uence your career in sport. The FLSA workers enjoy improved working conditions and established the standard of a 40-hour workweek higher wages than employees in other countries. for employees. Interestingly, 40 hours per week is Interestingly, there are several parallels to work- the maximum number of hours that are supposed ing conditions and the American sports industry. to be completed in a given week. The law does not For example, Nike continues to come under "re regulate when these hours occur, but employees for paying low wages to workers and even forced are not supposed to work more than 40 hours in a labor in China.7 As noted above, the World Cup given seven-day period. Of course, this is not organizers for Qatar have been scrutinized for always practical and rarely is in the sports indus- their use of labor where there have been accusa- try. The law does take this into account with a term tions of slave labor.8 In an effort to protect work- that you have surely heard of: overtime. According ers, governments have enacted laws that regulate to the FLSA, when an employee works more than businesses to provide meaningful wages and 40 hours in a given seven-day period, they are working conditions. entitled to overtime pay for time over the 40-hour threshold. Overtime is stipulated as at least one’s normal pay × 1.5. So, if your base pay is $10 an 7.3 Legal Issues and Labor hour, and you work 41 hours during the workweek, you have to be paid $400 for the 40 standard hours, Although this book is dedicated to the manage- as well as $15 for the one extra hour (base pay ment of sport organizations, it is valuable to $10 × 1.5 = $15 per hour of overtime). If you examine various facets that are technically out- worked 42 hours that week, your employer would 7.3 Legal Issues and Labor 75 owe you $30 of overtime pay. In this scenario, you ees are salaried at a higher amount, (b) if an are owed $15 per hour for every hour you work employee is exempt and salaried, they are not eli- over 40 hours in a seven-day period. gible for overtime pay, and (c) the 40-hour work- Not surprisingly, businesses are not fond of week no longer applies to the salaried employee. paying overtime and will sometimes do all they As we have previously discussed, most sport can to avoid paying overtime. Greenhouse9 pro- employees are required to work evenings and vides some pretty disappointing examples, weekends on top of working during the tradi- including how some companies would change tional 8 to 5 time period. As a result, many sport their employees’ timecards! There are very employees work more than 40 hours in a week. important lessons for sport employees and man- Prominent sport employees like coaches at the agers concerning this overtime rule. One of the professional levels or the higher levels of most prominent lessons is that all employees are American collegiate sport are salaried, but their entitled to overtime pay when they work over salaries are at very high levels. Yet, for sport 40 hours in a week (unless they are salaried, employees who are middle managers or entry- which requires an exemption). This means that if level employees, their salaries are much lower you are an employee and are paid an hourly wage than coaches. This is a widespread misunder- (and you are NOT salaried and NOT an intern), standing of the sports industry. Yes, some jobs your organization is (very likely) to owe you pay incredibly well, even exuberantly well, but a overtime if you work over 40 hours. Conversely, vast majority of jobs in the sports industry are not if you are a sport manager and you have your well compensated. This is particularly problem- employees work more than 40 hours in a week atic when coupled with a lower salary as well as you will have to pay them overtime for time many hours worked. When we take into account worked beyond 40 hours. More so, employees the number of hours someone works, the “value” cannot agree to not be paid overtime for hours of their salary further diminishes as more hours worked over the 40-hour limit. To be completely are worked. As such, being able to set a sport clear, employees who are paid a wage must be employee’s salary at a speci"c amount, requiring paid overtime for any amount of time worked many hours over 40 in a week, and being shielded beyond the 40-hour threshold. However, as has from paying overtime is a huge bene"t for sport been alluded to, there are several exemptions to organizations. this rule. We will save a more in-depth look into Although sport economists disagree about this exemption for your class on sport law, but for how many college athletic departments are pro"t- now, we will examine the Executive/ able (i.e., college athletic departments have little Administrative exemption. incentive to report a pro"t and not spend their One way to think of this exemption is that it revenues), the ability to equitably pay sport applies to white-collar workers or those at the employees is becoming a popular topic. very top of an organization. At least, that is how Interestingly, the $23,660 "gure for salaried it is supposed to work. Sport organizations heav- employees was almost moved to $47,476 in the ily rely on this exemption to avoid paying their spring of 2016,10 but due to a lawsuit and a change employees overtime. This exemption has three in the executive branch of the United States’ gov- qualifying tests, but we will focus on one that ernment, this was never fully implemented. For stipulates that the minimum salary an employee much of 2016, many American sport organiza- can receive and still be considered exempt (from tions were very concerned about this change. the FLSA standards) is $23,660. Depending on This was because it would have required signi"- where you are in your career, you might think cant pay increases for their employees that they that such a salary could go a long way to satisfy had not budgeted for, or they would have had to your everyday needs, but it is not nearly enough start paying overtime for hours worked over 40 in for most. A few important considerations: (a) a week. This is a telling circumstance for how $23,660 is the minimum, and many sport employ- sport organizations pay their employees and the 76 7 Labor in Sport amount of labor they need from them in order to careful consideration to ensure that the employee function at a high level. It also tells us that many is willingly volunteering to help the organization. jobs pay less than $48,000 a year in sport and that One last word on the FLSA and its importance: you should not expect overtime for extra labor violating the FLSA can result in severe "nes and while working in the sports industry. back wages (e.g., if it is found that a company should have paid an employee overtime, they will have to provide them with those lost wages). As 7.3.1 Interns and Volunteers such, understanding and following the FLSA is of critical importance for sport organizations. Of Two areas of the FLSA that are critical to the course, it is also important to treat employees sports industry are interns and volunteers. The fairly and equitably! FLSA does not require interns to be paid, but they can be paid if the business decides to do so. Sport organizations rely heavily on interns, and 7.3.2 Unions most sport management programs require or suggest an internship near the end of their academic Another area of the law that directly impacts programs. This is done because it is believed that labor in sport organizations are labor unions. We internships are an excellent mechanism to enter will only offer a brief review of labor unions and the sports industry, as they allow students to gain focus on the impact unions have on the sports experience and expand their social and profes- industry. To be sure, unions in sport are mostly sional networks. There is a critical consideration known because of their prominence with players that all students and sport organizations should at the professional sport level. There are few be aware of, which is that in order to be consid- instances of unionized sport employees, and ered an “intern” there needs to be an educational student- athletes are beginning to explore the pos- component to the internship. In other words, sibility of unionization. Thus, it is important to internships must consist of actual work that will have a deeper understanding of how labor unions allow interns to gain meaningful experience. impact employees’ lives and organizations. Additionally, internships are not meant to be Broadly, for-pro"t organizations bemoan labor designed for interns to run the copy machine or unions, and will make every attempt to squash make coffee runs as their primary duties. To be the initial organizing required to begin a union clear, an organization can ask or require a tradi- (whether doing so is legal or not).11 Yet, sport tional full-time or part-time employee to handle organizations welcome unions in order to form a copy or coffee duties as they see "t, but for unpaid collective bargaining agreement, in which own- (or lower than minimum wage) interns, there ers and players agree to restrictive practices. needs to an educational element that allows them Because both groups agree to these practices to gain the necessary skills to obtain a full-time (e.g., a salary cap), owners are able to avoid anti- position in the future. This is the government’s trust litigation. However, labor unions will cause way of allowing organizations to have interns and certain “headaches” for sport industries as vari- their cheap labor, but also making sure the intern ous lockouts (i.e., owners’ actions) or strikes is able to receive a meaningful experience if not (i.e., players actions) have caused entire seasons paid for their labor. of professional sport to not be played or having a Another area that the FLSA covers is volun- season interrupted and not completed. The his- teers. What is signi"cant about the FLSA and tory of labor in the United States as well as sport volunteering is that organizations cannot force has not been an easy or straightforward journey. their employees to volunteer for work and not be The National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) paid for those hours. The FLSA does allow for became law in 1935 and had the effect of enabling volunteering, but volunteering for a for-pro"t employees to form unions (and protections for organization to which one is employed requires doing so) even in private companies. Essentially, 7.4 Student-Athletes as Employees 77 the NLRA gave employees the right to collec- to so much as to bargain over wages (although this tively (i.e., as a group) negotiate for wages and would have opened this door), but instead to “have other working conditions. This process is called a seat at the table” when it comes to issues such as “collective bargaining,” and it was what profes- medical and mental health issues.14 Student- sional sport players’ associations negotiate with athletes are in a unique position whereby they need their leagues’ owners. The NLRA also estab- to attend practices, follow team rules, participate in lished the National Labor Relations Board games, as well as perform well in the classroom to (NLRB), when is meant to facilitate the certi"ca- keep their scholarships. Yet, some student-athletes tion (and decerti"cation) of labor unions, as well cannot pursue their preferred major of study at their as regulate unfair practices by owners or manage- university because some of their mandatory classes ment. The NLRB was at the center of a recent take place during practice times. As a result, many attempt by the Northwestern University football student-athletes do not have the opportunity to real- team to unionize. In this case, the regional board ize their career dreams. stated that Northwestern’s football players did have the right to unionize. At this point, the team voted on whether or not they wanted to form a 7.4 Student-Athletes union. However, the national board essentially as Employees stopped the process by refusing to recognize the student-athletes’ ability to unionize, and the bal- A topic that might well be on its way to being lots were not counted.12 Had a majority of the resolved is the employment status of student- student-athlete football players voted to not form athletes. The NCAA has maintained that college a union, the point would have been moot, and no students who play on their university’s varsity labor union would have been produced, but if a teams are “student-athletes” and the student majority had voted in favor of forming a union, aspect comes "rst (see what they did there?). This then a union would have been established. perspective is grounded in the concept of “ama- Unfortunately, we will never know how the votes teurism,” which Branch15 points out, is a made-up were cast and the intentions of the Northwestern term that is not well de"ned. Still, the NCAA has University football players. avoided having to pay student-athletes compen- The case of the Northwestern football players is sation beyond their tuition and, until recently, germane to our discussion of labor and sport man- their cost of living by using terms such as agement. While this event was unfolding, many “student- athlete” and “amateurism.” Essentially, inaccurate statements were put forth about how the NCAA’s argument is that if you are paid for unions function. For example, head coach Pat your labor, you are a professional, which goes Fitzgerald stated that he did not want a third party against everything the NCAA stands for: “ama- coming between the student-athletes and the teur” athletics are students who go to school and coaches, claiming that a union would be such a just happen to play a sport of their choosing.16 party.13 Labor unions are made up of the organiza- When making this argument, NCAA repre- tion members, and forming a union does not sentatives conveniently avoid discussing what involve hiring outside groups to serve as the union; their perspective would mean if all students were the members are the union. Labor unions will held to the same standard. Students who work at indeed hire lawyers or negotiators to help them a university bookstore would be considered a (and the Northwestern players were receiving sup- “professional.” From a practical (and ethical) port and guidance from other union of"cials), but it perspective, the NCAA and its member schools is the members of the union (in this case, it would have to rely on slogans that they created to avoid have been the football players) that have to vote to having to pay student-athletes, but their strongest ratify any collective bargaining agreement. The shield is likely the fact that many who enjoy col- reason why Northwestern football player Kain lege sport are attracted to the notion of “amateur” Colter began the process of starting a union was not athletics and that if student-athletes were paid, 78 7 Labor in Sport most of the enjoyment would cease to exist (this in general). Turnover is no friend of any organi- premise has not been tested). zation due to its effect on performance and the Interestingly, one of the main reasons college cost of training new employees. People will leave sport organizations may not want their student- organizations because they are burnt-out or have athletes classi"ed as employees is because doing lost the will to continue working in their current so would mean the responsibility of paying work- working conditions. As such, sport managers ers’ compensation (i.e., when employers have to must understand the importance of taking care of pay for their employees’ injuries that occur while their employees "nancially and providing appro- performing work duties). It is a misnomer that priate time away from the of"ce. college sport organizations pay for surgeries for their student-athletes. Many indeed provide c Emotional Labor The management of feeling excellent care with athletic trainers and rehabili- to create a publicly observable facial and bodily tation facilities, but when a student-athlete is display. injured, they must use their own private insurance to pay for the surgery (there are exceptions to As we have alluded to, working in sport orga- this, and some universities do sell student-athletes nizations is dif"cult due to long hours and low affordable health insurance). In a recent twist, pay (for most employees). While physical labor several states have begun to implement state laws is certainly one of the main causes of these dif"- that require student-athletes to be paid. The culties and eventually turnover, the concept of NCAA would have a dif"cult time claiming that emotional labor is attuned to the emotional efforts everyone plays on an even playing "eld in college employees have to invest in their jobs. Emotional sports if some schools can offer pay to student- labor has been de"ned as “the management of athletes and others unable to provide the same. In feeling to create a publicly observable facial and response, the NCAA is might explore asking bodily display” (p. 7)17 In the "rst chapter of this congress for antitrust exemption. book, we brie!y discussed how organizations desire legitimacy and put in place rules to help them maintain or obtain legitimacy. Within emo- 7.5 Emotional Labor tional labor theory, organizations provide norms of emotions within the workplace, and if such Labor and the in!uence of the law are critical norms are in con!ict with how an individual actu- components of the sports industry. The happiness ally feels, they will have to act or “labor” to pro- and enthusiasm of sport employees, coaches, and vide the standardized, expected, or required players can signi"cantly in!uence a sport organi- response.18 There are three primary forms of zation’s ability to function and perform at a high emotional labor: surface acting, deep acting, and level. All managers need to be mindful that genuine expression.19 Surface acting is when one employees have lives outside of work, and changes how they present themselves in order to although they may love working in the sports “"t in” to a given social setting within the organi- industry, they still need to pay bills and support zation. Another way to look at surface acting is their family "nancially and socially. One unique being “fake” by showing positive emotions when aspect of working in sport is the prestige of some actually in a poor state of mind or not displaying organizations, and it is relatively well known that an adverse effect. Deep acting involves individu- some sport organizations pay their employees als altering their perceptions in order to try and less because it is viewed as prestigious to work at experience the appropriate or desired emotions, that organization. Low pay and long hours might which then allows for a more natural expression. seem great from an organizational perspective. Deep acting is usually viewed more favorably Still, the reality is that these circumstances cause than surface acting because in deep acting, indi- many to leave sport organizations (or the industry viduals are at least attempting to experience the 7.6 Summary 79 emotions that the situation calls for, whereas 7.6 Summary those who are surface acting are merely trying to get through the experience without trying to real- Labor is an important consideration for all ize a more profound meaning.20 Genuine expres- employees, but it is especially so for sport sion extends the spectrum of emotional labor as it employees who are tasked with working nights refers to displaying the situation-speci"c appro- and weekends in addition to standard working priate emotions with little to no effort.21 In other hours. Labor is further complicated with laws words, one’s natural reaction to an event in an and regulations that seemingly work against organization is also the appropriate emotional employees and allow organizations to limit pay response. This form of emotional labor does not and require many hours of labor. Not all labor is require such labor. physical, and this chapter provided a review of some of the basic emotional labor concepts. c Surface Acting When one changes how they Labor has yet to receive much attention in the present themselves in order to “"t in” to a given sport management discipline, but as you can see, social setting within the organization. consideration of sport employee labor is critical for all who work in the sports industry. c Deep Acting When individuals alter their perceptions in order to try and experience the Discussion Questions appropriate or desired emotions, which then allows for a more natural expression. 1. How has the status of labor changed in the United States over the past several decades? c Genuine Expression Displaying the 2. How does the law in!uence labor? situation-speci"c appropriate emotions with 3. What is the case for viewing collegiate little to no effort. student- athletes as employees? 4. What are the components of emotional labor, Think back to various experiences in your past and how do they impact employees? or current workplaces and imagine the times where you were “fake” to get through a situation, or tried Notes to “"t in” with your displays of emotions. Compare that to a time when your natural reactions seemed 1. Bass, J.R., Schaeperkoetter, C. C., & Bunds, K.S. to be appropriate; when you could just be your (2015). The “Front Porch”: Examining the increasing natural self. Which situation was more taxing? Can interconnection of university and athletic department funding. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. you see how taxing emotional labor can be? If you 2. Ganji, S. K. (2016). Leveraging the World Cup: Mega had to continually act like someone you are not or sporting events, human rights risk, and worker wel- had to put in great effort to experience certain emo- fare reform in Qatar. Journal on Migration and tions or perspectives, there could signi"cant Human Security, 4(4), 221–259. impacts on your mental health and well-being. 3. Greenhouse, S. (2009). The big squeeze: Tough times for the American worker. Anchor Books; Greenhouse, Deep acting and genuine expression are generally S. (2020). Beaten down, worked up: The past, present viewed as a positive feature of emotional labor, but and future of American labor. Anchor Books. surface acting can be harmful. Recent studies have 4. Greenhouse, S. (2009). The big squeeze: Tough times begun to show such effects in the sport workplace. for the American worker. Anchor Books. For example, surface acting was found to increase 5. Greenhouse, S. (2009). The big squeeze: Tough times coaches’ burnout and harm their satisfaction, while for the American worker. Anchor Books. the opposite was true for deep acting and genuine 6. Greenhouse, S. (2009). The big squeeze: Tough times for the American worker. Anchor Books; Greenhouse, 22 expression. As such, it is important to consider S. (2020). Beaten down, worked up: The past, present both physical and emotional forms of labor when and future of American labor. Anchor Books. exploring how sport organizations support their 7. Fi"led, A. (2020, February). China compels Uighurs workforce. to work in shoe factory that supplies Nike. Washington 80 7 Labor in Sport

Post. Retrieved from: https://www.washingtonpost. 15. Branch, T. (2011, October). The shame of college com/world/asia_pacific/china- compels- uighurs- to- sports. The Atlantic. Retrieved from: https://www.the- work- in- shoe- factory- that- supplies- nike/2020/02/28/ atlantic.com/magazine/archive/2011/10/the- shame- ebddf5f4- 57b2- 11ea- 8efd- 0f904bdd8057_story.html. of- college- sports/308643/. 8. Ganji, S. K. (2016). Leveraging the World Cup: Mega 16. Branch, T. (2011, October). The shame of college sporting events, human rights risk, and worker wel- sports. The Atlantic. Retrieved from: https://www.the- fare reform in Qatar. Journal on Migration and atlantic.com/magazine/archive/2011/10/the- shame- Human Security, 4(4), 221–259. of- college- sports/308643/. 9. Greenhouse, S. (2009). The big squeeze: Tough times 17. Hochschild, A. R. (1983/2003). The managed heart: for the American worker. Anchor Books. Commercialization of human feeling. Berkeley: 10. Pokorny, B., & Rotman, S. K. (2016, May). New rules University of California Press. announced: $47,476 minimum salary, effective 18. Diefendorff, J., Croyle, M., & Gosserand, R. (2005). The 12/1/2016. Wagehourinsights.com. Retrieved from: dimensionality and antecedents of emotional labor strat- https://www.wagehourinsights.com/2016/05/new- egies. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 66, 339–357. rules- announced- 47476- minimum- salary- 19. Diefendorff, J., Croyle, M., & Gosserand, R. (2005). effective- 1212016/. The dimensionality and antecedents of emotional 11. Greenhouse, S. (2009). The big squeeze: Tough times labor strategies. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 66, for the American worker. Anchor Books. 339–357. 12. Nocera, J., & Strauss, B. (2016, February). Fate of the 20. Diefendorff, J., Croyle, M., & Gosserand, R. (2005). union: How Northwestern football union nearly came The dimensionality and antecedents of emotional to be. Sports Illustrated. Retrieved from: https://www. labor strategies. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 66, si.com/college/2016/02/24/northwestern- union- case- 339–357; Grandey, A. (2000). Emotional regulation book- indentured. in the workplace: A new way to conceptualize emo- 13. Nocera, J., & Strauss, B. (2016, February). Fate of the tional labor. Journal of Occupational Health union: How Northwestern football union nearly came Psychology, 5, 95–110. to be. Sports Illustrated. Retrieved from: https://www. 21. Diefendorff, J., Croyle, M., & Gosserand, R. (2005). si.com/college/2016/02/24/northwestern- union- case- The dimensionality and antecedents of emotional book- indentured. labor strategies. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 66, 14. Nocera, J., & Strauss, B. (2016, February). Fate of the 339–357. union: How Northwestern football union nearly came 22. Lee, Y. H., & Chelladurai, P. (2018). Emotional intelli- to be. Sports Illustrated. Retrieved from: https://www. gence, emotional labor, coach burnout, job satisfaction, si.com/college/2016/02/24/northwestern- and turnover intention in sport leadership. European union- case- book- indentured. Sport Management Quarterly, 18(4), 393–412. Organizational Change 8

c Change A reweaving of actors’ webs of c Learning Objectives After reading beliefs and habits of action to accommodate new this chapter, students should be able to: experiences obtained through interactions.

• Identify the key types of organizational c Organizational Change Organizational change change. occurs when an organization alters its function, • Analyze the factors that in!uence orga- resource allocation, the form an organization takes, nizational change, such as resistance to or even employees or stakeholders. change and unintended consequences. • Differentiate between the levels of intensity. • Apply different frameworks of organi- 8.1 Organizational Change zational change to a variety of contexts in the sports industry. Time has proven that change is inevitable. Change can be de"ned as the “reweaving of actors’ webs of beliefs and habits of action to accommodate new experiences obtained through Minji Ro: Chief Operating Of!cer and interactions.”1 Organizational change occurs Co-Founder of Elites Optimization when an organization alters its function, resource Services allocation, the form an organization takes, or To listen to the interview even employees or stakeholders.2 The cause of that change can vary between organizations. In some instances, change might be expected. Alterations to league rules or structures are voted on in advance, giving organizations time to prepare for changes. For example, the NWSL announced in July of 2020 that a new Los Angeles franchise, Angel City FC, will join the league Supplementary Information The online version of this chapter (https://doi.org/10.1007/978- 3- 030- 67612- 4_8) in 2022. Other NWSL franchises now have contains supplementary material, which is available to two years to prepare for an expansion draft and authorized users. scheduling changes.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 81 C. R. Barnhill et al., Organizational Behavior in Sport Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67612-4_8 82 8 Organizational Change

Of course, not all changes are agreed to well in the transfer window is a set time period when advance. Forced change, such as the Covid-19 European soccer clubs can obtain new players. pandemic, often requires organizations to adjust Clubs build their plans around that window. quickly. There weren’t many in the world who Expected change is usually easier for sport pro- imagined a delayed Olympic Games, yet the 2020 fessionals, as they can address questions of Tokyo Summer Olympic Games were not played uncertainty and prepare for unintended conse- in 2020. Not all forced change is rapid. Many quences. It is generally forced change that is teams with indigenous group-based mascots have more dif"cult to manage. been forced to change due to public outcry. Pressure has been growing on the NFL’s c Expected Change Organizational change Washington franchise and the Canadian Football that occurs due to pressures from the operating League’s (CFL) Edmonton franchise for many environment. years. These will be discussed later in the chapter. For whatever reason, change is ever-present in the sports industry. It is going to happen. How organi- 8.1.2 Forced Change zations respond can have a lasting effect going forward. Let’s take a look at expected change and Forced change occurs because of pressures from forced change in greater detail. the environment that the organization is operating in, whether socially, "nancially, or culturally c Expected Change Organizational change motivated. Shipping giant FedEx pressured the that is inevitable or predictable. NFL’s Washington franchise to change its name due to the racist implications of the team’s nickname. FedEx holds the naming rights to the 8.1.1 Expected Change team’s home venue. The owner of the team, Dan Snyder, had been on record for years saying that Change is often necessary for organizational he would never change the organization’s name, growth. Change can be as small as one person regardless of how people felt about it.4 However, leaving or a new hire moving in. A change could due to the pressure from the public and substan- be something as substantial as an overhaul of tial sponsors like FedEx, Mr. Snyder changed his the organization’s culture. Expected organiza- stance, and soon after, the derogatory nickname tional change is de"ned as a change that is inev- was of"cially retired.5 This was a forced but not a itable or predictable. MLB’s transition to using sudden change. instant replay could be considered an example Although the example of the now Washington of this. It took three home runs in four days Football Team retiring the nickname due to push being disputed to instigate implementation of back from the sponsors and fans can be an replay in MLB games.3 While the technology example of forced change, it could also be an existed to ensure accuracy on some major calls, example of expected change as it relates to there was resistance from many stakeholders. larger societal changes. With the hundreds of MLB took this change very slowly. At "rst, only other high schools, colleges, and other profes- homeruns and some other “easy” calls, like fan sional franchises retiring their Native American interference, were reviewable. Although these nicknames over the years, it seemed eventual for were incredibly small changes compared to Washington to do so as well. Interestingly, replay technology readiness, it was revolution- Washington’s name change appears to have ary for an organization that is generally resistant been a catalyst for another football team, the to change. There are many instances of expected CFL’s Edmonton franchise, who announced change in sport. The draft process, a change of three weeks after Washington that they would athlete personnel, is a predictable yearly event no longer maintain their indigenous group- in all North American sports leagues. Similarly, based nickname.6 8.1 Organizational Change 83

It may have taken new ownership in the com- c Radical Change Organizational major change pany or policy by the NFL banning these kinds that often occurs rapidly and can fundamentally of nicknames for teams, but the change would alter the organization. have eventually taken place. The Washington Football Team is an excellent example of organi- c Revolutionary Change Organizational zational change, as well as resistance to change. change that is sudden and brief in implementation. In 1949, the NFL began allowing African Americans into the league. Washington refused c Evolutionary Change Organizational change until the franchise was forced to integrate in that is slow and continuous. 1962. That change was spurred by the United States government who threatened to bar the franchise from using its venue.7 8.1.3 Incremental versus Radical The Washington example illustrates forced and Revolutionary versus change that is slow. Often, forced change hap- Evolutionary Change pens much quicker than expected change. This is because forced change depends on the demands While a change may be expected or forced on of the surrounding environment. However, the an organization, organizational change can be speed and intensity of a forced change depend differentiated within an organization based on entirely on context. A series of bad results can put intensity of scale and intensity of time.9 When a coach’s job in jeopardy. However, a scandal thinking about intensity of scale, researchers may lead to an immediate "ring. have distinguished between incremental The outsized role/in!uence of sport in society changes versus those that are radical. increases pressures on sport organizations. Social Organizational change is quite different if the media and other modern technologies provide change is radical, such as a football team worth more access for outsiders who desire to pressure well over a billion US dollars changing its iden- an organization. It’s important to remember that tity. Whereas small, incremental changes may an organization is not a singular unit but a combi- happen every day in a sport organization with- nation of workgroups, departments, subsidiaries, out much notice, such as "ne-tuning marketing or individual employees.8 So, when considering documents or rewriting a policy to improve expected or forced change, keep in mind the clarity. The radical change process can be jar- application of a change can vary wildly within an ring. Communicating with both internal and organization as well. One example could be the external stakeholders has been shown to help application of a new intra-of"ce communication garner support for such radical change.10 system such as Slack. For some employees or While a change may land somewhere along workgroups, this would seem like an expected the spectrum of incremental to radical change, change, as they came from organizations that the pace at which the change occurs is also already utilized these systems or followed busi- important. Evolutionary change refers to the ness trends. However, others in the organization slow, continuous change within an organization, may feel this is an unexpected change being whereas revolutionary change is sudden and forced upon them. These employees are either brief. Considering the intensity and speed at not as technologically adept or may not under- which a change occurs can help employees man- stand why this change is happening. We’ll talk age the transition more successfully. more about this issue later in this chapter. c Structural Change Change that alters the c Incremental Change Organizational change structure of the organization. that happens slowly, often in the form of numerous small actions that alter the c Cultural Change Change that alters an organization. organization’s culture. 84 8 Organizational Change c Personnel Change Change that adds or in!uence of FIFA’s organizational culture in the removes organizational members. illegal actions of various stakeholders.12 Changing organizational culture is dif"cult and requires consistent, comprehensive efforts. 8.1.4 Structural, Cultural, Finally, personnel changes within an organi- and Personnel Organizational zation offer up even more signs of change. Some Change personnel changes can involve shifting employees to provide additional resources for an over- Organizational changes can leave their mark on stretched workgroup or to a new role that better an organization in multiple ways. As discussed in "ts their skills. Employees who are actively act- the chapter on organizational structure (Chap. 4), ing in opposition to the organization’s vision, each organization is organized differently, be it goals, and culture may need to be removed reporting relationships or communication chan- entirely from the organization. Leadership per- nels. Sometimes these organizational structures sonnel changes are often the most prominent in are very hierarchical, and sometimes they have a these instances. For example, at Texas Tech, !atter structure. While it’s common to see per- women’s basketball coach Marlene Stollings sonnel changes due to structural change, losing was "red because of the culture she created in or gaining an individual does not constitute struc- the women’s basketball program. She created a tural change (see Chap. 2). The focus remains on hostile environment for players that resulted in how responsibilities are distributed across the 12 of the 21 players leaving the program after organization or how work teams are organized. her "rst season.13 This is one of many examples For example, the US Olympic Committee restruc- where athletic programs chose to make a leader- tured its entire organization, consolidating loca- ship personnel change to improve the environ- tions, creating new departments, and adding new ment and improve the image of the university to employees with particular expertise. This was the public. Personnel changes are a very com- done to address the serious concerns stemming mon type of change in an organization and offer from the Nassar abuse scandal.11 Structural a short-term solution to "xing an organization’s changes in an organization can sometimes be as negative culture. Personnel changes can be an complicated as this one, or they could be as sim- effective way of addressing organizational ple as transferring duties from one person in the change if that person is hindering or opposing organization to another. organizational goals or change. However, if the Beyond structure, another avenue for change issues are more systemic in an organization, is through organizational culture (see Chap. 6). personnel changes will not be an effective Structural changes can solve organizational solution. issues by removing employees or regrouping individuals for better "ts. Sometimes, this is a suf"cient change in solving a cultural problem. 8.2 Key Aspects However, when problems are embedded in the of Organizational Change organizational culture, structural shifts are not adequate, and broad organizational culture Several factors in!uence organizational change change is needed. Due to sport’s societal impor- and its success within a sport organization. tance, calls for culture change can often come Considering organizational change holistically, from whistleblowers or outside sources. Multiple remember that an organization is a collection of instances in sport provide illuminating examples, individuals, potentially workgroup departments, such as the 2015 corruption case against FIFA by and even multiple subsidiaries acting as individ- United States federal prosecutors. While the ual organizations while being under one umbrella. scandals surrounding FIFA were not just organi- No organization runs entirely independently of zational culture issues, it was evidence of the its environment, especially sport organizations. 8.2 Key Aspects of Organizational Change 85

Many sport organizations run within or are ancil- the Atlantic Ocean by boat to participate in an lary to a governing body. Change can happen Olympics, as they did for the 1924 Paris organically over time as new people are hired, or Summer Olympic Games. Although an exag- people within the organization make small gerated example, there was a time people changes impacting the organization as a whole. thought that !ying was something only to be However, change can also happen quickly and on done by birds. Without accepting change and a large scale. A great example to think about is the push for innovation by the Wright brothers, the adoption of social media by professional people would not have access to the rest of the sport organizations. Social media adoption by world as we do now. sport organizations only occurred at a full-scale Resistance to change occurs for many rea- in the last decade, yet it is now fundamental to sons. Change involves going from the known to organizational success. Change can happen from the unknown and therefore engenders feelings the top-down, directives from the CEO or of anxiety and discomfort. Change often President, or bottom-up, such as with employee involves additional work for the individuals strikes. involved. Change can have unintended conse- There are several key aspects to change: (1) quences not apparent to management at the time resistance to change, (2) stress and change, and of implementation. Sometimes change can even (3) learning organizations. An interesting new involve job loss for various employees. development in organizational change is the con- Depending on the circumstance, resistance can cept of learning organizations, and how these even seem like a logical response to change.15 sport organizations are in!uenced by or are in!u- Resistance to change can also be linked to bias encers in the broader society. Change may be of thought. For example, incorrect theories resisted or encouraged by both internal and exter- about the female body in!uenced the sports in nal stakeholders, such as the 2009 rule increasing which women were allowed to compete. It was the pitchering circles’s distance in interscholastic once believed that women’s bodies would give softball.14 Some fans and players were opposed out under the stress of sport competition, and so to the change due to resource constraints and women were banned by the IOC from running "eld usage. However, it was adopted by most longer than 200 meters from 1928 to 1960. Not high school programs within the following years. until 1984 did women participate in the mara- External and internal stakeholder resistance does thon at the Olympics.16 Since then, this has been not always stop change, but it can succeed at proven utterly false by the increasing popularity delaying change or adapting change to "t the of long-distance running for women. Sport is needs of an area. Conversely, outside factors or tradition-laden, thus resistance to change per- internal champions can be a push or a voice for meates on-"eld and of"ce aspects of sport change. organizations. Resistance to change by employees is linked to a large percentage of organizational change 8.2.1 Resistance to Change failures.17 While managers may be inclined to focus on the technical aspects of organizational Resistance to change is almost as certain as changes, they must consider the implications for change itself. As the saying goes, “if it ain’t employees as well. For example, adopting a new broke, don’t "x it.” While some level of change Customer Relations Management (CRM) system may not be required to execute organizational involves many technical issues, such as software goals, it could improve the process. Imagine if integration, hardware updates, and budgetary we had never incorporated the airplane into our matters. Employees being asked to adopt a new global transportation infrastructure. We could system may also have serious objections or con- still travel but it would be less ef"cient. United fusion surrounding this new system. States’ Olympic teams would still be braving Understanding employees’ reasons for their 86 8 Organizational Change

Table 8.1 Employee defense mechanisms organizations. Unlike some organizational Humor Dealing with stress by emphasizing change ideas, such as a move toward anti-racism, amusing and/or ironic aspects of the there is often no clear-cut answer as to which per- situation. spective is better or more effective in driving ef"- Denial Refusal to acknowledge particularly distressing elements of a situation that ciency until after the change has occurred. are readily apparent to others. Therefore, many throughout the organization Dissociation Dealing with stress through a may carry stress until outcomes are known. breakdown in integrated functions of Some of this stress comes from an individual’s consciousness, memory, perception of previous experiences with organizational change. self, and the environment. Isolation of Separating stressful ideas from the Perhaps they have experienced negative results of affect feelings associated initially with them. earlier changes or heard about it in other organi- Projection Falsely attributing stressors and their zations. Even if those seeking change have a outcomes to another. strong belief in this change, listening to those Acting out Reacting to stressors through resistant concerns and fears will substantially inappropriate actions. help the process. Communication or lack thereof can also be stressful throughout organizations. resistance can help an organization address those Employees and stakeholders may have stress concerns. Employees may use six different with how change will affect them personally, but defense mechanisms when dealing with organi- also with the on-"eld product. Many employees zational change: humor, anticipation, denial, dis- and fans revere the traditions of their favorite sociation, isolation of affect, projection, and sport.20 When billionaire Stan Kroenke bought acting out18 (see Table 8.1). While humor was Arsenal soccer club, a top club in both the men’s found to be a useful mechanism for adapting to and women’s game, there was some consterna- change, the projection mechanism was the most tion regarding the American ownership of maladaptive to change. This mechanism tends to Arsenal, by both players and fans. They were blame others, and the individual lacks self- concerned his American business perspective of re!ection on their own resistance impulses. pro"t maximization would overshadow the sto- ried club. This came to a head with the global pandemic as players were asked to take a pay cut, 8.2.2 Stress and Change and a few players resisted due to concerns about club "nances.21 This has caused a great deal of Change can be challenging, but stress can be stress for many stakeholders of the organization. managed by both the individual and the organiza- While there is likely going to be stress-related to tion through preparation and consistent respon- any organizational change, understanding the siveness. As we discussed above, some process of change within an organization can individuals will be more resistant to change, but equip managers in better handling the emotions change can be stressful even for those who that will come. embrace it. Depending on the type of change, there could be "nancial consequences, upending of schedules, a more immense workload, or even 8.2.3 Learning Organizations layoffs. Another concern is unintended consequences which may occur when the change is Sport organizations, like all organizations, utilize complex or disruptive. For example, in research the collective memory of the organization to conducted with Swedish Regional Sport interpret and learn from incoming information.22 Federations, Stenling and Sam19 found that pro- It takes a learning organization to understand fessionalization in sport governance undermined what is going on in the world, the country, and the democracy found in these sport organiza- the community and integrate any new knowledge tions’ elected boards. The push for ef"ciency or insights into their organization. First-order essentially undid the operating processes of these organizational learning focuses on achieving 8.3 The Change Process 87 organizational goals through existing learning zational change. The "rst step involves unfreez- patterns. Second-order organizational learning ing the organization. During this stage, the need provides radical change opportunities.23 Second- for change is discussed throughout the organiza- order learning involves seeking out new routines tion to gather support and address concerns from and ways of thinking. Removing learned behav- employees. The second stage, known as the iors can be incredibly hard, but if the current change stage, is when the transition begins. organizational routines are ineffective in achiev- Management should encourage participation ing the organization’s goals, this unlearning and from employees but be quick to dismiss false new learning are necessary. information that can spread among the ranks. The NBA and the WNBA are current exam- Engagement with employees is critical during the ples of learning organizations, as the push for change stage. The "nal stage is the freeze stage, corporate social responsibility in sport has during which change is embedded and sustained increased dramatically in recent years.24 During throughout the organization, success is cele- the second half of their respective 2020 seasons, brated, and employees are supported as they the WNBA and NBA provided both players and adapt to a new organization.28 teams opportunities to voice their concerns To further expand on the model, let’s analyze regarding racial justice. In March 1996, Denver a sport-speci"c context with that framework in Nugget’s guard Mahmoud Abdul-Rauf refused to mind. The United States Women’s National stand for the national anthem, citing it against his Soccer Team (USWNT) has had tremendous suc- Islamic faith. He was "ned $31,707 for every cess on the "eld, winning four World Cups and game that he kneeled.25 The WNBA and NBA two Olympic Gold Medals. Following their have allowed their players to wear social justice World Cup win in 2015, the players "led a wage messages on their jerseys, along with the phrase discrimination complaint against their employer, “Black Lives Matter” painted on courts. This US Soccer Federation (USSF), citing unequal example highlights the NBA and WNBA’s learn- pay with their male counterparts. This is despite ing perspective and addressing both player and their overwhelming success in comparison to the societal concerns. As preliminary evidence sug- men’s national team. In Lewin’s Three-Step- gests, athletes can play an in!uential role in soci- Model, by instigating a lawsuit, the players have ety. Thus, learning organizations are essential in unfrozen the current level. The change stage will helping reshape cultures and communities.26 occur when they renegotiate a new collective bargaining agreement. If they are successful, the freezing stage will occur once the agreements are 8.3 The Change Process in place and the USWNT and USSF reform their partnership. Lewin’s model, often criticized for Organizational change usually does not happen being too simple, still provided utility for under- instantaneously. Even in the most urgent situa- standing organizational change even in its tions, a process occurs through which change straightforwardness. happens. Frameworks can be useful to guide an organization through change. Research encourages analyzing and preparing for change through 8.3.2 Kotter’s Eight-Step Plan multiple theoretical frameworks and perspectives.27 In Kotter’s eight-step plan, managers are able to visualize a potential path for their intended change. The eight steps are as follows: 8.3.1 Lewin’s Three-Step Model 1. Establishing a sense of urgency Lewin’s three-step model of change provides a 2. Creating the guiding coalition linear and straightforward perspective to organi- 3. Develop a vision and strategy 88 8 Organizational Change

4. Communicating the change vision have competing interests. For example, many 5. Empowering broad-based change athletic departments outsource their ticket sales 6. Generating short-term wins to various agencies (IMG Lear"eld, Taymar, 7. Consolidating gains and producing more etc.). A Director of Ticket Sales employed by the change athletic department will be faced with con!icting 8. Anchoring new approaches in the culture motives if their employer decides to outsource sales. Their loyalty to the athletic department and There are many similarities between Kotter’s knowledge of sales may help the employee see eight-step plan and Lewin’s model. In essence, the advantage an agency provides. On the other Kotter breaks the processes within each of the hand, outsourcing to an agency may fundamen- three steps of Lewin’s model into a more detailed tally alter their role or eliminate it altogether. procedure. This makes Kotter’s eight-step plan a Colleagues who are friends with the Director of helpful, understandable, how-to in implementing Ticket sales will be torn between their loyalties to organizational change. It focuses on a top-led their friend and their employer. management perspective. Therefore, managers In this case, management can adopt a holistic need to be mindful to engage with all the stake- approach addressing the various aspects of the holders affected by the change. Additionally, institution, including political pressures, opera- while the plan is presented linearly, most litera- tional pressures, and social pressures this change ture has found that a more iterative process actu- will place on employees. Sport-speci"c research ally occurs.29 based on the integrative model found misunder- A distressing mechanism for creating urgency standings and lack of communication and col- is for an individual employee to release informa- laboration all hinder change processes in sport tion regarding your organization’s issues pub- organizations.31 licly. Some recent examples include scandals at Baylor Athletics, Michigan State, Rutgers Athletics, Dallas Mavericks, Utah Royals, among 8.3.4 Other Models many others. This can be an effective way to create a sense of urgency regarding a needed change There are at least ten different organizational because the public may build an outcry over your change models in the research. Many come from organization’s issue. While a potentially effective business and management more generally, such way to instigate change, it is essential to refer as the McKinsey 7-S framework, which indicates back to the ethical decision-making process in employees should focus on Strategy, Structure, choosing an avenue for jumpstarting desired Systems, Shared Values, Style, Staff, and Skills, change. In the cases above, employees made or the ADKAR model: Awareness, Desire, information public after internal change mecha- Knowledge, Ability, and Reinforcement. An nisms failed or were ignored. interesting new development regarding institutional change is the understanding of “muddling through” as a reality of organizational change. 8.3.3 Integrative Model Somewhat of a counter-point to institutional of Organizational Change change theory as a clear, guiding framework, this perspective recognizes the reality of sport organi- Speci"c to sport, Cunningham30 developed the zations that are changing without a guiding Integrative Model of Organizational Change. The framework. In other words, while these frame- model, which integrates elements of human ecol- works are interesting and have utility for radical ogy, institutional theory, strategic choice, and change, in reality, trying to "nd solutions to prob- resource dependence, was designed to under- lems may result in larger organizational change stand how sport organizations institute radical through small, incremental “muddling through” change, where those involved in change may actions.32 8.4 Summary 89

8.4 Summary Name. The Bleacher Report. Retrieved from: https:// bleacherreport.com/articles/1634935- dan- snyder- says- he- will- never- change- washington- redskins- Change is constant and comes in many different controversial- name. forms. There are changes at the individual, group, 5. Keim, J. (2020, July 2). Stadium sponsor FedEx asks or organizational levels, and they all vary in Redskins to change nickname. ESPN.com. Retrieved intensity of scope and speed of implementation. from: https://www.espn.com/n!/story/_/id/29401445/ stadium- sponsor- fedex- asks- redskins- change- Without change, we would still be seeing basket- nickname. ball with peach baskets; women would not be 6. McCarriston, S., & Fernandez, G. (2020, July 21). able to participate in sport, and stadiums would Edmonton CFL team con"rms they will change name be without videoboards. Change is essential for a from ‘Eskimos’ after sponsors threatened to bow out. sport organization to keep up with changing CBS Sports. Retrieved from: https://www.cbssports. com/general/news/edmonton- cfl- team- confirms- demands and expectations of our society. How they- will- change- name- from- eskimos- after- successful a change becomes depends on how sponsors- threatened- to- bow- out/. well it is managed. 7. Banks, P. (2014). Who you calling a Redskin? (Washington Redskins). USA Today (Magazine), 142(2824), 24–28. Discussion Questions 8. Bovey, W. H., & Hede, A. (2001). Resistance to organisational change: The role of defence mechanisms. 1. Self-re!ect on a time you’ve dealt with change. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 16(7/8), 534. How did you feel about the change? How did 9. Greenwood, R., & Hinings, C. R. (1996). Understanding you react? What about those around you? radical organizational change: Bringing together the What would you do differently next time? old and the new institutionalism. Academy of management review, 21(4), 1022–1054. 2. Discuss one change currently happening in 10. Thompson, A., & Parent, M. M. (2020). Understanding the sports industry. Why do you think the the impact of radical change on the effectiveness of organization chose to implement that change? national- level sport organizations: A multi-stakeholder How do you think it’s going? perspective. Sport Management Review. 11. Etchells, D. (Feb. 2019). United States Olympic 3. Write down ten changes you’ve seen in the Committee Chief Executive Outlines Restructuring of sports industry in the last "ve years. Create a Organization. The Sport Digest. Retrieved from: graph with incremental on the left side, radi- http://thesportdigest.com/2019/02/ cal on the right side, evolutionary on the top united- states- olympic- committee- chief- executive- outlines- restructuring- of- organization/. side, and revolutionary on the bottom side. 12. BBC News (May 2015). Fifa corruption inquires: Plot each change on those spectrums based on Of"cials arrested in Zurich. BBC News. Retrieved from: how you perceive them. Find a partner and https://www.bbc.com/news/world- europe- 32895048. compare how you differ in your perceptions of 13. Associated Press (2020, August 7). Texas Tech women’s coach "red one day after report of abuse. changes in the sports industry? Retrieved from: https://apnews.com/article/sports- womens- basketball- womens- college- basketball- Notes basketball- tx- state- wire- ab0b4e84eaa024b490e5199 5ce99e085. 14. MHSAA (2009, December 8). Softball Pitching Rule— 1. Tsoukas, H., & Chia, R. (2002). On Organizational Part 2. Michigan High School Athletic Association. Becoming: Rethinking Organizational Change. Retrieved from: https://www.mhsaa.com/News/Blog- Organization Science, 13(5), 567–582. https://doi. From- the- director/articleType/ArticleView/arti- org/10.1287/orsc.13.5.567.7810. cleId/78/Softball- Pitching- Rule- Part- 2. 2. Huber, G. P., Sutcliffe, K. M., Miller, C. C., & Glick, 15. Bovey, W. H., & Hede, A. (2001). Resistance to organ- W. H. (1993). Understanding and predicting organiza- isational change: The role of defence mechanisms. tional change. In Huber, G. P. & Glick, W. H. (Eds.), Journal of Managerial Psychology, 16(7/8), 534. Organizational Change and Redesign (pp. 215–65). 16. Carroll, J. (2019, July 3). A history of women’s run- New York: Oxford Univ. Press. ning. Runner’s World. Retrieved from: https://www. 3. Deveney, S. (2008). MLB is overreacting on instant runnersworld.com/uk/training/motivation/ replay. Sporting News, 232(25), 38. a26748147/a- history- of- womens- running/. 4. Goldberg, R. (May, 2013). Dan Snyder Says He Will 17. Waldersee, R., & Grif"ths, A. (2004). Implementing Never Change Washington Redskins’ Controversial change: Matching implementation methods and 90 8 Organizational Change

change type. Leadership & Organization Development their voices about the most pressing social issues of Journal, 25(5), 424–434. the day. Esquire, 168(4), 90. 18. American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic 26. Willis, L. (Aug. 2020). WFU professor study whether and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.). pro athletes political statements and race are in!uenc- American Psychiatric Association; Bovey, W. H., & ers. Wake Forest University News. Retrieved from: Hede, A. (2001). Resistance to organisational change: https://news.wfu.edu/2020/08/31/wfu- The role of defence mechanisms. Journal of professors- study- whether- pro- athletes- political- Managerial Psychology, 16(7/8), 534. statements- and- race- are- in!uencers/. 19. Stenling, C., & Sam, M. (2019). Professionalization 27. Slack, T., & Hinings, B. (1992). Understanding and its consequences: How active advocacy may change in national sport organizations: An integration undermine democracy. European Sport Management of theoretical perspectives. Journal of Sport Quarterly, 1–21. Management, 6(2), 114–132. 20. O’Brien, D., & Slack, T. (2004). The emergence of a 28. Burnes, B. (2019). The Origins of Lewin’s Three-Step professional logic in English rugby union: The role of Model of Change. The Journal of Applied Behavioral isomorphic and diffusion processes. Journal of Sport Science, 56(1), 32–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/ Management, 18(1), 13–39. 0021886319892685. 21. Rathborn, J. (Aug. 2020). Mezil Ozil defends decision 29. Pollack, J., & Pollack, R. (2014). Using Kotter’s Eight to reject Arsenal pay cut. The Independent. Retrieved Stage Process to Manage an Organisational Change from: https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football/ Program: Presentation and Practice. Systemic Practice premier- league/mesut- ozil- arsenal- contract- pay- cut- and Action Research, 28(1), 51–66. https://doi. transfer- news- 2020- arteta- a9668161.html. org/10.1007/s11213- 014- 9317- 0. 22. Newman, K. L. (2000). Organizational transforma- 30. Cunningham, G. B. (2002). Removing the Blinders: tion during institutional upheaval. Academy of Toward an Integrative Model of Organizational Management Review, 25(3), 602–619. change in Sport and Physical Activity. Quest, 54(4), 23. Cunningham, P. M. (2001). Making space: Merging 276–291. theory and practice in adult education. Greenwood 31. Legg, J., Snelgrove, R., & Wood, L. (2016). Publishing Group. Modifying tradition: Examining organizational 24. Zeimers, G., Anagnostopoulos, C., Zintz, T., & Willem, change in youth sport. Journal of Sport Management, A. (2019). Organisational learning for corporate social 30(4), 369–381. responsibility in sport organisations. European Sport 32. Fahlén, J., & Stenling, C. (2019). (Re)conceptualizing Management Quarterly, 19(1), 80–101. https://doi.org/ institutional change in sport management contexts: 10.1080/16184742.2018.1546752. the unintended consequences of sport organizations’ 25. Schoenfeld, B. (Sept. 2017). The Justice League: A everyday organizational life. European Sport growing number of NBA stars and coaches are raising Management Quarterly, 19(2), 265–285. Part III Getting to Know Employees and Volunteers of Sport Organizations

The people who constitute sport organizations are essential. More so, they represent more than the tasks they perform or the positions they hold. Without employees and volunteers, sport organizations would simply cease to exist. This chapter takes a deep look into who sport employees and volunteers are and how the sports industry’s unique aspects require special talents and perspectives. In this unit, we will review how various personalities and values interact in the sport workplace. From there, we will discuss different socialization tactics and perceptions within sport organizations. We will also explore how emotions are a mainstay in sports but have unique properties for those working in sport. Sport employees and volunteers also need to be motivated, and so this unit also covers the various motivational factors in sport workplaces. Lastly, the unit includes a critical discussion pertaining to the creative behaviors of sport employees and volunteers and such behaviors wherewithal in the sports industry. Personality and Fit 9

9.1 Introduction c Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, students should be able to: As we begin our section on getting to know the • Distinguish between the different per- employees and volunteers of sport organiza- sonality frameworks. tions—something you may aspire to be one • Explain the importance of personality day—it is essential to look at concepts such as within the sport workplace. the personalities of individuals as well as a brief • Specify personal beliefs and values. look into the personalities within sport organiza- • Explain the various subcomponents of tions. This chapter focuses on the various person- the person-environment !t paradigm. ality frameworks that describe the mindset of people. From there, we can better understand how individuals, speci!cally sport employees, function and how their personalities help dictate Layne Doctson: Assistant Annual Fund their behaviors. We will also discuss belief sys- Coordinator, Colorado State University tems and values, as these determine how individ- Athletics uals frame their perceptions of others and of To listen to the interview organizations. This area will include a deeper exploration of how psychological capital (i.e., beliefs of oneself) can be a powerful asset to any person who is willing to adventure for their highest potential. The chapter will also explore the concept of Person–Environment Fit, which will help us further understand why some individuals are drawn to and remain members of certain organizations.

9.2 Personality Frameworks

Supplementary Information The online version of this When searching the Internet for content to help chapter (https://doi.org/10.1007/978- 3- 030- 67612- 4_9) you write a paper for class, you have likely come contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. across a link to take a “personality test.” While

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 93 C. R. Barnhill et al., Organizational Behavior in Sport Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67612-4_9 94 9 Personality and Fit not elaborating on the validity of such tests, they gle to perform. Additionally, if a supervisor is are fascinating opportunities. We all seek to more of a Type B and some of their subordinates understand ourselves better, and personality is are Type As, there is a high potential for con"ict. one way to increase our awareness of ourselves. There are quite a few typologies of personality, c Dominance Behaviors Self-con!dence, and we will focus on a few of the more popular directness, lacking patience. versions. c Inspiration Behaviors Attention seeking, c Type A Personality Personality type social, creative, problem-solving. characterized by individuals who are independent, con!dent, and even callous. c Submission Behaviors Calm, thoughtfulness, averse to change. c Type B Personality Personality type characterized by individuals who are more c Compliance Behaviors Inquisitive, intellectual, concerned with getting along well with others socially withdrawn, task-focused. and are generally laid-back and considered good listeners. 9.2.2 The DISC Pro"le

9.2.1 Type A versus Type B Building off the cornerstone of Type A and B personalities, we will review Thomas Erikson’s2 One description of personalities is broken down four types of human behavior. Erikson’s book is into Type A and Type B groups.1 The “Type A” centered on understanding the behavior of indi- personality is characterized by independent, con- viduals, but the four types of behaviors that are !dent, and even callous individuals. Type As described can be positioned as types of personali- desire achievement, and visible achievement at ties. Erikson utilizes a color scheme to differenti- that due to their drive for accomplishment and the ate the four personality types, but the core of his resulting control that comes from being viewed book is based on the DISC pro!le. D stands for as a high achiever. Because of the drive that “dominance” (Red, according to Erikson), which comes from the desire for achievement, power, is exempli!ed by individuals who are very self- and control, Type As are not as concerned with con!dent, have little patience, and are very direct. others’ thoughts or positions. One word that sums I represents “inspiration” (Yellow for Erikson) up Type As would be “aggressive.” Conversely, and consists of people who thoroughly love to be Type Bs are more concerned with getting along the center of attention and always seem to be the well with others and are generally laid-back and one who is talking. Another aspect of this person- considered good listeners. A word to describe ality type is the willingness to be creative and Type Bs is “follower.” It is not dif!cult to recog- think of solutions to complex problems, but when nize how these two types could work in harmony it comes to doing the actual work required to but also be detrimental to relationships in the implement these plans, there is often a bit of a sport workplace. For example, suppose a boss is struggle for such individuals to follow through. a Type A personality type and their subordinates The S signi!es “submission” (Green, according are Type Bs. In that case, there could be a strong to Erikson); those within this framework are possibility that the individuals could work well calm, thoughtful, and are generally averse to together if the leader (i.e., Type A) provides change. Lastly, C stands for “compliance” direction and guidance to the employees (i.e., the (Erikson uses the term analytical and is repre- Type Bs) for organizational goal achievement. sented by Blue), and are exempli!ed by those However, if the boss is too overbearing or force- who value having a clear understanding of the ful, there is a chance that the Type Bs could strug- problem, willingness to research an issue to 9.2 Personality Frameworks 95 gather a complete understanding, and a focus on tive qualities. Neuroticism is undoubtedly a qual- work activities rather than developing friendships ity that many of us would not want to be at work. It is very common for people to have a associated with, but it is still important to com- combination of two or three types of colors.3 prehend neuroticism to avoid the pitfalls associ- Although this is a very brief overview of the ated with this personality type. Judge et al.11 DISC pro!le, we encourage you to take some warned of potential negative consequences of time and consider which color or combination of neuroticism, such as increased fear, anxiety, and colors you might be. irritability. We can all likely think of friends, family members, or coworkers who always seem to be in a bad mood or struggle to !nd happiness. 9.2.3 “Big Five” Model The Big Five perspective informs that this can be of Personality a function of personality and that it can harm one’s work (and personal) life. The other Big One of the bene!ts of examining personalities is Five personality types are generally positive in categorizing groups of people. Doing so helps us nature as they can support human growth and understand others and ourselves. It is much easier development. The other four types have different to understand 2, 4, or 5 categories than, say 20 or impacts on growth and development, with extra- 30 categories. The “Big Five” personality types version and conscientiousness being viewed as have received a great deal of attention from the most impactful on career success.12 As a part scholars and practitioners.4 The Big Five consists of human growth and development, it is also of neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experi- important to note that people change. If you feel ence, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. that you might align with neuroticism upon self- Neuroticism consists of contending with forms of re"ection, that does not mean you are con!ned to anxiety and detractors of well-being from insecu- such a distinction. As we live and learn about rities and is thus a re"ection of the lack of emo- ourselves, we can adjust our perceptions (and tional stability.5 For example, neuroticism has consequently behaviors) to help us reach elements such as hostility, anxiety, vulnerability, improved interactions with others. Lastly, impulsiveness, self-consciousness, and depres- although the Big Five typology is quite persuasive sion.6 Extraversion is typi!ed by individuals who and has generally been accepted and supported are “social butter"ies” and those who are gener- by academics, these types are not hard and fast ally outgoing and enjoy being in crowds. Such rules for personality among humans. individuals also tend to re"ect positive qualities such as being ambitious, assertive, and adventur- ous.7 Conscientiousness is a form of responsibil- 9.2.4 Myers–Briggs ity and the desire for accomplishment through rigorous planning. There are three components of We will conclude our discussion about personal- conscientiousness: achievement, organization, ity types with another popular personality cate- and dependability.8 Openness to experience gorization perspective: The Myers–Briggs Type re"ects one’s willingness to engage their imagi- Indicator. There are four groupings in the Myers– nation and generally be unconventional.9 The last Briggs view of human personality: extroversion- personality type in the Big Five typology is introversion, sensing-intuiting, thinking-feeling, Agreeableness, which is the willingness to work and judgment-perception. According to this with and help others. Others broadly like those typology, there are two options per category, who !t within this personality type. Some com- resulting in four letters that each represent the mon qualities of those who are considered agree- option selected. For example, this could be INFJ able are trusting, caring, and cheerful.10 or ESTP. The !rst category is a measure of one’s It is important to note the degree to which willingness to engage with others (i.e., extroverts each of the Big Five types has positive and nega- seek interactions with others, while introverts 96 9 Personality and Fit tend to keep to themselves). The second category object. Let’s use a !ctitious example of a com- represents a distinction between those who need pany that is realizing record pro!ts; what will to “see it to believe it” as opposed to “trusting my they do with it as a response? Suppose they pro- gut” (i.e., sensing individuals focus on tangible vide an increased salary for their well-paid facts and data and intuiting people trust their sub- administrators and decide against providing conscious). The third category is focused on the higher wages to middle-managers or other staff differences between seeing the world from a members. In that case, we have a pretty good idea black and white perspective and seeing the world of what that company values. The same is true for with shades of gray (i.e., thinking people rely on individuals. People will support, proliferate, and clear rules, guidelines, and order while feeling protect that which they value. individuals attempt to look at all angles of an issue). The last category de!nes how people c Belief System One’s thoughts on how the receive new information (i.e., judgment-based world works. individuals are generally closed to new information and perceptive people are willing to listen to Belief Systems are broader than values, as new information). Have you taken this test? Do they represent one’s thoughts on how the world you remember your categories? Have they stayed works. In some respects, one’s belief systems consistent throughout time? could be viewed as morals, a broad outlook on In !nishing up our conversation about person- how people should behave, or their general out- ality types, we must emphasize that there are look on life. When individuals have con"icting many forms of personality forms and tests, some belief systems, there is potential for con"ict. This of which are more valid than others. However, we is why many workplaces attempt to keep their must also emphasize not to let any personality internal and external operations as neutral as pos- test be self-de!ning. You are your own person, sible. Organizations have their own belief sys- and your strengths and weaknesses should be tems (see Chap. 6), but having a clear regularly self-evaluated as well as celebrated and understanding of the differences between indi- improved upon. Finally, our personalities are vidual values and belief systems will help thought to be relatively stable, but that does not enhance your understanding of the organizational mean that your “category” will not change. What forms of these constructs in future chapters. is most important is that you are aware of your Another way to view your self-concept is from own personality and are comfortable with it. the lens of identity theory. In a sense, your self- concept is your identity. One area of identity c Self-Concept How we view ourselves. theory that is used to understand individuals better is role theory, where people de!ne themselves c Values What we hold dear in life. based on their roles in life, or more pertinent to our discussion, their work roles. Burke and Stets13 explained a prominent view of identity theory 9.3 Belief Systems and Values and its relation to one’s roles, “Identities are a person’s internalized role expectations in the Before engrossing ourselves in the concepts of sense that individuals take these expectations to belief systems and values, we need to start with be their own, as part of who they are. For each the idea of self-concept, which is simply how we role a person plays out in a social network, there view ourselves. Self-concept refers to many is a corresponding identity attached to it” aspects of ourselves including thoughts on our (pp. 45–46). In our case, a “social network” can strengths and weaknesses, in addition to belief be viewed as a sport workplace or department, systems and values. Our values are what we hold and the internalization aspect of the quote means dear. One way to understand values consists of that individuals take on meanings of their roles equating a semblance of money to a given idea or that they self-assign. In this way, we create our 9.3 Belief Systems and Values 97 own meanings for our work and our roles at work. Burke and Stets16 used the dichotomy of mas- Social identity theory, which is discussed in mul- culinity/femininity in their example where an tiple chapters, posits that individuals !rst need to individual who identi!es as masculine (note: mas- understand who they are, as this helps them !nd culinity or femininity is not determined by one’s groups which they desire to join. However, rec- gender) could enter into an environment that they ognizing that people create their own realities interpret as feminine. To make others aware of and meanings for the roles which they engage in their held identity and reinforce the identity for work is important to understand. As such, you are themselves, the individual is likely to act in an the one who determines if your work role is overtly masculine manner, which could then lead essential (or valued) and can then frame or to a strengthened masculine identity and eventu- reframe your perspective of your work roles. ally a new masculine identity standard. While this Interestingly, sport organizations might offer a example is informative, let’s consider a more unique opportunity to enhance the role identity of sport-centric example. If you have ever attended a sport employees. This could be a function of sporting event involving one of your favorite sport holding distinct properties of athletic com- teams, but at an opponent’s area or stadium, this petition as well as the pride and prestige of work- example might resonate with you. Imagine being ing for visible sport organizations.14 at the game, wearing your favorite team’s colors, Another important aspect of identity theory is and being surrounded by rival fans. You certainly identity salience, which determines when indi- would not want any confusion as to which team viduals make concerted efforts to evoke their you are cheering for, and so you will loudly and identity or “act out” in certain situations. As such, overtly cheer and demonstrate for your team at we can recognize others’ personal identities and every chance you get (of course, you would not be role identities by observing their behaviors. rude or demonstrative). After the enjoyment of Burke and Stets15 presented a model of individual cheering for your team, you may walk out of the identi!cation that holds four components and stadium with a stronger identity of being a fan of describes how individuals adjust their personal your favorite team. If this were to occur, you identities. The !rst stage is referred to as one’s would have gone through the adjustment cycle of “identity standard.” This is a baseline understand- identity. You went to the game with a held iden- ing for individuals of a held identity. The next tity. After !nding yourself in a “hostile” environ- stage involves an environmental con"ict whereby ment, there was an urge to make everyone around individuals !nd themselves in a situation that is you aware that you were separate from them and at odds or is a threat to their held identity. Once that you were not a fan of your rivals. In turn, this an individual recognizes this con"ict, they will modi!cation to your behavior could have caused a modify their behavior to either improve their !t more profound and stronger sense of individual or congruence with the environment, or the more fandom. Identity theory is a fascinating concept, likely reaction is to assert or evoke their held and we will expand our knowledge concerning identity to emphasize the differences between the topic with a discussion about social identity in themselves and others within the context of the later chapters. We will now turn our attention to environment. The demonstration of an empha- how one’s self-concept or, more speci!cally, sized identity leads to the fourth stage, a strength- one’s belief in oneself can lead to positive experi- ened identity, because the behavior modi!cation ences for sport employees. becomes normalized. That is, enacting a held identity helps to reinforce the identity. c Hope A positive motivational state that is Interestingly, the strengthened identity is then based on an interactively derived sense of thought to eventually become the new identity successful (1) agency and (2) pathways. standard. As a result, we can take away that the environments that we interact in signi!cantly In the opening chapter of this book, we brie"y in"uence our personal identities. reviewed the concept of psychological capital.17 98 9 Personality and Fit

As a quick reminder, psychological capital is context” (p. 66). Within this view of ef!cacy, described as “who you are” and “who you are challenges are welcomed as those who possess capable of becoming.”18 In the traditional view of ef!cacy believe they will master challenges, psychological capital, the construct comprises the which will then result in personal growth and elements: hope, ef!cacy, resilience, and opti- development.24 Another aspect of ef!cacy is the mism. These elements combine to form the psy- need for practice. Practice helps one improve and chological capital construct known as the “HERO grow their ef!cacy, which indicates that ef!ca- within,” with each element being represented by cious individuals actually seek out opportunities one letter. Within the realm of psychological capi- for practice in order to hone their crafts. One last tal, hope is not simply the belief that good things note on ef!cacy is that it is not synonymous with will happen. In fact, the theoretical view of hope success, and Luthans et al.25 explained that “suc- is much deeper, as demonstrated by its de!nition: cess does not just equal ef!cacy, in that we must hope is “a positive motivational state that is based also include how success is interpreted” (p. 53), on an interactively derived sense of successful (1) which suggests that success and ef!cacy are agency (goal-directed energy) and (2) pathways often interpreted at the individual level. A sport (planning to meet goals).”19 Then, hope requires employee who has ef!cacy will take on chal- both the ability and drive to meet goals as well as lenges presented at work; they believe that by a route to goal achievement, which also reinforces doing so, they will be able to improve their skill- one another. Suppose one has the requisite drive set and have the con!dence that their current and determination for their goals. In that case, skillset will allow them to grow professionally by they are more likely to seek alternative pathways accepting the challenge. for goal achievement and creating new pathways through such developments as innovation can c Resilience The positive psychological strengthen one’s desire for goal achievement.20 An capacity to rebound, to ‘bounce back’ from interesting byproduct of a lack of hope, speci!- adversity, con"ict, failure, or even positive cally the perception of a dearth of pathways to events, progress, and increased responsibility. goal achievement, is the conduction of learned helplessness21 and can result in inactivity and self- The third aspect of the HERO model is resil- victimization.22 For a sport employee to avoid a ience, which is a fairly straightforward concept as fate of learned helplessness, they would need to it relates to perseverance. The de!nition of resil- be empowered not only by themselves but also by ience within the psychological capital paradigm is their sport organizations in order to realize the “the positive psychological capacity to rebound, required drive and belief that pathways exist for to ‘bounce back’ from adversity, con"ict, failure, them to achieve their goals. or even positive events, progress, and increased responsibility.”26 Based on the de!nition, it is c E!cacy An individual’s conviction (or important to keep in mind that continuing to prog- con!dence) about his or her abilities to mobilize ress because of (or despite) success is also essen- the motivation, cognitive resources, and courses tial. The world of sport is !lled with stories of of action necessary to successfully execute a athletes experiencing a “sophomore slump” after speci!c task within a given context. a superb season. It is then vital to keep in mind that we ought to aim for continual growth and The next aspect of the HERO model is ef!- avoid complacency when we achieve our goals. cacy, which is the belief in one’s abilities. Another critical facet of reliance is the existence Stajkovic and Luthans23 de!ned ef!cacy as “an of adversity. Within the psychological capital per- individual’s conviction (or con!dence) about his spective, adversity is not considered to be inher- or her abilities to mobilize the motivation, cogni- ently negative; instead, adversity is an opportunity tive resources, and courses of action necessary to for growth. In other words, one who has a positive successfully execute a speci!c task within a given outlook on life is able to view a setback or adver- 9.4 Person-Environment Fit 99 sity as a chance to improve themselves. This is date. All of these components are powerful tools done through adapting to the adversity at hand, that anyone can develop, and we encourage you and through this adaptation, personal develop- to consider how you can improve yourself by bet- ment is realized (Luthans et al. 2015).27 ter understanding your own self-concept. c Optimism Optimism is comprised of both positive beliefs and one’s ability to 9.4 Person-Environment Fit compartmentalize their successes and failures in terms of internal or external forces. Now that we have a deeper understanding of the personalities, identities, self-concepts, and per- The !nal component of the traditional form of sonal resources of individuals, we will now focus psychological capital is optimism. Much like the on how such concepts in"uence their ability to !t HERO model’s other components, optimism is a in at work. As we have seen, people have differ- more profound construct than what many view as ent personalities and perceptions. This means merely having a positive outlook. Within psycho- that people will have different experiences at logical capital, optimism comprises both positive work based on the environment within that orga- beliefs28 and one’s ability to compartmentalize nization. In this way, it is important to appreciate their successes and failures in terms of internal or the congruence between employees and their external forces.29 In terms of positive beliefs, workplace, because such an understanding opens those with optimism will be able to put a positive the door to a better work experience for employ- light on dif!cult circumstances that are believed ees and the potential for improved organizational to be within their control.30 The other aspect of performance because of the bene!ts of a ! t optimism is the assigning of causality for positive between employee and organization. or negative outcomes. Speci!cally, optimistic individuals can recognize their accomplishments c Person-Environment Fit A concept that as a result of their hard work and dedication to explains the compatibility between employee and expanding their skillsets. Yet, when a failure their work environment. occurs, optimistic individuals acknowledge that forces are out of their control and avoid blaming The comprehensive concept that described the themselves (at least entirely) for failing.31 It is congruence between employee and organization relevant to note that this perspective should not is person-environment !t, which broadly explains be viewed as avoiding responsibility; rather, the the compatibility between employee and their understanding that our failures are not always work environment.32 Within person-environment strictly because of our shortcomings. In the sports !t, there are several speci!c elements used to industry, optimistic sport employees are valuable depict certain areas of !t within the organiza- because of their ability to maintain a positive out- tional setting, which are used to determine the look and continue to believe in their ability to overall !t between an employee and their organi- perform at a high level. For example, if an opti- zation. One speci!c area of !t is known as mistic sport employee plans an outdoor fundrais- person- vocation !t, which describes the similar- ing event, resulting in a successful fundraising ity between a person and their occupation (i.e., drive that will help build new facilities, they vocation). As Kristof33 explained, one’s personal- would !nd satisfaction from a job well done. ity plays a critical role in the degree of !t between However, if a storm causes the event to be can- a person and their vocation as some occupations celed, that optimistic sport employee would facilitate the strengths of certain individuals, understand that a storm coming through is not which causes the perception of !t. Conversely, an their fault, and some things are out of their con- occupation that limits one’s strengths or rein- trol. In turn, they will continue and plan ways to forces areas for improvements would prohibit a have the event take place indoors or on a different perception of !t. Importantly, one’s person- 100 9 Personality and Fit vocation !t is not speci!c to an organization but with the demands of a job, while person-voca- rather their career choice. In other words, a sport tion !t is focused on one’s career and the indus- employee who feels like working in sport !ts try they work in. In the sports industry, an well with their personality is likely to recognize a equipment manager’s role will be wildly differ- sense of !t working in sport, but this would not ent depending on what level of sport they work preclude them from working for a different sport in. Sport organizations that play at higher levels organization in a similar capacity. In this way, of sport tend to provide their athletes with as sport represents an occupation that would !t well many resources as possible (e.g., equipment for some but cause burnout and turnover for oth- managers packing bags for players) as opposed ers due to a lack of !t. to those at lower levels of sport where sport organizations do not have as many resources to c Person-Group Fit A concept that describes provide their athletes (e.g., equipment managers the congruence between an employee and their having other duties and players having to pack colleagues. their own bags). In short, although the profes- sion might be the same, different jobs will have Another area of !t is known as person-group unique responsibilities, thus the degree of !t will !t, which describes the congruence between be dissimilar for some individuals. employees and their coworkers.34 There is a wide range of potential for coworkers as its distinction c Person-Organization Fit The compatibility can range from those in a speci!c workgroup to between people and organizations. any other member in the organization.35 This area of person-environment !t is seemingly a critical The last form of !t that we will discuss is aspect of work experiences. In many circum- person- organization !t, which is “the compatibil- stances, the degree to which you enjoy coming to ity between people and organizations that occurs work every day will likely be impacted by how when: (a) at least one entity provides what the well you get along with your coworkers. If you other needs, or (b) they share similar fundamental genuinely enjoy your coworkers and their com- characteristics, or (c) both” (p. 6).37 There are two pany, then it is quite likely that going to work facets of person-organization !t (although it can might even be an enjoyable experience. But be used with other forms of !t) which are objec- working with coworkers you despise is not likely tive and subjective or perceived !t. The objective to have you jumping out of bed in the morning to !t distinction refers to collecting information rush into work. As we have alluded to, emotions about a given organization and then weighing run high in sport organizations because of fan- how well one !ts with an organization, and the dom and the public display of organizational per- perceived !t is more of a personal decision by formance. As such, person-group !t appears to be employees as to whether or not they believe they an essential concept when evaluating your cur- !t well with their organization.38 This area of !t is rent and future career paths. dedicated to how well an employee !ts with the overall organization and, therefore, represents c Person-Job Fit The similarity between the another level of !t within the person-environment strengths and aptitudes of an employee and the !t spectrum (i.e., vocation, organization, group, duties required by their speci!c job. and job). This level of !t has recently received attention of sport management scholars as they A more speci!c form of person-environment have attempted to !nd ways for sport organiza- !t is person-job !t, which is the similarity tions to retain their coaches39 and its impact on between an employee’s strengths and aptitudes recreational sport employees’ motivations and and the duties required by their speci!c job.36 work engagement.40 Then, person-organization !t This form of !t is distinct from person-vocation in sport organizations measures how sport !t as person-job !t is explicit in its relationship employees sense an alignment with the values of 9.5 Summary 101 the organization, such as a dedication to excel- 4. Goldberg, L. R. (1990). An alternative “description of lence and competition or supporting participants. personality”: The Big Five factor structure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 1216–1229.; Fit is an important and emerging concept in sport Judge, T. A., Higgins, C. A., Thoresen, C. J., & management, and we would encourage you to Barrick, M. R. (1999). The Big Five personality traits, evaluate how well you feel you would !t in at an general mental ability, and career success across the organization when interviewing (or at your cur- life span. Personnel Psychology, 52, 621–652. 5. Judge, T. A., Higgins, C. A., Thoresen, C. J., & rent sport organization). Barrick, M. R. (1999). The Big Five personality traits, general mental ability, and career success across the life span. Personnel Psychology, 52, 621–652. 9.5 Summary 6. Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Four ways !ve factors are basic. Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 653–665. This chapter broadly covered the personalities of 7. Judge, T. A., Higgins, C. A., Thoresen, C. J., & individuals and how personalities impact the Barrick, M. R. (1999). The Big Five personality traits, lives of sport employees in and outside of the general mental ability, and career success across the sport workplace. It is critical to keep in mind that life span. Personnel Psychology, 52, 621–652. one’s personality is malleable (or "exible) as it 8. Judge, T. A., Higgins, C. A., Thoresen, C. J., & can be shaped or formed over time. In other Barrick, M. R. (1999). The Big Five personality traits, general mental ability, and career success across the words, you are not “stuck” with a personality life span. Personnel Psychology, 52, 621–652. type that you do not feel represents whom you 9. Judge, T. A., Higgins, C. A., Thoresen, C. J., & want to be. To this point, the chapter included Barrick, M. R. (1999). The Big Five personality traits, content on psychological capital, which is general mental ability, and career success across the life span. Personnel Psychology, 52, 621–652. viewed as “who you can become,” to provide an 10. Judge, T. A., Higgins, C. A., Thoresen, C. J., & understanding of the ways by which individuals Barrick, M. R. (1999). The Big Five personality traits, can improve their emotional and mental perspec- general mental ability, and career success across the tives. The chapter concluded with a discussion life span. Personnel Psychology, 52, 621–652. 11. Judge, T. A., Higgins, C. A., Thoresen, C. J., & concerning !t between employees and their Barrick, M. R. (1999). The Big Five personality traits, workplaces and the importance of !nding an general mental ability, and career success across the organization that !ts your personality to have an life span. Personnel Psychology, 52, 621–652. enhanced work-life. 12. Judge, T. A., Higgins, C. A., Thoresen, C. J., & Barrick, M. R. (1999). The Big Five personality traits, general mental ability, and career success across the Discussion Questions life span. Personnel Psychology, 52, 621–652. 13. Burke, P. J., & Stets, J. E. (2009). Identity theory. 1. What is the DISC pro!le and which do you New York, NY: Oxford University Press. 14. Todd, S., & Kent, A. (2009). A social identity perspec- feel most aligns with your personality? tive on the job attitudes of employees in sport. 2. Which of the Big 5 personalities !ts you best? Management Decision, 47, 147–190. 3. What are some of the belief and value systems 15. Burke, P. J., & Stets, J. E. (2009). Identity theory. that you have encountered? New York, NY: Oxford University Press. 16. Burke, P. J., & Stets, J. E. (2009). Identity theory. 4. What are the subcomponents of the “person- New York, NY: Oxford University Press. environment !t” perspective? 17. Luthans, F., Youssef, C. M., & Avolio, B. J. (2015). Psychological capital and beyond. New York, NY: Notes Oxford University Press. 18. Luthans, F., Youssef, C. M., & Avolio, B. J. (2015). Psychological capital and beyond. New York, NY: 1. Bowditch, J. L., Buono, A. F., & Stewart, M. M. Oxford University Press. (2008). A primer on organizational behavior. 19. Snyder, C. R., Irving, L. M., & Anderson, J. R. (1991). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hope and optimism, in Ramachandren, V. S. (Ed.), 2. Erikson, T. (2019). Surrounded by idiots: The four Encyclopedia of Human Behavior, Academic Press, types of human behaviour. Vermilion: London, UK. San Diego, CA, pp. 535–542. 3. Erikson, T. (2019). Surrounded by idiots: The four 20. Snyder, C. R. (2002). Hope theory: Rainbows in the types of human behaviour. Vermilion: London, UK. mind. Psychological Inquiry, 13, 249–275. 102 9 Personality and Fit

21. Seligman, M. E. P. (1972). Learned helplessness. organizational psychology (pp. 1–50). Washington, Annual Review of Medicine, 23, 407–412. DC: American Psychological Association. 22. Luthans, F., Youssef, C. M., & Avolio, B. J. (2015). 33. Kristof, A. L. (1996). Person-organization !t: An inte- Psychological capital and beyond. New York, NY: grative review of its conceptualizations, measurement, Oxford University Press. and implications. Personnel Psychology, 49, 1–49. 23. Stajkovic, A. D., & Luthans, F. (1998). Social cogni- 34. Kristof, A. L. (1996). Person-organization !t: An inte- tive theory and self-ef!cacy: Going beyond tradi- grative review of its conceptualizations, measurement, tional motivational and behavioral approaches and implications. Personnel Psychology, 49, 1–49. Organizational Dynamics, 26, 62–74. 35. Kristof, A. L. (1996). Person-organization !t: An inte- 24. Luthans, F., Youssef, C. M., & Avolio, B. J. (2015). grative review of its conceptualizations, measure- Psychological capital and beyond. New York, NY: ment, and implications. Personnel Psychology, 49, Oxford University Press. 1–49.; Seong, J. Y., Kristof-Brown, A. L., Park, 25. Luthans, F., Youssef, C. M., & Avolio, B. J. (2015). W. W., Hong, D. S., & Shin, Y. (2015). Person-group Psychological capital and beyond. New York, NY: !t; Diversity antecedents, proximal outcomes, and Oxford University Press. performance at the group level. Journal of 26. Luthans, F. (2002). Positive organizational behavior: Management, 41(4), 1184–1213. Developing and managing psychological strengths. 36. Kristof, A. L. (1996). Person-organization !t: An inte- The Academy of Management Executive, 16(1), 57–72. grative review of its conceptualizations, measurement, 27. Luthans, F., Youssef, C. M., & Avolio, B. J. (2015). and implications. Personnel Psychology, 49, 1–49. Psychological capital and beyond. New York, NY: 37. Kristof, A. L. (1996). Person-organization !t: An inte- Oxford University Press. grative review of its conceptualizations, measure- 28. Carver, C., Scheier, M., Miller, C., & Fulford, D. (2009). ment, and implications. Personnel Psychology, 49, Optimism, in S. Lopez, & C. R. Snyder, (Eds.), Oxford 1–49. Handbook of Positive Psychology (2nd ed.), Oxford 38. Kristof, A. L. (1996). Person-organization !t: An inte- University Press, New York, NY, pp. 303–312. grative review of its conceptualizations, measure- 29. Seligman, M. E. P. (1998). Learned Optimism. Pocket ment, and implications. Personnel Psychology, 49, Books: New York, NY. 1–49. 30. Luthans, F., Youssef, C. M., & Avolio, B. J. (2015). 39. Oja, B. D., Schaeperkoetter, C. C., & Clopton, A. W. Psychological capital and beyond. New York, NY: (2015). Slowing the coaching carousel: The bene!ts Oxford University Press. of person- organization !t. Journal of Issues in 31. Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Learned Optimism: How Intercollegiate Athletics, 8, 162–182. to Change Your Mind and Your Life. Random House 40. Hazzaa, R. N., Oja, B. D., & Jung, H. (In Press). The LLC: New York, NY. importance of value congruence: An analysis of col- 32. Kristof-Brown, A., & Guay, R. P. (2011). Person- lege recreation employees and organizations. environment !t. In S. Zedeck (Ed.), American psycho- Managing Sport and Leisure, DOI: https://doi.org/10. logical association handbook of industrial and 1080/23750472.2020.1728703 Socialization and Perceptions of Individuals 10

c Learning Objectives After reading this ten were women. Abby had worked in the chapter, students should be able to: sports industry for eight years, and she was used to being the only woman in the room. • Identify socialization methods utilized The itinerary said that there would be a lunch by sport organizations. served and then a speech from the company • Understand how information is perceived. president in the afternoon. Abby decided • Explain how schemas and bias affect lunch would be an excellent chance to meet perception. some of her new colleagues. Abby approached a young woman who was sitting by herself. “Hello, my name is Abby. Can I join you for lunch?” “Sure, my Jared Orton: President, Savannah Bananas name is Stephanie. Please sit down.” The To listen to the interview two chatted throughout the lunch session. Stephanie had just graduated and was very excited to work with Talon. One of her friends landed an entry-level position with Talon out of college and had advanced to a Abby’s First Day at Talon Sports middle management position in just two Promotions Abby’s !rst morning with years. Talon Sports Promotions was a whirlwind. The ending speech from Talon’s president She had sat through training all morning with struck an inspirational tone. He spoke other new employees. To be honest, the com- about how the organization was different pany was sharing so much information. It from other sports marketing !rms, how the was all a blur. One thing that stood out to her workplace valued all of its employees, val- as she looked around the room was the num- ued creativity, and that anyone could ber of women in the room. There must have advance to management. After the speech, been 30 employees at the training, and about Abby and Stephanie met each other in the parking lot. Stephanie could hardly contain her excitement. “Wasn’t his speech great? I Supplementary Information The online version of this think we have a real future with Talon.” chapter (https://doi.org/10.1007/978- 3- 030- 67612- 4_10) Abby nodded along but did not share contains supplementary material, which is available to Stephanie’s enthusiasm. She had heard authorized users.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 103 C. R. Barnhill et al., Organizational Behavior in Sport Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67612-4_10 104 10 Socialization and Perceptions of Individuals

developing and integrating players into a speci!c similar pep talks from managers before, but style of play.1 But, it also serves as a philosophy she had been passed over for promotions for how front of!ce employees conduct them- repeatedly by less quali!ed colleagues. selves, operate, and interact with the public.2 The organization has passed down knowledge of the Cardinal Way to new employees via conversation and storytelling from longtime organizational 10.1 Introduction members. However, at some point in the last 15 years, the Cardinal Way was published in an Have you ever read a situation differently as com- internal document that is passed around the orga- pared to your friends? Maybe you understood an nization. Considered part of the organization’s email from a manager or professor to mean one competitive advantage, the document is not to be thing when others took it another way? Perhaps shared with outsiders.3 As a new employee, you your feelings toward a political discussion are dif- would likely feel the need to learn the Cardinal ferent from those of your roommate? As we move Way, not just to ensure you were doing your job through our day, we receive thousands of mes- correctly, but also to !t in with your colleagues. sages from managers, co-workers, friends, family, Every organization has its version of the Cardinal community members, and marketers. Many of Way, that is, its way of doing things. We call these these messages are intentional in that they are customs, traditions, languages, and philosophies of explicitly trying to convey information to us. organizational culture (see Chap. 6). Out of organi- However, in Chap. 5, we learned that interpreta- zational culture, organizational norms develop. tion of all information, both intentional and unin- Organizational norms in"uence how people within tentional, is in the receiver’s mind. In other words, the organization act, communicate, dress, and inter- you can tell your employees that !nancial act with others within and outside the organization. resources are going to be tight this season, but you It is possible for organizational newcomers to pick cannot control how they interpret your words. up on elements of the broader organizational culture Sport organizations use many different meth- through observation; however, norms are much ods to convey messages about their culture to cur- more challenging to decipher. For example, sup- rent and potential employees. Social media posts, pose you are interested in a job at your local sports websites, job announcements, and emails from commission. In that case, you may have seen supervisors carry information meant to in"uence employees out in the city talking about their casual perceptions about the organization. This chapter workplace. The job posting may have mentioned a will explore how organizations use various com- laid-back workplace leading you to believe some- munication channels to in"uence current and thing about the organization’s culture. During your future employees’ perceptions of organizational interview, you see employees dressed casually and culture and person-organization !t. We will also having informal conversations throughout the build- explore how individuals interpret information and ing, and you conclude that the sports commission develop implicit agreements with their organiza- has a very relaxed organizational culture. You are tions that actually govern the formal relationship. likely correct in that assumption, given the evidence from your observations. At the same time, you still have a lot to learn about the organization. Who do 10.2 Socialization you contact when you have an idea? How should you dress when you meet a client? How does the If you were to begin working for the St. Louis organization mentor and promote employees? Of Cardinals organization upon graduation, you course, there are likely organizational norms related would quickly be educated in the “Cardinal Way.” to each of these questions, but for an organizational Throughout much of the organization’s history, newcomer, you’ll need more information to under- the Cardinal Way has been a philosophy for stand how the organization functions. 10.2 Socialization 105 c Socialization The process through which For example, large orientations or welcome week new employees acquire attitudes, behaviors, and programs could be considered both formal activi- knowledge necessary to function as part of the ties and collective experiences. Similarly, organization. monthly trainings designed to help newcomers understand organizational policies on sexual Socialization is the process through which new harassment, diversity, cyber safety, and other employees acquire attitudes, behaviors, and knowl- organizational issues would be considered formal edge necessary to function as part of the organiza- activities and !xed experiences. If those trainings tion.4 Many organizations refer to their socialization were conducted in a group setting, they would efforts as onboarding. These efforts can take many also be regarded as collective experiences. forms, including large-scale orientations, meetings Mentoring falls under the category of serial tac- with human resources and managers, mentoring, tics. However, a sales training class that allows new employee guides, and handbooks, to name a newcomers to participate on calls and receive few. The Cardinal Way document is an example of feedback could be considered a sequential expe- a socialization effort used by a sport organization. rience, a collective experience, a serial tactic, and Fang, Duffy, and Shaw5 examined research on an investiture effort. socialization and found that most organization-led It would be dif!cult in this book to state that efforts, what they referred to as institutional social- one socialization activity is more effective than ization, and what organizations frequently refer to another. Organizations have different structures as onboarding, use one or more of six tactics and relationships with new employees, meaning (Table 10.1). what works for one organization may not be Many common institutional socialization effective at another organization. The welcome activities meet de!nitions of multiple categories. week activities used by the Savannah Bananas to socialize new interns would not work to socialize the new Assistant General Manager for the Table 10.1 Onboarding tactics Charlotte Hornets. Overall, new employees gen- Category Description erally report that group orientations, meetings Formal Of!cially recognized activities with human resource managers, manuals, and activities designed to welcome and provide training are more helpful in understanding their uniform education to all organizational new employer’s policies and general processes. newcomers. Collective Group gatherings and activities However, socialization efforts that emphasize the experiences involving large numbers of interaction between newcomers and experienced newcomers. employees, such as mentoring programs, are Sequential Activities and experiences that are more effective in conveying organizational norms experiences scaffolded to build on prior and culture, while also helping new employees socialization experiences. 6 Fixed Socialization efforts scheduled at build social capital. experiences prescribed intervals in the Regardless of which socialization methods an organizational calendar designed to organization employs, we need to be aware of enhance newcomers’ acclimation to several factors. First and foremost, organizations the organization. must be consistent in their messaging. If a new Serial tactics Socialization activities designed to pair organizational newcomers with employee receives con"icting messages, it will experienced employees. lead to confusion and damage trust. It is also Investiture Trainings designed to provide essential to use accessible communication chan- efforts newcomers with positive feedback nels with simple, understandable language. As from experienced employees. you will see later in the chapter, communication Fang, R., Duffy, M. K., & Shaw, J. D. (2011). The organi- clarity is vitally important. Next, organizations zational socialization process: Review and development of a social capital model. Journal of Management, 37(1), must be aware that socialization efforts will be 127–152 occurring outside of their control. Employees 106 10 Socialization and Perceptions of Individuals who are both happy and unhappy with their role in inundated with information throughout their the organization are often eager to help new day. From the moment you wake up until the employees adapt to the organization. At the same moment you fall asleep, you are exposed to time, newcomers will seek out information about advertisements, news, emails, phone calls, text their new employer to help them understand their messages, conversations, websites, and many new workplace. Finally, the newcomer’s percep- other information sources. Even nonverbal tions will in"uence how they receive and interpret communication, such as another person’s facial messages delivered during institutional socializa- expressions or willingness to extend a hand- tion and other less formal socialization efforts. shake, can convey useful information in a given Throughout the remainder of the chapter, we will circumstance (see Chap. 5). Once a message is explore perception and how it in"uences social- sent, verbally, textually, or visually, how it is ization and the broader relationship between indi- perceived or whether it is even noticed is out of viduals and organizations. the sender’s control. Employees, in particular newcomers, receive so many messages during c Perception The process of receiving and the course of a day that it is impossible to pro- interpreting information to make sense of our cess them all. Not all messages make enough environment. impact to enter the perception process. Our brains !lter stimuli that are deemed too insig- ni!cant to warrant further consideration. Other 10.3 Perception stimuli are retained and interpreted for meaning. This is known as selective attention.8 For Perception can be de!ned as the process of information that is retained, three sets of fac- receiving and interpreting information to make tors in"uence how it will be perceived (see sense of our environment.7 Individuals are Fig. 10.1).9

Fig. 10.1 Factors in"uencing perception 10.4 The Perceiver 107

10.4 The Perceiver tion bias (discussed later in this section) makes it more likely that we will perceive information as If we think back to the case study at the begin- favorable to motive related desires. ning of the chapter, two new employees sat through the same orientation, but they had very different impressions regarding the message 10.4.2 Attitudes being delivered. There were several differences between the two newcomers, including their Workplace attitudes (discussed in Chap. 11) are career motives, attitudes, and past experiences. In critical to how employees and prospective reality, every employee is unique. Everyone in employees interpret information. Employees the organization has different career motives, who exhibit higher levels of workplace/occupa- attitudes, schemas, experiences, and biases that tional satisfaction and organizational/occupa- affect how they interpret messages. tional commitment are more likely to perceive information in a manner that enhances their view of the organization.13 For example, an employee 10.4.1 Motives who is highly committed to the organization may interpret a memo discussing restructuring of the People are in"uenced by many different intrinsic ticket sales of!ce as an opportunity for the club and extrinsic outcomes. Some employees may be to focus on new business opportunities. An driven by a desire to earn more pay. Others may employee in the same department who is less sat- crave recognition or responsibility. Common is!ed and less committed may read that memo as employee motivators include compensation, job the club is looking for an opportunity to lay off security, accomplishment, skill acquisition, pro- workers. motion, and recognition, but there are many oth- 10 ers. For sample, a social media coordinator may c Schema Mental models that allow individuals be motivated to seek opportunities to be creative, to compartmentalize past experiences and make while their colleague may appreciate opportuni- generalizations of new information. ties to work independently. Of course, people are often in"uenced by several motivators at once, and motivations may 10.4.3 Schema change over time. As an intern, you may be seeking opportunities for skill acquisition and recog- Schemas are mental models that allow individuals nition, but later in your career, you may be driven to compartmentalize past experiences and make by opportunities for promotion and responsibil- generalizations of new information.14 In essence, ity. Coming out of a recession, an employee may schemas are our brain’s organization of percep- be seeking job security, but pay motivations tions of past experiences—your brain’s C-Drive. could be more in"uential if that employee wants When confronted with a unique experience, such to buy a house. as understanding the norms of a new organization, These various motivators primarily in"uence schemas provide a frame of reference against perception because of selective attention. which to evaluate further information.15 Employees are both more attuned to, as well as Past experiences are the primary drivers of more likely to seek out information as it relates to schema formation. Suppose an employee was the their self-interests.11 Therefore, a new employee victim of discrimination at a previous employer. who is motivated by career advancement is more In that case, they might look at a new organiza- likely to notice messages pertaining to training, tion’s anti-discrimination policies with more mentorship, and promotion opportunities.12 At skepticism than other newcomers, especially if the same time, this employee may miss informa- the new organization’s anti-discrimination policy tion related to pay structures. Further, con!rma- is similar to that of their previous employer. The 108 10 Socialization and Perceptions of Individuals new organization will need to overcome the sins c Self-Evaluation Bias Self-evaluation bias of the last employer through actions that prove to occurs when a person misunderstands their own the new employee that its values are different.16 abilities relative to their position or situation. The internationalization of the sports industry can also impact schemas. An individual moving c Overestimation False belief in one’s ability, from a club in the Japanese Professional Football knowledge, performance, or control over success. League (J League) to a club in the Bundesliga will have different work and cultural experiences 10.4.4.1 Self-Evaluation Bias than an employee that was educated in Germany Self-evaluation bias occurs when a person misun- and has only worked for German clubs. Therefore, derstands their own abilities relative to their posi- the two will have different schemas through tion or situation.18 Self-evaluation bias is often which they understand organizational communi- exhibited in the overestimation of one’s ability, cation. It will be up to the employee to gain an knowledge, performance, or level of control over understanding of cultural norms in their new club their success. Many sports fans display overesti- and country, but the organization also must !gure mation of their abilities to run a team. See any out how to communicate so that messages are message board or Twitter after a team loses. received as intended. Employees also exhibit overestimation, which is often in the form of beliefs that they should be in c Heuristics Mental models that allow people a more prominent role, have more responsibility, to make decisions without comprehensive or receive more credit from the organization. information. Overestimation clouds both perception and decision- making. Individuals are more receptive Further complicating the role schemas play in to information that con!rms, or that they perceive perception is the concept of heuristics. Heuristics to con!rm their overestimated beliefs, but less are mental models that allow people to make responsive or even offended by contradictory decisions without comprehensive information. In information.19 essence, heuristics are shortcuts that the human 17 brain uses to understand complex situations. c Overplacement Occurs when a person When confronted with a new experience, such as overestimates their abilities relative to the average a new position in the company or a change in person. management, our minds want to quickly make sense of it with readily available information. The second element of self-evaluation bias is Although related to past experiences, in"uenced overplacement, which occurs when a person by bias, and lacking in knowledge about the cur- overestimates their abilities relative to the aver- rent situation, schemas provide the foundation age person. In other words, it is the belief that for our brains to take the heuristic shortcut and they are better than average.20 Evidence of over- make a generalization about a complicated placement bias can be seen in studies where more situation. than half the respondents indicated they were better than average producers,21 managers,22 drivers,23 and problem solvers.24 Barnhill, Czekanski, 10.4.4 Bias and P"eegor25 surveyed students about their abilities to work in the sports industry before taking Bias occurs when individuals allowed erroneous their !rst sport management course. They found predispositions to interfere with rational judg- that a considerable majority of students believed ments. Like heuristics, biases are methods to they had above-average capabilities to work in shortcut the perception process. The following the sports industry. The people you manage will are some of the most common biases that affect overplace their abilities. Thus, any information perception and decision-making. that an employee may be average or below aver- 10.5 The Situation 109 age is likely to be rejected by the individual. also be emotional, evoking availability bias. For However, it should be noted that some employees example, a parent who receives a memo regard- will be prone to undercon!dence where they will ing limitations for leave to care for sick children underestimate and underplace themselves rela- may perceive that the organization is not family- tive to others.26 friendly. These perceptions can persist even if later policies are more family-friendly. c Con!rmation Bias Seeking or interpreting of evidence in ways that are partial to existing beliefs or expectations. 10.5 The Situation

10.4.4.2 Con"rmation Bias The situation in which the information was Con!rmation bias is de!ned as “the seeking or received will also in"uence how an individual interpreting of evidence in ways that are partial to perceives its meaning. Would your perceptions of existing beliefs or expectations” (p. 175).27 If information regarding potential layoffs be differ- you’ve spent any time on social media during an ent if you heard about it from a friend in the park- election year, you’ve likely seen con!rmation ing lot versus in a board room from your boss? bias as well as fallen prey to it. People generally Are you more likely to believe a speaker who search for information that con!rms their politi- exudes con!dence or a speaker who appears ner- cal beliefs while ignoring contradictory informa- vous? Which is more believable, a story from an tion. The same can be seen in the workplace. If a anonymous source in the paper, or your organiza- person sought employment with an organization tion’s Twitter account? There are many elements because of its commitment to social responsibil- related to the situation that can in"uence percep- ity, they will look for examples that cement their tion. In this section, we’ll discuss four elements view but ignore incidents or information that that can be particularly in"uential. contradicts their beliefs. In other words, this employee would be excited to see their organization have a booth at an event raising funds for 10.5.1 Attitudes Toward underserved communities but ignore its efforts to the Organization gentrify the area around its stadium. In a verbal exchange, there are one or more infor- 10.4.4.3 Anchoring Bias mation deliverers along with an information You’ve likely heard !rst impressions are impor- receiver. How the information receiver feels tant. This is due to the anchoring bias. The initial about the organization will in"uence their inter- information we receive on a topic has the most pretation of the interaction. But, the receiver’s signi!cant in"uence on our perceptions, whereas perceptions of how the others in the exchange information or experiences that occur after per- view the organization will also affect how the ceptions are formed are less impactful.28 receiver interprets the conversation. If the information receiver believes the others in the organi- 10.4.4.4 Availability Bias zation are biased in favor of the organization, it While some individuals are very active in their will in"uence how the information is received.31 information seeking, others rely on readily avail- In other words, positive news will be viewed with able information. This is known as availability skepticism, but negative information will be bias.29 Availability bias is especially prevalent magni!ed. “How could this person who loves the when the accessible information is intense or organization say something negative? The situa- evokes emotions.30 As sport naturally provokes tion must be bad.” On the other hand, if the infor- emotion in both fans and employees, availability mation deliverers are thought to be biased against bias can be incredibly widespread. However, the organization, negative information would issues pertaining to workers’ personal lives can carry less weight, but positive information would 110 10 Socialization and Perceptions of Individuals be powerful. “Bill hates working here, and even expressions are more dif!cult to pick up. Usually, he thinks the new Director of Marketing will the speaker’s body is not visible, so visual cues make a positive impact.” available in face-to-face conversations are lost. Further, speakers often adjust their tone so that they are not too loud, too soft, or inaudible via 10.5.2 Setting their microphone. These adjustments mask verbal cues that listeners use to judge intention.33 The setting in which the information is delivered Text messaging and other text-based channels can have a tremendous impact on how it is per- also hide tone. See Chap. 5 for a more detailed ceived. How would you feel if you heard you discussion on communication in organizations. would be put in charge of the team’s community outreach initiative? Would your perceptions of this information be different if you heard it from 10.5.4 Potential Consequences your boss in the hallway, in an email, or a staff meeting? What about if you heard this at a com- The potential consequences of the interaction can pany picnic versus at a pub with colleagues after also in"uence how it is perceived. If just meeting work? More of!cial settings, such as at the of!ce with an individual is seen as a positive for an or an of!cial document, lead employees to put employee, then the interaction itself is likely to more trust in the message’s content. Information be perceived positively. For example, suppose an received in a less formal setting, such as at a bar intern is told the president has seen your work after work, may be dismissed or need con!rma- and would like to meet you. In that case, it is tion before the employee believes the message. expected that the intern will be excited about the meeting. Being invited indicates a positive in the intern’s career, and even criticisms will be seen as 10.5.3 Nature of the Interaction bene!cial. On the other hand, if an employee breaks the chain of command in a manner outside During conversations, humans attempt to read the organizational norms, the employee is likely to body language and voice in"ection of the speaker. be nervous about the conversation. Any criti- Words can be interpreted to have different mean- cisms that arise could be viewed as detrimental to ings based on the speaker’s mannerisms, posture, the employee’s career ambitions. and voice tone.32 Let’s use the words, “This club is committed to diversity and inclusion.” Spoken with con!dence, these words may lead employ- 10.6 The Message Deliverer ees to trust the organization’s commitment. Spoken with empathy, and employees may feel a In addition to judging the situation in which the sense of caring and safety from their employer. information is delivered, employees’ perceptions However, suppose the speaker appeared nervous will also be in"uenced by who is providing the or unsure. In that case, employees may question information.34 One factor that can affect how the whether the speaker believed the message, lead- message deliverer in"uences perception is famil- ing to feelings of doubt. If the same words were iarity. Employees are more likely to trust mes- delivered in a "ippant manner or with a sarcastic sage deliverers with whom they have a tone, employees might feel the speaker was jok- relationship or know to be trustworthy. This is, of ing and be offended by the organization’s posi- course, if the messenger is believed to be credi- tion on the topic. ble. Familiarity can lead to multiple reputations Modern communication methods have made it that could in"uence how an employee compre- more challenging for people to read body lan- hends information.35 guage and tone. Video conferencing allows lis- Along those lines, the employee’s attitude teners to hear a speaker’s words, but facial toward the message deliverer in"uences percep- 10.7 Psychological Contracts 111 tion. Employees and newcomers form attitudes exchange.40 When judging another’s intentions, toward colleagues and others at the organization an employee may try to determine if the message that can in"uence judgment. As we have noted deliverer is acting under their own intentions or throughout this chapter, it is impossible to take in being controlled by the organization. Messages all information received. That includes informa- may seem more of!cial if the employee believes tion about others. People unconsciously choose the deliverer is acting on the organization’s will. which information about a person affects their On the other hand, messages deemed to have beliefs about another. This is called selective per- been shared at the deliverer’s will could need ception. Selective perception leads to several additional con!rmation. "aws in the judgment of others. c Halo E"ect Seeking or interpreting of 10.7 Psychological Contracts evidence in ways that are partial to existing beliefs or expectations. As individuals, be they newcomers, experienced employees, or even prospective applicants, gather c Projection A belief that others share your information about an organization and develop own opinions or views. perspective, they also begin to make assumptions about their relationship with the organization.41 c Stereotyping When an individual judges Think about your own experiences. You see a job another based on false pretenses toward a group. announcement or learn of an opening from a friend. You begin seeking information to deter- One such "aw is the halo effect in which the mine if you would like to work at the organiza- message receiver judges the deliverer entirely tion. Does the job pay well? What are the other based on a single characteristic such as intelli- people like? What are the organization’s values? gence or appearance.36 Projection is a judgment What would be expected of me? If the answers to "aw in which we assume others are similar to us. your questions are satisfactory, you apply. Projection can lead employees to believe others Throughout the hiring process of questionnaires, share their values, views on politics, or experi- phone interviews, and face-to-face interviews, ences. A potentially harmful side effect of projec- you are asked many questions, but you also ask tion is the unwarranted discounting of others’ many questions. Some of the information you attributes and experiences.37 Another very dan- found earlier is con!rmed, but some is discred- gerous "aw is stereotyping, which occurs when ited. At the end of the interview process, the orga- an individual judges another based on false pre- nization makes a decision on whether you are a tenses toward a group.38 In sport, racial minori- good !t for the organization, but you also decide ties, women, and LGBTQ employees are often on whether the organization is a good !t for you. victims of stereotyping.39 Further, stereotypes These decisions are based on the perception of can lead employees to falsely interpret informa- information exchanged. Once you are hired, you tion because of an unrelated judgment error sign a contract that the legal relationship you will regarding the message deliverer. maintain with the organization and begin the socialization process prescribed by your new c Attribution Attribution is the judgment of employer. You also continue seeking information the locus of control of the individuals involved in and socializing yourself to understand the norms the exchange. of where you are working. Perceptions are built, altered, or changed throughout the process. The Outside of judgments about the individual, cycle will repeat throughout your time with the employees may judge why the information is organization.42 being shared. Attribution is the judgment of the Psychological contracts are “individual’s locus of control of the individuals involved in the beliefs, shaped by the organization, regarding the 112 10 Socialization and Perceptions of Individuals terms of an exchange agreement between individu- the psychological contract are explicitly dis- als and organizations” (p. 9).43 Unlike legal concussed.47 For example, a single parent working tracts that are explicitly agreed upon transactional for a United Soccer League club may discuss obligations between employees and employers, their need to pick up their child from daycare psychological contracts are the employee’s percep- each afternoon with the organization’s president, tion of implied relational commitments between allowing them to !gure out a working plan. In a the parties. Whereas a legal contract may outline larger organization, it is less likely that such a workers’ obligations as the number of hours conversation takes place. Psychological contract worked and the amount of revenue generated, in breaches are less likely when terms of the psy- psychological contract, employees’ obligations chological contract are discussed openly.48 may include answering emails on weekends, fol- A second psychological contract feature lowing certain norms during sales calls, and acting unique to sports is perceived obligations toward a certain way in the of!ce. For the organization, the the treatment of third parties. Research has indi- legal contract outlines obligations to pay salaries cated that sport organization employees believe and bonuses, but the psychological contract may their organizations have duties related to their include obligations to be "exible with working treatment of athletes and are related to their hours, opportunities for career advancement, and a responsibilities in the community.49 These obli- pleasant of!ce environment.44 gations are likely due to the nature of sport. Research has consistently shown that psycho- Athletes are unique employees that are responsi- logical contracts are the foundation of the ble for organizational success but may have less employee-employer relationship, despite the fact voice in decisions. At the same time, many team that they are based on employee perceptions and sport organizations represent their communities may never be the subject of discussion between and are sometimes !nancially subsidized by their the parties. However, when employees believe communities. Failures of the organization to meet their organization is ful!lling the psychological these perceived obligations has a lower impact contract, numerous studies !nd that employees’ than other perceived breaches but can still dam- attitudes such as commitment and satisfaction age attitudes and behaviors. improved, as are measures of in-role and extra- role performance.45 On the other hand, when the employee feels that the organization has failed to 10.8 Summary meet its obligations, the opposite effects are found.46 Organizational behaviorists call this psy- From the moment a person begins thinking about chological contract breach. Following a psycho- working for an organization, they start forming a logical contract breach, employees will reevaluate psychological contract. At !rst, information their perceptions and adjust the psychological seeking is imperfect. People seek information contract accordingly. Although, in cases where from any source that they trust, but much of the the breach is deemed to be overly egregious or information lacks full context. Once the person causes emotional harm to the employee, the indi- becomes an employee, the organization begins vidual may consider leaving the organization. socializing them into its organizational culture. Research on psychological contracts in sport This is a bene!cial process that allows the has indicated several elements that are unique to employee to !nd their !t, and understand pro- the sports industry. First, because many sport cesses. However, socialization is only as adequate organizations are small in terms of employees, as the employee’s perceptions of information. there is more interaction between lower-level Numerous factors, including bias and credibility employees and upper management. Because of of information deliverers, in"uence how an these interactions, it is more likely that terms of employee perceives new information. 10.8 Summary 113

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pure and even primal emotions that we experience c Learning Objectives After reading when we watch our favorite team win an important this chapter, students will be able to: game? Perhaps even more noticeable are the emotions we display after our favorite team breaks our • Explain the traditional view of emotions. hearts and loses a big game. In this way, emotions • Comprehend Barrett’s view on the con- are a foundational element of the sport experience. struction of emotions. In fact, the emotional spectrum that people display • Discuss the differences and utilization while participating or watching sport has an exten- of pride, passion, and well- being in the sive range in that people can experience intense sport workplace. emotions while watching their favorite team, but • Understand the importance of emotions they can also experience emotions that are maybe in the sport workplace. not as noticeable but are still equally relevant when they play a game or sport that they thoroughly enjoy. Not all sport is based on a pro!t-based format (the American college sport apparatus might be “technically non-pro!t,” but a closer look at the Tanner Truelson: Ticket Operations amount of money made by coaches diminishes this Manager, Kroenke Sports and stance); in fact, the vast majority of people who Entertainment participate in sport do so in a non-pro!t system. To listen to the interview Yet, emotions pervade throughout sport no matter if teams are popular and recognized throughout the world, or the teams are local or community- based. This makes understanding emotions an essential 11.1 Introduction part of being a sport employee … no matter what level of sport you work in, emotions will be front Sport and emotions … they can go together incred- and center to some degree. ibly well. Some might say they are made for each In this chapter, we will review emotions !rst other. After all, what would sports be if not for the from a psychological perspective where we examine how emotions are constructed and compare this perspective to the classical view of emo- Supplementary Information The online version of this chapter (https://doi.org/10.1007/978- 3- 030- 67612- 4_11) tions, which is starting to fade with more contains supplementary material, which is available to emphasis being paid to the former.1 After we have authorized users.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 115 C. R. Barnhill et al., Organizational Behavior in Sport Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67612-4_11 116 11 Attitudes and Emotions of Employees a good handle on what emotions are, we will (i.e., a typical representation of anger in the clas- cover the importance of emotions and more so, sical view) along with the coach yelling and controlling emotions by reviewing emotional storming down the hallway. The sport employee intelligence. Afterward, we will review popular would recognize the facial expression, which elements of emotions that are particularly rele- would cause their brain to identify the emotion of vant to the sports industry (i.e., pride and pas- anger. This will also cause a reaction for the sion). We will then transition to a discussion employee, whereby they will experience emo- about well-being and conclude by examining tions based on recognizing the coach’s anger. how emotions in"uence our behaviors. This could mean the employee will feel anxious or nervous and then try and create as much distance from themselves and the coach as possible. 11.2 Classical View of Emotions In a more general example within the classical view of emotions, if we see a close friend who is Barrett2 provided an overview of the classical upset and crying, we will recognize these emo- view of emotions before describing her ground- tions. Then a feeling of sadness will be activated breaking research on how individuals construct or take over our own emotions. We will begin to their emotions. Barrett explained that the classi- feel sad and concerned. cal view of emotions relies on the idea that we as The !eld of psychology is !lled with experts humans have a natural predisposition to emo- who have varying views and perspectives con- tions, and we naturally understand when people cerning emotions, and while this is not a psychol- are feeling, for example, angry or happy. This is ogy textbook, it is important for you to have at done through the idea of “!ngerprints” (this is a least a basic understanding of how our brains term Barrett uses to note how this perspective of work concerning emotions. So, before transition- emotions states that we have a natural knowledge ing to Barrett’s view of emotions as self- of emotions, not actual !ngerprints) that we sup- constructed, it is necessary to acknowledge that posedly have stored in our brains. In this perspec- the debate between the classical view and tive of emotions, our emotional reactions result Barrett’s theory rages on, and we do not pretend from us witnessing an event. Then, our brain rec- to offer a precise answer for you. Instead, we ognizes the event and utilizes the !ngerprints that hope to present to you both a widely used and inform how we react. Once our brain recognizes understood theory of emotions and a cutting- the emotion that is at play (e.g., anger or happi- edge theory that offers a nuanced perspective of ness), we then provide our reaction that corre- how human beings create their own realities— sponds with the emotion that our brain has emotions included. recognized. This theory of emotions was popularized with studies that involved participants viewing photos of people’s facial expressions and 11.3 Emotions then having a list of options to choose from. as Self-Constructions Barrett noted how participants responded with remarkable accuracy. These studies were repli- Before explaining Barrett’s theory, it is essential cated in many places throughout the world and to explain some of Barrett’s critiques of the clas- even in areas with little to no exposure to the sical view of emotions. One of the central tenants modern world. The success of these studies of the classical view is that emotions are univer- offered strong support and popularization for this sal and that humans have an innate knowledge of theory. We will discuss some of the fallacies that emotions, which allows us to see pictures of peo- Barrett noted in the next section but for now, let’s ple and then pick the correct emotion from a list look at a hypothetical situation to clarify this of choices. However, Barrett demonstrated the view of emotions. Suppose a sport employee importance of context when interpreting emo- encounters a coach who has just lost an important tions by providing a short story along with a pic- game. In that case, they may see a furrowed brow ture. When paired with a story, participant’s 11.3 Emotions as Self-Constructions 117 accuracy plummeted, and so did the support for of past interactions with the coach. If the sport the idea that emotions are universal. Instead, employee has had many interactions with this Barrett argued that emotions are constructed or coach before in a similar situation, the brain will made by ourselves in response to our environ- have data pertaining to past similar interactions ment and the information that we take in. and have a better chance to have their predictions In describing her theory, Barrett explained how be true or accurate. It could be that the sport our brains absorb information from our environ- employee has learned that when the coach ment (Barrett is very thorough in her descriptions appears to be in such a mood, they want someone of the brain, our senses, and how our minds utilize to talk to and would welcome personal interac- the information we gather. Please note what fol- tion. In Barrett’s view, the brain is continually lows is a very broad and simpli!ed overview of taking in information and using the information Barrett’s theory and rationale), which includes to guide its predictions, allowing the brain to cre- our senses, such as sight, smell, and hearing. In ate an emotional response, thereby constructing fact, our visual perceptions are strongly aug- the emotion instead of having an emotion being mented by our other senses. We use this informa- activated from outside the brain. tion to predict what occurs next, even visually. Barrett’s last critical point is that the emotional Yes, you read that correctly…what you are read- spectrum is incredibly broad and full of an array ing now is predicted by your brain (using the con- of emotions. The classical view is that there are text surrounding you), and there is a subsequent clear boundaries between emotions and that being series of predictions and corrections. Have you angry is, well, being angry. But as Barrett ever been at home and insist that you saw your pet explained, a short re"ection of our own emotional walk by but look over and they are sleeping next history would make it obvious that there are to you? This would be an example of your brain degrees of emotions or various levels of anger or making an incorrect prediction. Essentially, our happiness. A win over an archrival would surely brains are always taking in information, learning, bring a sense of happiness or even jubilance, but guessing, and correcting. This also starts at a very what about a win over an opponent that is not a young age when we start recognizing faces and rival. There would still likely be happiness in a words and begin to associate words with our own victory over a non-rival opponent and potentially actions. In a fascinating description that connects jubilance, but probably not as much as there the predictions of your brain to emotions, Barrett3 would be over a rival, and yet the same name for explains this phenomenon as “your experience the emotion would be used. This is a simple point right now was predicted by your brain a moment that describes the complexity of emotions. While ago” (p. 59). The emotions you feel are a predic- winning likely brings a feeling of “happiness,” tion of what your brain is guessing will be the there are probably going to be different degrees of appropriate response based on the information it that happiness depending on the context of the has received from the environment. In other victory. This again brings us back to Barrett’s words, your brain constructs your emotions to view on emotions and the importance of context help you respond to a given situation. or the environment. The circumstances that we Let’s revisit our example from earlier with the !nd ourselves in provide unique information to upset coach storming down the hallway. In the our brains, which is then used to inform our emo- classical view, the sport employee would recog- tions. For this reason, according to Barrett’s the- nize the coach’s facial expressions, which would ory, we feel a stronger sensation of happiness then inform their reactions and emotions. In when your favorite team defeats their archrival as Barrett’s theory of constructed emotions, the opposed to when they eke out a victory over a employee’s brain will make a prediction of the team that they have traditionally defeated. Now coach’s behavior based on the sights and sounds we will turn to emotional intelligence and the of the moment, which will inform the emotions power that emotions can hold as well as the of the employee based on the learned experiences importance of managing our emotions. 118 11 Attitudes and Emotions of Employees

11.4 Emotional Intelligence abilities at the interface of emotion and cognition, including perceiving, understanding, using, and The concept of emotional intelligence has been managing emotions” (p. 316).6 A different de!ni- popularized by Daniel Goleman, who has been tion of emotional intelligence describes the con- in"uential in developing the meaning and utiliza- struct as “The ability to perceive accurately, tion of the construct. Interestingly, Barrett,4 appraise, and express emotion; the ability to whom we just relied upon to help us understand access and/or generate feelings when they facili- what emotions are, speci!cally criticized tate thought; the ability to understand emotion Goleman’s5 view of the brain and how it works. and emotional knowledge; and the ability to regu- In short, their differences are grounded in how late emotions to promote emotional and intellec- the different parts of the brain work, with tual growth” (p. 10).7 One common theme from Goleman suggesting the brain’s various compart- these de!nitions is controlling one’s emotions. ments or sections are more separate than con- There are four components of emotional intelli- nected. Barrett, on the other hand, argues the gence, all of which help explain the various facets entire brain is connected. Regardless, emotions of emotional control. Wong and Law,8 as well as play a powerful role in our daily lives. We experi- Mayer and Salovey,9 de!ned these four areas as ence a wide range of emotions every day. The self-emotional appraisal, regulation of emotion, manner by which we manage those emotions can others’ emotional appraisal, and use of emotion. have highly important in"uences on our health Goleman used a similar four- component approach and career prospects. (i.e., self-awareness, self- management, social Emotional intelligence is often referred to as awareness, and relationship management). “EQ,” which draws comparisons to “IQ.” One’s IQ or intelligence quotient is meant to convey a c Self-Emotional Appraisal Cognitive awareness degree of intellect. Someone who has a high of one’s current emotional state. degree of IQ is likely to be considered “book smart” or one who easily earns good grades. On the other hand, EQ is a measure of emotional 11.4.1 Self-Emotional Appraisal understanding. While you might think that having a high IQ is more valuable than having a high The !rst component, self-emotional appraisal (or EQ, you also might be mistaken. Goleman pro- self-awareness), is all about understanding your vides numerous bene!ts to having a high level of emotions at the moment. This is an essential EQ, including improved career advancements aspect of emotional intelligence as without being and more ful!lling relationships. A high IQ is able to understand our own emotions, we are certainly a positive quality, but you will see there likely to be “stuck” and unable to advance to the are many bene!ts to having a strong EQ. First, other areas or components of emotional intelli- let’s discuss the various de!nitions and compo- gence. In a simple example, if we can recognize nents of emotional intelligence. that we are feeling angry, we are more likely to change our reactions. Have you ever felt bad c Emotional Intelligence The ability to about how you acted when you were very emo- perceive accurately, appraise, and express tional (usually being angry or upset)? First of all, emotion; the ability to access and/or generate do not be too hard on yourself … this happens to feelings when they facilitate thought; the ability everyone. Goleman10 alluded to emotions being to understand emotion and emotional knowledge; addictive and almost like a drug whereby when and the ability to regulate emotions to promote we start to feel angry and nothing is done to bring emotional and intellectual growth. us back to some equilibrium, we are likely to “overact” and behave in a manner that is not There are a few different de!nitions of emo- socially acceptable. These actions are taken tional intelligence, one being “a set of interrelated because our brains have become “hijacked” by 11.4 Emotional Intelligence 119 our emotions and we do not take the time to think calm down may have been when you realized you about the meaning of our actions. These are natu- were angry and then you put yourself into a new ral human reactions, and there is nothing inher- state of mind or environment that allowed you to ently wrong with being angry, but this comes with calm down. Interestingly, when someone who is a caveat. Think about your personal and family very angry or even raging, and they are asked, relationships … is there someone that is continu- “why are you so angry?” they might shout back, ally in a poor or foul mood? If so, when around “I’M NOT ANGRY,” and yet this could be the this person, do you seek them out, or do you avoid moment where they recognize they are acting them? As Goleman explained, humans usually inappropriately and begin to calm down. Mayer avoid being around people who have a bad atti- and Salovey12 and Wong and Law’s13 use of the tude and instead would rather be around people emotion component of emotional intelligence is who are happy and joyful. This is not exactly relevant here. When individuals are able to mas- groundbreaking science, but it does underscore ter their emotions, they are able to improve their the importance of emotions and the ability to rec- performance (potentially at work) and other pro- ognize them. If you !nd yourself as the person ductive activities, which represent the potential who is usually in a bad mood, your social circle, for personal growth. In all, these components are and potentially, your professional opportunities about the individual and re"ect how people can could shrink. The reverse is also true. If you can manage their own emotions to prevent or limit recognize when you are in a good mood and gen- negative emotional outbursts, as well as prolong erally happy, you can then understand what envi- or amplify positive emotions. ronments help maintain a good attitude. This could lead to you learning how to keep yourself in c Social Awareness One’s ability to recognize a positive mood, which could then expand your the emotions of others. circle and career opportunities. c Self-Management One’s ability to manage 11.4.3 Social Awareness or control their emotions. The other components are related to how a person with higher levels of emotional intelligence 11.4.2 Self-Management can recognize others’ emotions and provide the right response to those emotions. The third com- Although understanding our emotions is impor- ponent, others’ emotional appraisal, describes tant, we also need to regulate our emotions as we how one can recognize others’ emotions.14 If you will not prevent negative effects such as sadness see your best friend celebrating her favorite team or anger. In this component of EQ, those with winning a big game, is your response “they’ll just higher levels of emotional intelligence are able to lose the next game anyway”? Let’s hope not, as manage or control their emotions.11 Going back doing so would be a poor “read of the room” or to the example of feeling angry … recognizing recognizing your friends’ emotions. being angry is important, as it allows us to start the process of “cooling down” and relaxing, but c Relationship Management One’s ability to being able to control anger requires both the rec- act appropriately to the emotions of others. ognition of the emotion and the ability to continue to recede from an emotional overdrive. This allows individuals to keep their emotions “in 11.4.4 Relationship Management check,” which prevents embarrassing behaviors or actions. Please take a moment to think about Identifying the state of emotions others are the last time you were really angry … whether experiencing is a very powerful ability, and you are conscious of it or not, what helped you Goleman15 explained that doing so can help us 120 11 Attitudes and Emotions of Employees manage our relationships by knowing how to authentic leadership (this form of leadership appropriately interact with our friends or strang- actually hurts creative behaviors), which posi- ers depending on the emotions they are experi- tions emotional intelligence as a potentially encing. For example, do you have a friend who valuable construct in the contemporary sport always seems to know the right thing to say no workplace and one that sport organizations and matter what the moment is … maybe they make leaders might consider offering training pro- you laugh when you are upset? These friends grams for. In continuing the progression of likely have a high level of emotional intelli- showing how emotions are important in the gence. They are so in tune with their emotions sport workplace, we will now focus our discus- that they are able to recognize emotions in oth- sion on speci!c constructs relevant to the ers, and because of that, they know the appropri- sports industry. ate response. One could also view such individuals as empathetic. Regardless, those individuals who know the right thing to say or 11.5 Emotions in the Sport do are generally well-liked and often have a Workplace multitude of opportunities in terms of social circles and professional advancement. As such, In this section, we will review pride, passion, and the value of emotional intelligence should be well-being. The former can be viewed as an obvious. Much like IQ, emotional intelligence organizational- level construct (i.e., pride in an comes naturally to some but can also be organization), and the latter two are usually stud- learned.16 Based on the potential of emotional ied at the individual level. These constructs were intelligence, we strongly encourage you to think selected due to their relevance to the sport work- about how well you recognize your emotions place, but there are a plethora of speci!c vari- both in terms of yourself and with others. (We ables that could have been chosen. Instead, we will revisit this aspect of emotional intelligence will focus on these three and encourage you to in Chap. 18 when we discuss leadership). research and review the references we have pro- We have discussed emotional intelligence in vided to discover other important variables in the depth, but how is it applied in sport? As we sport workplace. have noted, sport and emotions are interrelated. One does not need to watch nightly c Pride Feelings of importance, value, and sports highlights for a long time before seeing admiration based on status evaluations of one’s a coach or player verbally (hopefully not phys- current job. ically!) berating an of!cial. Sport management scholars have begun to investigate the impact of coaches and athletics directors’ emotional 11.5.1 Pride intelligence on constructs such as emotional labor, job satisfaction, turnover intentions, and As noted above, pride can be viewed as an goal orientation.17 In another example, sports organizational- level variable in that pride felt by have also begun to explore how sport employ- an individual, or in this case, employee, is re"ec- ees’ emotional intelligence in"uences their job tive of the organization. Pride is an emotion that engagement and creative behaviors.18 The is “generated by appraisals that one is responsi- authors found that sport employees with a ble for a socially valued outcome or for being a higher level of emotional intelligence are likely socially valued person” (p. 66).19 In this way, to have greater job engagement and creative when an individual determines that the organiza- behaviors. Another interesting aspect of this tion they belong to behaves in an appropriate or study was that emotional intelligence was a legitimate (i.e., socially valued) manner, the stronger predictor of creative behaviors than result will be a feeling of pride in the organiza- 11.5 Emotions in the Sport Workplace 121 tion, which then trickles down to the self. In 11.5.2 Passion regard to pride in the sports industry, the construct has been described as “feelings of impor- Much like pride, passion is a seemingly relevant tance, value, and admiration based on status construct to understand in the sports industry. To evaluations of one’s current job” (p. 355).20 this point, passion among sport employees is Having pride in oneself or an organization trans- beginning to see increased attention.29 Also, simi- lates to improved self-ef!cacy, self-worth, and lar to pride, passion has two dimensions, but we dignity because of an enhanced sense of achieve- will !rst focus on a general de!nition for the ment.21 Additionally, there are two forms of construct. Passion, within a work perspective, is pride: authentic and hubristic.22 de!ned as an “individual’s emotional and persis- The authentic version of pride results from tent state of desire and on the basis of cognitive accomplishments that provoke natural emotions and affective work appraisals, which results in related to self-esteem, support goal achievement, consistent work intentions and behaviors” self-worth, and prosocial actions.23 Those with (p. 146).30 This de!nition describes how those authentic pride are motivated to accomplish their who are passionate about their work have a con- goals by taking on tasks with full effort.24 tinuous desire to engage in work activities Conversely, hubristic pride re"ects a drive for because they view their work as a means to expe- accomplishment that comes from a sel!sh or rience self-ef!cacy.31 Passion is further described conceited viewpoint.25 Those who have hubristic with two dimensions: harmonious and obsessive. pride are mostly concerned with their own desire Harmonious passion is considered to be “a strong to achieve their goals to propel themselves as desire to freely engage” (p. 797)32 and is gener- compared to helping others. Essentially, this ally thought of as a natural or internal appeal for form of pride is egotistical and is strictly focused work activities.33 This form of passion is the posi- on individual desires and accomplishments, tive aspect and is associated with a balance which results in poor or toxic relationships with between work and the desires of the self. others.26 As you can see, pride can be a positive Erstwhile, the obsessive variety of passion occurs or a negative emotion; it all depends on how we when individuals become so engrossed in their use our emotions, and pride is no different. activities that they become fully consumed and Pride has begun to be studied by sport man- minimize other duties or roles in their life. agement scholars as they have examined the Obsessive passion has been de!ned as a “strong construct among sport employees. Scholars and uncontrollable urge to partake in the activity” have argued that pride is likely to be an in"uen- (p. 128).34 A transition from harmonious to obses- tial variable to help sport employees build their sive passion is not a dif!cult trail, and as explained psychological capital and other variables.27 In by Perrewé et al.35 “Passion is often directed an empirical study, Swanson and Kent28 were towards activities that employees !nd particu- able to show a relationship between pride and larly meaningful and that they are generally employee satisfaction and organizational citi- skilled at performing, thus manifesting in con- zenship behaviors (i.e., extra efforts). duct that is intentional, determined, and stable … Considering how pride in sport teams or organi- as these behaviors become embedded, it may zations is likely to be a hallmark for many prac- become more dif!cult to turn passion ‘off’” titioners and participants, understanding how (p. 147). As we have discussed, the sports indus- having pride in a sport organization would likely try requires many and demanding hours, and so generate positive outcomes. passion is seemingly a critical construct to understand as having a passion for working in sport c Passion An individual’s emotional and would seemingly support sport employees as persistent state of desire and based on cognitive they work through many evenings and weekends and affective work appraisals, which results in in the of!ce or on the !eld. However, sport orga- consistent work intentions and behaviors. nizations and employees should be wary of hav- 122 11 Attitudes and Emotions of Employees ing a harmonious passion for working in sport psychological functioning.40 Put another way, turn into an obsessive desire to be at work. understanding one’s subjective well-being is Balance is essential for all things in life, and essential as it helps comprehend desires and working in the sports industry is no different. motivations, but psychological well-being offers Passion for work is a good thing, just do not allow a more in-depth look into who we are and what it to become too much of a good thing! we can potentially grow to be when we fully develop our psychological resources. Unsurprisingly, psychological well-being 11.5.3 Well-Being (and to a smaller degree subjective well-being) has been viewed as an aspirational concept for The term “well-being” is one that you have likely sport organizations and employees to strive heard before as it is a commonly used word to toward. Scholars have utilized psychological describe a sense of welfare or happiness. capital to better understand how sport employees However, the construct of well-being is much can develop psychological well-being.41 A simi- deeper than just happiness. Well-being has been lar research model has also been applied to pervasive throughout Western philosophy, with understanding how to improve the well-being of some of the earliest conceptualizations of well- collegiate student-athletes.42 Emotions are being coming from famous philosophers, and is diverse and powerful entities that are sometimes generally viewed from two different perspec- used to build on each other for desired emotional tives: hedonic and eudemonic. The !rst form, states such as psychological well-being. Pride hedonic, comes from the concept of hedonism and passion have also been viewed as concepts and describes the desire for and attainment of that can help support psychological well-being in pleasure and avoiding pain.36 Hedonic well-being sport employees.43 As such, emotions can be con- occurs when you are able to procure a box of sidered a preferred outcome, but they are often your favorite cookies and are gleefully munching used to induce certain behaviors. Essentially, on them. Undoubtedly you would be experienc- when we are in a certain mood or are experiencing some level of happiness as you taste the ing a given emotion, we are more likely to engage sweetness of the sugar in the cookies—this is the in certain activities than others. When we are in a attainment of pleasure. This form of well-being is positive affect state (e.g., happy), we are more grounded in what scholars refer to as subjective likely to be friendlier with coworkers or willingly well-being.37 engage in our work tasks, but when our affect is The other form of well-being, eudemonic, is a negative, we are likely to avoid work or be rude deeper portrayal of happiness, as it represents the with our coworkers. This positions emotions as a power of being true to oneself.38 We will soon critical feature of human psychology as our emo- discuss authenticity and how it supports human tions dictate our behaviors, and the importance of functioning in Chap. 12, but eudemonic well- emotions also translates to the sport workplace. If being represents this process. Within eudemonic happy sport employees tend to be more produc- well-being is the concept of psychological well- tive or help produce better work atmospheres, being. The psychological well-being paradigm then it would stand to reason that sport organiza- has several components, including self- tions would prefer their employees to be in a acceptance, positive relations with others, auton- good mood. What is unique about the sports omy, environmental mastery, purpose in life, and industry is the game or competition element and personal growth.39 The emphasis on human the debate on whether sport employees are fans development, purpose, and growth differentiates and if the performance of the organization’s subjective and psychological well-being, with the teams or other sporting events impacts sport former centered on simple attainment of what- employees’ work productivity. Scholars have ever feels “good” in the moment and the latter begun to look at this issue,44 but this area of being concerned with improvements to one’s inquiry remains in its initial stages. 11.6 Summary 123

11.6 Summary 8. Wong, C. S., & Law, K. S. (2002). The effects of leader and follower emotional intelligence on performance and attitude: An exploratory study. The In this chapter, we reviewed both traditional and Leadership Quarterly, 13(3), 243–274. cutting-edge theories of human emotions and dis- 9. Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional cussed the importance of emotions in sport. intelligence? In P. Salovey & D. Sluyter (Eds.), Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Emotions are an impactful concept that can in"u- Implications for educators (pp. 3–31). New York, NY: ence certain behaviors, and as a result, the con- Basic Books. cepts of emotional intelligence, pride, passion, 10. Goleman, D. (2005). Emotional intelligence: Why it and well-being, were all discussed. Although can matter more than IQ. New York, NY: Bantam Dell. psychologists are still learning about how emo- 11. Wong, C. S., & Law, K. S. (2002). The effects of tions work and how humans are impacted by leader and follower emotional intelligence on perfor- their emotions, it is clear that the sports industry mance and attitude: An exploratory study. The is a particularly relevant arena for emotions to be Leadership Quarterly, 13(3), 243–274. 12. Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional considered. In sum, sport employees should pay intelligence? In P. Salovey & D. Sluyter (Eds.), special attention to their emotions and how they Emotional development and emotional intelligence: utilize them as they continue to progress through Implications for educators (pp. 3–31). New York, NY: their careers. Basic Books. 13. Wong, C. S., & Law, K. S. (2002). The effects of leader and follower emotional intelligence on perfor- Discussion Questions mance and attitude: An exploratory study. The Leadership Quarterly, 13(3), 243–274. 1. What is Barrett’s view of constructed emotions? 14. Wong, C. S., & Law, K. S. (2002). The effects of leader and follower emotional intelligence on perfor- 2. What is the traditional view of emotions, and mance and attitude: An exploratory study. The how does it contract with Barrett’s view? Leadership Quarterly, 13(3), 243–274. 3. What are the elements of emotional 15. Goleman, D. (2005). Emotional intelligence: Why it intelligence? can matter more than IQ. New York, NY: Bantam Dell. 4. What are the different forms of well-being? 16. Goleman, D. (2005). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. New York, NY: Bantam Notes Dell. Wong, C. S., & Law, K. S. (2002). The effects of leader and follower emotional intelligence on perfor- 1. Barrett, L. F. (2017). How emotions are made: The mance and attitude: An exploratory study. The secret life of the brain. Houghton Mif"in Harcourt Leadership Quarterly, 13(3), 243–274. Publishing Company: New York, NY. 17. Lee, Y. H. (2019). Emotional intelligence, servant 2. Barrett, L. F. (2017). How emotions are made: The leadership, and development goal orientation in ath- secret life of the brain. Houghton Mif"in Harcourt letic directors, Sport Management Review, 22(3), Publishing Company: New York, NY. 395–406; Lee, Y. H., & Chelladurai, P. (2016). 3. Barrett, L. F. (2017). How emotions are made: The Affectivity, emotional labor, emotional exhaustion, secret life of the brain. Houghton Mif"in Harcourt and emotional intelligence in coaching. Journal of Publishing Company: New York, NY. Applied Sport Psychology, 28(2), 170–184; Lee, 4. Barrett, L. F. (2017). How emotions are made: The Y. H., & Chelladurai, P. (2018). Emotional intelli- secret life of the brain. Houghton Mif"in Harcourt gence, emotional labor, coach burnout, job satisfac- Publishing Company: New York, NY. tion, and turnover intention in sport leadership. 5. Goleman, D. (2005). Emotional intelligence: Why it European Sport Management Quarterly, 18(4), can matter more than IQ. New York, NY: Bantam Dell. 393–412. 6. Lopes, P. (2016). Emotional intelligence in organiza- 18. Paek, B., Martyn, J., Oja, B. D., Kim, M., & Larkins, tions: Bridging research and practice. Emotion R. J. (in press). Searching for sport employee creativ- Review, 8, 316–321. ity: A mixed-methods exploration. European Sport 7. Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional Management Quarterly, https://doi.org/10.1080/1618 intelligence? In P. Salovey & D. Sluyter (Eds.), 4742.2020.1804429. Emotional development and emotional intelligence: 19. Mascolo, M. F., & Fischer, K. W. (1995). Implications for educators (pp. 3–31). New York, NY: Developmental transformations in appraisals for Basic Books. pride, shame and guilt. In Tangney, J. P. & Fischer, 124 11 Attitudes and Emotions of Employees

K. W. (Eds.), Self-conscious emotions: The psychol- sional sports: Investigating the role of workplace ogy of shame, guilt, embarrassment and pride, emotion. Sport Management Review, 20(4), 352–364. Guilford Press, New York, NY, pp. 64–113. 30. Perrewé, P. L., Hochwarter, W. A., Ferris, G. R., 20. Swanson, S., & Kent, A. (2017). Passion and pride in McAllister, C. P., & Harris, J. N. (2014). Developing professional sports: Investigating the role of work- a passion for work passion: Future directions on an place emotion. Sport Management Review, 20(4), emerging construct. Journal of Organizational 352–364. Behavior, 35, 145–150. 21. Wärnå, C., Lindholm, L., & Eriksson, K. (2007). 31. Maslach, C. & Leiter, M. (2008). Early predictors of Virtue and health–!nding meaning and joy in work- job burnout and engagement. Journal of Applied ing life. Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, Psychology, 93, 498–512. 21(2), 191–198; Williams, L. A., & DeSteno, D. 32. Marsh, H. W., Vallerand, R. J., Lafreniére, M. K., (2008). Pride and perseverance: The motivational role Parker, P., Morin, A. J., Carbonneau, N., … Paquet, Y. of pride. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, (2013). Passion: Does one scale !t all? Construct 94(6), 1007–1017. validity of two- factor passion scale and psychometric 22. Tracy, J. L. & Robins, R. W. (2004). Putting the self invariance over different activities and languages. into self- conscious emotions: A theoretical model. Psychological Assessment, 25(3), 796–809. Psychological Inquiry, 15(2), 103–125; Tracy, J. L. & 33. Vallerand, R. J., Blanchard, C. M., Mageau, G. A., Robins, R. W. (2007). Emerging insights into the Koestner, R., Ratelle, C., Léonard, M., & Gagné, M. nature and function of pride. Current Directions in (2003). Les passions de l’ame: On obsessive and har- Psychological Science, 16(3), 147–150. monious passion. Journal of Personality and Social 23. Carver, C. S., Sinclair, S., & Johnson, S. L. (2010). Psychology, 85(4), 756–767. Authentic and hubristic pride: Differential relations to 34. Bélanger, J. J., Lafreniére, M. K., Vallerand, R. J., & aspects of goal regulation, affect, and self-control. Kruglanski, A. W. (2013). When passion makes the Journal of Research in Personality, 44(6), 698–703; heart grow colder: The role of passion in alternative Tracy, J. L. & Robins, R. W. (2007). Emerging goal suppression. Journal of Personality and Social insights into the nature and function of pride. Current Psychology, 104(1), 126–147. Directions in Psychological Science, 16(3), 147–150. 35. Perrewé, P. L., Hochwarter, W. A., Ferris, G. R., 24. Tracy, J. L. & Robins, R. W. (2004). Putting the self McAllister, C. P., & Harris, J. N. (2014). Developing into self- conscious emotions: A theoretical model. a passion for work passion: Future directions on an Psychological Inquiry, 15(2), 103–125; Tracy, J. L. & emerging construct. Journal of Organizational Robins, R. W. (2007). Emerging insights into the Behavior, 35, 145–150. nature and function of pride. Current Directions in 36. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and Psychological Science, 16(3), 147–150. human potentials: A review of research on hedonic 25. Tracy, J. L. & Robins, R. W. (2007). Emerging and eudemonic well-being. Annual Review of insights into the nature and function of pride. Current Psychology, 52, 141–166. Directions in Psychological Science, 16(3), 147–150. 37. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and 26. Tracy, J. L. & Robins, R. W. (2007). Emerging human potentials: A review of research on hedonic insights into the nature and function of pride. Current and eudemonic well-being. Annual Review of Directions in Psychological Science, 16(3), 147–150. Psychology, 52, 141–166. 27. Kim, M., Perrewé, P. L., Kim, Y. K., & Kim, A. C. H. 38. Waterman, A. S. (1993). Two conceptions of happi- (2017). Psychological capital in sport organizations: ness: Contrasts of personal expressiveness (eudai- Hope, Ef!cacy, Resilience, and Optimism among monia) and hedonic enjoyment. Journal of Personal Employees in Sport (HEROES). European Sport Social Psychology, 64, 678–691. Management Quarterly, 17(5), 659–680; Oja, B., 39. Ryff, C. D., & Keyes, C. L. M. (1995). The structure Kim, M., Perrewé, P., & Anagnostopoulos, C. (2019). of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Conceptualizing A-HERO for sport employees’ well- Personality and Social Psychology, 69(4), 719–727. being. Sport, Business and Management: An 40. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and International Journal, 9(4), 363–380; Swanson, S., & human potentials: A review of research on hedonic Kent, A. (2017). Passion and pride in professional and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of sports: Investigating the role of workplace emotion. Psychology, 52, 141–166; Ryff, C. D., & Keyes, C. L. Sport Management Review, 20(4), 352–364. M. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being 28. Swanson, S., & Kent. A. (2017). Sport identi!cation revisited. Journal of Personality and Social and employee pride: Key factors in sport employee Psychology, 69(4), 719–727. psychology. International Journal of Sport 41. Kim, M., Perrewé, P. L., Kim, Y. K., & Kim, A. C. H. Management and Marketing, 17 (1/2), 32–51. (2017). Psychological capital in sport organizations: 29. Anagnostopoulos, C, Winand, M., & Papdimitriou, D. Hope, Ef!cacy, Resilience, and Optimism among (2016). Passion in the workplace: Empirical insights Employees in Sport (HEROES). European Sport from team sport organisations. European Sport Management Quarterly, 17(5), 659–680; Kim, M., Management Quarterly, 16(4), 385–412; Swanson, Kim, A. C. H., Newman, J. I., Ferris, G. R., & S., & Kent, A. (2017). Passion and pride in profes- Perrewé, P. L. (2019). The antecedents and conse- 11.6 Summary 125

quences of positive organizational behavior: The role Conceptualizing A-HERO for sport employees’ well- of psychological capital for promoting employee being. Sport, Business and Management: An well-being in sport organizations. Sport Management International Journal, 9(4), 363–380. Review, 22(1), 108–125; Oja, B., Kim, M., Perrewé, 44. Oja, B. D., Bass, J. R., & Gordon, B. S. (2015). P., & Anagnostopoulos, C. (2019). Conceptualizing Conceptualizing employee identi!cation with sport A-HERO for sport employees’ well- being. Sport, organizations: Sport Employee Identi!cation (SEI). Business and Management: An International Journal, Sport Management Review, 18(4), 583–595; Oja, 9(4), 363–380. B. D., Bass, J. R., & Gordon, B. S. (2020). Identities 42. Kim, M., Oja, B. D., Chin, J., & Kim, H. (2020). in the sport workplace: Development of an instrument Developing student-athlete school satisfaction and to measure sport employee identi!cation. Journal of psychological well-being: The effects of academic Global Sport Management, 5(3), 262–284. https:// psychological capital and engagement. Journal of doi.org/10.1080/24704067.2018.1477521; Oja, Sport Management, 34(4), 378–390. B. D., Hazzaa, R. N., Wilkerson, Z., & Bass, J. R. 43. Kim, M., Perrewé, P. L., Kim, Y. K., & Kim, A. C. H. (2018). March Madness in the sport workplace: (2017). Psychological capital in sport organizations: Cultural implications for sport employees. Journal of Hope, Ef!cacy, Resilience, and Optimism among Intercollegiate Sport, 11(1), 82–105; Swanson, S., & Employees in Sport (HEROES). European Sport Kent, A. (2015). Fandom in the workplace: Multi- Management Quarterly, 17(5), 659–680; Oja, B., target identi!cation in professional team sports. Kim, M., Perrewé, P., & Anagnostopoulos, C. (2019). Journal of Sport Management, 29(4), 461–477. Motivations of Individuals 12

c Learning Objectives After reading this It was hard to get to work on time. It was chapter, students should be able to: hard to stay focused during work. This wasn’t always the case for Kim. She used • Understand how motivation theories to be so full of energy. Her lethargy now have evolved over time. worried her so much that Kim visited her • Explain the different levels of Maslow’s doctor last week for tests. When the results hierarchy of needs. came back, Kim was relieved to !nd out • Apply self-determination theory to the that she had no health issues, but the results sport workplace. also confused her. She was hung up on a • Comprehend the importance of authen- question that her doctor asked, “Has any- ticity and grit in the sport workplace. thing changed in your life?” Six months ago, Kim left her position with her role as Community Relations Director for the Lotte Giants for a similar Jay Larson: Senior Associate Athletic position with Busan IPark. Her new job Director for Administration, University paid more, and she worked less, but it was of California-Berkeley Athletics also more of!ce work. With the Giants, To listen to the interview Kim was out in the community. Her job was more hands-on. It required a lot of hours, but they seemed to "y by. Kim also had more freedom to take initiative than she has with Busan IPark. Could it be true? “Why Am I So Tired?” “Why am I so Was her new, more comfortable, better tired?” Kim asked herself. Every day was a paying job causing her fatigue? struggle. It was now hard to get out of bed.

12.1 Motivation

Supplementary Information The online version of this The motivations of individuals are a critical fea- chapter (https://doi.org/10.1007/978- 3- 030- 67612- 4_12) contains supplementary material, which is available to ture of any workplace, but the sports industry is authorized users. particularly dependent on a motivated workforce

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 127 C. R. Barnhill et al., Organizational Behavior in Sport Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67612-4_12 128 12 Motivations of Individuals

(as well as athletes and coaches). One of the main 12.2 Theoretical Concepts reasons that motivation and the study of motivation have become increasingly important in the In this section, we will review several pertinent sport workplace is the sheer number of hours and theories of motivation. However, it is important responsibilities that sport employees are required to note that this is far from a robust list of motiva- to provide. It is not uncommon to work 60, 70, or tion theories as scholars have continuously stud- even 80 hours a week regularly as a sport ied, reformed, and conceptualized various employee. Beyond coaches, where it is not patterns of motivations among individuals. uncommon to hear such stories, some sport Instead, we have selected the theories that are employees will sleep overnight in their of!ce. best suited to improve your understanding of Part of what makes the sports industry unique is motivations and how they impact the sport the dedication of its employees. This is due to a workplace. plethora of reasons, such as the impact of fandom among sport employees and the ability to be a part of something bigger than themselves. 12.2.1 Expectancy Theory Regardless, sport organizations have a considerable reliance on their employees, and as a result, Our !rst concept is expectancy theory, which has we can better understand why having a motivated three aspects: (a) expectancy (i.e., increased workforce is so important. effort will lead to improved functioning), (b) instrumentality (i.e., the belief that improved c Motivation Why an individual engages in a functioning will be rewarded), and (c) valence speci!c behavior. (i.e., the reward is valued by the person who is increasing their effort to attain the reward).1 In a In a very broad sense, one’s motivation is a sense, this theory posits that people are motivated depiction of why a given action is taken. Much not only by the potential of a reward, but also by like the previous chapter, which informed our the belief that a given award is attainable with understanding of emotions and their roles in even- their increased efforts. Let’s consider how this tual behavior, studying individuals’ motivation theory could be applied to the sports industry. allows us to have a more comprehensive under- Take, for example, an internal sales contest where standing of why individuals behave the way they the ticket sales representative who sells the most do. For example, why are many sport employees tickets in a month will be able to travel with the willing to work 80-hour weeks while not being team to a road contest (chosen by the winner). paid overly well? Why are they willing to miss For a sport employee to be motivated to put in the family gatherings such as religious holidays or increased effort they will need to win the reward, weddings in the name of work? Why are sport they must view traveling with the team as valu- employees willing to endure very limited oppor- able; otherwise, there will be no incentive to pur- tunities for recognition and reward? The answer sue the prize. Traveling with a team to a new city likely lies in their motivations and the forces that might seem like a great reward to some, but for drive their motivation for action. In this chapter, others, they might value more time with their we will !rst review some basic forms of motiva- family instead (for these employees, a better tion from a theoretical lens before transitioning reward might be an extra day off). Also, the our focus to Self-Determination Theory, which is employee will need to believe that any additional a popular theory in sport management literature effort on their part will actually result in improved that is used to explain why athletes, coaches, and performance. So, suppose many of the ticket rep- employees engage in various activities. Lastly, we resentative’s contacts have no interest in purchas- will review some exciting new concepts that will ing more tickets. In that case, there likely will be further expand your understanding of how moti- little motivation to put in extra effort. Further, vation impacts the sport workplace. any improved performance will need to be per- 12.2 Theoretical Concepts 129 ceived as likely to result in obtaining the reward. Let’s return to the example of the sport If the sport employee believes that no matter how employee who wanted to start arriving at the much their performance improves, there is no of!ce sooner…why would they want to do this? feasible way for them to be the top seller (possi- Surely no one would willingly want to wake up bly due to long-time employees having the upper earlier unless there was a reward, or perhaps it hand with a larger database), the motivation for was part of a plan. Within one’s hierarchy of action will be nulli!ed. Yet, if the reward is valu- goals, the higher-order goals dictate the organiza- able, and there is a belief that improved effort tion and content of the lower-order goals. In our will lead to better performance, which is likely to example, it could be that the sport employee rec- result in obtaining the reward, there is now a ognizes the potential for advancement within the good chance the employee will be motivated to sport organization, and by coming into work work extra hard during that month. sooner, they might be able to demonstrate to their supervisors that they are serious about the job, thus improving the chances of a promotion. The 12.2.2 Goal-Setting Theory reason for arriving at work sooner could result from a higher-order goal pertaining to the desire In the same vein as expectancy theory, Goal- to one day become the General Manager or Setting Theory describes the process of setting Athletics Director of the organization. Another goals in order to achieve objectives. Goals are function of one’s goal hierarchy is speci!city. The powerful tools that can be employed to achieve lower a goal is on the hierarchy, the more speci!c improved performance, and Goal-Setting Theory (and adjustable) the goal is likely to be. In the explains how goals lead to achievement. Broadly, example, becoming a General Manager is likely goals provide us with purpose and direction. to be a higher-order goal, but that does not mean They allow us to focus our energy on speci!c there are no other higher goals on the spectrum. tasks and provide a sense of accomplishment Just as goals become more speci!c the lower on when recognizable goals are achieved. More suc- the hierarchy they are, they also get more abstract cinctly, our goals motivate us. For many individ- and broader the higher they are. While being a uals, goals exist on a spectrum whereby there are General Manager could be a higher-order goal, lower- and higher-order goals. Lower-order goals being a kind and giving person would be an even re"ect mini or everyday goals that we set for our- higher-order goal. As you can see, setting goals is selves. For example, a sport employee might a pathway to motivation, as the desire to achieve decide that they need to start getting into the our goals motivates us for action. If you have not of!ce earlier than they have been, so they set a already done so, we strongly encourage you to goal pertaining to their updated desired arrival re"ect on your goals (lower and higher order) and time. Conversely, higher-order goals, or an indi- determine the best path for your achievement. vidual’s purpose, represent the long-term desires of an individual. Another way to look at goal hierarchies is that higher-order goals, which are 12.2.3 Equity Theory long-term in nature, are why people behave the way they do2 and lower-order goals, which are Another important aspect of motivation is Equity short-term goals, exemplify how one strategizes Theory, which takes into account sociological to achieve those higher-order goals.3 Simply put, in"uences on motivation. It is likely not surpris- higher-order goals are one’s life philosophy4 and ing to read that humans often compare them- represent the purpose in one’s actions.5 Lower- selves with others in their proximity. Many of us order goals serve as the strategic plans that are simply cannot help ourselves and compare our- crafted to reach one’s life philosophies and selves to others as soon as we walk into a room. purpose.6 Comparisons can also play a role in our motiva- 130 12 Motivations of Individuals tions to act in the workplace. According to Equity who is thanked by athletes for providing them Theory, individuals take note of their outputs with quality attention and support is likely to (i.e., production) and their inputs (i.e., rewards or continue to do so, while a sport employee who is salary) and then compare them to that of a screamed at “LEAVE ME ALONE!” by an ath- coworker. Any incongruency where an individual lete is unlikely to speak with that athlete in the perceives they are receiving fewer inputs for near future. comparable or superior outputs will likely result in a loss of motivation. As an example of how this could occur in a sport organization, let’s consider 12.2.5 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs a sport employee who has worked for the same sport organization for the last ten years, has never We will now turn to the “needs” perspective of missed a day of work, has always received ster- motivation. Any conversation about need-based ling performance reviews, and is up for a promo- motivation should include a discussion concern- tion. However, the promotion is given to an ing Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.8 employee who has worked at the sport organiza- Many depictions of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs tion for three years and has had mixed perfor- are presented as a triangle. This is because the mance reviews but happens to be a relative of the theory puts forth that the base of the triangle is General Manager. It would not be dif!cult to see required before moving to the next level and so why the sport employee who lost out on the pro- on. That is, the Hierarchy of Needs theory motion would put in less effort moving forward, requires ful!llment in the !rst stage before mov- but Equity Theory is what explains why there is ing to the second, and ful!llment with the second likely to be a decreased level of motivation. stage before attaining the third level, and so on. The !rst stage consists of physiological needs, including air, water, and food. These are very 12.2.4 Operant Conditioning basic but essential needs to sustain life. The next and Reinforcement Theory stage is security needs, which are typi!ed by shelter and protection, such as living and resting A theory that is very popular and one that you comfortably. The third stage is social needs, or likely remember reading about is Skinner’s the- the need for relationships, friendships, and sup- ory of operant conditioning.7 This theory sug- port. The fourth stage is self-esteem needs and gests that an individual’s motivations are the desire for recognition and feelings of exper- determined by their surroundings and the result- tise. The !nal stage, which, according to Maslow, ing interactions with their surroundings. Put requires the ful!llment of the other four stages, is another way, behaviors are reinforced by the self-actualization needs. This level represents the environment. According to Skinner’s theory, as ultimate form of ful!llment in that all needs of individuals engage with their environment, they the self are met, and the individuals’ motivations experience positive and negative feedback. The then turn to behaviors that are meant to help and behaviors that receive positive feedback are rein- support others. This stage is dif!cult to attain, forced and are likely to be repeated. Conversely, and many are not able to achieve this level of ful- the behaviors that are met with negative feedback !llment. This popular theory has been revisited, are avoided. This results in a range of motivation adjusted, and amended several times, but the the- for behavior, in that anticipated positive feedback ory’s foundation is still instrumental in our will motivate certain behavior and anticipated understanding of individuals’ motivations. negative feedback will motivate an individual to The sport workplace is a seemingly ideal envi- take a different course of action. While this may ronment for a sport employee to achieve self- seem fairly obvious, Skinner’s work signi!cantly actualization. Of course, the !rst two stages advanced our understanding of human motiva- would be indirectly related as the wages from tions. In a simplistic example, a sport employee employment with the sport organization would 12.2 Theoretical Concepts 131 help employees purchase basic necessities. For Hygiene Theory, a sport employee would likely social needs, the sport workplace would likely have an increased motivation to expand their job offer sport employees an opportunity to socialize performance as well as initiative to put forth and work closely with their colleagues. This is greater efforts to complete their work tasks when due to the need for sport organizations to coordi- provided with more autonomy and opportunities nate their efforts when planning sport events. to grow and develop. For example, a sport man- Self-esteem could potentially be problematic, ager could allow their subordinates "exibility to given the aforementioned lack of recognition determine the structure of a fundraising cam- opportunities. However, sport employees are paign with minimal oversight and direction. likely to take pride in watching a sport organiza- Doing so would likely invigorate the sport tion’s highly visible and popular sporting events employees to craft a powerful campaign as it and knowing they played a critical role in the pro- would represent an opening to grow duction of the event. Provided other needs are professionally. ful!lled, the sport workplace is uniquely positioned to support the self-actualization of sport employees, as there are plentiful occasions to 12.2.7 Self-Determination Theory help others. Self-Determination Theory (SDT), advanced by Richard Ryan and Edward Deci, describes the 12.2.6 Herzberg’s Motivation- ful!llment of an individual’s internal psychologi- Hygiene Theory cal need. An essential feature of SDT is the assumption that these psychological needs are a The next theory that we will discuss focused gateway to well-being and social functioning.12 explicitly on motivation in the workplace. Another key facet of SDT is found in its name in Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory9 was that it is each individual who decides what level contrived to help develop employees in order to of importance is given to a speci!c action.13 That produce improved performance for an organiza- is, an individual self-determines the need for cer- tion. This theory was in response to management tain behaviors or actions. SDT is further broken styles that, at the time, were predominantly strict down into three components: competence, relat- and cumbersome, which resulted in simple job edness, and autonomy.14 Competence is the rec- tasks for employees. Resultantly, Herzberg sug- ognition of pro!ciency in one’s abilities. This gested enriching employees’ jobs, and to do so, often leads to a craving for greater challenges. jobs should be made to motivate employees by Relatedness is similar to Maslow’s social needs improving their sense of achievement, responsi- feature as individuals desire meaningful relation- bility, growth, advancement, and recognition.10 ships with others. Ryan and Deci15 elaborated, This represents the motivation aspect of the the- “Relatedness re"ects the homonomous aspect of ory. The hygiene aspect is not focused on the integrative tendency of life, the tendency to employee growth, but rather on preventing nega- connect with others and be integral to and tive feelings or perceptions. In subsequent stud- accepted by others” (p. 7). Autonomy represents ies that built upon the Motivation-Hygiene individuality, freedom of behavior, and indepen- Theory, scholars were able to better determine dence. Ryan and Deci16 added, “When autono- the relationship between tasks and motivation by mous, individuals experience their behavior as an examining concepts such as task variety, auton- expression of the self, such that, even when omy, knowledge, and responsibility.11 Motivation- actions are in"uenced by outside sources, the Hygiene Theory represents a signi!cant actors concur with those in"uences, feeling both advancement in our understanding of what moti- initiative and value with regard to them” (p. 8). vates employees to work harder or “get ahead” in These three components help to better under- their careers. According to the Motivation- stand individuals’ motivation for behavior. In 132 12 Motivations of Individuals other words, competence, relatedness, and auton- work tasks would tell you that their work “does omy are the needs that all individuals desire, and not feel like work.” That is, intrinsically moti- their actions and behaviors are attempts to ful!ll vated people naturally enjoy completing a given these needs. Now, let’s turn to SDT’s three forms task. As you can see, intrinsic motivation is a of motivations that individuals utilize to gain ful- powerful factor for sport and non-sport employ- !llment of their competency, relatedness, and ees. While truly intrinsic motivation is dif!cult to autonomy needs. realize, it is likely to lead to bene!cial personal According to SDT, an individual’s motivation and organizational outcomes such as happiness, for behavior is found on a continuum. On one end well-being, and improved performance. are self-determined behaviors, meaning that the individual’s reasons for behavior are strictly due Extrinsic Motivation to their desires and wants. On the other end are A form of motivation where external rewards non-self-determined behaviors or, in some cases, drive behavior. a lack of behavior or action, which is a result of an individual having little or no desire to conduct 12.2.7.2 Extrinsic Motivation a speci!c behavior. In reality, most behaviors are Extrinsic motivation is a common form of moti- somewhere in the middle of this continuum, and vation as it represents one’s desire to engage in a there are many speci!c names and terms for dif- behavior because they believe there will be a ferent landmarks on the continuum. We will reward as a result of the action. Ryan and Deci18 focus on three popular forms of motivation: described extrinsic motivation as “focused toward intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivation (often known and dependent on contingent outcomes that are as burnout). separable from the action per se” (p. 10). This version of motivation requires a distal or an exter- c Intrinsic Motivation Desire to participate in nal reward, and it is the reward that spurs action. an activity because you genuinely enjoy the A sport employee who is extrinsically motivated activity. to complete their job tasks would do so because they view their work as a way to get paid and 12.2.7.1 Intrinsic Motivation allow them to live their desired lifestyle. One way Intrinsic motivation is the “ideal” form of moti- to compare intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is vation in that it represents a “pure” desire of par- by considering a hypothetical example of two ticipants to engage in a given activity. The sport employees. Employee A loves working in intrinsic aspect of motivation is described as “the sport because they enjoy being in a competitive inherent satisfactions of the behaviors per se, environment and get excited for every game in rather than in contingencies or reinforcements which their organization participates. Employee that are operationally separable form [sic] those B works in sport because they see an opportunity activities” (p. 10).17 This means that those who to move up in the organizational hierarchy and are intrinsically motivated perform a given action gain increased pay and power. Clearly, employee because they genuinely enjoy that activity. In the A would be intrinsically motivated and employee sports industry, an employee who is intrinsically B would be extrinsically motivated. It is impor- motivated to perform a speci!c task at work tant to note that extrinsic motivation should not would do so freely and would not require their be considered “bad” or in a negative light. In fact, supervisor to ask them more than once to tend to extrinsic motivation is quite common and does the task. For example, a sport employee who in"uence many individuals. The key difference is enjoys supporting and working with collegiate that work task completion will have a more sub- student-athletes and their studies would be intrin- stantial in"uence on personal well-being and sically motivated to put in hard work to help happiness when intrinsically motivated instead of student-athletes improve their academics. Those extrinsically. Lastly, intrinsic and extrinsic moti- who are intrinsically motivated to complete their vations are not universal for individuals as some 12.3 Motivation for One’s Potential 133 activities will be viewed as intrinsic while others ter, its relationship to motivation runs deep. are extrinsic depending on how a person views Speci!cally, Rogers’ organismic valuing the- the task, and how the task is thought to enhance ory plays a key role in determining the motiva- their competency, relatedness, and autonomy. tions one has for improved life experiences.20 The theory describes how people are motivated c Amotivation A lack of desire to complete to participate in behaviors that will help them a task or engage in a behavior. realize their true selves or, be authentic. Much like Maslow’s work, Rogers suggested that 12.2.7.3 Amotivation individuals who are considered to be fully The last form of motivation that we will discuss is functioning, and thus realizing self- called amotivation, or as it is more commonly actualization, desire to participate in activities known, burnout. Importantly, this view of motiva- that allow them to be true to themselves, con- tion does not indicate a lack of action but is more nect with the emotions, remain in harmony re"ective of passive participation.19 In this way, with others, and gravitate to meaningful amotivation represents a lack of a desire or forced goals.21 Those who have achieved self-actual- action and is the least self-determined form of ization, or are striving toward it, will seek to motivation on the SDT continuum. Simply, amo- participate in activities that ful!ll their sense of tivation occurs when one loses the desire to com- self. In other words, people are motivated to plete a task or only does so because they are achieve a sense of self and are drawn to activi- forced to engage. In the sports industry, this is a ties that reinforce our perceptions of who we common occurrence in youth sport when children think we are or what we represent. When indi- become burnt out from competing in a highly viduals are on the pathway to self-actualiza- competitive setting, the detriments of sport spe- tion, they will construct goals and passions that cialization, or abuse from coaches or parents. will help them emphasize meaningful perspec- However, burnout and amotivation also occur in tives. For example, a sport employee who the sport workplace. The high turnover rate is one understands their emotional wants and needs, indication, but contributing factors are the lower will craft or volunteer for activities that they pay rates and the excessive hours required in the believe re"ect their own values. sports industry. When a sport employee experi- Suppose you happen to believe that you are a ences burnout, they are likely to do shoddy work creative and insightful person. In that case, you or avoid work, which is undoubtedly a situation might feel drawn toward a career in sport mar- that sport organizations would like to avoid. keting, as working on various marketing cam- However, this means that sport organizations and paigns or coming up with new ideas would managers need to take the time and provide the reinforce the perception of yourself that you are necessary effort to understand their employees. creative. Likewise, during your studies, you will By having an improved understanding of their likely set goals along the way that will help you employees, sport organizations and managers will work your way into the sport marking !eld. In be able to design jobs in a matter that can avoid other words, your motivations for goals and employee burnout and perhaps increase intrinsic behaviors are an attempt to ful!ll your percep- motivation for task completion. tions of yourself. We would encourage you to re"ect on how you view yourself, what skills you feel you excel at, and if those skills serve to rein- 12.3 Motivation for One’s force perceptions of yourself that you consider Potential to be valuable. Whether or not this is a consistent pattern for you is not immediately necessary, but A different view of one’s motivation is based it is important to begin the journey of under- on the concept of “well-being.” Although we standing yourself to help you achieve learned about well-being in the previous chap- self-actualization. 134 12 Motivations of Individuals c Grit One’s ability to set and pursue purpose- anticipated adversity or negative feedback” driven long-term goals and to effectively readjust (p. 325).25 As such, grit can be thought of as one’s short-term goals and goal-attainment strategies in motivation to continue toward their purpose in life the face of perceived or anticipated adversity or by forming and readjusting goals that have been negative feedback. developed to help facilitate the achievement of their higher-order goals. More interestingly, Jordan and her colleagues’ 12.4 New Concept: Grit work26 has been explicitly undertaken to contex- tualize grit to the workplace, speci!cally for When watching a sporting contest, it is common employees. Utilizing the Jordan et al.’s perspec- to hear the phrase “She has SO much grit!” when tive of work grit theory, there are two central fea- describing an athlete, but have you thought about tures of the construct: goal hierarchies and work what grit really means? Phrases like toughness passion. Those who have grit are so motivated to and determination are likely to come to mind. accomplish their goals, they do not allow set- These would be accurate representations of the backs to get in their way. As a result, gritty indi- term, but there is a growing volume of literature viduals can alter their plans or create new action that pertains to the theoretical development of grit plans when faced with disruptions to their path to as a psychological construct that can be applied in goal achievement.27 More so, gritty people will workplaces. This conceptualization of grit, popu- request feedback, which will allow them to fur- larized by Angela Duckworth and extended by ther specify their strategies to achieve their authors such as Samantha Jordan, is grounded goals.28 While many of us shy away from perfor- within motivation principles. This version of grit mance evaluations, gritty individuals (speci!- allows us to circle back to what we previously cally employees) seek feedback and evaluation. spoke about in terms of goal setting. Grit is a con- For instance, a gritty sport employee would be stant effort to take on challenges to help reach motivated to ask their boss how their perfor- one’s goals and the continuous determination to mance was in reorganizing the equipment room’s reach one’s goals despite setbacks and failures.22 layout, or they would ask for a one-on-one meet- Within grit theory literature, there are three tradi- ing with their supervisor to discuss ways where tional components: (a) perseverance, (b) passion, they can improve their performance. You might and (c) goals.23 Perseverance describes the will- be thinking, “WHO does that?”. The answer is ingness to continue on in the face of dif!culties. gritty people as they have a motivation level that Passion is an emotional feeling where one feels is so strong they welcome negative feedback as it engaged and even exhilaration. Goals, as we have is viewed as an opportunity for improvement. noted before, are steeped within a hierarchy with The other work grit element is the passion one lower- and higher-order goals. Recent adaptations holds for their work and the tasks associated with of grit have described it as “a skill that in"uences their positions. When a person has found their purpose-driven goal setting and adjustment” purpose for work, they are likely to become (p. 322).24 This updated version of grit empha- almost wholly encompassed in their work with sizes individuals’ passion for their goals by focus- greater potential for achievement.29 It is also ing on their purpose or calling (i.e., motivation) important to note the de!nition of work passion, for goal achievement. Also, the depiction of grit which is described as “an individual’s emotional as a skill is noteworthy, as this indicates that grit and persistent state of desire based on cognitive can be developed, taught, and strengthened. and affective work appraisals” (p. 146).30 In other Resultantly, the updated de!nition of grit is “one’s words, employees are motivated to engage in ability (a) to set and pursue purpose-driven long- work activities because of the feelings and recog- term (higher-order) goals and (b) to effectively nition that the activities engender. When one readjust short-term (lower-order) goals and goal- enjoys what they do, they are likely to have a pas- attainment strategies in the face of perceived or sion for work, meaning there will be stronger 12.5 Summary 135 motivations to complete work tasks. Moreover, 3. What are the components of self- determination passion connects to one’s purpose, as recognizing theory? that a given activity allows one to pursue, come 4. What is authenticity, and why is it important in closer, or achieve their purpose creates a passion the sport workplace? for the activity. This is a similar concept to intrin- 5. What is grit, and how can it be used in the sport sic motivation, and it should be recognized that workplace? the meaning of both is the same. When there are genuine, internal desires to engage in activities Notes (in this case, work tasks), there is likely to be a stronger likelihood of the task being worked on 1. Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. Wiley: and thoroughly completed. As a !nal example, New York, NY. consider a sport employee who has a strong emo- 2. Bateman, T. S., & Barry, B. (2012). Masters of the long haul: Pursuing long-term work goals. Journal of tional resonance with their job of working in Organizational Behavior, 33(7), 984–1006. ticket sales. They greatly enjoy seeing the joy and 3. Jordan, S. L., Ferris, G. R., Hochwarter, W. A., & excitement when fans are entering the stadium on Wright, T. A. (2019). Toward a work motivation con- gameday. Because the sport employee recognizes ceptualization of grit in organizations. Group & Organization Management, 44(2), 320–360. the enjoyment they receive from witnessing posi- 4. Duckworth, A. L. (2016). Grit: The power of passion tive emotions, they are likely to be motivated to and perseverance. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster. continue working with great effort and see the 5. Kanfer, R., Frese, M., & Johnson, R. E. (2017). purpose in their position. When combined with Motivation related to work: A century of progress. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102(3), 338–355. goals, one’s purpose through their passions is an 6. Jordan, S. L., Ferris, G. R., Hochwarter, W. A., & incredibly powerful tool that employees can rely Wright, T. A. (2019). Toward a work motivation con- upon for suf!cient motivation to reach their ceptualization of grit in organizations. Group & higher-order goals. Organization Management, 44(2), 320–360. 7. Staddon, J. E. R., & Cerutti, D. T. (2003). Operant conditioning. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 115–144. 12.5 Summary 8. Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370–396; Maslow, A. H. (1954). Motivation and Personality. Harper & Row: In this chapter, we covered a wide range of motiva- New York, NY. tion theories. We started with some of the more 9. Herzberg, F. (1966). Work and the nature of man. basic or fundamental theories that have provided a Cleveland: World. core foundation for scholars to continue to evolve 10. Oldham, G. R., & Fried, Y. (2016). Job design research and theory: Past, present, and future. our understanding of human desires and needs. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Human beings are motivated by physical needs Processes, 136, 20–35. and emotional desires and will engage in behav- 11. Oldham, G. R., & Fried, Y. (2016). Job design iors that ful!ll said desires and needs. From this research and theory: Past, present, and future. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision chapter, we now know that sport employees are Processes, 136, 20–35. driven by an intrinsic connection to sport and their 12. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motiva- desire to remain a part of sport in some capacity. tion and self-determination in human behavior. More so, new concepts such as grit offer exciting New York, NY: Plenum; Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2002). An overview of self-determination theory: An opportunities to expand the motivations and by organismic-dialectical perspective. In E. L. Deci & extension the capabilities of sport employees. R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 3–33). Rochester, NY: The University of Rochester Press. Discussion Questions 13. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. 1. Of the many motivation theories discussed, New York, NY: Plenum. which is the most relevant to you? 14. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2002). An overview of 2. What is self-actualization? self- determination theory: An organismic-dialectical 136 12 Motivations of Individuals

perspective. In E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Schuster.; Duckworth, A., Peterson, C., Matthews, Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 3–33). M. D., & Kelly, D. R. (2007). Grit: Perseverance and Rochester, NY: The University of Rochester Press. passion for long- term goals. Journal of Personality 15. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2002). An overview of and Social Psychology, 92(6), 1087–1101. self- determination theory: An organismic-dialectical 23. Credé, M. (2018). What shall we do about grit? A perspective. In E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), critical review of what we know and what we don’t Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 3–33). know. Educational Researcher, 47, 606–611; Jordan, Rochester, NY: The University of Rochester Press. S. L., Ferris, G. R., Hochwarter, W. A., & Wright, 16. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2002). An overview of T. A. (2019). Toward a work motivation conceptual- self- determination theory: An organismic-dialectical ization of grit in organizations. Group & Organization perspective. In E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Management, 44(2), 320–360. Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 3–33). 24. Jordan, S. L., Ferris, G. R., Hochwarter, W. A., & Rochester, NY: The University of Rochester Press. Wright, T. A. (2019). Toward a work motivation con- 17. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2002). An overview of ceptualization of grit in organizations. Group & self- determination theory: An organismic-dialectical Organization Management, 44(2), 320–360. perspective. In E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), 25. Jordan, S. L., Ferris, G. R., Hochwarter, W. A., & Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 3–33). Wright, T. A. (2019). Toward a work motivation con- Rochester, NY: The University of Rochester Press. ceptualization of grit in organizations. Group & 18. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2002). An overview of Organization Management, 44(2), 320–360. self- determination theory: An organismic-dialectical 26. Jordan, S. L., Ferris, G. R., Hochwarter, W. A., & perspective. In E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Wright, T. A. (2019). Toward a work motivation con- Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 3–33). ceptualization of grit in organizations. Group & Rochester, NY: The University of Rochester Press. Organization Management, 44(2), 320–360. 19. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2002). An overview of 27. Jin, B., & Kim, J. (2017). Grit, basic needs satisfac- self- determination theory: An organismic-dialectical tion, and subjective well-being. Journal of Individual perspective. In E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Differences, 38(1), 29–35. Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 3–33). 28. Jordan, S. L., Ferris, G. R., Hochwarter, W. A., & Rochester, NY: The University of Rochester Press. Wright, T. A. (2019). Toward a work motivation con- 20. Rogers, C. R. (1961). On becoming a person: A thera- ceptualization of grit in organizations. Group & pist’s view of psychotherapy. London: Constable.; Organization Management, 44(2), 320–360. Rogers, C. R. (1964). Toward a modern approach to 29. Bureau, J. S., Vallerand, R. J., Ntoumanis, N., & values: the valuing process in the mature person. Lafreniére, M. A. K. (2013). On passion and moral Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 68(2), behavior in achievement settings: The mediating 160–167. role of pride. Motivation and Emotion, 37(1), 21. Vainio, M. M., & Daukantaitė, D. (2016). Grit and 121–133. different aspects of well-being: Direct and indirect 30. Perrewé, P. L., Hochwarter, W. A., Ferris, G. R., relationships via sense of coherence and authenticity. McAllister, C. P., & Harris, J. N. (2014). Developing Journal of Happiness Studies, 17(5), 2119–2147. a passion for work passion: Future directions on an 22. Duckworth, A. L. (2016). Grit: The power of passion emerging construct. Journal of Organizational and perseverance. New York, NY: Simon and Behavior, 35(1), 145–150. Behaviors and Creativity 13

Athletic Association (NCAA). Student-athletes c Learning Outcomes After reading this were now employees. He turned to ESPN and lis- chapter, students should be able to: tened as studio hosts debated the ruling, and athletic directors from the Big Ten, SEC, and other major • Differentiate between in-role and extra- institutions cried that this was the end of college role behaviors in the sport industry. athletics. Washington calmly emailed his senior • De!ne organizational citizenship behav- staff. “Meeting at 9 a.m. in the conference room.” iors in the sport context. Washington is the Director of Athletics at • Articulate the key factors in increasing Greensboro State University (GSU). GSU is a creative ideas in individual employees. Historically Black College and University • Develop creative ideas in a sport- (HBCU) located in North Carolina. The school speci!c context. competes in the Division I FCS Mideastern Athletic Conference. Under Washington’s guidance, the school has been one of the more successful programs at their level of NCAA competition. The board room was humming with Mayi Blanco Cruz: Global Head of Athlete exasperated conversation when Washington Programmes at The Adecco Group walked in. Suddenly, the room went silent, and To listen to the interview all eyes were on him. After a moment of silence, Zeta Jones, Director of Development, spoke, “Quentin, it’s mass panic around college athletics. What are we going to do? Can we survive if The Morning the Business Changed the big schools are saying that they can’t afford to “Okay, things are going to be very different now,” pay their athletes?” Washington calmly looked at Quentin Washington said to himself as he put on his his senior staff, smiled, and said, “Let everyone tie. He awoke to the news that the US Supreme else panic. That’s their problem. I’m not sure Court had ruled against the National Collegiate what it is yet, but there is an opportunity in this ruling. The industry changed this morning, and the schools that adapt will thrive. Let the others Supplementary Information The online version of this chapter (https://doi.org/10.1007/978- 3- 030- 67612- 4_13) panic. While they are, we’ll plan for the new contains supplementary material, which is available to business model and become leaders. Let’s get to authorized users. work.”

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 137 C. R. Barnhill et al., Organizational Behavior in Sport Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67612-4_13 138 13 Behaviors and Creativity

13.1 In-Role and Extra-Role perceived service quality.3 In differentiating orga- Behaviors nizational citizenship behaviors from other types of extra-role behaviors, OCB focus on behaviors In any organization, there are beliefs, values, verbal that will enhance the social and psychological expressions, and behaviors. An individual may have environment. Organizational citizenship behav- beliefs or values they associate with their role, which iors have been differentiated into two types; shapes their behavior at work, but the prescribed or OCB-O behaviors are those that are directly necessary actions of their job are what constitute in- related to the organization, whereas OCB-I role behaviors.1 In-role behaviors could be re"ected behaviors are those directed toward an employ- in their job descriptions, supervisor directives, or sal- ee’s colleagues. Coming into work on a Saturday, ary designations. Whereas extra-role behaviors are under one’s own volition, to !nish a big project any behaviors employees engage in that are not would be an example of OCB-O. An example of assigned to them by their organization. These extra- OCB-I would be staying late to assist a coworker role behaviors are not in"uenced by formal reward who had to leave work early. These behaviors systems nor subject to punishment should they not have been shown to have positive impacts on be performed.2 Think about often-used phrases: organizations.4 Leaders should be careful not to “going the extra mile,” “going above and beyond the be too encouraging of these behaviors because call of duty,” or “giving 110%.” Seeking out extra there are negative elements. If extra-role behav- information or double- checking work, smiling at a iors are overtly encouraged, they can be per- customer when they are being mean, even if it is not ceived as in-role by employees, losing the desired expected of an employee, are all examples of extra- bene!t and possibly leading to burnout.5 OCB role behaviors. When a sport organization is tradi- can also be negative if it interferes with in-role tion-focused, averse to risk, and top-down focused tasks. In an analysis of minor league baseball or micromanaged, engaging in creativity might also organizations, researchers found no relationship be an extra-role behavior. between increased OCB and organizational performance.6 They supposed this is because of lim- c In-Role Behaviors Actions that are prescribed ited staff so that any OCB behaviors may have by the organization or necessary to one’s position taken away from in-role behaviors necessary for within the organization. the organization’s basic functions. Additionally, there appears to be evidence of a “gray area” for c Extra-Role Behaviors Actions that are athletes as it relates to what is extra-role and what bene!cial to the organization but are not is expected.7 This role confusion could increase in"uenced by formal reward systems nor subject the likelihood of burnout. As with many aspects to punishment should they not be performed. of organizational behavior management, a mindful balance should be considered with the encour- c Organizational Citizenship Behaviors agement of organizational citizenship behaviors Behaviors that employees engage in that improve to a healthy degree. the social and psychological environment of an organization, improving the organization through productivity or perceived service quality. 13.1.2 Creative Work Behaviors

Creativity is the buzzword in sports these days. 13.1.1 Organizational Citizenship National Basketball Association (NBA) teams Behaviors and some college athletic programs have hired “Directors of Innovation” or “Chief Innovation Organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB) are Of!cers,” all in an effort to become more cre- behaviors employees engage in that improve the ative. This wasn’t always the way. Sports have organization, whether through productivity or historically been an incredibly tradition- focused 13.2 De!nition of Creativity in Management 139 industry. There is a tendency to not think for 13.2 De"nition of Creativity oneself, but copy and paste what others are in Management doing in the industry. For example, even though baseball analytics was created long before the Before discussing what aspects improve individ- Oakland A’s adopted it, Major League Baseball ual creativity in sport management, having a (MLB) franchises waited until they saw one common de!nition of creativity is helpful. team’s success to slowly adopt the innovation.8 Creativity conjures up images of an artist paint- In a few short decades, the sports industry went ing on a canvas, a computer programmer devel- from being hesitant or even hostile to innovation oping the next big mobile app, or a trick shot to hiring employees speci!cally to encourage going viral on social media. When talking about creativity. Increased competition for resources creativity in sport management, the de!nition and consumers and changing perspectives refers to creativity in the management and busi- within the sports industry to engage with exter- ness side of the sports industry. So in this context, nal stakeholders have increased this desire for creativity is the production of new and useful creative behaviors.9 For some employees, ideas for the unit of measure.12 The unit of mea- though, these behaviors may still be considered sure could be individual creativity and creativity extra-role behaviors. within a workgroup or within an organization. While sport organizations may be moving For example, suppose a marketing manager has toward more innovative and creative approaches issues with productivity in their workgroup due due to external forces, there are many internal to excessive chit-chat hurting task execution; bene!ts to creativity. For the organization, cre- they could decide to implement a "exible work ativity and innovation have been shown to schedule, where employees may work from home increase the organization’s value, increase the one day a week. For this speci!c context, the market share, and improve its competitive action works, and employees end up more pro- advantage in the market.10 Some recent research ductive while still remaining social with their in sport speci!cally has been mixed on its use- colleagues. Since it is new and useful to the unit fulness.11 In Chap. 15, we’ll discuss why that’s of measure (i.e., the workgroup), that change was the case. Despite the mixed results, there is a creative idea. Although the sports industry enough evidence that pursuing creativity and tends to focus on new products or services, such innovation seems worth it. Beyond organiza- as luxury suites and analytics,13 creativity is not tional improvements, innovation and creativity merely a new output but could also be related to have shown to bene!t employees as well. processes and structures. While the sports indus- Encouraging innovation and creativity can try itself has historically been hesitant to be inno- increase employees’ belief in themselves (self- vative, sport entrepreneurs have been known to ef!cacy), decrease turnover rates, and improve promote change, look to future trends, be proac- job satisfaction. Creativity involves independent tive, take risks, be receptive to opportunities, thinking and playing around with ideas, which have optimism, and identify currently nonexis- can be fun for employees. Also, if one of their tent products and ideas.14 new ideas works, employees tend to feel better about themselves and more engaged at work. While magically improving employee creativity 13.2.1 Elements of Creativity by merely saying “be more creative” would be in the Sports Industry easier, that is not how creativity and innovation work. Therefore, we’ll discuss how to increase According to researchers, there are three key ele- creativity levels for sport employees. ments to being individually creative at work. These are domain-relevant skills, intrinsic task c Creativity The production of new and useful motivation, and engagement in creativity-related ideas for the unit of measure. processes. 140 13 Behaviors and Creativity c Domain-Relevant Skills Any particular 13.2.3 Intrinsic Task Motivation knowledge set or skills needed to come up with creative ideas for the unit of measure. Any extra-role behavior requires employee motivation since they are behaviors not rewarded or punished by the organization. For creative behav- 13.2.2 Domain-Relevant Skills ior, speci!cally, researchers argue that intrinsic task motivation is a key factor in being creative at Knowing a signi!cant amount about a particular work. topic or context gives employees the information As you’ll remember from Chap. 12, when they need to develop creative ideas. Domain- people are intrinsically motivated, they engage in relevant skills include any particular knowledge behaviors because they genuinely enjoy an activ- set or skills needed to come up with creative ity.18 External motivation is not always negative. ideas for the unit of measure.15 These skills can Bonuses, promotions, and public praise are still include the ability to !nd information about a effective mechanisms at work. However, the topic, such as through reading or listening to research indicates that intrinsic task motivation experts (like with this textbook!). It could also may be more useful in increasing creativity. include building skills such as website design or This is a dif!cult situation for sport organiza- how to stream online. Learning for a speci!c con- tions because it is hard to inspire intrinsic motiva- text or topic goes beyond what is learned in the tion. Think about student motivations in class. classroom. There are many ways to learn about a These may include earning a good grade or domain and build the skills necessary to be cre- remaining eligible for a scholarship, or to be able ative in a sport organization. to play a sport. Those are external motivations Reading is the most obvious way to gain and are useful in achieving exactly what is domain-relevant skills. This textbook is an exam- expected. Intrinsic motivation to !nd problems in ple. Trade journals or blogs can also provide an organization or !nd unique solutions requires additional insight, especially for the most current extra effort, often effort that isn’t rewarded if the information. Beyond reading, listening to pod- organization is hierarchical or tradition-minded.19 casts or audiobooks, watching webinars, or For example, engagement in online communities attending conferences can also increase domain- required extra effort for resource-constrained relevant skills. Additionally, informational inter- marketing managers in women’s professional views with sports industry professionals provides soccer, while it is now clear that early engage- unique insights into their context and experience. ment in social media platforms such as Twitter Informational interviews are when an individual laid a foundation for what is now considered an asks questions of a professional in the !eld with integral and successful part of the US women’s the only purpose of learning information. This professional soccer landscape. Initial efforts can be achieved in many different ways: reaching resulted from marketing managers just trying to out to them over the phone, asking questions over !nd ways to break through barriers to social media, or going to conferences. Many coverage.20 sport professionals have expressed the desire to Intrinsic task motivation increases creativity interact with students and young professionals, because the motivation to continue with a task, so taking advantage as a student can grow even when things get hard, can result in individu- domain- relevant skills beyond what is learned in als taking the time to engage in the creative pro- the classroom. These interactions will increase cess. It can lead employees to spend more time creativity through the knowledge gained in their on each aspect of the creative process and con- speci!c context.16 While an individual can be vince others in their organization to adopt their personally motivated to increase their domain- idea. What’s interesting is that once an employee relevant skills, research has found HR program- engages in a task and !nds some success, or feels ming can also improve these skills.17 supported by the organization in that effort, it can 13.2 De!nition of Creativity in Management 141 have a snowball effect increasing the likelihood lacks participants from a low-income neighbor- they will engage with even more effort. For orga- hood nearby. Referring to the organization’s nizations, building support for a sense of compe- vision and goals helps determine which problem tency, alongside giving autonomy, has been should be tackled !rst. For a non-pro!t organiza- shown to improve creativity in employees.21 tion with a strong mission of helping the local community, the second problem is probably more important to pursue !rst. Once a problem has 13.2.4 Engagement in Creativity- been identi!ed to pursue, an examination of any Related Processes sub-problems needs to occur. Breaking down that problem and understanding the sub-problems Creativity does not appear out of thin air. For gives a better understanding of potential areas for example, electronic video boards, a standard creative ideas. practice now in stadiums around the world, did Which brings us to the next step in the pro- not suddenly arrive at stadiums one day. People cess: Information searching and encoding. This is identi!ed problems, found information, and where domain-relevant skills can come into play. came up with ideas on how to solve that problem. Engaging in information searching and encoding They probably did this many times before elec- is the act of using those domain-relevant skills. tronic video boards came to life. The creativity- Seeking out a wide variety of information related related process includes these three stages: (1) to the problem is fundamental to this process Problem Identi!cation; (2) Information Searching engagement.22 Sport is not the only industry deal- and Encoding, and (3) Idea Generation. Problem ing with safety in public spaces or increased use identi!cation involves analyzing the unit of mea- of mobile devices. Therefore, consider sources sure and highlighting any issues, both simple and beyond the sports industry as well. Indeed, sport’s complex. There are large problems and small interaction with a diverse set of stakeholders can problems in every organization. The sports indus- allow for greater idea generation. It’s also impor- try faces many large and complex issues like sys- tant to consistently engage in this stage, as infor- tematic racism in college athletics and burnout in mation or situations can change rapidly in the youth sports. Creativity is needed to tackle these sports industry. The information gathered pro- complex issues that continue to plague sport vides utility for the next stage of the creative organizations. However, even smaller problems process.23 like stadium toilets that continuously clog can require creative solutions. Of course, larger prob- c Idea Generation The act of coming up with lems require much more effort. potentially new and useful ideas related to the Problem identi!cation seems easy at !rst. speci!c unit of measure. Who can’t !nd problems in sports? However, an essential part of problem identi!cation is The !nal stage of creativity-related processes choosing problems and identifying underlying or is idea generation. Idea generation is the act of sub- problems. As much as we would like to solve coming up with potentially new and useful ideas all the world’s problems, we all have constraints, related to the speci!c unit of measure. While idea whether it be time, money, or another resource. generation is the stage of the creativity process Deciding which issues to pursue must be where the new idea comes to light, it is really the informed by the organization or workgroup’s culmination of the !rst two stages that leads to vision and goals. That will help any idea be both stage three. As research in professional sport new and useful. For example, an employee at a indicated, these three stages are distinct actions.24 non-pro!t youth swimming organization has While interaction improves creative idea genera- identi!ed pricing ef!ciency as an issue for the tion, autonomy also plays a role. Imagine the program. That’s certainly a problem that needs to loudest person in a workgroup; they often offer be addressed. However, the organization also up their ideas before anyone else can participate. 142 13 Behaviors and Creativity

That !rst response can shape the rest of the dis- well, depending on the type of organization. cussion. Simple idea generation activities can Research has found declining sectors such as avoid this problem. Engaging in these three yachting and skiing focus more on process inno- stages consistently and iteratively has been vations, whereas newer sports, such as mountain shown to produce more creative ideas.25 biking and snowboarding, focused on product We’ll discuss workgroups in greater detail in innovations.29 Innovations are more common the next two chapters. within organizations focused on emerging sports.30 That makes sense because newer sports c Divergent Thinking The ability to be don’t have as much tradition to leverage when it imaginative, "exible, or expand on the initial comes to luring in fans or participants. Newer thought. sports don’t have parents introducing their children to the sport. A common aspect of success in Beyond the creative process, factors such as innovation implementation is the innovation personality and thinking style also affect creativ- champion. An innovation champion takes on the ity. Scholars found that those who had a positive idea and preservers to get it implemented in their perception of newness had more innovation in organization.31 their organization in sport research.26 For those Unless an employee is encouraged to be inno- who can think divergently, creativity comes eas- vative at work, doing these types of actions would ier. Divergent thinking means the ability to be be considered extra-role behaviors. Research imaginative, "exible, or expand on the initial indicates that employees in sport organizations thought. That makes sense. Coming up with new often view innovative work behaviors as some- ideas requires some imagination. Another think- thing beyond what is expected of them at work, ing style that helps is critical thinking. When so they have to want to engage in these behav- employees use critical thinking, they analyze a iors.32 However, as mentioned previously, situation, dig into the underlying sub-issues, and research also indicates that being innovative has connect outside ideas to a speci!c industry. bene!ts to the employee, including better job Finally, personality traits such as being indepen- performance and higher job satisfaction. dent, open to experience, and self-con!dent increase creative idea generation.27 As we learned in Chap. 9, these traits can be found in multiple 13.3.1 Sport Entrepreneurs personality types. While these are harder to shift in employees for managers, engaging in the cre- One aspect of being innovative includes entrepre- ative process or increasing domain-relevant skills neurship in sport. Entrepreneurs in the sports can improve thinking styles. industry are free to be open to new ideas and always looking for future trends and opportunities because they work for themselves. They are usu- 13.3 Being Innovative as a Sport ally individuals who are proactive in taking risks Manager so that they can develop a viable business within the sports industry.33 Think about entrepreneurs Creativity is the beginning step to innovation. So, who !rst developed professional sports teams and while having creative ideas is great, it is only the leagues. Something we take for granted now. starting point. After coming up with a creative There was a lot of failure in the early days of idea, the next steps are to decide to adopt the developing any professional sport. Some entre- innovation and implement it.28 Implementing preneurs failed multiple times but eventually innovative ideas on a personal level for employ- developed franchises that endure today.34 ees can bene!t both the individual and the orga- Most sport entrepreneurs are focused on mak- nization. Interestingly, innovation in sport ing their sport-related product or service into a organizations is different within the industry as pro!table business; however, entrepreneurs can 13.4 How Can You Be More Creative at Work? 143 engage with any segment of the sports industry, tively, and they are likely contributing to burnout. including non-pro!ts and sport for develop- This is where the sports industry could borrow ment.35 These people are often optimists and able ideas from tech. For example, Google built-in to handle risk. They also can see opportunities time for employees to work on passion projects. where others may not. A great example of this is Think strategically about the hours you require the adventure racing sector of the sports industry. your employees to be in the of!ce or the task load In a relatively recent phenomenon, these sport you give them. Another resource to consider is entrepreneurs were able to see a need in consum- space. The physical work environment affects an ers to challenge themselves in dif!cult sport individual’s ability to engage in creative thought. experiences, such as running through electri!ed While an organization’s realities limit changes to wire or rope swing over muddy, icy water. This the physical environment and building or reno- sector is now pro!table, and those who invested vating spaces can be expensive, giving employ- early in companies such as Tough Mudder or ees "exibility in their work environment can Spartan Races have seen their bet pay off. allow them to !nd or create spaces that inspire creativity.

13.4 How Can You Be More Creative at Work? 13.4.2 Autonomy

As mentioned above, engaging in the creative Similar to Google’s idea of providing time for process increases the likelihood of producing employees to engage in passion projects, giving creative ideas, which can then generate innova- autonomy to individual employees can increase tion. There are a number of factors and actions the production of creative ideas. While sport managers can take to improve that likelihood as often encourages everyone to be a team player, well. This includes providing resources, increas- that also means those individuals will not engage ing autonomy, allowing for rest, and conducting in creative or innovative behaviors unless explic- effective idea generation exercises. itly encouraged to do so.38 Giving autonomy doesn’t mean letting employees do whatever they want whenever they want, but micromanaging 13.4.1 Resource Allocation how individuals work toward organizational goals will sti"e innovative and creative ideas. A Obvious resources in an organization include highly rigid work environment can sti"e creativ- money, facilities, or equipment. These are tangi- ity because it doesn’t allow individual employees ble resources that are often itemized and counted to engage in extra-role behaviors, such as the cre- in an organization. However, a fundamental ative process. Additionally, increased autonomy resource when discussing increasing creativity is at work gives employees more opportunity to time. Research in Minor League Baseball activate their intrinsic motivation. recently argued that time constraints might be an issue in connecting innovative work behaviors and organizational success.36 Having time to 13.4.3 Rest engage in creative processes or build domain- relevant skills can pay dividends for an organiza- There is a lot of evidence that seemingly silly tion.37 This may mean providing time away from things like going for a walk, gardening, or taking the of!ce. The sports industry is often a place a shower can spark ideas. This is because these where it is celebrated to work extreme hours, activities provide people with something for the coming into the of!ce at 9 a.m. despite the game body to do while leaving the mind open to pro- going until midnight the night before. However, cess information. That gives the brain a rest to it is unlikely all those hours are spent produc- subconsciously connect previous information 144 13 Behaviors and Creativity collected during the information searching and and trying to see how they relate to each other. encoding stage. Detaching physically and emo- This can be practiced with random objects tionally, but not cognitively from work, allows such as a "ower and a ticket machine. By for improved health while still grappling with breaking down each one’s elements and think- challenging problems.39 Likewise, research found ing about how they could be related, new syn- dreaming speci!cally helps develop creative apses in the brain are formed. As a result, a ideas.40 So, when feeling stuck about an issue, new product or process could be discovered. taking a walk in the woods or getting some sleep In juxtaposing two seemingly unrelated items, can help. The neuroscience still isn’t clear, but interesting opportunities could arise. Take a the speci!c act of looking at trees while walking moment to practice juxtaposition. Here are can help spark those creative ideas.41 your two things—the internet of things and sport venues. Go! Juxtaposition should be a consistent practice. It is more about training 13.4.4 Engaging in the Creative the brain to think differently than producing Process immediate results. 3. Worst Idea Ever. This simple exercise pro- As mentioned above, idea generation is the last vides an opportunity to reframe a problem. step in a three-stage creative process. Idea gen- Reframing problems can inspire new ideas by eration itself can involve a variety of activities. analyzing the problem from another angle. By practicing these exercises, individuals can Take one minute and come up with the worst help improve the likelihood that a creative idea idea ever related to a speci!c issue. Try to will come about. Some simple exercises can help. come up with a truly, completely, awful idea. While not an exhaustive list, here are a few of Celebrate whatever idea emerges for its level them: of failure to be useful. Perhaps the idea is too expensive, or requires too much risk, or seems 1. Idea Lists. One way to inspire new connec- silly and childish, or takes up too much time. tions in the brain is a time-constrained listing However, many ideas now useful in sport at exercise. Focused on one particular problem, one point may have been considered terrible. list as many ideas as possible in two minutes. For example, virtual reality has taken years The key here is not to think about each idea for technology to make it viable, but it has but to write them down. Handwrite them. It been part of the sport management discussion will be hard at !rst not to immediately evalu- since the 1990s. Virtual reality is now being ate each idea as they come up, but trying to implemented in stadiums across the world. focus on writing down as many ideas as pos- Thinking outside the box is much easier said sible can bring up unusual or unexpected than done. A great idea, but starting from a possibilities. The point of this exercise is to point of impossible and moving toward pos- pull out ideas that may not be on the surface. sible is much easier than starting from within Usually, !rst-time attempts generate three to the box and attempting to think outwardly. four ideas. This is because people get stuck The purpose of this exercise is not to come up and start overthinking each idea. Therefore, with a feasible idea but to reframe the problem practicing this exercise more than once is a through a unique lens. In turn, you may come great way to push past those inclinations. With closer to a creative idea than starting with some practice, listing 15 to 20 ideas will come what has already been done. more naturally. The idea generation phase is 4. Yes And. The activities mentioned above are not the place to decide if the idea is feasible or meant to be individual activities. As men- useful, but to develop possibilities. tioned earlier, group dynamics can sometimes 2. Juxtaposition Two Objects or Ideas. suppress creative expression. It is better to Juxtapositioning is taking two things or ideas start with individual activities before moving 13.5 Summary 145

to group sharing or activities. The Yes And predictive validity. Academy of Management Journal, activity is a group activity inspired by impro- 41(1), 108–119. 3. Husin, S., Chelladurai, P., & Musa, G. (2012). HRM vised comedy. Take one possible solution to a practices, organizational citizenship behaviors, and problem and build on it from person to person. perceived service quality in golf courses. Journal of No one is allowed to eye-roll or reject the pre- Sport Management, 26(2), 143–158. vious suggestion, but they must build on it. It 4. Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Paine, J. B., & Bachrach, D. G. (2000). Organizational citizenship promotes acceptance of unusual ideas in the behaviours: A critical review of the theoretical and group and seeing elements of possibility in empirical literature and suggestions for future even the craziest of ideas. research. Journal of Management, 26, 513–563. 5. Vigoda-Gadot, E. (2007). Redrawing the boundaries of OCB? An empirical examination of compulsory extra-role behavior in the workplace. Journal of busi- 13.5 Summary ness and psychology, 21(3), 377–405. 6. Smith, N. L., Barnhill, C., & Sung, H. (2020). Effects of Employees’ Extra-Role Behaviors on Understanding what employees in an organiza- Organizational Performance: An Assessment of tion consider in-role versus extra-role behaviors Minor League Baseball Team Front Of!ces. Journal provides clarity for both employee and supervi- of Global Sport Management, 1–18. sor. Encouraging extra-role behaviors without 7. Love, A., & Kim, S. (2019). Organizational citizenship behavior in sport: a perspective from athletes. impeding in-role behaviors toward core tasks is a Journal of Sport Management, 33(1), 25–36. balance managers must strive for. While person- 8. Wolfe, R., Wright, P. M., & Smart, D. L. (2006). ality traits and thinking perspectives are helpful Radical HRM innovation and competitive advantage: in creativity in sport, sport employees’ regular The Moneyball story. Human Resource Management, 45(1), 111–145. behaviors are what produce long-term creativity 9. Smith, N.L. & Green, B.C. (2020). Examining the and innovation in the sports industry. Whether Factors In"uencing Organizational Creativity in those are considered in-role or extra-role behav- Professional Sport Organizations. Sport Management iors, building domain-relevant skills and intrinsic Review. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2020.02.003. 10. Rubera, G., & Kirca, A. H. (2012). Firm innovative- task motivation, as well as regularly engaging in ness and its performance outcomes: A meta-analytic creative processes, will help improve the creativ- review and theoretical integration. Journal of ity of sport employees. Marketing, 76(3), 130–147. 11. Smith, N. L., Barnhill, C., & Sung, H. (2020). Effects of Employees’ Extra-Role Behaviors on Discussion Questions Organizational Performance: An Assessment of Minor League Baseball Team Front Of!ces. Journal 1. What is the most interesting new idea or prod- of Global Sport Management, 1–18. uct you’ve seen in sports recently? How do 12. Amabile, T. M., Conti, R., Coon, H., Lazenby, J., & Herron, M. (1996). Assessing the work environment you think that idea came about? Why do you for creativity. Academy of Management Journal, think it has been successful? 39(5), 1154–1184. 2. What ways have you found helps you become 13. Troilo, M., Bouchet, A., Urban, T. L., & Sutton, W. A. more creative when you think about your (2016). Perception, reality, and the adoption of business analytics: Evidence from North American pro- future or current career in sports? fessional sport organizations. Omega, 59, 72–83. 3. Do a few of the exercises in the chapter above. 14. Ratten, V. (2014). Future research directions for col- How did you feel doing those exercises? What lective entrepreneurship in developing countries: a did you notice about the ideas you came up small and medium-sized enterprise perspective. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small with? Business, 22(2), 266–274. 15. Amabile, T. M., & Pratt, M. G. (2016). The dynamic Notes componential model of creativity and innovation in organizations: Making progress, making meaning. 1. Katz, D. (1964). The motivational basis of organiza- Research in organizational behavior, 36, 157–183. tional behavior. Behavioral science, 9(2), 131–146. 16. Perry-Smith, J. E., & Shalley, C. E. (2003). The social side 2. Van Dyne, L., & LePine, J. A. (1998). Helping and of creativity: A static and dynamic social network per- voice extra-role behaviors: Evidence of construct and spective. Academy of management review, 28(1), 89–106. 146 13 Behaviors and Creativity

17. Chang, S., Jia, L., Takeuchi, R., & Cai, Y. (2014). Do 31. Greenhalgh, G., Dwyer, B., & Biggio, B. (2014). high- commitment work systems affect creativity? A There’s an App for That: The Development of an NFL multilevel combinational approach to employee cre- Team Mobile Application. Journal of Applied Sport ativity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 99(4), 665. Management, 6(4); Hoeber, L., Doherty, A., Hoeber, 18. Amabile, T. M., & Pratt, M. G. (2016). The dynamic O., & Wolfe, R. (2015). The nature of innovation in componential model of creativity and innovation in community sport organizations. European Sport organizations: Making progress, making meaning. Management Quarterly, 15(5), 518–534; Winand, M., Research in organizational behavior, 36, 157–183. & Anagnostopoulos, C. (2017). Get ready to inno- 19. Wolfe, R., Wright, P. M., & Smart, D. L. (2006). vate! Staff’s disposition to implement service innova- Radical HRM innovation and competitive advantage: tion in non-pro!t sport organisations. International The Moneyball story. Human Resource Management, Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 9(4), 579–595. 45(1), 111–145. 32. Barnhill, C. R., & Smith, N. L. (2019). Psychological 20. oche, R. (2016). Promoting women’s soccer through contract ful!lment and innovative work behaviours of social media: how the US federation used Twitter for employees in sport-based SBEs: the mediating role of the 2011 World Cup. Soccer & Society, 17(1), 90–108. organisational citizenship. International Journal of 21. Amabile, T., & Kramer, S. (2011). The progress prin- Sport Management and Marketing, 19(1–2), 106–128. ciple: Using small wins to ignite joy, engagement, and 33. Ratten, V. (2014). Future research directions for col- creativity at work. Harvard Business Press. lective entrepreneurship in developing countries: a 22. Zhang, X., & Bartol, K. M. (2010). Linking empow- small and medium-sized enterprise perspective. ering leadership and employee creativity: The in"u- International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small ence of psychological empowerment, intrinsic Business, 22(2), 266–274. motivation, and creative process engagement. 34. Rader, B.G. (2008) Baseball: A history of America’s Academy of management journal, 53(1), 107–128. game. University of Illinois Press. 23. Kellison, T. B., & Hong, S. (2015). The adoption and 35. Svensson, P. G., & Seifried, C. S. (2017). Navigating diffusion of pro-environmental stadium design. plurality in hybrid organizing: The case of sport for European Sport Management Quarterly, 15(2), development and peace entrepreneurs. Journal of 249–269. Sport Management, 31(2), 176–190. 24. Smith, N.L. & Green, B.C. (2020). Examining the 36. Barnhill, C. R., & Smith, N. L. (2019). Psychological Factors In"uencing Organizational Creativity in contract ful!lment and innovative work behaviours Professional Sport Organizations. Sport of employees in sport-based SBEs: the mediating Management Review. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. role of organisational citizenship. International smr.2020.02.003. Journal of Sport Management and Marketing, 19(1– 25. To, M. L., Herman, H. M., & Ashkanasy, N. M. 2), 106–128. (2015). A multilevel model of transformational lead- 37. Amabile, T. M., & Pratt, M. G. (2016). The dynamic ership, affect, and creative process behavior in work componential model of creativity and innovation in teams. The leadership quarterly, 26(4), 543–556. organizations: Making progress, making meaning. 26. Winand, M., & Anagnostopoulos, C. (2017). Get Research in organizational behavior, 36, 157–183. ready to innovate! Staff’s disposition to implement 38. Barnhill, C. R., & Smith, N. L. (2019). Psychological service innovation in non-pro!t sport organisations. contract ful!lment and innovative work behaviours of International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, employees in sport-based SBEs: the mediating role of 9(4), 579–595. organisational citizenship. International Journal of 27. Matthew, C. T. (2009). Leader creativity as a predictor Sport Management and Marketing, 19(1–2), 106–128. of leading change in organizations. Journal of Applied 39. de Jonge, J., Spoor, E., Sonnentag, S., Dormann, C., Social Psychology, 39(1), 1–41. & van den Tooren, M. (2012). “Take a break?!” Off- 28. Hoeber, L., & Hoeber, O. (2012). Determinants of an job recovery, job demands, and job resources as pre- innovation process: A case study of technological dictors of health, active learning, and creativity. innovation in a community sport organization. European Journal of Work and Organizational Journal of sport management, 26(3), 213–223. Psychology, 21(3), 321–348. 29. Desbordes, M. (2002). Empirical analysis of the inno- 40. Cai, D. J., Mednick, S. A., Harrison, E. M., Kanady, vation phenomena in the sports equipment industry. J. C., & Mednick, S. C. (2009). REM, not incubation, Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 14(4), improves creativity by priming associative networks. 481–498. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 30. Hoeber, L., Doherty, A., Hoeber, O., & Wolfe, R. 106(25), 10,130–10,134. (2015). The nature of innovation in community sport 41. Yu, C. P. S., & Hsieh, H. (2020). Beyond restorative organizations. European Sport Management bene!ts: Evaluating the effect of forest therapy on Quarterly, 15(5), 518–534. creativity. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. Part IV Understanding Work Groups and Teams

In between the organizational level and the individual level are workgroups and teams. Each workgroup and team is unique, even within one organization. This unit will examine the important elements of workgroups and the different types of work teams employed by sport organizations. Then we will discuss how to build creative and innovative work teams, as well as engage in the innovation process. We’ll also discuss con!ict and negotiation, and understand the role of politics and power in work teams. Finally, we’ll learn about how leadership plays a role in these workgroups. Understanding how these workgroups are formed, interact, create, negotiate, con!ict, and are lead can help any manager in the sports industry seeking to build a successful organization or workgroup. Group and Team Development 14

c Learning Objectives After reading this comed spectators into Estadio Cuauhtémoc chapter, students should be able to: for a match. Now that Covid- 19 restrictions have been lifted, the club would be able to • Recognize the difference between infor- welcome spectators back when it opened its mal groups, formal groups, and teams. season in two months. The opening match • Determine which types of teams are would be a friendly against Argentinian most appropriate for a project. club River Plate. Heliot missed the vibrant • Outline the factors that in!uence team atmosphere of match day with 50,000 spec- success. tators in attendance. Now, he was in charge • Understand the dangers of groupthink. of making sure that Estadio Cuauhtémoc was ready to (1) welcome back spectators, (2) host a pre-match festival outside the venue, and (3) host a post-match concert on the pitch. As excited as he was, this was a Dennette Thornton: Director of Group huge undertaking. Heliot knew he would Sales and Stadium Tours, Arthur need a team. Whom would he ask to be a M. Blank Sports and Entertainment part of it? To listen to the interview If you were in Heliot’s shoes, how would you form your team? Would you choose people you work well with, or would you prefer people based on exper- Reopening Estadio Cuauhtémoc Heliot tise? Would your team be solely dedicated was thrilled with his new assignment. It had to this project, or would people contribute been over a year since CF Puebla had wel- to the team while also completing their other duties? Would your team be limited to organizational members, or would you bring in outsiders? These decisions can be dif"cult for even more experienced manag- Supplementary Information The online version of this ers, but they also have a signi"cant effect chapter (https://doi.org/10.1007/978- 3- 030- 67612- 4_14) contains supplementary material, which is available to on whether the team will be successful. authorized users.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 149 C. R. Barnhill et al., Organizational Behavior in Sport Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67612-4_14 150 14 Group and Team Development

14.1.1 Formal Groups Sport organizations rely on teamwork, both on and off the "eld. As a sport manager, Formal groups are groups that are formally rec- you will be asked to be a member of many ognized by the organization but do not have a groups and teams. You will also be tasked de"ned organizational function. You may with developing and managing teams. This belong to several formal groups on your cam- chapter will focus on group and team pus, for example, a sport management majors dynamics. Topics that will be discussed club or a club sports team. These groups are include differences between groups and recognized by your institution and may receive teams, the formation of group and team funding, but they do not directly contribute to norms, and factors that in!uence team the university’s mission. In the workplace, for- success. mal groups often form around hobbies. For example, organizations often support book clubs, jogging clubs, and many other activities c Groups Two or more people who in!uence enjoyed by employees. These clubs provide one another through social interaction. comradery that contributes to relationship building. For employees who are lower on the c Teams Groups working within the larger organizational chart, formal groups offer oppor- organization, with de"ned membership and tunities to gain social capital by providing assigned roles requiring interdependency, to chances to interact with more powerful employ- conduct tasks in line with the organizational ees.3 Formal groups can also develop feelings mission. of attachment to the organization, which can spur engagement.

14.1 De"ning Work Groups c A!nity Groups Groups that are organized and Teams around a shared identity like race, gender, sexual orientation, age, and mental health. The terms “groups” and “teams” are often used interchangeably. I’m sure your professor has Formal groups can also exist to support likely done so in this course, but within organi- employees. Affinity groups, also known as zational behavior, groups and teams are very employee resource groups, are generally orga- different. Groups are simply two or more people nized around a shared identity like race, gen- who in!uence one another through social inter- der, sexual orientation, age, and mental health. action.1 Teams are groups working within the These groups provide a safe space or refuge larger organization, with de"ned membership for employees belonging to underrepresented and assigned roles requiring interdependency, to populations to speak freely about their experi- conduct tasks in line with the organizational ences and find belonging amongst others who mission.2 Teams can further be distinguished have shared experiences. Employees have from groups in that teams’ actions affect stake- multiple social identities tied to their career, holders within and outside of the organization. employer, society, and personal lives. Affinity Both groups and teams can have signi"cant groups can help employees find meaningful impacts on organizations. Let’s begin by explor- links between their identities but also discuss ing the types of groups that may form within an conflict.4 organization. c Mentoring Groups Groups that offer less c Formal Groups Groups that are formally experienced employees opportunities to interact recognized by the organization but do not have a with and gain advice from more experienced and de"ned organizational function. more powerful employees. 14.2 Work Teams 151

Mentoring groups offer less experienced color, and lesbian, bisexual, gay, transgender, and employees opportunities to interact with and gain queer (LBGTQ) individuals by denying them advice from more experienced and more power- access to social capital.8 Thus, organizations need ful employees.5 Af"nity groups and mentoring to be aware of informal groups forming in their groups are generally recognized by organizations organization and industry. making them formal groups. They can also have Many of you will join alumni groups when you signi"cant positive impacts on the organization, graduate from your institution. In part, this allows but to be effective, their primary focus must be on you to maintain elements of your former social employee well-being and development. identity as you move into massive changes in your life. Similarly, group membership, be it with infor- c Informal Groups Groups are not sanctioned mal or formal groups, often becomes a critical ele- or provided support from the organization. ment of an individual’s workplace identity to the point where people often try to maintain af"liation with groups after their relationship with the orga- 14.1.2 Informal Groups nization ends. Work teams can also become part of one’s social identity, but more so for the recogni- Unlike formal groups, informal groups are not tion membership brings within the organization. sanctioned or provided support from the organization. However, they often serve many of the same functions as formal groups. Informal groups often 14.2 Work Teams form when employees share a common interest and are seeking social connections. Common As the previous section noted, workgroups are examples of informal groups include lunch clubs, important elements of an organization. As their pri- Bible studies, bowling teams, and many other mary objectives, they allow employees to share activities in which employees may enjoy with each information, create relationships, forge a social other. Since informal groups are not sanctioned by identity, and generate social capital. Teams can also the organization, they can include outside mem- provide these bene"ts, but their primary objective bers. For example, executives from several Major is to bene"t the organization’s mission. Suppose League Baseball (MLB) organizations belong to a Heliot, from the opening of the chapter, formed an running club. The club formed during the Covid-19 organizationally sponsored kickball team that pandemic as a way to build camaraderie and enjoy played in the local recreational league after work (a friendly competition.6 There are many, now formal formal group). In that case, the team could be suc- groups, such as Women in Sports and Events cessful even if it never won a game. The kickball (WISE), that began as informal groups. team’s purpose would be to have fun, relax, and get Bene"ts to membership in an informal group to know coworkers. Heliot’s stadium preparation are generally positive for employees. Potential team may also enjoy working together and building bene"ts include socialization, mentorship, satis- relationships between members; however, if the faction, and development of social capital.7 stadium is not prepared for the opening match, it However, these bene"ts are less likely to be would be viewed as a failure. The team’s only pre- attributed to the organization by the employee. scribed goal was for the stadium to be ready. Informal groups can also have negative out- Teams exist to accomplish a task, and their comes. If members are disgruntled, their unhap- performance is measured as a collective. In other piness can spread throughout the informal group. words, the team members are only considered If certain employees or groups of employees are successful if the team is successful. Although left out or excluded from informal groups, it can teams may share many characteristics of groups, lead to feelings of resentment and isolation. members are chosen because they provide a com- Speci"cally, informal groups can be used to iso- plementary skill or knowledge set that will posi- late and discriminate against women, people of tively impact team performance.9 Team members 152 14 Group and Team Development generally have assigned roles. Accountability Table 14.1 Calgary Stampeders departmental teams occurs at both the individual and collective lev- Business operations teams Football operations teams els.10 Members may be removed from the team if Communications Coaching they do not contribute to team success. In this Digital media Player personnel section, we’ll explore various elements of teams, Marketing Scouting beginning with different types of teams. Sponsorship sales Medical Ticket sales Equipment Fan services Video operations Event operations 14.3 Types of Teams Stampeders foundation Retail operations Teams can be formed to accomplish a variety of tasks that meet the organization’s needs. Teams can be formed to make decisions, in!uence pol- 14.3.2 Functional Teams icy, in!uence change, develop new products and services, or even alter public perception of the Functional teams consist of multi-skilled mem- organization. Teams may be permanent or tem- bers from interrelated functional areas that over- porary, but each should be created deliberately to see the ongoing function of the organization. We accomplish the ascribed task the team is assigned. can sub-categorize function teams based on their Let’s discuss common types of teams. organizational function. Production teams produce tangible products. These teams are common in manufacturing segments of the sports industry. 14.3.1 Departmental Teams If you were to visit the Wilson Sporting Goods factory in Ada, Ohio, you would see one of their We often don’t think of our department as a team. production teams making “The Duke,” the of"- In fact, departmental teams are one of the most cial ball of the National Football League (NFL).12 common types of teams in sport organizations. Service teams build relationships with customers Departmental teams consist of employees within over multiple transactions. The Nashville a unit of the organization’s structure to accom- Predators have several service teams that build plish speci"c elements of the organization’s relationships with various types of customers, operational needs. Members of departmental including sponsors, premium seat holders, and teams have assigned roles that exist within the season ticket holders.13 Management teams are department’s own bureaucratic hierarchy. made up of upper- level managers who coordinate However, the bureaucratic functions of the multiple departments. Many college athletic department may be quite different from the rest departments have three management teams: an of the organization.11 For example, an organiza- internal operations team that coordinates operation’s marketing department may have a very !at tional departments, an external operations team structure with informal communication channels, that coordinates departments who interact with all the while functioning within a larger, more external stakeholders, and a senior executive formal "rm. Departmental teams are common in team that coordinates the internal and external sport organizations. US Volleyball has four operations teams. Project teams are temporary departmental teams that oversee various opera- teams that oversee a speci"c project, such as the tional functions and six departmental teams development of a product or running of an event. related to the function of various national teams. For example, a city recreation department may The Calgary Stampeders of the Canadian Football develop a project team to handle a tennis facili- League (CFL) has nine departmental teams that ty’s renovations. Likewise, a WNBA team may contribute to its business operations and six convene a project team to redesign their mascot. departmental teams on its football operations Many municipal sports councils form project side (see Table 14.1). teams to bid on hosting sporting events. If the bid 14.3 Types of Teams 153 is successful, another project team can be created taskforces on the mental health of athletes and on to plan and run the event. gender equity.20 In 2016, UEFA formed a task force to determine Kosovo’s eligibility for World Cup quali"ers, despite the fact that some UEFA 14.3.3 Self-Managed Teams members didn’t recognize the country’s independence.21 Like many of the other team types dis- Self-managed teams are very similar to func- cussed, problem-solving teams often include tional teams, but they function autonomously experts from outside the organization. from the organization.14 Intercollegiate athletic teams can be considered self-managed teams. Even though they are part of larger organizations 14.3.6 Skunkworks (i.e., athletic departments and educational institutions), intercollegiate athletic teams are Skunkworks teams are extremely independent generally allowed to function independently with teams designed to foster innovation within an little oversight from other administrators. Self- organization.22 These teams are often located in managed teams can also provide more experi- different buildings or even different cities from enced or more creative employees the freedom to the rest of the organization, speci"cally to foster explore innovative solutions to issues.15 their independence. Nike’s Sport Research Lab and Innovation Kitchen is located in Beaverton, Oregon, with the rest of Nike’s headquarters, but 14.3.4 Advisory Teams it is isolated from the rest of the campus. One of the research lab’s most famous creations was the Advisory teams are formed to advise the organi- AirJordan sneaker, but it is responsible for devel- zation on various issues that have the potential to oping many of Nike’s high-performance products impact the "rm.16 Potential issues in sport could used by its sponsored athletes.23 Before Nike include changes in technology, policy, or broader divested out of the golf segment, it operated “The societal issues related to diversity and inclusion or Oven” in Fort Worth, Texas, which focused on gender issues. For example, in 2019, the National designing high-performance golf equipment. Hockey League (NHL) and the NHL Players’ Skunkworks are often found in larger organiza- Association created an advisory committee tions that desire to harness the entrepreneurial focused on creating opportunities for women in spirit of a startup. Some scholars have argued that hockey.17 The Australian Football League (AFL) small businesses with limited resources, such as and the AFL Players Associations each formed most sport organizations, could bene"t most indigenous advisory boards in efforts to improve from skunkworks teams.24 In mimetic industries relations between the league and indigenous peo- like sport, innovative outcomes provide impor- ples.18 Both advisory teams include members of tant advantages. the indigenous communities.

14.3.7 Virtual Teams 14.3.5 Problem-Solving Teams Virtual teams are simply teams that meet in a vir- Often called taskforces, problem-solving teams tual environment instead of face to face.25 Virtual are short-term, cross-functional teams formed to teams offer the advantage of not being tied to a address an immediate concern.19 For example, location, thus allowing members from various many sports leagues worldwide started task locations to be members. Sport organizations forces to determine how to deal with the Covid- 19 have been less reliant on virtual teams than orga- pandemic. The NCAA has multiple taskforces to nizations in other industries, but the Covid-19 address concerns in college athletics, including pandemic demanded their use. It remains to be 154 14 Group and Team Development seen if virtual teams become more prominent in a successful team, but organizations must be !ex- sports following the pandemic. Some sport ible. Not all of the elements will work. (2) Not employees enjoyed the work-life balance every situation demands the creation of a team. afforded by virtual work. Others complained of Organizations need to look at their goals and fatigue and the lack of inspiration they derived what needs to be done to reach their goals. In from human interaction. some cases, teamwork is necessary. In other situations, teamwork may hinder organizational efforts. Teams should only be created when they 14.4 Factors In#uencing Team can outperform the work of independent (and Group) Success employees.

Numerous models outlining critical elements of team success have been put forth by academics 14.4.1 Context and professionals. Robbins and Judge26 put forth a model that essentially summarizes what we Contextual factors are related organizational know about creating effective teams. You can see environment in which the team operates. In other the model in Fig. 14.1. Before we discuss the ele- words, does the organization support the team? ments of the model, it is critical to note a few There are four contextual factors in the model: important caveats. (1) Every team is different. adequate resources, leadership and structure, a They have different functions, sizes, and struc- climate of trust, and an evaluation and reward tures. The model can be used as a guide to create system.

Context •Adequate resources •Leadership and structure •Climate of trust •Evaluation and reward systems Composition •Abilities of members •Personality •Role allocation •Diversity •Team size •Flexibility of members •Member preferences Work Design •Autonomy •Skill variety •Task identity •Task significance Process •Common purpose •Specific goals •Team efficacy •Conflict levels •Social loafing

Fig. 14.1 Team effectiveness model27 14.4 Factors In"uencing Team (and Group) Success 155

14.4.1.1 Adequate Resources trust, members must exert time and energy moni- Of all the factors in!uencing team success, access toring their colleagues. This detracts from the to adequate resources may be the most important original purpose of team formation. In contrast, element in team success. All teams, regardless of teams with high trust levels are more likely to their level of autonomy, rely on their parent orga- seek innovative solutions because information nization for resource support. Resources that !ows more freely, and members are less inhibited in!uence team success include access to infor- in sharing ideas.29 mation, time to function, "nancial support, access to proper equipment, administrative assistance, 14.4.1.4 Evaluation and Reward and proper staf"ng. Additionally, teams need System political support throughout the organization and As already noted, teams are judged more on over- emotional support from leadership. Without all performance, not individual performance. At proper resource support, teams will !ounder the team level, determining how to hold others regardless of how well the members function accountable is essential in building trust and together. accountability. Rewards are almost always pref- erable to punitive measures. The organization can 14.4.1.2 Leadership and Structure help by clearly outlining what is expected of the We can think of teams as smaller sub- team and outlining rewards for the team’s suc- organizations functioning within a broader orga- cess.30 It is important to remember that in many nizational context. In order to be successful, team cases, team members will be completing team- members must ensure that all members are con- related duties in addition to their normal in-role tributing as needed to the team workload. Teams duties. The organization can facilitate team-level must also determine meeting schedules and dead- efforts by clearly outlining "nancial and non- lines, determine how decisions are made, how to "nancial incentives for team success. resolve con!ict, and what processes are needed to complete the team’s tasks. Often, the organization will contribute to the team’s initial structure 14.4.2 Composition by selecting key members and delegating roles. However, most successful teams will eventually Composition factors relate to consideration develop at least basic autonomy levels over team- around team member selection. Some questions based decisions, including roles and decision- that the organization should consider are: How making processes around a shared, team-level big should the team be? What skills are needed for vision of success.28 the team to be successful? What are the personalities of the team members? What types of diversity 14.4.1.3 Climate of Trust are needed?31 This section explores composition In many ways, team members take on a level of factors in Robbins and Judge’s model.32 risk when they join. Evaluations of their performance are now at the team level instead of based 14.4.2.1 Abilities of Members on their individual performance. In other words, Tom Brady is one of the most successful quarter- if the team fails, each member will likely be held backs in NFL history. With his teammates, he has to some level of responsibility regardless of their won six championships. Now imagine a team full personal performance. Successful teams need of Tom Brady’s. They would likely not win a high levels of trust between members bonded game. Tom Brady has an amazing skill set as a around their shared responsibilities. Think about quarterback, but most of those skills would not team projects in your classes. Not only do you transfer to other positions on the "eld. need to do your part, but you must also trust oth- Similarly, an event team needs members with ers to do their work at a high level for the team to knowledge in facilities, event planning, market- earn a high grade. When teams do not develop ing, sponsorship, "nance, and sales. Trying to 156 14 Group and Team Development plan an event with people who only have a spon- can cause burnout. It can also cause rifts in sorship background would be a disaster. Effective teamwork if one member is less motivated. As teams synergize the knowledge, skills, and abili- a manager, it may be best to choose someone ties of individual members to accomplish tasks who is slightly less talented by excited for the that are beyond the scope of an individual. And, opportunity to contribute. while most teams need members with necessary technical skills (i.e., ability to build a budget or 14.4.2.4 Diversity advertising campaign), successful teams also In 2017, University of Missouri Athletics fea- need members who possess problem-solving tured a social media campaign titled, “More than skills, decision-making skills, and interpersonal a Student-Athlete.” The campaign intended to skills to integrate technical contributions into a showcase the non-sport aspirations of its athletes. collective effort.33 Verbiage next to photos of White athletes highlighted their career aspirations, while the ver- 14.4.2.2 Personality biage next to Black athletes focused on their In addition to complementary skill sets, team racial identity. The campaign was criticized members need to have compatible personalities. because it gave the impression that Black student- Most effective teams have higher levels of extra- athletes were just Black, while White student- version, conscientiousness, agreeableness, open- athletes had other ambitions. A major criticism ness, and emotional intelligence.34 The exact mix leveled at Mizzou was that none of the team of personality traits needed may depend on the members who designed or approved the cam- type of team and its overall goals. A skunkworks paign were people of color. Unfortunately, there team is going to require members to be more are many similarities both in sport and in other open to ideas. A team confronting a dif"cult chal- industries. See SJ Magazine’s 2017 panel titled lenge will need the stability provided by emo- “Women in Business: A man’s point of view” as tional intelligence. One important "nding from a similar example.36 the research is that variability in personality traits Diversity on teams has a signi"cant impact on between team members often leads to poor per- team success.37 Homogeneous teams tend to view formance.35 In other words, a team with some issues from similar perspectives,38 whereas het- highly agreeable members and some less agree- erogeneous teams, those composed of people able members will likely struggle to meet its with different perspectives and backgrounds, goals. explore issues from multiple viewpoints.39 Diverse teams are more likely to avoid mistakes 14.4.2.3 Role Allocation like racist advertising campaigns, sexist discus- In most team types, members have assigned sion panels, and failing to consider quali"ed job roles. This allows members to understand how candidates. More importantly, diverse teams are they contribute to the team’s success. A critical more likely to outperform homogeneous teams component of team selection is placing mem- across a wide range of functions. bers in roles that "t their abilities. Imagine if Chapter 3 noted that diversity encompasses Tom Brady was playing offensive line instead many elements, including age, gender, race, of quarterback or if Messi was moved to nationality, sexual orientation, personality, edu- keeper. It just wouldn’t work. However, man- cation, experience, expertise, and disabilities. agers also need to be aware of the members’ Diverse groups are more likely to engage in cog- desire to have a speci"ed role. Imagine your nitive con!ict (see Chap. 16), which stems idea favorite sport to play. What is your least favor- generation, creativity, innovative behaviors, and ite position? How does your effort change problem-solving. Diversity has been found to when you are in a role you do not enjoy, even if bene"t every type of team and is vital for certain you have the required abilities? Assigning team team types like advisory teams, problem-solving members to roles that they do not want to have teams, and skunkworks. 14.4 Factors In"uencing Team (and Group) Success 157

14.4.2.5 Team Size 14.4.3.2 Skill Variety Organizations must give careful thought to team In many instances, team members will be size. Teams should be no bigger than needed to engaging in tasks that are outside of their nor- accomplish the necessary task. Larger teams are mal job functions. Team members report being more susceptible to role ambiguity, communication motivated by opportunities to showcase skill- issues, and time issues, to name a few. According to sets that they do not normally use in their regu- several scholars and practitioners, teams should lar organizational roles, as well as opportunities never have more than ten members.40 to learn new skill sets.43 Skill variety encourages engagement, leading to a host of positive 14.4.2.6 Flexibility of Team Members outcomes for the individual, team, and organi- Teams can be much more adaptable to change zation. That said, too much task variety can than the larger organization. Further, teams often lead to stress if the employee feels that they are need to be adaptable due to the nature of their being asked to do too much. It can also damage tasks. If team members are !exible, both in their team effectiveness if employees are asked to abilities and willingness to adapt, teams can engage in skills that fall outside of their adjust faster than the organization as a whole.41 abilities. Without !exibility among members, teams may need to recruit new members or remove members 14.4.3.3 Task Identity who no longer "t the team’s mission. If you talk to someone on a work team, there is a good chance they will bring it up in a conversation 14.4.2.7 Member Preferences about their work. They state something like, “I It has already been discussed within several fac- really enjoy my job. I work in community rela- tors on this list, but it is extremely important that tions, but I am also part of the youth development chosen members want to be a part of the team in team.” Membership on a team can add to an their assigned role. Many employees do not want employee’s work-based and career-based social to be a part of a team. Selecting an individual identity. For many employees, just being asked to who does not want to take part in a team’s work be a part of a team is a tremendous sign of recogni- will damage that individual’s workplace attitudes tion. Organizations can use this to build motivation and likely lower team morale. of members, increasing team effectiveness. Social capital also comes with the new identity as employees gain access to people in other segments 14.4.3 Work Design of the organization and with more political power.44

Work design factors relate directly to the purposes of 14.4.3.4 Task Signi"cance the team’s existence. Teams should exist because Similar to task identity, task signi"cance can they are needed to accomplish a task that falls outside have in!uence workplace attitudes and motiva- of the organization’s general functions. Thus, they tion of members. Task signi"cance relates to the will also need to function somewhat independently importance of the task to the organization. More from the organization’s prevailing operating norms. important tasks carry greater task signi"cance.

14.4.3.1 Autonomy By de"nition, self-managed teams and skunkworks 14.4.4 Process must function with near-total autonomy from the rest of the organization. However, all teams need The "nal factors of team effectiveness are pro- some level of autonomy to develop their own process factors. These factors relate to member cesses and norms. Even departmental teams and behaviors. Teams work when members "nd functional teams need enough autonomy to develop ways to harness their collective efforts to ef"cient processes, roles, and norms.42 achieve a common goal. When teams are dys- 158 14 Group and Team Development functional, the collective effort can detract from ideas.49 Because teams are often working on what members could accomplish working novel problems, task con!ict spurs members to independently. contemplate their best options for developing a solution. Task con!ict also helps avoid group- 14.4.4.1 Common Purpose think, one of the most detrimental behaviors for Teams must have a common purpose around teams. However, managing con!ict is dif"cult. which their mission, goals, and tasks are built. Team leaders must encourage task con!ict while Although the organization provides the initial avoiding having con!ict become personal task around which the team is built, team mem- between members. Relational con!ict pulls bers build the common purpose by discussing energy away from team goals and damages trust and agreeing on not only what it will take to among members.50 accomplish the task but also what successful accomplishment looks like. The common pur- 14.4.4.5 Social Loa"ng pose belongs to the team as a collective as well as Social loa"ng is an undesirable behavior among each individual member. The common purpose team members where an employee essentially provides direction, allows members to under- hides out on the team to avoid their normal roles stand how their role contributes to team success, or because they lose motivation to achieve the and motivates members to work together.45 common purpose. Social loa"ng detracts from a team’s ef"ciency because another member has to 14.4.4.2 Speci"c Goals cover for the loafer. In some cases, social loa"ng Based on the common purpose, successful teams occurs when a team member’s role cannot be tied develop speci"c goals. Just with organizational to the common purpose.51 It is best to make sure goals, team goals need to be measurable and that employees chosen to be on the team are achievable, but also challenging. The team mem- selected because they will be productive members bers agree upon the goals that move the team who contribute to the team and that all team mem- closer to the common purpose. Achieving goals ber’s roles are necessary. Creating a team culture moves the team closer to achieving the common where members are held accountable via reward purpose and also builds con"dence among and evaluation systems can reduce loa"ng. members.46

14.4.4.3 Team E$cacy 14.5 Team Norms Speaking of con"dence, teams build a belief that they can succeed. This belief is known as team Team norms are the underlying agreement among ef"cacy. Organizational and team leaders can group members for how the group will function. help build ef"cacy by providing necessary Norms are formed during the initial stages of resources, including training for team members team development. At the initial outset, team so that they feel con"dent in taking on new tasks. members "nd themselves with newfound free- In addition, as team success builds ef"cacy, lead- dom but also a void regarding what behaviors are ers should celebrate initial triumphs. Meeting ini- expected. So, team members discuss with each tial goals helps members believe they can meet other how they think the team and team members more challenging goals ahead.47 should behave. In essence, they create a culture based on what the members decide it will be 14.4.4.4 Con#ict Levels through mutual agreement.52 Norms can govern It is commonly assumed that effective teams any number of team behaviors, including formal- avoid con!ict. Actually, effective teams harness ity, communication channels, and decision- con!ict to spur creativity and innovation.48 As making methods. As norms are communicated, noted in Chap. 16, con!ict that is task-focused they are adopted or altered per the will of the stimulates discussion and critical assessment of team.53 14.6 Groupthink and Crisis of Agreement 159

Clearly de"ned team norms have many bene- make any decision begins to outweigh the impor- "ts. Norms ensure predictive behaviors among tance of making the best decision.57 When this team members. This allows members to feel happens, groups rely less on their mental abili- comfortable knowing how others will behave and ties, instead opting for the simplest plausible how they should behave within the group. solution even if signi"cant !aws are foreseeable. Building on that idea, norms help teams avoid Groupthink most often occurs when team mem- interpersonal con!ict that often arises when bers develop a myopic belief in the team’s ef"- members have differences in agreement over cacy. They believe that the team is so good at behaviors. Next, norms help members understand what it does, that the team can do no wrong. This the common purpose of the team, helping mem- allows team members to rationalize !aws in the bers form an identity.54 Finally, norms help teams decision to discount negative outcomes and place become more effective in working toward their pressure on any voices of reason to fall in line. goals. Norms can be informal or formal; how- Because of the pressure to fall in line, team mem- ever, teams that are most effective adopt formal bers with concerns self-censor and project norms. Often successful teams use their initial unwavering agreement. This creates the illusion meetings to discuss norms and codify them of unanimity in support of the decision.58 through negotiation. Thus, later meetings can be Groupthink has been blamed for numerous conducted in an atmosphere where behavior strategic political and military disasters such as expectations are known, and team members can the Bay of Pigs Invasion and Watergate.59 One focus on working together to achieve goals.55 notable example from sport was a decision by the MLB Umpires Association to have all umpires resign in mass as part of a negotiation tactic dur- 14.6 Groupthink and Crisis ing a dispute with the league over pay and perfor- of Agreement mance evaluations. The umpire’s association believed this tactic would force MLB to meet Teams allow organizations to take advantage of their demands because games couldn’t be played collective intelligence. In other words, teams can without umpires to of"ciate. Unfortunately for take advantage of their individual members’ the umpire’s association, MLB began accepting expertise and creativity to address complex resignations and hiring new umpires. According issues. However, under certain circumstances, to reports, the umpires believed so strongly that teams reach agreement without seeking alterna- the tactic would work; they never considered that tive solutions. This is known as dysfunction in MLB would accept their resignations.60 decision-making. When this occurs, teams fail to There are several ways teams can avoid the reach their potential and may become less ef"- dangers of groupthink:61 cient than the members working independently.56 1. Encourage task-based con!ict. 2. Assign members to serve as objective evalua- c Groupthink A phenomenon that occurs in tors of decisions. highly cohesive groups when pressures to make 3. Team leaders should maintain impartiality any decision begin to outweigh the importance of during the decision-making process. making the best decision. 4. Seek outside counsel. 5. Once consensus is reached, allow team members to voice concerns. 14.6.1 Groupthink c Crisis of Agreement A phenomenon that One possible cause of dysfunction in decision- occurs when other team members’ acceptance is making is groupthink. Groupthink occurs in the most important factor driving highly cohesive groups when the pressure to decision-making. 160 14 Group and Team Development

14.6.2 Crisis of Agreement: form, and leaders will have to nurture their devel- The Abilene Paradox opment. The most widely accepted model of team development is the "ve-stage model.64 Crises of agreement, also known as the Abilene Paradox, occurs when other team members’ acceptance is the most crucial factor driving 14.7.1 Stage 1: Forming decision- making.62 Unlike with groupthink, in which there is a general belief that the team is During the forming stage, team members are making the best decision, team members experi- selected and introduced to one another. At the encing a crisis of agreement are aware that a bad individual level, team members are generally decision is being made. In this instance, team honored to be chosen and excited about contrib- members simply want to be accepted as one of the uting to the team’s success. However, they may teams and, as such, wish to appear agreeable to also be nervous about being able to contribute. what others are proposing. The name Abilene The team will begin exploring its own culture, Paradox comes from a parable in which four peo- but the team will mainly defer decision-making ple depart on a road trip, each knowing individu- to a leader or even outside authority. The team’s ally that the trip will be miserable, all because each focus should be on developing cohesion and believes they are the only one who doesn’t want to worry less about task accomplishment during this go. It’s not until after the trip that when each mem- stage of development. ber is complaining the collective realization that no one actually wanted to go on the road trip. Had anyone voiced their concerns, the doomed road 14.7.2 Stage 2: Storming trip would have been avoided.63 In the work world, a crisis of con!ict could result in many unfavor- As the team moves from the early excitement of able outcomes, such as a hiring team making a the forming stage toward understanding the task !awed selection because no members want to and developing processes, the common purpose voice their concerns. Teams can avoid crises of and goals are set. The storming stage is often con!ict by setting individual-level goals to keep described as one of con!ict. Team members members motivated and focused on excellence. jockey for roles and in!uence. Some members Leaders need to be mindful of the atmosphere dur- who do not agree with their assigned roles or ing team meetings. If members seem unmotivated norms will demonstrate anger and frustration. At and/or overly agreeable, leaders should take action this stage, the team will have experienced little to refocus the team on outcome importance. task-related success, so that some members may doubt the team’s ef"cacy. Team leaders must be diligent in encouraging task-based con!ict while 14.7 Stages of Team Development eliminating relational con!ict. During this stage, team norms begin developing, and the team Most international soccer teams engage in a should arrive at its common purpose. Teams that series of training and friendly matches to prepare have a dysfunctional make-up may not move for their upcoming competition. The idea is to beyond the storming stage. work out players’ roles and develop team strategies. Similarly, work teams need to develop before they reach their potential. When building a 14.7.3 Stage 3: Norming team, it is essential to understand that the members will not become a cohesive unit the moment The initial norms developed during the storming the team is formed. Teams evolve through stages. stage are re"ned and adapted. Team members This means that many of the success factors dis- accept the team as part of their identity and cussed throughout this chapter will take time to understand their role in achieving the common 14.8 Summary 161 purpose. Team members are also more trusting then determine the type of tasks the team will and comfortable around each other. At this stage, complete, who will be on the team, and the level the team will have a distinguishable culture from of autonomy needed for the team to be successful. the larger organization and may even develop its The team members then determine their goals, own language and jokes. However, the team is norms, and their own processes to complete the now task-focused, and con!ict is productive. At tasks assigned by the organization. When success- the norming stage, the team will begin real pro- ful, teams can accomplish far more than members ductivity toward the assigned task, and goal could on their own. Organizations can help teams accomplishment will start occurring more to be successful by providing resources, support- frequently. ing team development, but allowing the team to be independent throughout the process.

14.7.4 Stage 4: Performing Notes

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ideas independently, nor did he likely come up c Learning Objectives After reading with all of the credited innovations. He was this chapter, students will be able to: inspired by others, and he had assistance in the successful execution of these new ideas. • Identify what aspects of the workplace Therefore, it is important to understand how create innovative team in sports work teams or groups in"uence creativity and • De!ne creativity and innovation in the innovation. These teams can be multipliers, sup- sports industry pressors, or supporters of individual creativity, • Apply the innovation process to the depending on a number of factors we’ll discuss in sports industry context this chapter. If done well, groups can multiply the effects of individual creativity, not just become the sum of the individual creative effort in the group.1 Depending on the structure of an organiza- Alyse LaHue: General Manager, Sky tion, it may not be clear what constitutes a work Blue FC team. Consider a work team as a group of indi- To listen to the interview viduals who regularly work together to achieve collective goals or perform tasks.2 There are many factors to think about when building a creative or innovation- focused work team, 15.1 Creativity and Innovation some more leader-driven and others more in Teams employee-driven. In a previous chapter, we discussed how an individual could be creative and Creativity and innovation are often attributed to engage in creative behaviors. Those are a key an individual. Think about the famous sports part of having an innovative organization, but example of Bill Veeck. Stories are often told now we will discuss how teams and workgroups about him and his creative ideas to promote base- can be creative. ball games. However, he did not implement his When building a creative or innovative team, the elements to consider are the leader of the group, work environment, interactions within and Supplementary Information The online version of this external to the group, and resource elements such chapter (https://doi.org/10.1007/978- 3- 030- 67612- 4_15) contains supplementary material, which is available to as time and rewards. As discussed in the previous authorized users. chapter, workgroups are essentially two or more

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 165 C. R. Barnhill et al., Organizational Behavior in Sport Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67612-4_15 166 15 Creative and Innovative Teams members organized around an activity or interest. this simplistic view hinders creativity because Work teams are groups that have an assigned task of its focus on transactional relationships.3 The that aids the organization. Both groups and teams relationship between leaders and work team develop roles, including leaders who play key members can play a crucial role in improving roles in shaping the tone, environment, and pro- employee creativity. When leaders build envi- cesses of the group. The second important ele- ronments similar to the ones we’ll describe next, ment is the innovative work environment, which they build trust with employees. That trust can consists of four aspects: participative safety, lead to employees being more willing to take vision, task orientation, and support for innova- risks to address organizational problems. This, tion. The third point of consideration for any in turn, increases the likelihood of producing team is interaction with new people and new creative solutions or products. This relationship ideas. By incorporating new perspectives into the also goes the other way. When leaders have team, opportunities for creative ideas increase. high-quality exchanges with their team mem- Different lived experiences allow new ideas to bers, they become more con!dent in the employ- come about through different ways of thinking ees. That con!dence means the leaders are more about the problems or new solutions the current willing to provide resources and autonomy to group members may have never thought of (see support their employees’ creativity.4 Conversely, the concept of task con"ict in Chaps. 14 and 16). when those exchanges are of low quality, Alternatively, seeking out advice and thoughts employees will be less likely to go beyond their outside the team can also increase innovation in a prescribed responsibilities to come up with new team. The fourth and !nal element of an innova- and useful ideas. tive team is resource-related, both time and rewards. While these four encompassing ele- c Participative Safety Participative safety is ments cannot guarantee a successfully innovative the idea that employees need to feel safe sharing organization, innovation is unlikely to happen new ideas in their workplace. without these building blocks.

15.2.2 Participative Safety 15.2 Supporting Creativity and Innovation Participative safety is the idea that employees need to feel safe sharing new ideas in their work- Table 15.1 outlines eight key aspects of organiza- place. The more comfortable someone is sharing tional support for creativity and innovation in its new ideas with their work team, the more likely workgroups and teams. someone will develop an incredibly useful idea. Of course, not all ideas are that good, at least initially. Many ideas need further re!nement to 15.2.1 Leader-Member Exchange reach their full potential and provide a competitive advantage for the organization. Other times, A traditional view of work assumes leaders the technology has not yet been created to make exchanged wages for labor. Employees do what implementation possible, or the cost outweighs the leaders wanted them to do for pay. However, the bene!ts. However, by allowing people to share ideas Table 15.1 Key aspects of supporting creativity and and feel comfortable doing so, the team mem- innovation bers increase the likelihood of !nding those Leader-member exchange Participative safety genuinely innovative or creative ideas. Creative Vision and goal clarity Support for innovation environment of participative safety involves two Task orientation Diversity and inclusion elements—time to share and safety within the Social interaction Time and rewards group. Building in time is pretty self-explana- 15.2 Supporting Creativity and Innovation 167 tory. Team members need time to workout and An example of this can be seen in any classic share their ideas in an environment free of other brainstorming session. Imagine sitting in a con- distractions. Feelings of safety is a little more ference room and being asked for your ideas on challenging. Think about any group dynamic. increasing attendance? You could generate ideas, Someone raises their hand, a brave move to but the question is so broad that it would be dif- begin with, and they share an idea or pose a !cult for the group to !nd an effective direction. question. Other group members immediately No, imagine if the question was, how can we roll their eyes or scoff at the proposal. What a attract students from the nearby colleges to mood killer! Employees would be signi!cantly attend. The group now has more focus, so there less likely to raise their hand or share an idea in will be more debate, generating bene!cial task the future. As we mentioned in Chap. 13, idea con"ict. generation is not about assessing feasibility or A clear purpose and goals are only effective applicability yet, it’s about coming up with the if the group and team members buy-in.5 Why ideas themselves. does that matter? Creating innovative ideas or implementing them can be challenging. Doing new things requires motivation, and not many 15.2.3 Vision and Goal Clarity people would be motivated to do hard things in service to a goal or vision they don’t value (see Even when people may feel comfortable shar- Chaps. 9 and 12). Similarly, if a goal is unattain- ing ideas, those ideas will only be useful if able, members who want their innovative ideas they are directed at helping the organization. to be implemented successfully end up feeling As discussed in Chap. 14, workgroups and overwhelmed and frustrated. Once again, team- teams differ in their purposes. Workgroups can developed purposes and goals provide utility in be focused on any number of objectives, developing ideas. including but not limited to organizational outcomes (i.e., mentoring groups are focused on employee development; a bowling team may 15.2.4 Support for Innovation only be focused on camaraderie). On the other hand, teams are created for the speci!c pur- Support for innovation is more complicated than pose of addressing an issue related to organiza- merely saying, “we support innovation” to the tional success. Leaders initially set the team members. Yes, a verbal af!rmation can be a direction of the group or team, but eventually, signaler of support, but creating a work environ- successful groups and teams develop shared ment supportive of innovation is more than that. goals around a common purpose (see Chap. When team members are open to new ideas from 14). As we discussed in the last chapter, vision colleagues themselves, time is provided for and goals provide direction for group and team employees to be creative, and policies or proce- members. Maintaining direction toward the dures are built around innovation encouragement, team’s purpose (i.e., achieving goals) is the support for innovation becomes apparent. When primary indicator of team success. Thus, hav- employees perceive that support, they are more ing a clear purpose and detailed goals that are likely to try out new ideas, engage in the creative well understood by members is essential, espe- process, and seek problems that need to be cially when it comes to idea generation. If cre- addressed.6 Support through access to professional ativity efforts and innovative behaviors are not development and time to engage in passion proj- directed at group or team goals, members can ects are policies supporting autonomy and leverag- lose focus. It is much more dif!cult to come up ing the intrinsic motivation of their employees. with new ideas for any and everything related Researchers have already found this support for to that sport organization than it is to address a innovation, and change in the sports industry has speci!c problem. made organizations more innovative.7 168 15 Creative and Innovative Teams

15.2.5 Task Orientation group. Additionally, people with different perspectives or life experiences can also see prob- Motivation in the workplace can be dif!cult at lems not previously noticed, reframe a problem times, particularly for pushing past the easy solu- through a different paradigm, or by bringing in tions or feeling overwhelmed by the problems new expertise about potential solutions. facing a work team in the sports industry. Researchers in sport management have looked at Engaging in the creative process as a team is this exact issue and found that an increase in helped substantially by the level of effort individ- diversity does improve the perception of a cre- uals put into their actions and behaviors. That ori- ative work environment.9 entation toward the tasks of a team also increases As Chap. 3 discussed, diversity alone is not feedback and cooperation.8 While intrinsic moti- enough. Inclusion is the other part of the para- vation increases individual creativity (see Chaps. digm that allows a diverse workforce to function 12 and 13), having the group oriented toward the at its true potential.10 Going back to that concept task at hand provides a shared focus. For example, of participative safety, when people feel like they if one portion of an National Basketball can bring their perspective, feedback, or idea into Association (NBA) sales team is focused on sell- a meeting or to a colleague/supervisor, then the ing as many tickets as they can, but another por- whole group is more likely to be innovative. tion of the team is focused on creating excellent Therefore, inclusion is just as important as diver- customer experiences (so they can retain custom- sity when it comes to being an innovative team. ers), these team factions will not cooperate as cohesively on decisions or solutions to problems. Likewise, suppose there are different levels of 15.2.7 Social Interaction motivation for coming up with creative or innovative ideas. In that case, some group members will The research indicates the relationship between not provide as much feedback or cooperate with innovation and team cohesion is an inverted-U teammates as much. Those less motivated will shape. Meaning that too little team cohesion and also be more likely to be satis!ed with whatever creativity and innovation is limited, but with too the easiest solution is to a problem, rather than much cohesion, the team suffers the same prob- something creative or innovative. It is that shared lem. Work teams with intense cohesion lack cre- concern for the goals and vision that helps groups ativity because they never go outside their group overcome resistance within the group or organiza- to learn new things or interact with others. On the tion. These four elements of a work environment: other hand, if a work team has no cohesiveness, participative safety, shared vision, support for there will be too much con"ict within the group innovation, and task orientation are the building to focus on the work team’s goals and how cre- blocks of creating an innovative team, but there ative ideas can achieve those goals (see Chap. are other aspects to consider as well. 16).11 Social interaction remains a useful way to discover new ideas or processes, particularly if the team members are only loosely connected. As 15.2.6 Diversity and Inclusion a manager, getting the team to spend time learning from, talking to, interacting with people who A theme that runs throughout this book and par- are not in their work team or immediate group of ticularly the !nal unit is that homogeneous orga- friends/family is vital to becoming more cre- nizations and teams are far less ef!cient at ative.12 Opportunities for social interaction generating new ideas and are much more likely to beyond one’s immediate connections can arise at fall victim to groupthink. If everyone in a group conferences, job shadowing, working in different approaches issues from the same perspective, the geographic locations or industry sectors, non- solutions proposed will fall within a much nar- sport community work, and so on. While there rower range than those offered in a more diverse are many sport-speci!c conferences available to 15.2 Supporting Creativity and Innovation 169 those in the sports industry, team members may may not be effective solutions, but they don’t also want to branch out and learn from non-sport- address the more complicated generational shifts industry individuals. At !rst, the topics or ideas in consumer taste for sport. may not seem relevant to the sports industry, but Providing time for practicing engagement in seeking out new avenues of information can the creative process can help individuals and improve the skill of juxtaposing ideas. Not com- teams push through easy-to-see solutions to fortable at !rst, by practicing bringing two dispa- potentially novel solutions. Employees also need rate ideas together to create something new, time away from work to process everything employees will become more innovative over they’ve learned. Allowing time for sleep, physi- time. Not as ideal as social interaction, even read- cal activity, or spending time in nature is criti- ing articles from unique sources can increase the cal.13 In balance to providing that time to engage likelihood of new ideas. For example, while in the creative process is also creating time con- Forbes SportsMoney can help a practitioner straints. Again, balance is the key to innovation. understand the sports industry better, reading Time constraints can motivate employees to work something like Inc. can help them see potential harder on a problem or develop new synapses in opportunities beyond what the current sports the brain while practicing divergent thinking. industry is doing. Therefore, to become a more Teams in sport organizations need to balance innovative team, encourage colleagues or their time constraints and opportunities, particu- employees to seek different perspectives and cre- larly with those who work on a seasonal sched- ate balanced team cohesion. ule, such as in professional or youth sports. While during a season or a game, it may not be wise to address complex problems for the organization 15.2.8 Time that aren’t urgent. Using off-season wisely can provide the necessary time for coming up with As with social interaction, time allocation for innovative solutions or new products. building creativity in a work team is a balance. Sport is fortunate in that there are pretty strict deadlines for a number of reasons, however, one 15.2.9 Rewards limitation is its restricting effect on creativity. The Olympics or World Cup !nals have never been Another aspect to consider when building an delayed because the organizers weren’t ready innovative work environment is rewards and (note, the 2020 Olympics was delayed however, punitive measures. Punitive measures are punish- due to the Covid-19 pandemic). This differs from ments, such as verbal warnings or termination product or app launches, which more readily see from the position. Rewards can be a wide variety delays due to production issues. Strict adherence of things, including verbal af!rmation, !nancial to deadlines means employees may rush through bonuses, prizes, extra paid time-off, promotions, the creative process or look for the easiest solu- or awards. There are differences between reward- tion to any problem that presents itself. We can ing production, outcome, or process. If a team see that examples of this in the sports industries leader wants to reward people for producing attempt to engage Generation Z. While under- things regardless of their quality, they should standing and engaging Generation Z’s sport fan- reward the quantity of production. Think about dom is incredibly complicated in its relation to the creativity stage of innovation, when the focus technology, youth participation, shifting values, remains on coming up with new ideas. In that the economy, and social interaction, among other case, rewards should focus on the number of potential intersectional layers, sport marketers ideas generated, not on successful implementa- have generally been tempted to reach for easier tion. In sport, rewarding return customer engage- solutions such as adding an esports team or giving ment for ticket sales staff would encourage away more food at a sporting event. These may or developing relationships with clients. 170 15 Creative and Innovative Teams

Suppose a leader is concerned about the out- opposing team made logical sense as a progres- come and its success in achieving an organiza- sion of the codi!cation of the sport. However, in tional or team goal. In that case, they want to the 1990s, thanks to their close relationship with reward the quality or effective implementation of Oregon-based sporting goods company Nike, the an idea. If the concern is regarding the team’s University of Oregon created a third jersey style/ engagement in the creative process, then reward- color. For the University of Oregon, it was an ing effort is more important than the outcome. innovative idea that complimented their brand Rewarding only the outcome could deter a team and organizational goals of being !rst adopters. from digging deeper to !nd more complex yet Oregon football enjoyed a new brand image and genuinely innovative solutions. One example in which allowed them to attract better players. the sports industry indicated that offering a prize However, there lacks any evidence that the same for innovation and invention helped develop new practice helps the much smaller Football products.14 Reward systems can be complicated Championship Subdivision (FCS) (second-tier of and result in a number of unintended conse- Division I football) programs, yet a large number quences. Therefore, make sure to think through of college football programs utilize the practice. what behaviors are actually being encouraged Later in this chapter, we’ll discuss how the ten- through the reward system rather than what is dency to copy and paste the other organizations hoped to be the result. in a given industry is different from adopting innovative ideas. There are many different types of innovative products in the sports industry, not 15.3 Innovation Types just new games or extra jerseys. Innovations can range from new products for the game itself, fan Many different types of innovation can bene!t an experience, participant experience, technology, organization. This section explores product and or facilities. Innovation can also be found in the process innovation in sport. processes and systems of an organization.

15.3.1 Innovation as a Product 15.3.2 Innovation as a Process

The invention of T-20 rather than test matches in Products are easy to identify. Signboards, luxury cricket was an innovative product, !rst played in box suites, on-!eld analytic assessments, mobile 2003. Traditional cricket matches are called test tickets, or replica jerseys are all innovative prod- matches, and they are played over a multi-day ucts that we’ve seen in the sports industry. period. T-20 is a cricket game structured in such Innovation can also come as a process in the a way that the game is played in two to three organization. For example, customer service pro- hours. This allowed for a cricket match to be cesses can change to improve the team "ow, such enjoyed by fans with the inability to watch a as who takes the calls or how the customer ser- multi-day event and to engage the casual fan who vice team processes those requests. Interestingly, may only want to watch a sport for a few hours. in the sports industry, new sectors that are grow- Cricket’s rise in popularity over the past decade is ing rapidly, such as cycling and snowboarding, attributed to this product innovation.15 tend to implement more product innovations, A new product does not always mean an inno- whereas more established and declining sectors, vative product. Suppose the new product does not such as yachting and skiing, tend to focus on pro- help the organization achieve its goals or vision. cess innovations.16 There may be more hesitation In that case, it is merely new, not innovative. in implementing product innovations when an Think about the prevalence of alternative jerseys established sport organization has a great deal of in American college football. Home and away nostalgia and institutional knowledge built up jerseys that maintain contrasting colors with the around the product itself. When looking at pro- 15.4 Innovation in Organizations 171 cess innovations in a team, try to visualize all the 15.4.1 Creativity as the Beginning different processes put into place for that team or Steps within the organization. Sometimes, employees !nd that some processes were created for a spe- Innovation encompasses creativity but also ci!c purpose that is now no longer needed, yet includes the implementation of any creative remains a part of the organization. Analyzing idea. Creative ideas are de!ned as both new and systems and processes can provide an opportu- useful to the organization. These creative ideas nity for replacing semi-functional processes with then need to be considered by the organization innovative ones. and implemented effectively. Creative ideas aren’t much use to an organization without the successful adoption decision and effective 15.4 Innovation in Organizations implementation, but often overlooked is the other opposite problem. When organizations Building a creative and innovative team is the don’t start with creative ideas and simply look !rst step toward becoming a more innovative to adopt new ideas to embrace new ideas, they organization; however, not the last step. As theo- can run into issues of mimetic isomorphism. A rized by Damanpour and Schneider, the process simpli!ed way to think about this concept is that of innovation within an organization involves organizations will copy and paste each other’s three stages at multiple levels.17 These three ideas more and more as time goes on so that phases are the idea initiation, idea adoption deci- soon every organization in a particular sector sion, and idea implementation phases. After the looks very similar. idea is presented to the organization, the organi- Think about the adoption of electronic sign- zation must decide if they want to adopt the idea. boards in venues. For many sport organizations, After the team or organization has adopted the this could provide exponential commercial value; idea, then the implementation of the idea begins. however, they also come at a signi!cant cost, so Each of these phases is important, and they are they are only useful if implemented effectively. also all affected by multiple levels: individual, Adopting to keep up with others in the same sec- group, organizational, and environmental levels. tor can be dangerous for sport organizations. For Individuals play a role in this process for an orga- example, hundreds of college athletic programs, nization by bringing in new ideas, creating a cre- seeking the riches of athletic programs like the ative work environment, allocating resources, University of Texas, have adopted many ideas and encouraging those resistant to innovation that have only left these smaller programs entirely adoption and implementation. This can come at reliant on student fees to prop up their athletic the team level or the organizational level, depend- budget. This behavior is so common among ath- ing on the idea. It is not unusual to have a very letic departments that it is widely known as the innovative team within a traditional organization. “arms race” by industry practitioners and aca- However, that situation could limit the extent to demics. Therefore, engaging in the creative pro- which innovative ideas are adopted or imple- cess to come up with context-speci!c creative mented by the whole organization. In sport, the ideas for a sport organization can be a much more external environment also has a profound effect. effective use of resources. This ensures an idea For some sport organizations, this is due to the adoption decision is built on a new and useful role sport plays in society, and for others, it is due idea. to their league structure. For example, the NFL of!ce was the instigating force for NFL teams to c Innovation Champion An innovation adopt a mobile app technology that would champion is someone who doggedly pursues the increase fan connectivity.18 That external force successful adoption and implementation of a was very in"uential in the adoption decision- particular innovation, whether it be a process or making process for NFL franchises. product innovation. 172 15 Creative and Innovative Teams

15.4.2 Innovation Champion task orientation. Other factors to think about include time, rewards, innovation champions, Something much of the sport management litera- diversity and inclusion, and social interactions. ture has found to be key for innovation in a sport Finally, keep in mind that innovation can be a organization is an innovation champion.19 An part of a group or team as a tangible product and innovation champion is someone who doggedly a new or improved process. Innovation and cre- pursues the successful adoption and implementa- ativity will only increase in importance for the tion of a particular innovation, whether it be a pro- sports industry as generational tastes shift, tech- cess or product innovation. Innovation champions nology changes more rapidly, and competition can be incredibly helpful in the innovation process within the sports industry increases. for an organization in several ways. First, this person is someone who clearly believes in the innova- Discussion Questions tion. If you have read Moneyball, Billy Beane is not the innovator. He was desperate to try anything 1. Identify an innovation from the sports indus- to improve his team’s prospects despite the try. Why do you think it was innovative? How Oakland Athletics’ smaller budget. When he did it bring a competitive advantage to the learned of the concept of sabermetrics, he jumped organization? at the option to solve his major issue. It was 2. Discuss what makes you feel safe to partici- Assistant General Manager, Paul DePodesta’s pate. How do you feel supported by others in ideas that Beane was championing.20 your new ideas? The innovation champion is motivated to push 3. Find one new source of information that is through any obstacles. Innovation adoption and unrelated to the sports industry. Read an arti- implementation can be challenging, and even the cle or listen to a podcast episode and write best ideas can get lost in bureaucratic red tape, down two to three things you think relate back resistant colleagues, and lack of resources.21 to or would be useful in the sports industry. Championing an innovation through the entire process can involve a lot of time and effort. Thus, a motivated innovation champion provides those Notes essential resources. The innovation champion doesn’t always have to be in a position of power, 1. Taggar, S. (2002). Individual creativity and group such as the General Manager, although that can ability to utilize individual creative resources: A mul- make it easier for organizational buy-in. However, tilevel model. Academy of management Journal, 45(2), 315–330. a strong sales pitch, a clear understanding of who 2. Cirella, S., & Shani, A. B. (2012). Collective has decision-making power, and how an innova- Creativity by Design: Learning from an Italian tion can bene!t the organization can allow any- Fashion Design Company. Irish Journal of one in an organization to become a successful Management, 32(1). 3. Carnevale, J. B., Huang, L., Crede, M., Harms, P., innovation champion. & Uhl-Bien, M. (2017). Leading to stimulate employees’ ideas: A quantitative review of leader– member exchange, employee voice, creativity, and innovative behavior. Applied Psychology, 66(4), 15.5 Summary 517–552. 4. Zhao, H., Kessel, M., & Kratzer, J. (2014). Supervisor– Whether in sales, coaching, communications, subordinate relationship, differentiation, and employee operations, or another aspect of the sports indus- creativity: A self-categorization perspective. The try, building a creative and innovative work team Journal of Creative Behavior, 48(3), 165–184. 5. Anderson, N. R., & West, M. A. (1998). Measuring is possible. Remember, an innovative work envi- climate for work group innovation: development and ronment’s key elements include participative validation of the team climate inventory. Journal of safety, clear vision, support for innovation, and Organizational Behavior: The International Journal 15.5 Summary 173

of Industrial, Occupational and Organizational 14. Yuan, B., Liu, C., KAO, K., & HSU, Y. (2009). Psychology and Behavior, 19(3), 235–258. Entrepreneurship and innovation process in the health 6. Clegg, C., Unsworth, K., Epitropaki, O., & Parker, G. industry in Taiwan. European Business Review,21(5): (2002). Implicating trust in the innovation process. 453–471. Journal of Occupational and Organizational 15. The Economist (2016, Mar). The Economist Explains: Psychology, 75(4), 409–422. Why Twenty20 cricket is so successful. The 7. Winand, M., Vos, S., Zintz, T., & Scheerder, J. Economist. Retrieved from https://www.economist. (2013). Determinants of service innovation: A com/the- economist- explains/2016/03/13/ typology of sports federations. International why- twenty20- cricket- is- so- successful. Journal of Sport Management and Marketing, 16. Desbordes, M. (2002). Empirical analysis of the inno- 13(1–2), 55–73. vation phenomena in the sports equipment industry. 8. Somech, A., & Drach-Zahavy, A. (2013). Translating Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 14(4), team creativity to innovation implementation: The 481–498. role of team composition and climate for innovation. 17. Damanpour, F., & Schneider, M. (2006). Phases of the Journal of Management, 39(3), 684–708. adoption of innovation in organizations: effects of 9. Cunningham, G. B., & Melton, E. N. (2011). The ben- environment, organization and top managers. British e!ts of sexual orientation diversity in sport organiza- journal of Management, 17(3), 215–236. tions. Journal of Homosexuality, 58(5), 647–663. 18. Greenhalgh, G., Dwyer, B., & Biggio, B. (2014). 10. Perry-Smith, J. E. (2006). Social yet creative: The There’s an App for That: The Development of an NFL role of social relationships in facilitating individual Team Mobile Application. Journal of Applied Sport creativity. Academy of Management Journal, 49(1), Management, 6(4), 51–73. 85–101. 19. Hoeber, L., & Hoeber, O. (2012). Determinants of an 11. King, N., and Anderson, N. (1990). Innovation in innovation process: A case study of technological Working Groups. In M. A. West and J. L. Farr (eds.), innovation in a community sport organization. Innovation and Creativity at Work. New York: Wiley. Journal of Sport Management, 26(3), 213–223. 12. Perry-Smith, J. E. (2006). Social yet creative: The 20. Lewis, M. (2003). Moneyball: The Art of Winning an role of social relationships in facilitating individual Unfair Game. W.W. Norton & Company. creativity. Academy of Management Journal, 49(1), 21. Flanders, S., Smith, N., Jones, C., & Greene, A. 85–101. (2020). Examining the Innovation Process of a 13. Stickgold, R., & Walker, M. (2004). To sleep, per- Graduate Apprenticeship Program for Sport chance to gain creative insight?. Trends in Cognitive Organizations. Sports Innovation Journal, 1, Sciences, 8(5), 191–192. 106–119. Con!ict and Negotiation 16

c Learning Objectives After reading this club, national, and professional systems. In chapter, students should be able to: the United States, there is strong evidence • Differentiate between forms of func- that the sport has signi"cant growth poten- tional and dysfunctional con!ict. tial.1 The United States has a growing club • Identify strategies to manage con!ict. system and emerging opportunities for • Identify strategies to manage negotiation. high-school and collegiate athletes. However, without a youth system to teach children about the game and develop talent, the scholastic and club systems are starved for quali"ed players. At the same time, the Rahman Anjorin: Player Manager, United States National Team (USA Rugby) National Football League Players’ and professional systems are foundering. Association; Founder and Lead USA Rugby "led for bankruptcy in 2020, Consultant, Deed Firm and several professional leagues have been To listen to the interview created and folded over the last decade.2 This has left one executive to suggest that the US rugby pyramid resembles a Christmas tree without a base or top.3 Con!ict among stakeholders is com- Rugby in the United States The sport of monly cited as the main reason for rugby’s rugby is well established throughout the failures in the United States. The leader- world, with countries having developed ship of the four different prospective pro- hierarchies that include youth development, fessional leagues (Major League Rugby, PRO Rugby, Super 7’s, and Guinness 14) have different perspectives on how to create a professional rugby league. In a coun- Supplementary Information The online version of this try with an abundance of rugby players and chapter (https://doi.org/10.1007/978- 3- 030- 67612- 4_16) fans, this would not be a problem. There contains supplementary material, which is available to may not be enough talent or fans in the authorized users.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 175 C. R. Barnhill et al., Organizational Behavior in Sport Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67612-4_16 176 16 Con!ict and Negotiation

energy away from accomplishing the organiza- United States to support one professional tional mission, damages cohesiveness among league fully. It could be proposed that the employees, and signals to outsiders that the league leaders pool their ideas to "nd inno- organization is dysfunctional.8 Indeed, we can vative solutions to their problems. Instead, all probably think of a time when a disagree- con!ict between the leaders likely ensures ment between friends or peers spiraled out of that none of the leagues will be successful. control. Further adding to the con!ict, many pre- Under the traditional view, managers who mier amateur rugby clubs have decried the allowed con!ict to !ourish are seen as ineffec- possibilities of professional rugby because tive. The prevailing notion was that con!ict was they will lose access to top- level talent.4 caused by poor communication and out of control politics within a vacuum caused by ineffective leadership. The case study highlighted what can happen when leadership is lacking. Instead of 16.1 The Nature of Con!ict stepping in and coordinating efforts between stakeholders, USA Rugby allowed disagreements Con!ict and the failure to manage it can tear and power grabs to become the norm. All of this apart sport organizations. Managers often despite the fact that the stakeholders essentially squash disagreements between employees out shared common goals. Yet, would eliminating of fear that con!ict will pull employees’ focus con!ict and forcing compromise to be the answer away from organizational goals. Yet, most to the unique challenges facing rugby in the organizational behaviorists argue that con!ict United States? Can you think of a time when an is also necessary for organizational success.5 organization that you belonged to settled on an Con!ict occurs when one party perceives that unsatisfactory outcome in an effort to prevent their ideas or interests are being opposed or hurting the feelings of members? How did that negatively affected by another party.6 This make you feel? chapter will discuss how con!ict can be managed and harnessed to positively impact cre- c Human Relations View of Con!ict Con!ict is ativity and innovation, leading to positive human nature and, therefore, unavoidable. organizational outcomes. We will begin by discussing the nature of con!ict before distin- A second view of con!ict that became popular guishing the bene"ts and consequences of in the mid-twentieth century was the human rela- different con!ict types. tions view of con!ict, also known as the optimal con!ict perspective. The human relations view c Con!ict When one party perceives that their acknowledged that con!ict was human nature ideas or interests are being opposed or negatively and, therefore, unavoidable. Instead of avoiding affected by another party. con!ict, the human relations view argued that managers should try to harness con!ict but keep c Traditional View of Con!ict All con!ict is it at a moderate level. When con!ict is too low, detrimental because it pulls energy away from organizations stagnate through underproductive the organizational mission. agreement. When con!ict is too high, organizations underperform because of constant disagree- As mentioned in the previous paragraph, ment. However, at optimal levels, con!ict spurs many organizations attempt to avoid con!ict. In constructive discussion leading to improved fact, until relatively recently, avoiding all types alternatives being put forth from the collective. of con!ict was seen as good practice.7 The tradi- At optimal levels, con!ict actually improves tional view of con!ict teaches that any type of cohesion as everyone feels valued and is moti- con!ict within an organization is bad. It pulls vated through the team effort.9 16.1 The Nature of Con"ict 177 c Interactionist View of Con!ict Con!ict con!ict could arise between members who feel should be encouraged when it can remain passionately about one of the strategies. respectful, peaceful, and cooperative. Organizational members agree on the mission but disagree on the goals that will lead to mission c Functional Con!ict Con!ict that is bene"cial attainment. to organizational outcomes. Moderate levels of task con!ict are very bene"cial for sport organizations. When orga- c Dysfunctional Con!ict Con!ict that pulls nizational members engage in productive dia- energy away from organizational objectives. logue dissecting competing views of how to achieve organizational objectives, creative Modern organizational behaviorists have solutions are more likely to be found (see moved on from the human relations view to the Chaps. 13 and 15). Moderate task con!ict is interactionist view of con!ict, which states that correlated with better organizational decision- con!ict is not inevitable, but it should be encour- making and performance.12 However, low and aged when it can remain respectful, peaceful, and high levels of task con!ict can have negative cooperative. The interactionist view argues that impacts.13 Low task con!ict is a possible sign organizations need functional con!ict to spur that workers are not being challenged or are change, creativity, and innovation, as well as to apathetic toward the organization’s objectives. avoid stagnation and apathy among employees.10 Low task con!ict is also associated with deci- Thus, organizations should actively encourage sion-making problems such as groupthink and functional forms of con!ict. On the other hand, crises of agreement. At the other end of the organizations need to eliminate dysfunctional spectrum, high task con!ict pulls effort from forms of con!ict which hinder performance organizational objectives and focuses on the through non-productive disagreement. To that con!ict itself. The various parties involved in end, scholars have explored four distinct types of the con!ict refuse to acknowledge any weak- con!ict that arise in organizations. nesses in their ideas or strengths in alternative ideas presented; thus, the decision-making pro- c Task Con!ict Perceptions of disagreements cess is paralyzed. among group members about the content of their Process Con!ict work decisions.

16.1.2 Process Con!ict 16.1.1 Task Con!ict Process con!ict regards how the work is to be Task con!ict is de"ned as perceptions of dis- completed.14 In other words, what process agreements among group members about the should the team or organization use to accom- content of their work decisions.11 Many youth plish its task? Low levels of task con!ict can be sports associations with the mission to grow their productive for an organization.15 For example, game locally face challenges with task con!ict. students running a scholarship golf tournament For example, imagine a youth lacrosse league in may discuss what jobs need to be completed your hometown. Is it best to push resources to and which roles each member will have. During increase recreational participation, thus exposing the discussion, process con!ict would be exem- more people to the game? Or, is it best to push pli"ed by students debating each other’s role resources toward elite club teams whose success quali"cations and providing advice on how to could attract newcomers to the game? Both strat- complete certain jobs. This innocent level of egies hold potential for success, but most youth debate can ensure team members are placed in sports associations have limited resources to allo- optimal roles. Suppose process con!ict arises cate and therefore cannot do both. Thus, task to moderate or high levels. In that case, organi- 178 16 Con!ict and Negotiation zational production will slow signi"cantly as 16.2 What Creates Con!ict? team members "ght over who should complete each job and bicker over how others complete Understanding that certain types of con!ict can their tasks. be productive at optimal levels, managers need to be keenly aware of factors that encourage both c Relationship Con!ict A dysfunctional form functional and dysfunctional con!ict. By under- of con!ict where organizational members’ standing the structural and contextual factors that disagreements are based on personal differences. in!uence con!ict, organizations can eliminate potential relationship con!ict and monitor factors that encourage functional forms of con!ict. 16.1.3 Relationship Con!ict

Relationship con!ict is a dysfunctional form of 16.2.1 Structural Factors con!ict where organizational members’ disagreements are based on personal differences.16 Structural factors are those that relate to the orga- Employees "ght not to improve organizational nization itself, such as task interdependence or outcomes, but because of their own goals, values, resource allocation.20 Structural factors can be or personalities. Relationship con!ict is harmful directly monitored and altered to discourage dys- at any level because it immediately pulls employ- functional con!ict while encouraging functional ees away from organizational tasks.17 Imagine con!ict types. being in a meeting where instead of ideas being critiqued on merit, idea presenters were insulted 16.2.1.1 Specialization by meeting attendees? and Di#erentiation For larger organizations or those with diverse functions and offerings, specialization of depart- 16.1.4 Intercultural Con!ict ments and employee functions are necessary to maintain operational ef"ciency. The result is With organizations slowly embracing the impor- organizational units and employees that are dif- tance of diversity, more scholars are exploring ferentiated from one another. For example, the impact of intercultural con!ict. Intercultural Adidas is a multinational company that produces con!ict occurs when employees share different equipment and apparel for a wide variety of perspectives based on their own cultural back- sports, including soccer, cricket, gymnastics, bas- grounds. Intercultural con!ict can be task- or ketball, and tennis, to name just a few. Thus, it is relationship-based. Task-based intercultural con- quite understandable, if not likely, that employ- !ict can improve organizational decision-making ees focused on creating high-performance and creativity as members bring different per- apparel for the Indian Premier League would spectives based on their cultural experiences.18 have different perspectives than employees mar- For example, an NBA team trying to increase keting lacrosse apparel in the United States. fandom within the local Latinx community could Specialization and differentiation are common bene"t greatly from cultural knowledge shared in many segments of the sports industry. In the by Latinx employees. However, for task-based NCAA, most athletic departments have separate intercultural con!ict to be productive, organiza- departments dedicated to the organization’s aca- tional members must be respectful and genuinely demic and commercial functions. Many profes- interested in learning about cultural differences sional soccer clubs have both men’s and women’s among employees. Relationship-based teams and developmental and club teams with intercultural con!ict is immensely destructive employees dedicated to each. Sport organizations and should never be tolerated within an can tap into specialized employees’ diverse per- organization.19 spectives to generate task con!ict toward com- 16.2 What Creates Con"ict? 179 plex organizational issues. However, for smaller 16.2.1.4 Communication Channels organizations, differentiating and specialization Open communication channels, clear messaging, may not be possible. Minor League Baseball and broad access to information provide opportu- franchises lack the necessary resources to hire nities for critical debate of ideas. In smaller orga- specialists. Thus, many employees take on gener- nizations, or in organizations with !atter alist roles, contributing to multiple organizational bureaucratic structures, direct communication functions. This lack of specialization limits their opportunities are more plentiful than in larger, ability to generate task con!ict based on differen- more vertical organizations. Modern communi- tiation of employees for smaller organizations. cation techniques have opened up more channels than once existed, but organizations should work 16.2.1.2 Interdependence to open up channels to individuals or departments Interdependence relates to the degree to which in con!ict. If open channels are not available or various employees or departments must depend information is not transparent, misunderstand- on one another for success. High degrees of inter- ings between parties are more likely. As Chap. 5 dependence increase opportunities for every type discusses, messages are dependent on perception. of con!ict. Priority point systems used by college Therefore, any communication methods that athletic departments to reward their most loyal increase opportunities for misunderstandings, donors create a scenario where ticket of"ces and such as the use of third parties, can also increase fundraising of"ces are highly interdependent. dysfunctional con!ict. Poor communication can Ticket of"ces must deliver ticket buying opportu- also increase dysfunctional con!ict. The Pac 12 nities to customers that are commensurate with and Big Ten Conferences both canceled their donation levels. At the same time, fundraisers are 2020 football seasons over concerns related to dependent on the ticket of"ce for both leads and Covid-19. The Big Ten received substantial criti- operational support of their fundraising efforts. cism from stakeholders, while the Pac 12 was Task con!ict can arise when the two of"ces work subject to very little criticism despite similar rea- together to overcome challenges. However, if sons given by leaders of both conferences. either of"ce feels the other is dictating how work However, the Pac 12 was widely praised for being is to be done, process con!ict can arise. Worse, transparent and clear in its communication. On disagreements can easily lead to relationship the other hand, the Big Ten Conference struggled con!ict if exchanges become personal. to communicate with stakeholders to second- guess its decision.21 See Chap. 5 for further dis- 16.2.1.3 Resource Allocation cussion of the communication process. As has been discussed throughout the textbook, the nature of the sports industry means that most orga- 16.2.1.5 Workspace Con$guration nizations operate with minimal resources. Related to communication, workspace con"gura- Allocation of resources can become contentious. tion can in!uence con!ict by increasing or When one segment of an organization receives decreasing opportunities for interaction. The what it perceives to be less than its share of physical proximity of workspaces affects oppor- resources compared to others, it can signal to tunities for informal interaction. More interaction employees within the affected department that they can increase collaboration and functional con!ict are less important than others within the organiza- as employees share ideas and work through mis- tion. Managers can use resource allocation activi- understandings. Thus, organizations often try to ties, such as budget development, as an opportunity place of"ces of employees who need to interact to generate task con!ict by allowing affected frequently nearer to each other. In some instances, departments and employees to voice opinions and organizations have moved to open workspace provide input. To keep con!ict at optimal levels, concepts. Open workspaces are literally open in managers need to open clear communication chan- that walls are removed, and employees share an nels and provide transparency in the process. open area instead of working in of"ces. 180 16 Con!ict and Negotiation

Interestingly, open workspaces have been shown 16.2.2 Addressing Structural Factors to inhibit interaction and increase relationship con!ict.22 Without a special boundary, personal Managing con!ict requires vigilance and emo- issues are magni"ed and can become the focus of tional intelligence by management. Not only do a relationship. managers need to be aware of con!ict levels, Communication quality also suffers when they also need to understand how con!ict is parties are separated physically. Simple issues, affecting the emotions and behaviors of those like having of"ces on different !oors or in dif- involved. If a manager senses that con!ict is ferent buildings, limits face-to-face communi- becoming dysfunctional, several strategies can cation and increase the uses of less clear be employed to limit the in!uence of structural methods, such as texts or messenger applica- factors.23 tions. If time-zones separate collaborators, communication is more likely to be conducted • Emphasize organizational goals: Con!ict asynchronously. Thus, time delays, such as via is much more likely to be functional when email. Misunderstandings that can be cleared the focus is on accomplishing a task. Thus, up within minutes when workspaces are near managers should redirect any negative con- can take hours to be addressed when work- !ict by refocusing the parties on the task at spaces are separated by time-zone differences. hand.24 • Improve communication: There is substan- 16.2.1.6 Decision-Making Hierarchy tial evidence that employees are less likely Decision-making hierarchies created by organi- to engage in dysfunctional con!ict when zational structures alter power dynamics. Task they feel the organization is being transpar- con!ict can be inhibited when lower-tiered ent and that their concerns are being employees feel that those in power will not be acknowledged. Therefore, improving com- receptive to their ideas or criticisms of ideas gen- munication between parties is one of the erated by others. At the same time, task con!ict most important functional con!ict drivers can be increased when employees feel like those and one of the best inhibitors of dysfunc- in charge are micromanaging their work pro- tional con!ict. cesses. Organizations can encourage functional • Reduce differentiation: Differentiation and con!ict types by decentralizing decision-making specialization are often necessary. Yet, in cir- authority. Although power dynamics will still cumstances where the organization has exist, a decentralized process allows for greater become too compartmentalized, differentia- input authority from employees lower on organi- tion and specialization can make an organiza- zational charts. tion less ef"cient while creating unnecessary con!ict. 16.2.1.7 Policies • Reduce interdependence: Similarly, as orga- Finally, organizational policies can in!uence per- nizations evolve, departments that were once ceptions of organizational values. If policies sig- highly dependent may become less dependent. nal to an employee that their idea is likely to be When this occurs, the organization should received positively, the idea is more likely to be address processes and policies that create shared. Similarly, employees may hold back unnatural dependencies. ideas that they feel will go against organizational • Resource allocation: Resources are scarce. standards. Although there can be substantial ben- It is not always possible to increase e"ts from having clear policies, those policies resources. However, struggles for resources should not inhibit meaningful discussion and are a primary factor in con!ict escalation. criticism of the organization. In particular, poli- Transparency regarding resource allocation cies can interfere with the bene"ts of intercul- has been shown to limit dysfunctional tural con!ict. con!ict. 16.2 What Creates Con"ict? 181

16.2.3 Contextual Factors the 1994–1995 strike as the primary reason that MLB has not had a work stoppage since. Contextual factors are those related to the individuals involved in con!ict or to the situation in 16.2.3.3 Perceptions which the con!ict occurs.25 Contextual factors As discussed in Chap. 10, perceptions are an are mainly out of an organization’s control but individual’s cognition of reality. Perceptions can can signi"cantly in!uence con!ict levels. signi"cantly impact con!ict in two ways. First, perceptions in!uence how we receive and pro- 16.2.3.1 Individual Expectations cess information. When one party perceives a Employees often have differing career expecta- message from another party differently from the tions. Career-driven individuals can be highly intended message, it can create unintended con- motivated toward task success, leading to optimal !ict. For example, imagine what would happen if task con!ict if they are paired with similarly you told an employee that they were doing a great motivated individuals. However, expectations job, but they mistook your tone as sarcastic. can also lead to dysfunctional con!ict. Suppose The second way that perceptions affect con- an individual with high expectations allows their !ict comes from the opinions that we hold of oth- personal motivations to interfere with organiza- ers. If we perceive someone to be trustworthy, we tional or team goals. In that case, it can create are more likely to believe them than someone we resentment from others. This is especially true if perceived to be dishonest. If we perceive someone person tries to take credit for collaboratory one to be highly competent, we will give more success. At the other end of the spectrum, weight to their ideas than the ideas of someone employees with low expectations may not we believe to be less capable. If we perceive a engage, creating low task con!ict levels. person to be likable, we are more likely to seek agreement on con!ict than we would if we dis- 16.2.3.2 Competition liked them. Although con!ict is necessary to drive ideas forward, ideas must be resolved to evolve into plans 16.2.3.4 Personality and Values and actions. In functional con!ict, the parties Personality can in!uence whether a person is exchange ideas all involved are willing to move more willing to engage in con!ict. In particular, toward the best solution regardless of whose people with more aggressive and competitive ideas win out. When winning the competition of personality types are more likely to seek out and ideas becomes the goal of one or more of the engage in con!ict. Similarly, some people and involved parties, con!ict cannot be resolved opti- cultures value con!ict more than others.28 mally. Instead, parties become steadfast in their position leading to more con!ict.26 Examples of 16.2.3.5 History toxic idea competition can be seen throughout As noted in Chap. 10, past experience provides a the sports industry. Work stoppages are prime framework against which current experiences can examples. MLB has not had a work stoppage be interpreted. While we may not know what the since a players’ strike disrupted the 1994 and future holds, we better understand our past and 1995 seasons. During that strike, the players’ what the outcomes were in similar situations. Our association and the owners became so focused on history can affect con!ict in two unique ways. winning the con!ict that neither side was willing First, history as it relates to outcomes from simi- to acknowledge the other’s issues, leading to the lar situations. Individuals who are experienced prolonged work stoppage. Analysis by sports working with functional con!ict will be more economists found that both parties would have comfortable and ready to engage as appropriate. been better off had the players and owners found Individuals who have not experienced con!ict or solutions to their disagreements before the experienced dysfunctional con!ict often try to strike.27 In fact, both sides have acknowledged avoid con!ict when it arises.29 182 16 Con!ict and Negotiation

The second way that history can in!uence selection. Before the draft, Drew made it con!ict relates to past interactions with the peo- clear that he did not want to play for the ple involved. People who have a history of engag- Phillies and that he would sign for no less ing in functional con!ict to create productive than $10 million. The Phillies had no inten- outcomes feel comfortable repeating the process. tion to pay Drew that amount and drafted him However, people who have had negative experi- despite his declaration that he would not sign. ences working together are more likely to avoid True to his word, Drew did not sign but with con!ict altogether or engage in relationship con- no recourse to play for another team due to !ict depending on past experiences.30 MLB rules, he signed to play in the independent Northern League for far less than the Phillies had offered. In the end, the Phillies 16.2.4 Addressing Contextual wasted a high-level draft pick on a player who Factors did not want to sign with the organization, and Drew wasted a year of his career playing Contextual factors can be more challenging to in a low-level minor league. When he eventu- manage. Although it is tempting to want to elimi- ally signed with an MLB club, it was for far nate all forms of con!ict caused by contextual less than $10 million.33 factors, that would be a mistake as the con!ict • Win-Lose: Win-lose outcomes occur when can be functional. In this section, we will discuss one party gains their desired outcome at the managerial strategies for encouraging functional expense of the other party. Win-lose out- contextual-based con!ict, as well as strategies to comes are common when there is a signi"- mitigate dysfunctional con!ict caused by contex- cant power disparity between the con!icting tual factors. To begin, we will identify possible parties. Several recent examples of win-lose outcomes of contextual-based con!ict. outcomes are available in sport. In 2020, MLB refused to extend its existing partner- 16.2.4.1 Potential Outcomes ship with Minor League Baseball, unless all of Contextual-Based Con!ict of its demands were met. Minor League Con!ict must always reach some sort of resolu- Baseball, which operates with subsidies tion. When individuals or groups engage in con- from MLB, had no choice but to relent to !ict, there are four types of outcomes that can remain in business. As a result of the one- occur. Please note that versions of the model out- sided negotiations, more than 40 Minor lined below date to the 1960s and have been League clubs lost their af"liations.34 Another adapted many times over the years.31 Some schol- example comes from a dispute between US ars argue that the win-win, win-lose outcomes Soccer and the US Women’s National Soccer described below have been overused and over- Team (USWNT). US Soccer’s refusal to simpli"ed in the 60 years since their introduc- negotiate with the USWNT fairly resulted in tion.32 We present these tactics as general a lawsuit and substantial bad press for the guidelines. As a manager, you must be aware that organization.35 This ongoing dispute has a strategies vary from one situation to the next. chance to become a lose-lose if the USWNT loses the lawsuit. • Lose-Lose: A lose-lose outcome occurs when • Win-Win: Win-win outcomes occur when none of the involved parties gains what they both parties receive the bene"ts initially initially desired. Lose-lose outcomes are sought in the con!ict. For Omni Hotels, which common when parties dig in, and winning the was looking to generate unique customer con!ict takes priority over achieving a mutual experiences, partnerships with the Atlanta goal. The Philadelphia Phillies and their 1997 Braves and Dallas Cowboys are viewed as a "rst-round draft selection, J.D. Drew engaged win-win for all parties. For Omni, the partner- in a famous lose-lose con!ict following his ships allowed the hotel chain to offer one of a 16.2 What Creates Con"ict? 183

kind experience by providing resort-type 16.2.5 Managerial Responses experiences within a major sports facility’s to Contextual-Based Con!ict con"nes. Omni can also build loyalty among team fans by being the of"cial hotel for two When addressing contextual-based con!ict, the high-pro"le North American sport franchises. manager needs to "rst identify which type of out- For the Cowboys and Braves, the partnership come is desired by the organization as well as provided anchors for major for live, work, which outcome the parties are heading toward. play real estate projects, as well as guaranteed Using this knowledge, managers can adapt their revenues from the evenly split partnerships.36 approach to maintaining functional con!ict. Win-win outcomes are often very good for the Common approaches listed next are consistent organization as long as the parties involved with Dual Concern Theory38 and have been sup- pursue organizational objectives. ported via robust academic study.39 • Compromise: A compromise outcome where both parties give up something 16.2.5.1 Problem-Solving desired but also gain something in the When a win-win outcome is possible, a problem- exchange. Compromise is thought by some solving approach can remove barriers to success. to be a path to less desirable outcomes like Problem-solving involves removing barriers, crises of agreement or low levels of engage- facilitating information exchanges, providing ment from the involved parties. This can resources, and encouraging the involved parties most certainly be true. Following several to seek an innovative or optimal solution to the high-pro"le incidents of domestic abuse issues faced. A problem-solving approach may perpetrated by players and fans, many also be needed when a group with win-win poten- leagues around the world formed working tial is seeking a less desirable compromise groups to address the issue. Unfortunately, outcome. the focus of most of the working groups was to mitigate the impact of negative publicity, 16.2.5.2 Con!ict Avoidance not instigating real change. Thus, most of When the con!icting parties are heading toward a these committees arrived at compromises lose-lose outcome, a con!ict avoidance strategy that failed to address the actual causes of can be adopted. In con!ict avoidance, the man- domestic violence in sport. ager eliminates the con!ict by removing the par- • That does not mean that all compromise ties involved from the situation. For example, results in less desirable outcomes. Often, removing individual members or even disband- compromise results from shedding inferior ing teams that have become too dysfunctional to initial ideas in exchange for better ideas gen- be successful. A con!ict avoidance strategy is erated by the group. Many successful sponsor- often needed once con!ict has become ship activations have been the result of relationship- based and cannot be redirected back compromises. For example, the Winston Cup, to a task-based focus. Thus, continuing the con- the title of NASCAR’s top level of competi- !ict is going to be counterproductive to the orga- tion from 1971 through 2003, resulted from a nization. It is important to note that a con!ict compromise between tobacco producer avoidance strategy does not mean ignoring con- R.J. Reynolds and NASCAR driver Junior !ict or simply hoping it will go away. Johnson. Negotiations initially began over Dysfunctional con!icts rarely disappear without sponsoring Junior Johnson’s race team but further mitigation. Instead, con!ict avoidance evolved into a series-wide sponsorship that within this context, refers to the removal of the bene"tted the sport and company far beyond dysfunctional parties so that the remaining group what a single car sponsorship could have.37 or a new group can focus on the task while the Most con!icts result in compromise dysfunctional parties work to mitigate their con- outcomes. !ict separately. 184 16 Con!ict and Negotiation

16.2.5.3 Forcing for a scenario where the parties are heading A forcing approach should be taken when the toward a win-lose outcome, but a compromise is con!ict is heading toward a win-lose outcome, best for the organization. The adoption of a com- where stakes are high, time is of the essence, and promising approach often requires managers to the organization has a vested interest in one par- serve as an arbitrator to facilitate negotiation ty’s ideas winning out. For example, many sport between parties. organizations with Native American imagery are reconsidering logos that are racist or offensive. c Negotiation When two or more In a work team with charges to rebrand the orga- interdependent parties work to resolve con!icting nization and remove offensive imagery, it is not goals. in the organization’s interest to retain or seek a compromise that maintains racist images. A c Arbitrator A person that serves as a facilitator forcing approach would be necessary if con!ict in the negotiation process. arose over an effort to retain offensive imagery instead of seeking to remove it. Managers should only use forcing approaches when essential, as it 16.3 Negotiation is likely to damage the organization’s relationship with the losers in the con!ict. Negotiation transpires when two or more interdependent parties work to resolve con!icting 16.2.5.4 Yielding goals.40 An arbitrator serves as a facilitator in the Yielding is another approach that can be consid- negotiation process. Managers often serve as ered during a win-lose con!ict. In a yielding arbitrators but may also serve as a negotiator approach, a manager encourages the con!icting when their workgroup or team is in con!ict with parties to adopt the solution that has the most another organizational unit or when representing support among the group. A yielding approach the organization against other stakeholders. can be adapted when the stakes are low and the In a negotiation, each party is faced with a organization is indifferent about the task’s out- continuum of potential outcomes that range from come. A yielding approach may also be neces- most desirable to least desirable. Illustrated in sary when the organization is in con!ict with a Fig. 16.1,41 each party in the negotiation begins more powerful organization. For example, Minor with a target point. The target point represents the League Baseball adopted a yielding approach point in the negotiation where a party receives all with MLB in an effort to survive the con!ict and of its desires. The resistance point represents the hopefully "nd favor in future con!icts. worst acceptable outcome of the negotiation. As you can see in the "gure, most of what each party 16.2.5.5 Compromising wants is past the other party’s resistance point. In an instance where a compromise outcome is However, there is a range where the continuums the focus of the con!icting parties but also bene- of both parties overlap. This is the potential set- "cial to the group, managers can adopt a compro- tlement range. The potential settlement range is mising approach. In this scenario, the manager where both parties can gain enough to be satis"ed would look for ways to facilitate compromise. A with the negotiation outcome. As an arbitrator, compromising approach may also be necessary your goal is to focus both parties on this area.42

Fig. 16.1 Negotiation range 16.4 Summary 185

16.3.1 Managing the Negotiation moment of euphoria. It is common for one or both parties to forget or perceive details differ- Helping parties in con!ict "nd mutual ground ently after an agreement is made. You can help by requires preparation from managers. Imagine putting the agreement in writing via email or being in con!ict with a group member, and your document and sharing it with the negotiators professor tells you to just work it out. If you immediately following negotiations. If one of the could work it out, you wouldn’t be seeking coun- parties disputes what is in writing, bring every- sel. To take on an arbitrator role, managers must one back to discuss. "rst gather information about the con!ict. Critical information includes learning about the nature of the con!ict, understanding the con!icting par- 16.4 Summary ties’ personalities and histories, and learning about the organizational needs for the outcome. As this chapter has shown, nobody looks forward Gathering this and other critical information will to con!ict, but some forms of con!ict are very allow a manager to form a strategy for handling bene"cial. Without con!ict, organizations would the negotiation.43 not move forward. Managers play a critical role in Next, the manager needs to create ground rules maintaining functional con!ict while eliminating for the negotiation. Establish who will represent dysfunctional con!ict. Anytime con!ict moves the parties in the negotiation. If the con!ict is toward relationship-based arguments, managers between work teams and organizational units, need to redirect the involved parties. Depending gathering whole teams will bog down the negotia- on the con!ict’s scenario, managers have many tion. Instead, allow each party to identify who will different strategies that can be deployed. represent their interests. Provide the parties time to meet with their teams and develop their cases but Discussion Questions establish the focus of the negotiation. Negotiating complex con!icts with many issues is dif"cult. By 1. Discuss a time when your team was involved limiting the focus of negotiations, you can redirect in a task-based con!ict. What strategies did the parties to solve one problem at a time.44 the team employ to solve the con!ict? Did the We then want to facilitate the sharing of infor- team reach an optimal solution? mation between the parties. Facilitation can begin 2. Think about a project group that you’ve been by allowing each party to state their initial posi- involved with. What were the structural and tions, which will likely be at their target points. contextual causes of con!ict within the group? As an arbiter, you can help the process by identi- 3. Find an example of a win-win outcome in fying initial areas of common ground. You can sports. Why do you believe the parties arrived also allow parties to question each other and seek at a win-win outcome compared to potential clari"cation and " nd out why the other party compromise or win-lose outcomes? wants what they are asking for. Throughout, it is 4. Discuss a time when you were involved in a imperative that questioning remains information- negotiation. What negotiation strategies did seeking and not confrontational. The arbiter can you employ? help by redirecting back to the common goal and easing each party toward the settlement range. Notes When problems arise, your role will be to problem- solve, helping the parties work past hur- 1. Morley, G., Thomas, A. (2017, March). US rugby is dles that are in the way of a deal.45 on the rise—should the NFL be worried? CNN At the conclusion of the negotiation, manag- Retrieved from https://www.cnn.com/2017/03/16/ sport/rise- of- american- rugby- ebner- serevi- wooching/ ers have one more duty to formalize the agree- index.html. ment. Negotiations can be stressful. Reaching an 2. USA Rugby (2020, March). USA Rugby !les Chapter agreement can be a moment of relief, but also a 11; Agrees to support for continuation of reorganiza- 186 16 Con!ict and Negotiation

tion. Retrieved from https://www.usa.rugby/2020/03/ Con!ict Helps or Hurts Creative Collaboration. usa- rugby- files- chapter- 11- agrees- to- support- for- Academy of Management Journal, 63(3), 903–934. continuation- of- reorganization/. 19. Chua, R., & Jin, M. (2020). Across the Great Divides: 3. McLeod, C. M., & Nite, C. (2019). Human Capital Gender Dynamics In!uence How Intercultural Ecosystem Construction in an Emerging Rugby Con!ict Helps or Hurts Creative Collaboration. Market. Journal of Sport Management, 33(4), 261– Academy of Management Journal, 63(3), 903–934. 274. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.2018- 0265. 20. Robbins, S. P. (1974). Managing organizational con- 4. McLeod, C. M., & Nite, C. (2019). Human Capital "ict. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Ecosystem Construction in an Emerging Rugby 21. Briggs, D. (2020, August 20). Here’s where the Big Market. Journal of Sport Management, 33(4), 261– Ten completely blew it. Toledo Blade. Retrieved from 274. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.2018- 0265. https://www.toledoblade.com/sports/col- 5. Robbins, S.P. (1978). “Con!ict management” and lege/2020/08/20/briggs- Here- s- where- the- Big- Ten- “con!ict resolution” are not synonymous terms. blew- it/stories/20200820144. California Management Review, 21(2), 67–75. 22. Bernstein, E. S., & Turban, S. (2018). The impact of 6. McShane, S., & Von Glinow, M. (2021). the ‘open’ workspace on human collaboration. Organizational Behavior: Emerging Knowledge. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, Global Reality (9th ed.). McGraw Hill. 373. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2017.0239. 7. Balasubramanian, S., & Bhardwaj, P. (2004). When 23. McShane, S., & Von Glinow, M. (2021). not all con!ict is bad: Manufacturing-marketing con- Organizational Behavior: Emerging Knowledge. !ict and strategic incentive design. Management Global Reality (9th ed.). McGraw Hill. Science, 50(4), 489–502. 24. Sherif, M. (1958). Superordinate goals in the reduc- 8. Robbins, S.P., & Judge, T.A. (2019). Organizational tion of intergroup con!ict. American journal of Behavior (18th ed.). Pearson. Sociology, 63(4), 349–356. 9. Follett, M.P. (1942). Constructive con!ict. In Metcalf, 25. March, J. G., and H. A. Simon. (1958). Organizations. H.C., and Urwick, L. (eds.). Dynamic administration: Wiley. The collected Papers of Mary Parker Follett. Harper 26. Alper, S., Tjosvold, D., & Law, K. S. (2000). Con!ict and Brothers. 30–37. management, ef"cacy, and performance in organiza- 10. Robbins, S.P. (1978). “Con!ict management” and tional teams. Personnel psychology, 53(3), 625–642. “con!ict resolution” are not synonymous terms. 27. Staudohar, P. D. (2003). Why no baseball work stop- California Management Review, 21(2), 67–75; page? Journal of Sports Economics, 4(4), 362–366. Robbins, S.P., & Judge, T.A. (2019). Organizational https://doi.org/10.1177/1527002503257390. Behavior (18th ed.). Pearson. 28. Augsberger, D.W. (1992). Con"ict mediation across 11. Jehn, K. (1995). A multimethod examination of the cultures: Pathways and patterns. Westminster. bene"ts and detriments of intragroup con!ict. 29. Amason, A. C., & Mooney, A. C. (1999). The effects Administrative Science Quarterly, 40, 256–282. of past performance on top management team con!ict 12. Todorova, G., Brake, M. R. W., & Weingart, L. R. in strategic decision making. International Journal of (2020). Work design and task con!ict in interdisci- Con"ict Management, 10(4); Peterson, R. S., & plinary groups. International Journal of Con"ict Behfar, K. J. (2003). The dynamic relationship Management, 31(4), 623–646. https://doi. between performance feedback, trust, and con!ict in org/10.1108/IJCMA- 08- 2019- 0139. groups: A longitudinal study. Organizational behav- 13. De Dreu, C. K. (2006). When too little or too much ior and human decision processes, 92(1–2), hurts: Evidence for a curvilinear relationship between 102–112. task con!ict and innovation in teams. Journal of man- 30. Amason, A. C., & Mooney, A. C. (1999). The effects agement, 32(1), 83–107. of past performance on top management team con!ict 14. Jehn, K. A. (1997). A qualitative analysis of con!ict in strategic decision making. International Journal of types and dimensions in organizational groups. Con"ict Management, 10(4); Greer, L. L., Jehn, Administrative science quarterly, 42(3), 530–557. K. A., & Mannix, E. A. (2008). Con!ict transforma- 15. Jehn, K. A., & Mannix, E. A. (2001). The dynamic tion: A longitudinal investigation of the relationships nature of con!ict: A longitudinal study of intragroup between different types of intragroup con!ict and the con!ict and group performance. Academy of manage- moderating role of con!ict resolution. Small group ment journal, 44(2), 238–251. research, 39(3), 278–302. 16. Jehn, K. A. (1997). A qualitative analysis of con!ict 31. Pondy, L. R. (1967). Organizational con!ict: Concept types and dimensions in organizational groups. and models. Administrative Science Quarterly, 12, Administrative science quarterly, 42(3), 530–557. 296–320; Walton, R. E. (1969). Interpersonal peace- 17. Jehn, K. A., & Mannix, E. A. (2001). The dynamic making: Confrontations and third party consulta- nature of con!ict: A longitudinal study of intragroup tions. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. con!ict and group performance. Academy of manage- 32. McNary, L. D. (2003). The term “win-win” in con!ict ment journal, 44(2), 238–251. management: A classic case of misuse and overuse. 18. Chua, R., & Jin, M. (2020). Across the Great Divides: The Journal of Business Communication, 40(2), Gender Dynamics In!uence How Intercultural 144–159. 16.4 Summary 187

33. Zolecki, T. (2018, May 30). Drew’s Draft tactics drew 39. De Dreu, C.K.W., Evers, A., Beersma, B., Kluwer, ire of Phillies, fans. MLB.com retrieved from https:// E.S. and Nauta, A. (2001). A theory-based measure of www.mlb.com/news/phillies- drafted- but- did- con!ict management strategies in the workplace. not- sign- j- d- drew- c278287718. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 22: 645–668. 34. ESPN Staff (2020, September 3). Why MLB’s minor https://doi.org/10.1002/job.107; De Dreu, C. K., leagues as you know them will end Sept. 30. ESPN. Weingart, L. R., & Kwon, S. (2000). In!uence of com, Retrieved from https://www.espn.com/mlb/ social motives on integrative negotiation: a meta-ana- story/_/id/29795127/why- mlb- minor- leagues- know- lytic review and test of two theories. Journal of per- end- sept- 30. sonality and social psychology, 78(5), 889–905; 35. ESPN Staff (2020, June 3). USWNT lawsuit versus Dubrin, A.J. (2010) Leadership: Research Findings, U.S. Soccer explained: De"ning the pay gaps, what’s Practice, and Skills (6th ed.). Cengage. at stake for both sides. ESPN.com. Retrieved from 40. Hitt, M.A., Miller, C.C., Colella, A., Triana, M. https://www.espn.com/soccer/united- states- usaw/ (2017). Organizational Behavior (5th ed.). Wiley. story/4071258/uswnt- lawsuit- versus- us- soccer- 41. Robbins, S.P., & Judge, T.A. (2019). Organizational explained- de"ning- the- pay- gapswhats- at- stake- for- Behavior (18th ed.). Pearson. both- sides. 42. McShane, S., & Von Glinow, M. (2021). 36. Eisen, D. (2015, June 10). Omni "nds sweet spot in Organizational Behavior: Emerging Knowledge. sports partnerships. Hotel Management. Retrieved Global Reality (9th ed.). McGraw Hill.; Robbins, S.P., from https://www.hotelmanagement.net/develop- & Judge, T.A. (2019). Organizational Behavior (18th ment/omni- "nds- sweet- spot- sports- partnerships. ed.). Pearson. 37. Johnson, J. (2011, March 24). I didn’t get my sponsor, 43. Robbins, S.P., & Judge, T.A. (2019). Organizational but NASCAR got a new era. Motorsports Unplugged. Behavior (18th ed.). Pearson.; Thompson, L.L. Retrieved from https://motorsportsunplugged. (1991). Information exchange in negotiation. Journal com/i- didnt- get- my- sponsor- but- nascar- got- a- new- of Experimental Social Psychology. 161–179. era/. 44. Robbins, S.P., & Judge, T.A. (2019). Organizational 38. Dubrin, A.J. (2010) Leadership: Research Findings, Behavior (18th ed.). Pearson. Practice, and Skills (6th ed.). Cengage; Pruitt D.G., & 45. Thompson, L.L. (1991). Information exchange in Rubin J. (1986). Social Con"ict: Escalation, negotiation. Journal of Experimental Social Stalemate and Settlement. Random House: New York. Psychology. 161–179. Power and Politics in Sport Organizations 17

17.1 Sources of Power c Learning Objectives After reading and In"uence this chapter, students should be able in Organizations to • Describe the various sources of power Sport organizations are positioned in an environ- in sport organizations; ment that is grounded in the belief that the “coach • Understand how resource acquisition is always right” and the players are to do as told by can in!uence one’s power in a sport their coaches. Given these circumstances, sport organization; organizations are likely to have a “top-down” men- • Gather a deep understanding of organi- tality for their organizational hierarchies. Those at zational politics as they exist in sport the top of the organization would seemingly have organizations; the most power, while those at the bottom would • Explain the components of political have the least. This could be an oversimpli"cation skill and their in!uence in sport of sport organizations, but a consistent !ow of organizations. research has been dedicated to the study of coaches and other leaders (e.g., Athletics Directors and Front Of"ce of"cials). Regardless, there are important reasons to improve your understanding of why Matthew Althoff: Director of Equipment and how the ideas of power and politics permeate Operations, University of Virginia throughout sport organizations. This chapter is To listen to the interview dedicated to both power and politics and will cover general business perspectives as well as how both concepts are utilized within the sports industry.

c Power One’s in!uence over organizational outcomes.

c Legitimate Power Power that is formally granted to an organizational member. Supplementary Information The online version of this chapter (https://doi.org/10.1007/978- 3- 030- 67612- 4_17) contains supplementary material, which is available to c Authority The ability to make decisions on authorized users. behalf of the organization.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 189 C. R. Barnhill et al., Organizational Behavior in Sport Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67612-4_17 190 17 Power and Politics in Sport Organizations

17.1.1 Legitimate Power employees have working knowledge of how the football "eld should be maintained, how We will start with the concept of power, which the conference will interpret NCAA compli- is generally viewed as one’s in!uence over ance regulations, or an ef"cient manner to organizational outcomes.1 From there, power maneuver through a yearly equipment audit. can be split into various perspectives, such as These examples re!ect fundamental business legitimate power, which is power that is for- circumstances that demonstrate the value—and mally granted to an organizational member, power—of individuals who know how to con- such as a supervisor. This type of power can be front such challenges. Yet, power in sport orga- viewed as an authority that is bestowed upon the nizations can take on new meaning and individual to make decisions and coordinate the importance when considering participants’ path for an organization.2 Those with authority welfare. The sports industry is plagued with can use their power to offer bene"ts or rewards stories of overuse injuries among youth partici- to works and threaten punishment for not reach- pants. More speci"cally, the power of coaches ing objectives and meeting standards. Re!ecting in regard to the concussion epidemic in foot- upon your previous work experiences, you have ball has also been called into question.4 As surely seen such processes play out with past such, it is important to have an even better supervisors either offering a bonus or a Saturday understanding of where power comes from and off from work or perhaps warning of conse- how it is generated. quences for not coming to work on time. Whether or not your career path is meant to enter the sports industry, you will experience the 17.2 Resource Acquisition impact of formal power and authority in the modern workplace. A supervisor with immense Chapter 1 discussed the role of resource depen- power and decision-making ability is a “fact of dency theory and the processes organizations life” in most organizations in or out of the sports use to gather resources.5 This concept is related industry. to power as it directly relates to the acquisition of resources—tangible and intangible. Tangible c Expert Power Power that arises from unique resources are usually typi"ed in the form of skills or capacities that hold incredible value for "nancial resources (i.e., money) or physical the organization. buildings and capacities. Intangible resources do not exist in a physical capacity; instead, they exist in forms such as intelligence, social 17.1.2 Expert Power connections, and psychological abilities. Another way to look at the concept of resources There is another, more informal, type of power is the idea of “capital.” Essentially, capital is that also exists. Sometimes, individuals in another word for resources in that having sig- organizations hold unique skills or capacities ni"cant or adequate "nancial capital equates to that hold incredible value for the organization. having enough money to accomplish one’s In such cases, an individual with this kind of objectives. From an intangible capital perspec- knowledge or talent is thought to have expert tive, intellectual capital (i.e., superior intelli- power.3 Those who have expert power may be gence), social capital (i.e., in!uential social located at any position within an organizational connections), or psychological capital (i.e., hierarchy. In the realm of sport, we can see this meaningful cognitive strengths) are all valu- concept clearly in that certain players are so able forms of capital or resources for sport valuable to a team’s performance that the team organizations. An important concept to take simply cannot function properly without them. away is that capital (and power) comes in many This is also true in sport organizations. Some forms, not just money. 17.2 Resource Acquisition 191

17.2.1 Power and Resource and in other cases changing the formal reporting Acquisition structure so athletic trainers reported to the coach as opposed to medical doctors.9 In a follow-up Another critical concept is that resource acquisi- study, Oja and Bass10 explored the power dynam- tion and the ability to do so is a form of power. To ics between collegiate football coaches and better understand this concept, we will turn to the equipment managers. Equipment managers in the work of Hickson, Hinings, Lee, Schneck, and study revealed that they felt adequately supported Pennings,6 who explained that the degree of by their coaches in terms of "tting helmets. While power held by departments within organizations this was not a universal experience, it was sur- are predicted based on three concepts that are mised that equipment managers retained some related to their resources: coping with uncer- degree of power because they were protecting the tainty, the uniqueness of the department’s skills, organization’s resources, in this case, the and the impact of uncertainty on the organiza- student- athletes. In sum, sport organizations tion. In other words, those individuals with power value the degree to which employees can gather in organizations are likely to hold central and and preserve "nancial resources and reward unique skillsets and are able to contend with the power and authority to those who can do so. uncertainty that is relevant to their organizational environment. Furthermore, power is often bestowed to those within the organization who 17.2.2 Resources and Legitimacy bring in external (usually "nancial) resources.7 This example is seen keenly in sport. Look no Another form of resource acquisition was also further than the power held by professional ath- introduced in Chap. 1—legitimacy and the pro- letes. When a superstar athlete desires a change cesses sport organizations undertake to achieve within an organization, they are likely to see that it.11 As you will recall, legitimacy is the “general- change happen (e.g., coaching change or a trade). ized perception or assumption that the actions of An even clearer example lies in college sport an entity are desirable, proper, or appropriate where coaches are paid hefty salaries, and ath- within some socially constructed system of letes are not considered employees but instead norms, values, beliefs, and de"nitions” (p. 574).12 receive "nancial support for their education along This perspective is not focused on accumulating with some of the cost of living expenses. "nancial resources as much as gathering in!u- However, a segment of coaches receive millions ence based on perceived legitimacy. Speci"c of dollars. Why could this be? Well, their salaries sport organizations hold signi"cant power and are a re!ection of their power, or more so their in!uence throughout the industry. Consider why university’s belief of their ability to bring in this might be. Could it be a result of the organiza- resources. Keep in mind, a university (or any tion or the organization’s leader having a signi"- business) will only pay a salary if they believe cant degree of in!uence because they are viewed there will be a return on investment. Consequently, as a trusted voice? This concept extends beyond college coaches have enormous power within organizations and to various leagues and confer- athletics departments.8 ences. Many soccer leagues and clubs will look Another example of power within sport is the to the top-tier European soccer leagues to guide concussion epidemic that has fundamentally their decision-making. By doing so, they will changed the way sports are played and managed. increase their perception of being a legitimate Our growing understanding of the dangers of organization. Importantly, the organizations that concussions has illuminated the power of appear to be legitimate will gather increasing coaches. Take, for example, a situation in the power and in!uence. Put another way, it is dif"- early 2010s where collegiate football coaches cult for sport organizations or leagues to gain were "ring athletic trainers for not permitting power and in!uence when they do things differ- concussed student-athletes to return to the "eld, ently than established and successful organiza- 192 17 Power and Politics in Sport Organizations tions. This is not to say that individuals and (i.e., episodic) or diffused throughout the organi- organizations should not strive to create their zation within various groups and departments own original path to success.13 However, the (i.e., systemic). point is that gaining power and in!uence is often Importantly, episodic and systemic forms of achieved by ascribing to the norms of the given power can assist in the understanding of orga- sector of the sports industry. nizational politics, which is the next topic in An interesting perspective arises when con- this chapter.17 Organizational politics, broadly sidering resources and legitimacy as sources of the actions taken to gather power, are shaped power and in!uence. Why do employees follow by power disbursement in organizations. Power the directions of their supervisors? Is it because can be densely compacted at the top of organi- of the amount of resources they bring to the zational hierarchies (i.e., vertical), and it can organization, or is it due to the acknowledged also be spread out within the organizational power they hold because of the position’s legiti- hierarchy (i.e., horizontal). The density of macy? The answer is likely both. From a practi- power is likely determined by factors that we cal standpoint, subordinates follow their have just discussed: the need for resources and superiors’ directives because failing to do could what form of power density would re!ect a result in detrimental effects on their job—even legitimate organizational hierarchy. Regardless potentially being terminated. However, supervi- of the dispersion of power within an organiza- sors are given authority, and actual power, to tion, it is important for sport managers to make decisions on the organization’s behalf understand where power is located and the because of the resources they are believed to degree of power that various members hold. In bring into the organization. Then, organizations sport organizations, coaches traditionally have bestow a title that implies legitimacy upon the immense power, but, in some cases, super star- supervisor, which allows them to make such athletes have even more power than coaches. In decisions. In this way, both resource acquisition Oja and Bass’s18 study, it was found that and legitimacy are likely to play a role in the coaches had more power than athletics direc- degree of power one holds within an organiza- tors, even though the athletics directors were tional setting. considered coaches’ formal supervisors. This "nding was described as an informal power hierarchy that can exist in college athletics 17.2.3 Episodic Power departments. Although this study is just one example, it seems that sport organizations Yet another depiction of organizational power could have unique power structures, which utilizes a dichotomy of systemic and episodic means that sport employees’ understanding of power to explain how power is distributed their organization’s power structure is even throughout an organization.14 Episodic power is more important. characterized by strategic behaviors designed to bene"t the actor (i.e., the person taking action) and considered a traditional view of management 17.3 Organizational Politics studies. The focus is on those employees with the most in!uence within an organization.15 The sys- Politics within organizations is not what you are temic form of power uses an alternative perspec- likely to expect when you hear the word “poli- tive of power being dispersed throughout the tics” on a media platform. While much attention organization, which is accomplished through the has been given to the governmental version of organization’s daily practices.16 Another way to politics, this section is dedicated to exploring look at this dichotomy is that power can be con- how politics within sport organizations affect densed within certain positions or individuals members and the manner by which they attempt 17.3 Organizational Politics 193 to meet organizational goals. In a very broad toward speci"c and short-term purposes. sense, organizational politics is a function of Strategic behaviors are done for long- term power that individuals will use as they jockey for endeavors and are more ambiguous. These forms positioning to be more in!uential. As a demon- of behavior help us to understand the actions that stration of the connection to power, Lawrence people can take to gain or retain their in!uence et al. described politics as “the dynamics of in sport organizations. power in organizations” (p. 180).19 As such, poli- Keeping in mind that organizational politics tics and power are entwined as organizational describes deliberate attempts by individuals politics describes how individuals attempt to gain (although this is not limited to individuals, as power within organizations. departments and organizations also take part in organizational politics) to gain, expand, and c Organizational Politics A social in!uence protect their in!uence within organizations, in process in which behavior is strategically a sport organization, an employee could use all designed to maximize short-term or long-term four of the previously mentioned behaviors to self-interest, which is either consistent with or at attain their goals and/or improve their degree the expense of others’ interest. of in!uence. From an assertive behavior perspective, a sport employee could volunteer to c Assertive Behavior When an individual takes take on the tasks of an employee who has left the initiative to gain an advantage. for a position at a different organization. By doing so, the employee could position them- c Defensive Behavior Reactionary behavior selves for promotion by demonstrating a com- that occurs when an individual is faced with a mitment to the organization, and if the former threat. employee was at a higher position in the organizational hierarchy, they could show they are c Tactical Behavior Behavior that is geared capable of handling the demands of the job. toward speci"c and short-term purposes. Utilizing a defensive behavioral reaction to a surprising event such as a shipment of equip- c Strategic Behavior Ambiguous behaviors ment not arriving in time for the start of a sea- focused on long-term endeavors. son, a sport employee could offer excuses and apologies to try and hold off blame and punish- A contemporary scholar who has signi"cantly ment. In a sense, a defensive reaction is meant expanded the study of organizational politics is to distract and avoid the loss of in!uence or Gerald Ferris, who developed and expanded var- positioning. Tactical behaviors that a sport ious models of organizational politics and their employee might use to gain in!uence would be in!uence within organizations. Organizational smaller maneuvers or initiatives such as get- politics are viewed as “a social in!uence process ting to know coworkers or taking credit for a in which behavior is strategically designed to successful marketing campaign. Lastly, strate- maximize short-term or long-term self-interest, gic behaviors are meant to enhance long-term which is either consistent with or at the expense qualities such as expertise and status, and a of others’ interest” (p. 145).20 Organizational sport employee could do so by seeking oppor- politics has been divided into two forms: tunities to learn and develop their skills, or assertive- defensive and tactical-strategic.21 As more speci"cally, gaining a skill set that they described by Ferris et al.,22 assertive behavior is know will position themselves to advance when an individual takes the initiative to gain an within the organization. These are just a few advantage. On the other hand, defensive behav- examples of how a sport employee could ior is reactionary and occurs when an individual improve their power or in!uence within their is faced with a threat. Tactical behavior is geared organization. 194 17 Power and Politics in Sport Organizations

17.3.1 Behavior Engagement powerbrokers are in an organization, as well as their own ability to carve a path to their goals. So, when do individuals engage in political How would one go about either determining behaviors? According to Ferris et al.,23 political their ability or developing skills to excel in orga- behaviors are more likely when (a) employees nizations that allow political behaviors to exist? are able to re!ect upon their status and available A construct that is borne of organizational poli- options, (b) there is a lack of rigid rules or con- tics and demonstrates whom individuals can straint in social interactions, (c) opportunities in!uence others in order to achieve their goals is (and threats) exist to use political behaviors, (d) known as political skill. Treadway et al.27 belief of success in political efforts, (e) the cir- described the connection (and separation) cumstances and potential outcomes are impor- between organizational politics and political skill tant, and (f) when an employee recognizes others as “understanding what political behaviors to partaking in political behaviors, especially when demonstrate (i.e., organizational politics) and the successful. A few important takeaways from this skills to effectively execute them successfully list: There needs to be a correct setting for politi- (i.e., political skill)” (p. 1609). Although individ- cal behaviors to occur. This requirement includes uals can use political skill in their own pursuits, it the employee’s internal beliefs and an appropri- can also be viewed from a leadership perspective. ate environment that supports and welcomes Our leadership chapter follows this one, but, as political behaviors. First, let’s look at those inter- you read through the content, regarding political nal perspectives. Employees need to believe that skill and then the various leadership strategies, their efforts will result in the successful attain- consider the ways that political skill can impact ment of in!uence or other goals, and those out- how a leader may interact with their subordi- comes need to be important to the sport employee nates. To add to the construct’s complexity, polit- in order to put forth the effort to engage in politi- ical skill has four components that entail different cal behaviors. Political behaviors are risky as aspects of in!uence that need to be reviewed they are usually not interpreted kindly,24 and individually to fully understand the concept. doing so can bring about negative consequences. They also take considerable time and effort to c Political Skill The ability to effectively achieve long-term goals and aspirations (not- understand others at work and to use such withstanding the tactical behaviors, as they usu- knowledge to in!uence others to act in ways that ally build upon each other for a higher purpose). enhance one’s personal and/or organizational Now let’s inspect the organizational setting objectives. aspect. An essential element of politics in organizations is the recognition of a “playing "eld.” That is, organizations are fundamentally politi- 17.4 Political Skill cal, and there is a “game” being played in most organizations (sport and non-sport) as employees Success in one’s career is undoubtedly in!u- seek to enhance their positioning within the orga- enced by concepts such as hard work and tenac- nizational hierarchy.25 Sport employees who rec- ity, but being savvy, in!uential, and ognize this “game” and understand it are likely to understanding the political landscape of organi- have a sense of control over the process, which zations is also thought to contribute to one’s could lead to favorable outcomes. As such, orga- potential.28 Political skill has been described as nizational politics can be viewed as either a threat “a fundamental building block for success” or an opportunity depending on how well one (p. 118).29 De"ned, political skill is “the ability understands the political game.26 For sport to effectively understand others at work, and to employees who feel inclined to play the game of use such knowledge to in!uence others to act in organizational politics would need to evaluate the ways that enhance one’s personal and/or organi- likelihood of success after deciphering who the zational objectives” (p. 311).30 Then, political 17.4 Political Skill 195 skill is a re!ection of the concepts of savviness understand the views of others and control their and being in!uential. More so, political skill is a own reactions to present an appropriate response description of “how” one is in!uential31 and the to others. Another way to look at social astute- resulting adjustment of one’s behavior in order ness is being able to identify with others, which to in!uence (or control) coworkers and subordi- can then lead to applying in!uence to obtain nates.32 Those who have a high degree of politi- one’s objective.36 A sport manager with social cal skill are able to demonstrate a shrewdness to astuteness would be able to recognize that a sub- adjust their behavior when needed in order to ordinate or coworker is highly appreciative (or in!uence or control others.33 A key feature of susceptible) to praise. By taking opportunities to politically skilled individuals is the ability to offer support and compliments, they could gain convey con"dence and seem sincere while pro- in!uence to convince them to work with a ticket viding solutions or advice, which has the effect software program that will greatly favor the of masking any internal motives they may have. socially astute individual. In other words, those who are politically skilled are able to in!uence others to act or behave in a c Interpersonal In!uence A subtle and way that helps the in!uencer and/or the organi- convincing personal style that exerts a powerful zation. To be clear, this means that those who in!uence on those around them. have political skill could use their savviness to in!uence others for sel"sh reasons (but not always, as there can be benevolent intentions!), 17.4.2 Interpersonal In"uence but a central feature of political skill is that the individual who is being in!uenced does not The second dimension, interpersonal in!uence, realize this is occurring.34 Although not a per- describes how such individuals have “a subtle fect analogy, one way to view political skill is a and convincing personal style that exerts a pow- “Jedi mind trick,” as political skill is a learned erful in!uence on those around them” (p. 129).37 activity and not a form of brainwashing. Those with interpersonal in!uence can adapt and act appropriately to achieve a desired c Social Astuteness The awareness of response with the use of !exibility in their individuals concerning not only other individuals responses.38 Put another way, politically skilled but of social engagements in general. individuals use an attractive and appealing personal style or communication strategy that can be adapted to different settings to in!uence oth- 17.4.1 Social Astuteness ers.39 An employee with interpersonal in!uence would be able to use an appealing communica- As alluded to, political skill has been conceptual- tion style which includes the ability to adjust ized to include four components: social astute- their message and posture to solicit in!uence ness, interpersonal in!uence, networking ability, over others by "tting their communication to be and apparent sincerity. These dimensions appropriate in a given context. In a sport setting, describe speci"c aspects or tools that a politically a sport manager with interpersonal in!uence skilled individual would have. The "rst aspect, would be able to use the right tone when speak- social astuteness, as described by Ferris et al.,35 is ing to a participant or coach after a competition the awareness of individuals concerning not only and would be able to adjust their tone based on other individuals but of social engagements in the outcome of the competition in a way that general. Those who have high degrees of social would be received as supportive by the partici- astuteness are able to accurately diagnose others’ pant or coach. behavior and intentions, as well as having great self-awareness. In short, such individuals can c Networking Ability The capacity to cultivate effectively interact with others because they can a diverse set of contacts and relationships. 196 17 Power and Politics in Sport Organizations

17.4.3 Networking Ability or may not have. As part of this aspect of political skill, such an individual would “appear to others as The third dimension, networking ability, repre- possessing high levels of integrity, authenticity, sents the capacity to cultivate a diverse set of con- sincerity, and genuineness. They are, or appear to tacts and relationships.40 The development of these be, honest, open, and forthright” (p. 129).43 Ferris networks of relationships is forged to become et al.44 also added that being sincere is likely to close to those who hold valuable resources, which determine whether or not in!uence will be gained can then be utilized to gain in!uence. Put another or rejected. Suppose an individual is perceived to way, politically skilled individuals are able to gain be attempting to gain in!uence or control (i.e., friendships and professional relationships with ulterior motive), in that case, they will likely be those who hold considerable power and in!uence rebuffed.45 Apparent sincerity represents trustwor- themselves, and due to that friendship, they are thiness and a genuine concern for others. One way able to tap into the resources of their powerful to describe someone who does not have high levels friends.41 Another function of networking ability is of apparent sincerity is “fake.” We have all likely the capability to exchange information, which in encountered people who we could tell were being turn supports the development of friendship.42 This nice to us for a certain reason, or we knew they had concept is not unlike “social capital” or the value other intentions. When we recognize this, we of one’s relationships with others. A common immediately put our guard up and view such an phrase that can describe this political skill dimen- individual as distrustful. As you can see, for one to sion could be “it’s not what you know; it’s whom gain in!uence (or control), it is absolutely essen- you know.” Relationships are essential to any tial that they are perceived as authentic and sincere employee (and are a basic human need), as they in their offers to help. Within the sports industry, help support and encourage individuals during fundraising is a department where apparent sincer- both dif"cult and cheerful times. However, one ity is critical. Fundraisers, especially in the with high political skill would selectively and pur- American college sports industry, will solicit posely choose who they align themselves with in donations of boosters and alumni. This often order to maximize their in!uence within an orga- involves courting donors by taking them out to nization. For sport employees, this would likely dinner, golf outings, and generally being friendly. involve befriending those near or at the top of the However, the reason the fundraiser is taking such organizational hierarchy. Doing so could provide actions is that it is literally their job to ask for access to privileged information or even protection donations (of course, many employees in develop- in the face of layoffs. Another strategy for a sport ment/fundraising genuinely enjoy their jobs and employee could be to connect with those who are getting to know donors), but if the potential donor long-time employees or who have access to the starts to believe the relationship is strictly based on inner workings of the organization to bolster their securing a donation, then the relationship is likely knowledge of other employees’ organizational to fall apart. Consequently, those in fundraising culture and perspectives. departments (although this is certainly not limited to just fundraising) need to have high levels of c Apparent Sincerity Appearing to have a apparent sincerity to acquire donations from genuine interest that shields any ulterior motives boosters. that an in!uencer may or may not have.

17.4.5 Political Skill Examples 17.4.4 Apparent Sincerity in Sport

The "nal dimension, apparent sincerity, is a crucial The concept of political skill has been around consideration as it portends a genuine interest and for quite some time, but scholars have just shields any ulterior motives that an in!uencer may recently applied the theory within the sports 17.5 Summary 197 industry. Most of the studies have viewed politi- 17.5 Summary cal skill as a leadership quality, speci"cally pertaining to coaches. One of the "rst studies In this chapter, we examined both power and pol- involving sport and political skill examined the itics and applied both concepts to the sports impact of football coaches’ recruiting ability industry. Power comes in many forms and can be (i.e., political skill) and head coaches’ perfor- cultivated through personal skills as well as fol- mance on recruiting effectiveness.46 The study lowing legitimate practices of an organizational found that football coaches’ political skill did environment. Organizational politics is a func- improve their ability to recruit talented student- tion of how power is distributed within organiza- athletes. A similar study found that head tions. Within the concept of organizational coaches’ political skill positively impacted politics is the perspective of political skill, which recruiting class quality, satisfaction with the can be developed by both employees and leaders recruiting class, and their performance in to attain personal and professional goals. As we recruiting.47 This study demonstrated the impact discussed, the sports industry contains dense of coaches’ political skill on objective and sub- areas of power (i.e., coaches and some adminis- jective measures of recruiting ability. In another trators), but an improved understanding of both study, assistant coaches were asked about their power and politics can help aspiring sport head coaches’ political skill and its in!uence on employees to better navigate their future organi- their reputation and effectiveness. The results zational environments. revealed that political skill in!uenced head coaches’ reputation, which in turn improved Discussion Questions their team and leadership effectiveness.48 Lastly, as a leadership quality, political skill has been 1. What are the various sources of power in a theorized to positively impact sport employees’ sport organization? psychological capital, speci"cally the HERO 2. How does resource acquisition in!uence one’s model,49 which was discussed in Chap. 1. While power in a sport organization? coaches’ political skill seemingly has the poten- 3. What are organizational politics, and how can tial to have positive outcomes, there are plenty they impact a sport organization? of possibilities for individuals who are not 4. How can political skill elevate one’s career coaches or organizational leaders to use politi- prospects? cal skill to create their own positive outcomes. One last note on political skill. The concept of Notes political skill, much like sport, is a neutral entity and can be used for positive or negative purposes, but its 1. Bowditch, J. L., Buono, A. F., & Stewart, M. M. outcomes depend on the intentions of the person at (2008). A primer on organizational behavior. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. hand. That is, an individual who possesses a high 2. Bowditch, J. L., Buono, A. F., & Stewart, M. M. degree of political skill could use their abilities for (2008). A primer on organizational behavior. sel"sh desires (e.g., promotions or preventing oth- Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ers from advancement), or they could use them to 3. Bowditch, J. L., Buono, A. F., & Stewart, M. M. (2008). A primer on organizational behavior. foster personal development in others by helping Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. coworkers connect within their own vast profes- 4. Wolverton, B. (2013, September 2). Coach makes sional networks or providing meaningful feedback. the call: Athletic trainers who butt heads with Also, political skill, which certainly comes easier to coaches over concussion treatment take career hits. The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved from some than others, is a skill, meaning that it can be http://chronicle.com/article/Trainers- Butt- Heads- learned, developed, and honed. For those of you With/141333/ who are reading this chapter and are excited about 5. Pfeffer, J., & Salancik, G. R. (2003). The external political skill possibilities, we implore you to use control of organizations: A resource dependence perspective. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. these skills for only positive outcomes! 198 17 Power and Politics in Sport Organizations

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P. Rosenfeld (Eds.), Impression management in the 9. Wolverton, B. (2013, September 2). Coach makes the organization (pp. 143–170). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence call: Athletic trainers who butt heads with coaches over Erlbaum Associates. concussion treatment take career hits. The Chronicle of 23. Ferris, G. R., Russ, G. S., & Fandt, P. M. (1989). Higher Education. Retrieved from http://chronicle. Politics in organizations. In R. A. Giacalone & com/article/Trainers- Butt- Heads- With/141333/ P. Rosenfeld (Eds.), Impression management in the 10. Oja, B. D., & Bass, J. R. (2016). Safety or style? An organization (pp. 143–170). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence examination of the role of football equipment person- Erlbaum Associates. nel. Journal of Applied Sport Management, 8(1), 29–54. 24. Ferris, G. R., Russ, G. S., & Fandt, P. M. (1989). 11. Suchman, M. C. (1995). Managing legitimacy: Politics in organizations. In R. A. Giacalone & Strategic and institutional approaches. Academy of P. 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J., Perrewé, 641), London, UK: Sage; Lawrence, T. B., Mauws, P. L., Magnusen, M. J., & Ferris, G. R. (2014). The roles M. K., Dyck, B., Kleysen, R. F. (2005). The politics of of recruiter political skill and performance resource organizational learning: Integrating power into the 4I leveraging in NCAA football recruitment effectiveness. framework. The Academy of Management Review, Journal of Management, 40(6), 1607–1626. 30(1), 180–191 Lawrence, T. B., Winn, M., & 28. Ferris, G. R., Russ, G. S., & Fandt, P. M. (1989). Jennings, P. D. (2001). The temporal dynamics of Politics in organizations. In R. A. Giacalone & institutionalization. Academy of Management Review, P. Rosenfeld (Eds.), Impression management in the 26, 257–272. organization (pp. 143–170). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence 15. Lawrence, T. B., Mauws, M. K., Dyck, B., Kleysen, Erlbaum Associates; Pfeffer, J. (1981). Power in R. F. (2005). The politics of organizational learning: organizations. Boston: Pitman. Integrating power into the 4I framework. The 29. Perrewé, P. L., Ferris, G. R., Stoner, J. S., & Brouer, Academy of Management Review, 30(1), 180–191. R. L. The positive role of political skill in organiza- 16. Clegg, S. (1989). Frameworks of power. London, UK: tions. In D. Nelson, & C. L. Cooper (Eds.). Positive Sage; Lawrence, T. B., Mauws, M. K., Dyck, B., Organizational Behavior (pp. 117–128). Thousand Kleysen, R. F. (2005). The politics of organizational Oaks, CA: Sage. learning: Integrating power into the 4I framework. The 30. Ahearn, K. K., Ferris, G. R., Hochwarter, W. A., Academy of Management Review, 30(1), 180–191. Douglas, C., & Ammeter, A. P. (2004). Leader politi- 17. Lawrence, T. B., Mauws, M. K., Dyck, B., Kleysen, cal skill and team performance. Journal of R. F. (2005). The politics of organizational learning: Management, 30(3), 309–327. Integrating power into the 4I framework. The 31. Ferris, G. R., Treadway, D. C., Perrewé, P. L., Brouer, Academy of Management Review, 30(1), 180–191. R. L., Douglas, C., & Lux, S. (2007). Political skill in 18. Oja, B. D., & Bass, J. R. (2016). Safety or style? An organizations. Journal of Management, 33(3), 290–320. examination of the role of football equipment person- 32. Ferris, G. R., Treadway, D. C., Kolodinsky, R. W., nel. Journal of Applied Sport Management, 8(1), 29–54. Hochwarter, W. A., Kacmar, C. J., Douglas, C., & 19. Lawrence, T. B., Mauws, M. K., Dyck, B., Kleysen, Frink, D. D. (2005). Development and validation of R. F. (2005). The politics of organizational learning: the political skill inventory. Journal of Management, Integrating power into the 4I framework. The 31(1), 126–152. Academy of Management Review, 30(1), 180–191. 33. Ferris, G. R., Treadway, D. C., Kolodinsky, R. W., 20. Ferris, G. R., Russ, G. S., & Fandt, P. M. (1989). Hochwarter, W. A., Kacmar, C. J., Douglas, C., & Politics in organizations. In R. A. Giacalone & Frink, D. D. (2005). Development and validation of 17.5 Summary 199

the political skill inventory. Journal of Management, power: Politics and in!uence in organizations. 31(1), 126–152. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. 34. Ferris, G. R., Treadway, D. C., Kolodinsky, R. W., 42. Ferris, G. R., Treadway, D. C., Brouer, R. L., & Munyon, Hochwarter, W. A., Kacmar, C. J., Douglas, C., & T. P. (2012). Political skill in the organizational sci- Frink, D. D. (2005). Development and validation of ences. In G. R. Ferris & D. C. Treadway (Eds.), Politics the political skill inventory. Journal of Management, in organizations: Theory and research considerations, 31(1), 126–152. (pp. 487–528). New York, NY: Routledge. 35. Ferris, G. R., Treadway, D. C., Kolodinsky, R. W., 43. Ferris, G. R., Treadway, D. C., Kolodinsky, R. W., Hochwarter, W. A., Kacmar, C. J., Douglas, C., & Hochwarter, W. A., Kacmar, C. J., Douglas, C., & Frink, D. D. (2005). Development and validation of Frink, D. D. (2005). Development and validation of the political skill inventory. Journal of Management, the political skill inventory. Journal of Management, 31(1), 126–152. 31(1), 126–152. 36. Pfeffer, J. (1992). Managing with power: Politics and 44. Ferris, G. R., Treadway, D. C., Kolodinsky, R. W., in!uence in organizations. Boston, MA: Harvard Hochwarter, W. A., Kacmar, C. J., Douglas, C., & Business School Press. Frink, D. D. (2005). Development and validation of 37. Ferris, G. R., Treadway, D. C., Kolodinsky, R. W., the political skill inventory. Journal of Management, Hochwarter, W. A., Kacmar, C. J., Douglas, C., & 31(1), 126–152. Frink, D. D. (2005). Development and validation of 45. Jones, E. E. (1990). Interpersonal perception. the political skill inventory. Journal of Management, New York, NY: Freeman. 31(1), 126–152. 46. Treadway, D. C., Adams, G., Hanes, T. J., Perrewé, 38. Ahearn, K. K., Ferris, G. R., Hochwarter, W. A., P. L., Magnusen, M. J., & Ferris, G. R. (2014). The roles Douglas, C., & Ammeter, A. P. (2004). Leader politi- of recruiter political skill and performance resource cal skill and team performance. Journal of leveraging in NCAA football recruitment effectiveness. Management, 30(3), 309–327. Journal of Management, 40(6), 1607–1626. 39. Ferris, G. R., Treadway, D. C., Kolodinsky, R. W., 47. Magnusen, M. J., Kim, Y. K., & Perrewe, P. L. (2014). Hochwarter, W. A., Kacmar, C. J., Douglas, C., & Gaining a competitive edge when recruiting student- Frink, D. D. (2005). Development and validation of athletes: The role of political skill. International the political skill inventory. Journal of Management, Journal of Sports Science and Coaching, 9(6), 31(1), 126–152. 1291–1310. 40. Ferris, G. R., Treadway, D. C., Kolodinsky, R. W., 48. Kim, M., Wells, J. E., & Kim, A. C. H. (2016). What Hochwarter, W. A., Kacmar, C. J., Douglas, C., & are they saying about your head coach? The relation- Frink, D. D. (2005). Development and validation of ship among political skill, reputation, and effective- the political skill inventory. Journal of Management, ness. Journal of Applied Sport Management, 8(3), 31(1), 126–152. 48–67. 41. Ferris, G. R., Treadway, D. C., Kolodinsky, R. W., 49. Kim, M., Perrewé, P. L., Kim, Y. K., & Kim, A. C. H. Hochwarter, W. A., Kacmar, C. J., Douglas, C., & (2017). Psychological capital in sport organizations: Frink, D. D. (2005). Development and validation of Hope, Ef"cacy, Resilience, and Optimism among the political skill inventory. Journal of Management, Employees in Sport (HEROES). European Sport 31(1), 126–152; Pfeffer, J. (1992). Managing with Management Quarterly, 17(5), 659–680. Leadership in Sport Organizations 18

c Learning Objectives After reading Management Club and active in other organi- this chapter, students should be able to zations, but Joanna never felt like the person • Identify behaviors of leaders; that others looked to for inspiration. Joanna • Differentiate between various leader- never sought leadership roles. She didn’t feel ship theories; comfortable making decisions that affected • Determine leadership styles that suit others, and she de!nitely didn’t think she their abilities. could lead others. Upon graduation, Joanna took the Events Coordinator position with the Regina Sports Council. Joanna’s role was perfect. She loved planning events, but she was able to stay behind the scenes. Her boss, Chad Kimmel: Assistant Athletic the Director of Events, took on all of the lead- Director for Development, University of ership responsibilities—especially with vol- Wisconsin unteers during events. To listen to the interview Arriving at work this morning, Joanna had a note on her door. It was from her boss Anthony asking her to come to his of!ce. “Joanna, please sit down. I have some news,” Anthony began. “I just accepted a It’s Your Turn Joanna had never thought position with Sport Canada. Friday will be of herself as a leader. Throughout college, she my last day.” was a good student and had many friends. “Congratulations!” Replied Joanna. “I She was the Treasurer of the Sport am so happy for you!” Joanna really was happy for Anthony, but she was also worried. The Regina Sports Festival was in three weeks. It’s a huge multiple- day festi- Supplementary Information The online version of this val with events spread throughout Regina. chapter (https://doi.org/10.1007/978- 3- 030- 67612- 4_18) Joanna had spent most of her year planning contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. it. “I wish you weren’t leaving so soon,”

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 201 C. R. Barnhill et al., Organizational Behavior in Sport Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67612-4_18 202 18 Leadership in Sport Organizations

that are inherent to the individual, while others Joanna continued. “The Sports Festival is contend that anyone can become a leader. Some in a few weeks. There are so many people theories make the case that leaders can be in"u- to coordinate. I doubt your replacement ential in any situation, while others state that will be ready for that challenge. You will be leadership is situational or even a function of hard to replace.” those that are being led. In this chapter, we will “I think my replacement is more than explore a number of leadership theories, begin- prepared,” Anthony said with a grin. “I ning with the trait theories that were popular in spoke with the Board, and it was unani- the early to mid-twentieth century and building mous, you are the new Director of Events. toward modern theories like servant leadership, Congratulations!” which have gained a foothold in the modern Joanna was thrilled that her hard work sports industry. We will begin by understanding had been recognized. She was also terri- what roles a leader plays in an organizational !ed. She had spent her life avoiding leader- setting. ship positions. Now, she was in charge.

18.2 Roles of Leaders

18.1 Leadership What is the difference between leaders and managers? Aren’t all managers leaders? Management The sports industry is characterized by its involves controlling employees’ behaviors to dynamic nature. Many sports industry profes- accomplish a goal. This seems close to the de!ni- sionals will tell you one of the aspects they love tion of leadership. But, whereas management’s most about their job is that no two days are the ability to affect behavior derives from power and same. There is always a new challenge for sport control, leaders in"uence behavior through inspi- organizations to face. Never were those senti- ration.2 We could say that people follow manag- ments more accurate than in 2020. A global pan- ers because they have to, but they follow leaders demic rendered business models that relied on because they are moved to. Leadership is one of full stadiums obsolete while also making some the functions of effective management, along sports unsafe to play. At the same time, protests with planning, organizing, and controlling. On a over racial injustice spread throughout the United football team, the head coach and quarterback States and much of Europe, placing pressure on can be considered upper-managers and middle- sport organizations to become engaged and reex- managers, respectively. Through their roles, they amine their own cultures. Throughout this plan, organize, and control the movements of the upheaval, some long-time sport organization other players on the team. Players who do not fol- leaders found their in"uence waning, while other low their directions may be removed from the sport organization members found themselves !eld or face punishment. These powers are thrust into leadership roles without warning. granted through their role, just like a sales manager can !re an employee who does not make the c Leadership Persuading, motivating, and required number of cold calls during the week. empowering others to contribute to the success of Players who are just going through the prescribed their organization. movements because they have to are not likely to be effective, and the team is unlikely to reach its Leadership can be de!ned as persuading, goals. Players who are inspired through leader- motivating, and empowering others to contribute ship are more likely to stay after practice working to the success of their organization.1 There are on their assignments or help their teammates. many different leadership theories. Some theo- They will be enthused about their role, and the ries argue that leadership ability is based on traits team is more likely to perform better. Thus, an 18.3 Trait Theories of Leadership 203 effective manager should rely on leadership Table 18.1 Leadership behavior menu instead of power to in"uence employees. Leadership Because leadership doesn’t require power, behavior anyone in the organization can emerge as a leader Value Leaders effectively articulate the proposition value of meeting the organization’s as long as management provides that opportunity. vision. The value proposition In the football example above, the quarterback provides employees with a sense of may emerge as a leader through their role, but what future performance should other players could also become team leaders look like or produce. through their ability to inspire their teammates. Ethical values Leaders demonstrate integrity and commitment to all concerned Similarly, a call center colleague may have a organizational constituencies. unique ability to encourage others in the of!ce to Execution skills Leaders have the ability to translate meet or exceed organizational goals. Thus, we vision into actionable plans which could say that all managers should be leaders, but are carried out by organizational members. not all leaders are managers. Innovation and Leaders generate unique ideas and creativity solutions to meet organizational goals. 18.2.1 Leadership Behavior Communication Leaders can clearly articulate their message to followers in a manner that is easily understood. Leaders As we will see throughout this chapter, leaders also actively listen to constituents can exhibit many different behaviors. to gauge comprehension, gain Nevertheless, there is an agreement in the litera- perspective, and understand ture that most leaders exhibit some combination concerns. of behaviors. Klap" and Kruja3 call this list of Enabling skills Leaders enable by using their position to acquire resources and behaviors the Leadership Behavior Menu provide opportunities for (Table 18.1). A leader does not have to demon- constituents to grow. Enabling strate all of the attributes of the Leader Behavior often involves delegating authority Menu to be effective. In certain circumstances, to others. Team building Leaders have the ability to in"uence leaders may exhibit only one of these behaviors a group to collaborate around and still be effective. Next, let’s look at different common objectives. Effective theories on leadership. We’ll begin with the trait leaders identify the unique attributes theories, which contend that people become of team members and organize tasks to take advantage of group leaders because they have certain traits, quali- members’ strengths. ties, or characteristics that non-leaders do not Confront Leaders are often confronted with possess. adversity complex problems. Effective leaders monitor and plan for potential problems. If problems c Trait Theories Based on the notion that arise, leaders seek solutions even effective leaders have certain inherent traits that under less than desirable allow them to in"uence others. conditions. Tenacity Leaders demonstrate persistence to see plans and actions through 18.3 Trait Theories of Leadership completion. Culture building Leaders positively in"uence the team and organizational culture. The trait theories of leadership grew from early twentieth-century scholars’ beliefs that effective leaders were born with inherent traits that made it sense. You likely know someone who seems like easier for them to in"uence others. In other a natural leader. People just seem drawn to this words, some people are natural-born leaders, and person. It is easy to believe that some people others are not. Intuitively, this concept makes were born to in"uence and lead others. 204 18 Leadership in Sport Organizations

Unfortunately for researchers, the trait theo- Kirkpatrick and Locke8 identi!ed the following ries were dif!cult to study. If something is inher- traits as indicators of effective leaders. ent, like an “it factor,” how can these traits be studied? Scholars studied thousands of traits, • Drive: The level of ambition, persistence, and ranging from physical appearance, various abili- initiative demonstrated by an individual. Some ties, and personality characteristics.4 Instead of argue that drive is an indicator of extrover- using a systematic approach and building off sion,9 but drive has also been found to impact prior research, many trait theory studies intro- leaders’ abilities to develop a clear vision and duced new traits; thus, comparisons could not be see it through implementation. made between studies. Inconsistent de!nitions of • Leader Motivation: A person’s desire to be in traits created scenarios where one study identi- a position of leadership. Some people may !ed a particular trait as extremely important, but want to lead because they desire to be respon- others indicated that the very same trait was a sible for and inspire others to achieve a goal non-factor. Situational factors created further (socialized power motive). Others may want inconsistency.5 For example, a person may be to be in a position of leadership to have power very effective at rallying a community to support over others (see Chap. 17).10 Socialized power building local athletic !elds, but struggle to keep motives are more strongly associated with volunteers to maintain the !eld once they are leader effectiveness. built. Lastly, researchers found that the results of • Honesty and Integrity: This trait is tied to ethi- trait theory studies are greatly in"uenced by cal behavior, as discussed earlier in the whether the traits are self-identi!ed or observed. chapter. Studies that use observation are more accurate.6 • Self-Con!dence: People who are assured of The problems associated with trait theory their abilities are more likely to maintain poise research, along with the notion traits were some- and learn from mistakes. They are also less thing hereditary, caused trait theories to fall out likely to second guess or doubt their of favor among scholars, but remain popular decisions. among practitioners. Advancement of the Big • Cognitive Ability: The ability to process and Five Personality trait model along with acknowl- understand complex and changing situations. edgments of the shortcoming of previous research • Industry Knowledge: A deep understanding of revived trait theory studies in the 1990s. The Big the organization’s mission and the environ- Five model states that effective leaders are more ment in which the business functions. Leaders likely to demonstrate extroversion, agreeable- with strong industry knowledge can anticipate ness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and potential problems and solutions before openness to experience.7 Among these traits, others. extroversion, conscientiousness, and openness are consistent indicators of leadership emergence A !nal trait that has gained increased attention and leader effectiveness when accounting for sit- from both academics and practitioners is emo- uational factors. However, agreeableness and tional intelligence. Emotional intelligence, as emotional stability appear to have little effect on discussed in Chap. 11, is a person’s ability to rec- one’s leadership ability. ognize their own emotions and the emotions of Another major change that has made trait the- others. Goleman11 identi!ed !ve components of ories of leadership more relevant is the abandon- emotional intelligence. ment of the notion that traits are inborn. Although some people may be inherently more extroverted • Self-Awareness: The ability to recognize and or open to new experiences, people can adapt to understand your own emotions, feelings, and be more extroverted or open. Other traits that motivations and how they affect others in the impact leader effectiveness have also emerged. organization. People with high self-awareness are generally more con!dent but also able to 18.4 Behavioral Theories 205

accept criticism and acknowledge the theories overlap. Thus more than one may shortcomings. explain a leader’s in"uence. More importantly, as • Self-Regulation: The ability to recognize and we move away from the idea that leaders are control disruptive impulses, feelings, and born, you will hopefully see that anyone can be a behaviors. People who self-regulate are known leader by harnessing their own attributes. Next, to think before speaking, take in all informa- we will discuss the behavioral theories of tion, and are open to change. In a study by leadership. Yeow and Martin,12 managers with better self- regulation were considered to be better leaders c Behavioral Theories Leaders are effective by their employees. Their teams were also because their actions in"uence others. more effective than teams lead by managers who were rated to have low self-regulation. • Intrinsic Motivation: As noted throughout this 18.4 Behavioral Theories book, leaders who are more intrinsically motivated push through obstacles. Followers Taking their cue from the trait theories’ initial believe that the passion demonstrated by failures, the behavioral theories were a repudia- highly motivated leaders can be contagious. tion in many ways. The behavior theories of lead- • Empathy: The most recognizable component ership are based on the idea that leaders are of emotional intelligence, empathy, is the abil- effective because of their actions, not because of ity to recognize and fully consider others’ inerrant traits or abilities. When the behavioral feelings and how they are impacted by deci- theories were proposed, this was a major concept. sions. Empathy has been strongly tied to They acknowledged that someone could be employee retention. Employees who work for trained to be a leader. Also, they grew from that empathetic leaders often describe them as great rivalry: the University of Michigan versus compassionate and understanding. People Ohio State University! For soccer fans, imagine with high degrees of empathy are also more if Real Madrid and FC Barcelona were universi- likely to be sensitive to the experiences of ties that also played soccer. As an alumnus of marginalized groups. Ohio State, I like to think a real competition • Social Skill: The ability to build and maintain existed between the Ohio State researchers rapport with individuals. Leaders who possess (Stogdill and Fleishman) and the Michigan schol- social skills have the ability to build teams by ars (Likert, Katz, and Kahn). Alas, no evidence of !nding common ground with members. They competition exists. Let’s begin by analyzing The can also garner support for ideas through per- Ohio State University’s contribution. suasiveness, which can be effective during times of change or uncertainty. 18.4.1 The Ohio State Studies It is evident that the traits explored in the trait theories can lead to managerial behaviors that are The Ohio State studies13 sought to identify bene!cial to the organization. After all, a smart dimensions of managerial behavior that impacted box of!ce manager, who understands the product leader effectiveness. Beginning with thousands is open to change, and is motivated by the chal- of potential dimensions, two behavior dimen- lenge is better than the alternative. On the other sions were identi!ed: initiating structure and hand, a deviant employee who possesses many of consideration. Initiating structure is a leadership these traits could greatly damage the organiza- style where interpersonal relationships and roles tion through their in"uence on others. As we are clearly de!ned as they relate to espoused move forward in this chapter, hopefully, it is clear goals. This includes behaviors to organize work- that leadership theories already discussed in"u- groups, task assignments, and communication enced new theories. You should also notice that patterns, as well as behaviors to implement poli- 206 18 Leadership in Sport Organizations cies, performance standards, work designs, and behaviors are comparable to consideration behav- deadlines. Leaders who exhibit many of the initi- iors. Thus, the real difference between the two ating structure behaviors might be considered sets of studies was Michigan’s theory that the micro-managers by employees. Depending on behaviors exhibited a degree of mutual the setting, this could hurt team performance. For exclusivity. example, in an organization focused on creative design and innovation, initiating structure behaviors could hinder organizational goals. On the 18.4.3 The Managerial Grid other hand, leaders overseeing NCAA compliance for an athletics department may need to Blake and Mouton16 recognized that people could exhibit initiating structure behaviors to ensure exhibit different degrees of behaviors, as well as policies are followed. exhibit different behaviors simultaneously. Consideration behaviors are characterized by Building on the aforementioned behavioral theo- actions that demonstrate mutual trust, kindness, ries, they developed the Managerial Grid, which caring, friendship, and respect for others person- rates leader behaviors on two behavioral contin- ally and professionally. An athletic director invit- uums: concern for people and concern for pro- ing an intern to a meeting and asking them for an duction. Behaviors are rated on scales (1 = low opinion is an example of consideration. Followers concern to 9 = high concern). The Managerial state that these behaviors made them feel valued, Grid (Fig. 18.1) is often used by organizations to creating a sense of satisfaction with their role and rate leader performance. A 9,9 leadership style is status on the team. considered optimal, while a 1,1 is considered the While it may appear that consideration and worst possible leadership style. initiating behaviors are opposites of each other, research has demonstrated that leaders can c Contingency Perspective Leader exhibit both behaviors at the same time.14 In other effectiveness is dependent on situational factors words, a leader can look over employees’ work, within the leaders’ environment. provide honest evaluations, and also demonstrate that they care about the individual’s contribution to the team’s success. Further, both styles have 18.5 The Contingency Perspective been linked to positive views of leadership when of Leadership accounting for situational factors. Think about a moment in your life where you felt completely con!dent in taking control. 18.4.2 The Michigan Studies Maybe it was the people you were around— your classmates, teammates, friends? Perhaps it Similar to the Ohio State studies, the University was something about the situation itself that of Michigan studies also sought to identify made you think, “I’ve got this?” Maybe it was behaviors of effective leaders.15 Like the Ohio something else that you cannot explain, but you State studies, the Michigan studies identi!ed two just felt very con!dent in your ability to be a behavior dimensions, but these dimensions leader at that moment? Now, "ip this notion existed on a continuum. In other words, the more around, is there a moment in your life when you of one behavior a leader exhibited, the less they felt like you were the worst person in the world could exhibit the other behavior dimension. At to lead? That you were in over your head? That one end of the continuum, job-centered behaviors you did not have what it takes for your group to emphasize tasks and processes needed to accom- succeed? plish a goal. Job-centered behaviors are very If we are honest with ourselves, we have to similar to the initiating structure behaviors found acknowledge that the situation matters when it by the Ohio State. Similarly, employee-centered comes to leadership. The sports industry is full 18.5 The Contingency Perspective of Leadership 207 9 8 7 6

5,5 5 4 Concern for People 3 2 1

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Concern for Production

Fig. 18.1 The managerial grid. (Blake, R. R., & Mouton, J. S. (1982). A comparative analysis of situationalism and 9,9 management by principle. Organizational Dynamics, 10(4), 20–43) of famous examples where a person had tre- well in favorable situations but will be ineffec- mendous success in a leadership role at one tive in others. This is in strong contrast to the organization but struggled elsewhere. Bill trait theories and a more substantial acknowl- Belichick has been Head Coach and Director of edgment of the role that situation factors have Football Operations for the NFL’s New England compared to the behavioral theories. There are Patriots since 2000. In his time with the Patriots, many different contingency perspective theo- the organization has won a record six Super ries. From an applied perspective, the theories Bowls and appeared in the league’s champion- are very detailed but problematic. It is very dif- ship game nine times. Few coaches in any sport !cult to match leaders to situations, especially have enjoyed that level of success. Obviously, in sport where the environment changes rapidly. Belichick is a tremendous leader. However, in It is also extremely challenging for leaders to his only prior head coaching opportunity, change their styles to meet situations. Thus, Belichick coached the Cleveland Browns for practitioners in most industries recognize con- !ve years and recorded only one season with a tingency theories but !nd them nearly impossi- winning record. Belichick has acknowledged ble to adopt in practice. In this section, we’ll that he changed his leadership approach limit our discussion to Path-Goal Theory, which between his time with the Browns and Patriots; is probably the most widely recognized of the however, many situational factors allowed his contingency perspectives. Other perspectives leadership to "ourish in New England. that you might !nd interesting to explore include The contingency perspective of leadership Fiedler’s Model and Situational Leadership posits that certain leadership styles will work Theory. 208 18 Leadership in Sport Organizations

18.5.1 Path-Goal Theory when tasks are complex. During the Covid-19 pandemic, conference commissioners and ath- Path-Goal Theory outlines four unique leader- letic directors were frustrated by the NCAA’s ship styles, each of which it contends is effective lack of directive regarding whether fall sports given speci!c situational factors and employee should be played. This led to some questioning characteristics (Fig. 18.2). When a leadership the leadership capabilities of NCAA style is matched to the employee and situation, executives. employees will be motivated to achieve organiza- Supportive leadership is similar to the tional goals. In essence, the leader’s behaviors employee-centered styles outlined earlier in the clear obstacles from the employee’s path to the chapter. Supportive leaders provide psychologi- goal. A mismatch will result in a more unsatisfac- cal reassurance to employees through their tory outcome. Let’s begin by discussing leader actions. Supportive leaders are empathetic, behaviors. friendly, and approachable. This leadership style is effective when the team lacks cohesion, lacks 18.5.1.1 Leader Behaviors structure, or when outcomes cannot be clari!ed. Directive leaders provide psychological struc- Supportive leadership is also important when ture for employees by clearly outlining task employees desire growth.18 completion procedures, goals for completion, Participative Leaders encourage employee and performance standards. Employees who involvement in decision-making. This style can lack experience or skills related to the task will be particularly useful when employees are appreciate directive leaders, as will those who highly skilled and experienced. Imagine taking feel the need for security from their leader.17 over as the President of a city sports tourism For example, a person volunteering at a track commission that already hosts several highly meet for the !rst time will likely appreciate a successful annual events. Your charge is to leader who provides lots of directions and guid- develop another event that accentuates the com- ance. Similarly, more experienced and skilled mission’s current offerings. It would be a mis- volunteers may appreciate directive leaders take not to take advantage of the commission’s

Leader Behaviors

•Directive •Supportive •Participative •Acheivement Oriented

Employee Characteristics

•Experience •Locus of Control •Perceived Ability •Affiliation Needs

Situational Factors

•Task Structure •Team/Group Dynamics

Fig. 18.2 Path-goal theory 18.6 Inspirational Leadership 209 employees’ expertise when creating a new 18.6.1 Charismatic Leadership event. In fact, they may feel undervalued and resentful if you make decisions without their Charisma is an often intangible quality that oth- input. By including existing employees in the ers attribute based on perceptions of unique decision-making process, participative leaders power, purpose, or resolve.22 Charismatic leaders build trust, demonstrate respect, and increase use their charisma to persuade others to follow a the chances that employees will buy-in to new vision. Martin Luther King Jr. is a tremendous ideas.19 example of a charismatic leader. He used his cha- Achievement-oriented leadership is another risma to persuade Americans, particularly white approach that can be successful with highly expe- Americans, to see and believe in a vision of the rienced and highly skilled employees. United States that differed from the vision they Achievement-oriented leaders engage in behav- had been taught to accept.23 Muhammad Ali is an iors to push their employees to their highest lev- example of a charismatic leader in sport. He too els of performance. They set challenging goals used his charisma and platform as a world cham- and push employees to demonstrate improve- pion boxer to push for social change around the ment. At the same time, the leader demonstrates world. More recently, Megan Rapinoe has used con!dence in the employees’ abilities and pro- her position on the US Women’s National Soccer vides support. This approach can work well with team to advocate for social change. Mark Cuban, a team that has become bored or complacent.20 owner of the NBA’s Dallas Mavericks, is also considered by many to be a charismatic leader because of his in"uence on league policy as well 18.6 Inspirational Leadership as on issues beyond sports. Charisma in"uences followers on three differ- Hopefully, you are beginning to see the overlap ent dimensions. When a charismatic leader grabs among these theories. From the trait theories, to followers’ attention because of their appearance, the behavioral theories, to the contingency the- cadence in their speech, or other socially desir- ories, each identi!es characteristics of the able traits, they are using referent power. Expert leader and tries to relate how those characteris- power is the ability to in"uence because of the tics interact with the individual and factors of specialized knowledge that one holds (see Chap. the situation. Increasingly, concepts of emo- 17). Innovators are often considered to have tional intelligence are being identi!ed as criti- expert power because they hold the knowledge cal to effective leadership. Many of the theories that others want to acquire. The !nal dimension to this point have also alluded to the importance is the power to in"uence job involvement. of goal setting, but, for the most part, have Charismatic leaders are able people excited about focused on short-term motivation or task com- their work. Charismatic leaders exercise their pletion, that is, reaching the goal. For the power via a four-step process to in"uence remainder of this chapter, we will discuss lead- followers.24 ership styles that are less focused on the task at hand and more focused on broader perspec- 1. Charismatic leaders set a vision that links the tives. The next two styles that we discuss fall organization’s present with its future. Unlike under the category of inspirational leadership. the leadership styles discussed earlier in the Inspirational leaders have higher goals or vision chapter, where the leader sets clear goals, that provides broader meaning to the tasks at charismatic leaders often leave them vague. hand. The focus is not necessarily on accom- For example, a new soccer club president may plishing the organization’s goals. Inspirational begin their tenure with many speeches dis- leaders seek to meet the various needs of the cussing championships in the organization’s employee.21 Let’s begin by looking at charis- future. The idea is to get organizational mem- matic leadership. bers to believe championships are possible. 210 18 Leadership in Sport Organizations

Speci!c tasks and goals can be !lled in once 18.6.2 Transformational Leadership people have bought into the idea. 2. Charismatic leaders communicate high expec- Transformational leaders seek to create positive tations but also portray con!dence that their change by in"uencing followers to move beyond followers can meet lofty standards. They cre- their own self-interests toward the betterment of ate belief among their followers that together, the group, organization, or society.26 Both within greatness can be achieved. and outside of the sports industry, transforma- 3. Charismatic leaders change the organizational tional leaders can be effective at turning around culture through their own behaviors. The struggling organizations. Transformational lead- leader acts as an example for others to follow. ers are also common and effective at leading non- 4. The charismatic leader engages in emotion- pro!ts. Let’s look at how transformational leaders inducing behaviors to stir conviction in their in"uence employees using two examples from followers. Often, these behaviors may "y the sports industry. Billy Beane is the Executive against norms. Examples can include using Vice President of the Oakland Athletics. He is personal stories to create a relational connec- credited with revolutionizing how MLB clubs tion with followers, or creating rousing videos use data analytics to evaluate player performance. that are part pep talk. Some charismatic lead- His story was popularized in the bestselling book ers engage in risk-taking behaviors to demon- Moneyball27 which was also made into a motion strate their conviction to their followers. picture. Carolyn McKenzie is the founder of Soccer in the Streets, a non-pro!t sport develop- 18.6.1.1 Dangers of Charismatic ment organization that uses soccer to teach life- Leadership skills and enrich lives of underserved communities Because of the power attributed to charismatic in Atlanta, Georgia, as well as other cities in the leaders by their followers, it is easy for unethical United States. individuals to use their charisma for nefarious purposes.25 Many dictators rose to power through 18.6.2.1 Raise Awareness movements where they used charisma to in"u- Transformational leaders !rst in"uence followers ence citizens. In sport, sexual abuse scandals in by raising their awareness of the importance and USA Gymnastics and Penn State University foot- bene!ts of achieving the vision, along with guid- ball can partially be attributed to charismatic ance for how it could be achieved.28 For Beane, leadership in"uencing organizational members to he had to alert others within the Oakland Athletics cover up criminal behavior. Charismatic leaders organization of the clubs’ !nancial constraints fall into one of two categories. Socialized charis- that would prohibit their ability to compete in matic leaders use their power to bene!t others. MLB using commonly accepted practices. He Followers are empowered to make ethical, also provided a path forward by laying out a plan responsible decisions, and the values and vision where the Athletics used analytics to adopt set forth meet high ethical standards. Followers unique game strategies and player evaluation are free to reject behaviors that fall below stan- techniques to overcome their limited resources. dards, even if that behavior is from the leader McKenzie believed Soccer in the Streets themselves. On the other hand, personalized could create educational pathways for youth in charismatic leaders exert their power to serve inner cities by bringing the program to the neigh- their own interests primarily. They exercise little borhoods where the children she wanted help to no constraint over their powers and often lived. She understood traveling outside of their expect obedience from followers. In sport, per- troubled neighborhoods was a barrier for the sonalized charismatic behaviors have resulted in youth she wanted to serve. To accomplish her the exploitation of athletes, fraudulent !nancial vision, McKenzie had to raise awareness of sev- behaviors, and cheating scandals, to name a few eral constituencies. First, she had to convince of the negative outcomes. community leaders that there was value in invest- 18.6 Inspirational Leadership 211 ing in neighborhoods with high poverty, crime, served. Thus, her constituents could !nd satisfac- and drug abuse rates. McKenzie set up multiple tion in the program’s success.35 pilot events that brought !nancial supporters and volunteers into the community to see the impact 18.6.2.4 Overcome Resistance soccer could have. At the same time, she had to to Change convince community residents that soccer could One obstacle all leaders must overcome is resis- lead to opportunities for their children. Soccer tance to change. Humans are creatures of habit; was not a popular sport in the communities she therefore, even bene!cial change is uncomfort- was trying to serve. To raise the residents’ aware- able. Transformational leaders must help follow- ness, she developed a program that allowed par- ers see the need for change.36 Often, ents and children to learn about soccer while transformational leaders create emotional appeals also showcasing academic achievement opportu- to overcome resistance. McKenzie is known for nities. In doing so, she allowed parents to envi- her passion. She literally "ew around the country, sion the impact soccer could have on their pitching her ideas in one-on-one settings. children.29 However, McKenzie also had a background in public relations, which she used to get press cov- 18.6.2.2 Look Beyond Self-Interest erage for Soccer in the Streets. She openly states Next, transformational leaders help followers that she used the “hype” around the 1994 World look beyond their self-interest by assisting them Cup to promote the organization.37 Beane, who is to see the big picture. Often, change asks some more reserved, used a combination of one-on-one followers to sacri!ce for the greater good.30 The and group interactions to build acceptance of the transformational leader has to help members see need for change. how the sacri!ce will be worth it in the end. McKenzie had to help city leaders, business lead- 18.6.2.5 Sense of Urgency ers, and volunteers see how their time and !nan- Next, transformational leaders must create a cial investments would impact Atlanta as a sense of urgency in their champions.38 Throughout whole.31 Beane had to convince players, coaches, the process, champions of the leader’s vision will and scouts to adopt tactics that were not !nan- emerge. These champions, often other managers, cially rewarded by other clubs in MLB.32 will become front-line leaders in plan implementation. Often these champions are tasked with 18.6.2.3 Search for Self-Ful"llment generating buy-in from resistant organizational Transformational leaders must help followers members. A sense of urgency centered on an search for self-ful!llment.33 Asking others to event or opportunity helps these champions in look at their actions through a different prism can their task. For McKenzie, the 1994 World Cup lower satisfaction among employees. After all, was a critical moment because soccer was never they likely had a different view of success before more visible in the United States and in the com- the leader began pursuing transformational munities she was looking to serve. McKenzie change. It is up to the leader to help the follower used the World Cup to create a national board to see how accomplishing the vision will lead to that championed Soccer in the Streets around the satisfaction. Beane used two tactics to help others nation.39 Beane used the 2002 baseball season to !nd self-ful!llment. At the group level, he shared create a sense of urgency. The team had lost a a vision of team success that would not be possi- number of important players to teams who had ble without transformation. Beane also provided larger budgets than the Athletics during the pre- vital team members important roles in the trans- ceding off-season and were not expected to be formation so that they could see the tangible out- competitive in 2002. This provided a window for comes of their sacri!ce.34 On the other hand, the Athletics to prove that their new plan could be McKenzie centered stakeholders’ focus on the effective. The Athletics ultimately ended up win- success of the youth that Soccer in the Streets ning their division in 2002.40 212 18 Leadership in Sport Organizations

18.6.2.6 Adopt an Attitude Athletics success, they adopted the Athletics of Greatness methods. In order to maintain their competitive Transformational leaders adopt an attitude that advantage, Beane and his champions continu- greatness is achievable and ask all of their fol- ously re!ne and tweak their processes. Without lowers to seek it.41 This includes getting others to this commitment to transformation, the Athletics see greatness in themselves. Beane used the neg- success would have been short-lived. ative projections of the Athletics’ prospects for success and the pride that most high-performance 18.6.2.8 Build Trust athletes have to achieve this idea. Other MLB In order for transformational leaders to be suc- teams had released many of the players that cessful, they must build trust.46 Whether, in the Beane signed to contracts. Beane let them know case of Beane, it is asking people who have spent he saw greatness in their abilities. McKenzie’s their entire careers in the industry to rethink how focus is on opportunities for greatness in the goals are achieved, or, in the case of McKenzie, it communities served by Soccer in the Streets. She was asking people to believe in communities that has created a vision where these communities have been written off by most of society, trust is a can rise above the cynical view that others hold of critical component of success. Neither could them. Her ultimate goal is for youth who partici- have achieved success without others believing in pate in Soccer in the Streets to become leaders them and their visions. Transformational leaders themselves.42 McKenzie retired from Soccer in build trust by providing a voice to their followers, the Streets, but her vision was carried on by oth- being empathetic to followers’ experiences, ers in the organization.43 accepting risks, and empowering others to become leaders.47 18.6.2.7 Future Perspective Transformations cannot be successful unless they 18.6.2.9 Concentrate Resources are maintained. For a transformational organiza- Finally, transformational leaders concentrate tion, this means adopting broad-based adaptable resources on areas that need the most change.48 future perspectives.44 Soccer in the Streets used Following a period in which Soccer in the Streets its programs to develop leaders that continue to expanded nationally, the organization refocused identify needs in the communities it serves. In its resources back on Atlanta, where it was 2016, Soccer in the Streets launched a new initia- founded and could make the most impact. As the tive called the Soccer Station program designed organization states on its own website,49 “Over to address the lack of green spaces in inner cities, the next decade, the organization refocused its while at the same time providing innovative solu- efforts on Atlanta and on creating year-round, tions to the transportation barriers that were iden- innovative programs. In spite of limited resources, ti!ed at the program’s outset. As worldwide civil Soccer in the Streets continued to serve thou- unrest in 2020 placed a spotlight on racial injus- sands of kids throughout the metro Atlanta area tice, McKenzie stated, “As we are living in an in schools, parks, and community centers.” uncertain time right now, I want the Soccer in the Streets community to know that we are all in this 18.6.2.10 Outcomes together. Along with the Black Lives Matter of Transformational movement, it was like what we had back then Leadership with drug and crime prevention. Soccer in the Transformational leadership shares many of its Streets now has an opportunity to use the climate components with other leadership theories dis- of racial division to offer hope to the inner cussed in this chapter, including charismatic cities.”45 leadership. Transformational leadership differs in For Beane and the Oakland Athletics, the its focus on building leaders from followers. As transformation has been a continuous process. As seen in the Soccer in the Streets example, clubs with more !nancial resources saw the McKenzie’s vision was carried on after her retire- 18.7 Moral Leadership 213 ment from the organization. Many of Billy critical principle of the positive organizational Beane’s assistants went on to become leaders of behavior movement.54 This section looks at the other MLB clubs. Transformational leadership three major moral leadership theories: authentic encourages followers to question established leadership, ethical leadership, and servant lead- ideas, including those of the leader themselves. ership. As Fig. 18.3 illustrates, all of the moral Compared to other leadership styles, transforma- leadership styles aim to in"uence moral and tional leadership has been shown to effectively ethical behavior by their followers and organi- improve employees’ career satisfaction while zations but are different in their approach. We’ll having positive impacts on organizational perfor- begin by exploring the concept of authentic mance.50 Followers of transformational leaders leadership. often hold a very positive view of their leadership teams.51 18.7.1 Authentic Leadership c Moral Leadership Ability to inspire by providing a virtuous example, guided by higher Authentic leadership is the least studied of the principles and overarching unsel!shness in their moral leadership theories. In many ways, it mir- actions. rors transformational leadership.55 Authentic leaders are also guided by long-term vision and seek to transform their followers into leaders. 18.7 Moral Leadership However, authentic leaders rely less on emotional appeals and individualized relationships, We conclude this chapter by exploring moral and more on self-awareness and transparency. leadership concepts. Moral leadership is de!ned Authentic leadership emphasizes four charac- by the leader’s ability to provide a virtuous exam- teristics. The !rst and perhaps the most impor- ple, guided by higher principles and overarching tant characteristic is self-awareness. In other unsel!shness in their actions.52 Although leaders words, authentic leaders spend time getting to and organizations can experience success with- know themselves. What are their strengths and out moral guidance, these organizations also miss weaknesses? What are their beliefs? How do out on true optimal performance because their their actions affect others? How do others see lack of moral standards may push away stake- them? Why do they want to be a leader? To holders or scandals damage reputations. The develop self- awareness, it is important to be International Olympic Committee has seen its honest with yourself and value feedback, even reputation hurt by corruption from its leaders and when it is un"attering. Once a person develops also by its unethical practices regarding sustain- self- awareness, they often become more con!- ability. This has made it harder for the organiza- dent because they know their abilities. People tion to !nd host sites for future Olympiads. The with high self-awareness are more consistent in NCAA has faced constant calls for reform and their actions because actions become inten- leadership change due to its treatment of student- tional. Self- awareness also aids in connecting athletes. On the other hand, Branch Rickey was with others because consistent actions develop able to change the fortunes of the Brooklyn trust.56 Dodgers when he broke ranks with other MLB The second characteristic of Authentic leader- owners and began signing Black baseball players ship is an internalized moral perspective. to his team. And, the WNBA has seen its fandom Authentic leaders are guided by their values, and grow among groups who appreciate the league’s they are highly aware of what is important to position on social issues. their lives. Based on their values, authentic lead- Because of the impact sport has on society, ers set principles for how they intend to lead oth- sports organizations’ calls for ethical behavior ers. It is these principles that guide their actions. have been growing.53 Moral leadership is a Along those same lines, authentic leaders set 214 18 Leadership in Sport Organizations

Fig. 18.3 Moral leadership approaches. (Lemoine, G. J., of Ethical, Authentic, and Servant Leadership. Academy Hartnell, C. A., & Leroy, H. (2019). Taking Stock of of Management Annals, 13, 148–187, https://doi. Moral Approaches to Leadership: An Integrative Review org/10.5465/annals.2016.0121) ethical boundaries that limit actions they are will- and honest relationships with both followers and ing to take.57 mentors. Authentic leaders are effective because The third characteristic of authentic leader- they are viewed as role models by those they ship is the unbiased processing of information. lead, but they are also viewed as approachable. As we have seen in Chap. 5, bias in"uences how Employees working for authentic leaders are people seek and perceive information. To be often very comfortable sharing their opinions, authentic, people must become aware of their even when it differs from that of the leader. These biases and try to interpret information from a elements of authentic leadership are strongly neutral perspective. To accomplish this dif!cult associated with trustworthiness.58 task, authentic leaders must continuously search for information. Authentic leaders often seek feedback from others, including those with dif- 18.7.2 Ethical Leadership ferent perspectives than their own. In a similar vein, the fourth characteristic relational authen- Ethical leadership is de!ned as demonstrating ticity relies on the leader’s ability to develop open normatively appropriate behavior in one’s own 18.7 Moral Leadership 215 life as well as in interpersonal relationships, as con"ict with those who have a different belief well as the promotion of such conduct to follow- system as his or her own. ers via communication, reinforcement, and Understanding one’s own moral orientation decision- making.59 The concept of ethical leader- can help avoid con"ict. Using world religions ship is similar to both authentic leadership, which and philosophical paradigms, scholars estab- we just discussed, and servant leadership, which lished four moral orientations that can affect ethi- we will discuss next. However, there are critical cal leaders’ principles and intern their behaviors. differences between all three leadership con- Ethical leaders with a humane orientation see cepts. Authentic leaders rely on ethical consider- others as humans deserving of dignity and ation when making decisions, but they do not respect. By adopting a humane orientation, an encourage normative conformity. In fact, authen- ethical leader will be more accepting of others’ tic leaders encourage a questioning attitude, views and seek to !nd common ground with whereas ethical leaders encourage conformity to those who have a different worldview than their ethical standards. Ethical leaders may discipline own.63 followers who fail to meet espoused standards, A second orientation is the justice orientation. making the theory more transactional in nature. Ethical leaders with a justice orientation try to Servant leaders also consider moral dilemmas, avoid discriminating by always seeking fairness but, in contrast to ethical leaders, focus on creat- and consistency in outcomes. A justice orienta- ing rewarding outcomes for followers.60 tion can lead to leaders who are perceived as fair, There are two dimensions to ethical leader- equitable, and trustworthy by followers.64 ship: being a moral person and being a moral However, justice-oriented leaders must be aware manager. The moral person dimension concerns of their biases, which can in"uence their views of an individual’s behavior in their personal lives. fairness. Justice-oriented leaders must also be Moral persons are fair and principled when mak- aware of situational factors that can affect following decisions and have a deep concern for the ers’ perceptions of fairness. These can include society as a whole. Moral managers want their outside factors like historical and structural prej- organization and the people within it to maintain udices that affect followers’ personal and profes- high moral standards. They are proactive in their sional lives. approach and actively attempt to in"uence the Responsibility and sustainability-oriented eth- actions of others. Further, moral behavior is a ical leaders hold a broader perspective regarding central point of their leadership agenda. Moral how their decisions and organizational actions managers communicate the importance of values impact their communities. Personal interaction is and morality, and vigorously hold others viewed through the lens of how they affect the accountable.61 long-term health of the community.65 For exam- One major concern with ethical leadership is ple, an ethical leader with a responsibility and that morals are in"uenced by religious beliefs sustainability orientation may be more apt to and societal norms. Ethical leadership, more so reward employees for developing a zero-waste than other moral leadership types, pushes for initiative for an external event than for addressing conformity in moral standards.62 This creates the other moral issues in the of!ce. potential for con"ict within an organization based The !nal orientation is the moderation orien- on different perspectives regarding values and tation that describes ethical leaders who balance morality. For example, a leader who feels all their personal beliefs with organizational objec- organizational members should stand for the tives and stakeholder desires. A moderation ori- national anthem out of respect for the military entation can be extremely effective when leaders may !nd themselves at odds with organizational can identify which organizational actions to tol- members who believe kneeling is a valid form of erate and which actions to push against.66 For protest against police brutality. A college coach example, a leader may personally believe that who ends every practice with prayer may create politics should not be discussed in the workplace 216 18 Leadership in Sport Organizations but be okay with a Black Lives Matter sign being servant leaders. Power and in"uence are acquired added to the playing surface. At the same time, by followers’ perceptions of the servant leader as they would reject an employee who says, “Why a role model to emulate. Servant leadership is can’t we have a White Pride Night?” because of characterized by several important the racist messaging. components.70 If an ethical leader with a moderation orientation cannot identify which behaviors deserve tol- • Place Service Before Self-Interest: The pri- erance and which do not, they can be subject to a mary motivation of a servant leader is to help number of negative outcomes. Moral relativism others. In order to help others, the leader takes can lead to the leader tolerating immoral behav- interest in others and attempts to satisfy their ior because it is good for the organization. For needs. To the servant leader, serving others is example, many in the Houston Astros organiza- a moral obligation, even if the leader’s actions tion personally disagreed with the team’s uses of are outside of the organization’s goals. sign stealing and other illegal tactics to win base- • Developing Other People: The servant leader ball games, but did not speak out because “the empowers others to become leaders through team was just trying to win games” and the mentoring, coaching, and sharing decision- behavior “didn’t hurt anyone” or “really effect making roles. Servant leaders are very trans- the outcomes of games.” Many leaders have hired parent and share information so that others or tolerate employees with bigoted beliefs can make informed decisions that are then because “they are very effective at their jobs.” supported by the leader. These behaviors are Further, research has demonstrated that ethical designed to instill self-con!dence and feelings leaders with moderation orientations are in sig- of empowerment in others. ni!cant danger of developing narcissistic tenden- • Active Listening: Servant leaders are active cies because of their beliefs that they can manage listeners. They want to know and understand distinctions between tolerable and intolerable the challenges faced by others. They want to behaviors.67 know others’ personal and career goals so that Despite its shortcomings, ethical leadership they can help the follower achieve their can be effective as long as leaders maintain self- desires. awareness and cultural awareness. Ethical leader- • Humility: Servant leaders understand their ship has been shown to increase employees’ own limitations as well as the bene!ts of commitment, improve individual and organiza- allowing others to demonstrate their exper- tional performance, and in"uence employees to tise. When credit comes for accomplishment, engage in organizational citizenship behaviors.68 servant leaders ensure that others are awarded Ethical leadership is also relatively under- recognition for their contributions. The ser- researched compared to other leadership styles, vant leader is also quick to highlight the meaning that we will continue to learn more impact others have had on his or her about its effectiveness. success. • Build Trust: For servant leadership to be successful, the leader must build trust with fol- 18.7.3 Servant Leadership lowers. Servant leaders are honest in their assessment of others but are generous in their Servant leaders are guided by an unwavering offers to assist. They welcome two-way feed- commitment to serve others. In an organizational back and value criticism. setting, this includes serving colleagues as well • Focus on What Can Be Accomplished: Despite as those who you are in charge of, as well as cus- their idealistic nature, servant leaders under- tomers, stakeholders, and community members.69 stand that neither they nor their organization Power and in"uence, which are strong motivators can accomplish everything. Instead, servant for many leaders, are not strong motivators for leaders focus on the most pressing needs 18.8 Summary 217

before them. Sometimes this focus means that 18.8 Summary other goals are ignored. • Empathy: Servant leaders demonstrate great Leadership is a tricky issue to discuss. It is incred- empathy for the lives of those they lead. It is ibly important, but even experts disagree on what not uncommon for a servant leader to it takes to be a great leader. It is true that some encourage an employee to focus on a per- people have natural gifts that help them in"uence sonal need even if it interferes with their others, but, as you can see, there are many ways work. leaders can have a positive impact on others. • Acceptance: Servant leaders accept others for Hopefully, as you read this chapter, you learned who they are. some ways that you can be a leader. The moral • Stewardship: While servant leaders are quick leadership theories, especially authentic leader- to defer credit, they are also willing to put the ship and servant leadership, provide examples of responsibility for success on their own shoul- how one can be a leader by being true to oneself. ders. This alleviates pressure from others. Moving forward, expect more sport organizations to adopt servant leadership principles that Servant leaders are sometimes criticized for are in line with their organizational missions. appearing passive or uninterested in their own success. Yet, true servant leaders have to be Discussion Questions supremely driven and proactive to manage the strenuous undertaking that comes with placing 1. Can you name someone in your life that you others before yourself. While many may seek to think of as a leader? What makes them a be servant leaders, it is an incredibly dif!cult leader? Which theory(ies) match their leader- leadership style that many cannot live up to. ship style? However, many bene!ts come from effective 2. Being honest with yourself, where do you fall servant leadership. In addition to positive out- on the Managerial Grid? What do you think comes like committed and satis!ed employees, about that assessment? employees are also often motivated to go above 3. Which of the leadership theories do you !nd and beyond their positional roles (organiza- most useful for your journey? Why? tional citizenship) and demonstrate innovative 4. Select a segment of the sports industry that behaviors.71 you think could be improved through servant leadership. Explain your answer. 18.7.3.1 Servant Leadership in Sport Despite the challenges faced with implementing Notes servant leadership, its potential to be an effective paradigm in sport has been recognized. 1. House, R., Javidan, M., & Dorfman, P. (2001). Project Many sport organizations contain elements of GLOBE: An introduction. Applied Psychology, 50(4), service within their missions. Sport for develop- 489–505. ment and peace-based organizations are built 2. Nayer, V. (2013, August 2). Three differences between around the concept of servant leadership. This managers and leaders. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2013/08/ has led to calls for organizations within this seg- tests- of- a- leadership- transiti. ment of the sports industry to adopt servant 3. Krap", J. E., & Kruja, B. (2015). Leadership and leadership principles throughout their leader- Culture. Journal of Organizational Behavior ship teams.72 Sport management scholars have Management, 35(1–2), 28–43. https://doi.org/10.108 0/01608061.2015.1031431. also opined that servant leadership has great 4. Jago, A. G. (1982). Leadership: Perspectives in theory potential to improve ethical climates in sport and research. Management Science, 28(3), 315–336. organization of!ces73 and to improve ethical 5. Hitt, M. A., Miller, C. C., Colella, A., Triana, M. issues in coaching.74 (2017). Organizational Behavior (5th ed.). Wiley. 218 18 Leadership in Sport Organizations

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A Beliefs, 3, 10, 11, 18, 24, 56, 62, 81, 86, 93, 97–99, 108, Achievement, 60, 62, 94, 95, 98, 121, 129, 131, 134, 211 109, 111, 128, 129, 138, 139, 158–160, 189, Actions, 3, 10, 11, 13, 17, 20, 25, 29, 30, 32, 43, 50, 191, 194, 203, 210, 213, 215, 216 61–67, 76, 81, 83, 84, 88, 98, 108, 117–119, Belief systems, 93, 96–99, 215 121, 128–134, 138, 139, 141–143, 150, 160, Benevolence, 62 168, 181, 191–193, 196, 205, 206, 208, 211, Bias, 24, 28, 31, 32, 67, 85, 103, 107–109, 112, 214, 215 213–216 Big !ve model of personality, 95 Adhocracy culture, 60 Bureaucracy, 15, 19, 41, 42, 44, 52 Administration, 7, 38, 43 Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA), 16 Advisory Teams, 153, 156 Burnout, 4, 39, 79, 100, 132, 133, 138, 141, 143, 156 Af!nity groups, 150, 151 Altering organizational culture, 66–67 Amateur, 16, 19–21, 44, 77, 176 C Amateurism, 44, 62, 77 Canadian Football League (CFL), 82, 152 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 24, 25 Centralization, 38–40, 45 Amotivation, 132, 133 Chain of command, 38, 40–43, 49, 52, 110 Anchoring bias, 109 Change, 3, 9, 10, 14, 24, 27, 28, 30, 32, 33, 35, 42–44, Apparent Sincerity, 195, 196 46, 50, 59, 61, 66–68, 73–75, 78, 79, 81–89, Arbitrator, 184, 185 94–96, 107, 108, 118, 139, 141, 143, 151–153, Artifacts, 64–65, 67 156, 157, 167, 170, 172, 177, 183, 191, 204, Assertive behavior, 193 205, 207, 209–213 Attitudes, 3, 4, 17, 18, 20, 28, 29, 32, 61, 63, 105, 107, Change process, 83, 87, 88 109–112, 115–123, 157, 212, 215 Charismatic leadership, 209–210, 212 Attribution, 5, 111 Clan culture, 60 Authentic, 4, 6, 121, 196, 213–215 Classical view of emotions, 116 Authentic leadership, 4, 120, 213–215, 217 Climate of trust, 154, 155 Authority, 6, 14, 15, 18, 19, 40, 41, 46, 50, 160, 180, Coercive isomorphism, 10 189–192 Committees, 30, 31, 153, 183 Autonomy, 43, 66, 122, 131–133, 141, 143, 155, 157, Communication, 4, 15, 18, 19, 27, 37, 38, 40–43, 49–57, 161, 166, 167 61, 63, 65–67, 83, 84, 86, 88, 105, 106, 108, Availability bias, 109 110, 157, 172, 176, 179, 180, 195, 205, 215 Communication channel, 19, 35, 41, 42, 49, 50, 53, 56, 57, 84, 104, 105, 152, 158, 179 B Communication competence, 51 Behavior engagement, 194 Communication process, 50–53, 55, 57, 67, 179 Behaviors, 1, 3–11, 13, 15–21, 26–29, 35, 45, 54, 61, 63, Community sport, 14, 19, 20, 39, 62 67, 87, 91, 93–95, 97, 105, 112, 116, 117, Competition, 7, 16, 40, 44–46, 60–62, 67, 74, 85, 97, 119–123, 128, 130–133, 135, 138–145, 150, 101, 122, 137, 139, 151, 160, 172, 181, 183, 156–159, 165, 167, 168, 170, 171, 180, 195, 205 192–195, 201–206, 208–210, 213–217 Complex organizational structure, 19

1 Note: Page numbers followed by ‘n’ refer to notes.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 221 C. R. Barnhill et al., Organizational Behavior in Sport Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67612-4 222 Index

Compliance behaviors, 94 Employee Defense Mechanisms, 86 Compromise, 176, 183, 184 Encoding, 50–52, 141, 144 Con!rmation bias, 107, 109 English Football League, 19 Con"ict, 43, 44, 62, 78, 94, 96–98, 147, 150, 155, 156, English Premier League (EPL), 9, 19, 45 158–161, 166–168, 176–185, 215 Entrepreneurship, 60, 142 Con"ict avoidance, 183 Episodic power, 192 Conformity, 62, 215 Equal Employment Opportunity Commission Contextual factors, 154, 178, 181–183 (EEOC), 24 Contingency perspective, 206–209 Equity theory, 129–130 Coopetition, 44, 45 Ethical leadership, 24, 213–216 Coopetitive, 45–46 Ethics, 24 Creative process, 140–145, 167–171 European Sports Charter, 16 Creative work behaviors, 138–139 Evaluation, 14, 30, 52, 120, 121, 134, 154, 155, 158, Creativity, 5, 19, 24, 44, 53, 60, 103, 138–145, 156, 158, 159, 206, 210 159, 165–172, 176–178 Evolutionary change, 83–84 Crisis of agreement, 159–160 Expectancy theory, 128–129 Critical thought, 3, 54 Expected change, 82, 83 Cultural change, 83 Expert power, 190, 209 Cultural differences, 26, 27, 57, 63, 178 Explicit bias, 31 Cultural norms, 27, 53, 56–57, 63, 108 Exploitation, 72, 73, 210 Culture, 3, 7, 10, 17–21, 24, 26–28, 32–33, 35, 37, 41, External environment, 9, 13, 20, 35, 46, 52, 171 44, 52, 56, 57, 59–68, 82–84, 87, 88, 104, 105, Extra-role behaviors, 17, 137–140, 142, 143, 145 158, 160, 161, 181, 196, 202, 210 Extrinsic motivation, 132–133 Culture change, 84

F D Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA), 74–76 Decision-making, 24, 26, 31, 38–41, 44, 46, 52, 88, 108, Feedback, 9, 30, 52–55, 105, 130, 134, 168, 213, 155, 158–160, 171, 172, 177, 178, 180, 190, 214, 216 191, 208, 209, 215, 216 FIFA, 45, 84 Decoding, 51–52 Fit, 7, 17, 19, 21, 28, 38, 56, 66, 76, 84, 85, 93–101, 104, Deep acting, 78, 79 111, 112, 156, 157 Defensive behavior, 193 Forced change, 82–83 Demographics, 23, 25–28 Formal channels, 50, 51, 57 Departmentalization, 18, 38–39, 41, 45 Formal communication, 19, 50, 53 Departmental teams, 152, 157 Formal groups, 150, 151 Differentiation, 45, 60, 178–180 Formality, 39–41, 53, 65, 158 Direction of communication, 52–53 Formalization, 38, 39 DISC pro!le, 94–95 Functional con"ict, 177–183, 185 Discrimination, 20, 24, 25, 31, 67, 87, 107 Functional teams, 152–153, 157 Diversity, 1, 4, 23–33, 67, 105, 110, 153, 155, 156, 168, 172, 178 Diversity and inclusion statements, 30 G Division of labor, 15, 18 Gender, 20, 23, 24, 26–28, 32, 56, 97, 150, 153, 156 Domain relevant skills, 139–143, 145 Genuine expression, 78, 79 Dominance behaviors, 94 Goal-Setting Theory, 129 Downward communication, 52 Google Meet, 55 Dysfunctional con"ict, 53, 175, 177–183, 185 Grit, 127, 134–135 Groups, 7, 13, 23, 35, 38, 53, 59, 76, 82, 94, 105, 144, 150–161, 165, 177, E 192, 205 Ef!cacy, 5, 98, 158–160 Groupthink, 149, 159–160, 168, 177 Electronic communication, 53–56 Email, 51, 54–57, 64, 104, 106, 110, 112, 180, 185 Emotional contagion, 54 H Emotional intelligence, 116–120, 123, 156, 180, 204, Halo effect, 111 205, 209 Hedonism, 62, 122 Emotional labor, 72, 78–79, 120 HERO model, 5, 6, 98, 99, 197 Emotions, 3, 51, 78, 86, 91, 100, 109, 115–123, 128, Heuristics, 108 180, 204 Hierarchical organizational structure, 42 Index 223

Hierarchy, 15, 18, 127, 129–132, 134, 152, 175, 180, Leadership, 4, 29, 38, 63, 84, 120, 147, 154, 175, 194, 189, 190, 192–194, 196 202–217 Hierarchy culture, 60 Leagues, 9, 10, 16, 17, 19, 28, 41, 44–46, 61, 77, 81–83, History, 4–5, 24, 26, 27, 41, 44, 64, 67, 71–74, 76, 104, 138, 142, 151, 153, 159, 171, 175–177, 182, 117, 155, 181–182, 185 183, 191, 207, 209, 213 Hope, 5, 6, 9, 97–98, 116, 119, 212 Learning organizations, 85–87 Horizontal communication, 49, 52–53 Legitimacy, 10–11, 20, 78, 191–192 Human capital, 5, 29 Legitimate power, 189, 190 Human relations view of con"ict, 176 Lewin's three-step model, 87 Lose-lose, 182, 183

I Idea generation, 53, 54, 141–144, 156, 167 M Implicit bias, 31 Major League Baseball (MLB), 9, 17, 31, 38, 82, 89n3, Inclusion, 1, 27–33, 66, 110, 153, 168, 172 139, 151, 159, 181, 182, 184, 210–213 Incremental change, 83 Major League Soccer (MLS), 45 Individual values, 62, 65, 96 Managerial Grid, 206, 207, 217 Informal channels, 50, 51 Managers, 1, 4, 6–8, 13–15, 17–19, 24–26, 28, 29, 31, Informal groups, 149, 151 32, 35, 38–40, 43, 45, 51, 52, 60, 61, 65–67, Informality, 42 75, 78, 85–88, 100, 104, 105, 108, 115, Information seeking, 109, 111, 112, 185 129–131, 133, 139, 140, 142–143, 145, Innovation, 44, 64, 66, 85, 98, 139, 142, 143, 147, 149, 150, 152, 156, 168, 176, 178–180, 145, 147, 153, 158, 165–172, 176, 182–185, 191, 192, 195, 202, 203, 205, 177, 206 211, 215 Innovation as a process, 170–171 March Madness, 7 Innovation as a product, 170 Market culture, 60 Innovation champion, 142, 171, 172 Maslow's Hierarchy, 127, 130–131 Innovation types, 170–171 Matrix organizational structure, 42–43 In-role behaviors, 138–139, 145 Mentoring Groups, 150, 151, 167 Inspirational leadership, 209–213 Message, 17, 49–57, 64, 67, 87, 104–108, 110, 111, 179, Inspiration behaviors, 94 181, 195 Institutional disruption, 11 Message deliverer, 110–111 Institutional theory, 8, 10–11, 88 Messaging applications, 50, 55, 57 Institutional work, 10, 11 Michigan Studies, 206–207 Instrumentality, 14, 15, 128 Middle management, 40, 103 Integration, 59, 60, 85 MiLB, 17, 19, 41 Integrative model, 88 Mimetic isomorphism, 171 Interactionist view of con"ict, 177 Mission, 7, 17, 18, 20, 40, 59, 141, 150, 151, 157, 158, Intercultural con"ict, 178, 180 176, 177, 204, 217 Interdependence, 178–180 Moral Leadership, 213–217 Interns, 6, 8, 14, 19, 38, 40, 41, 49, 67, 73, 75, 76, 105, Motivation, 4, 62, 66, 98, 100, 107, 122, 127–135, 107, 110, 206, 215 139–141, 143, 145, 146n22, 157, 158, 167, Internships, 8, 14, 76 168, 181, 204, 205, 209, 216 Interpersonal in"uence, 195 Motivation-Hygiene Theory, 131 Intersectionality, 26 Motives, 88, 107, 195, 196, 204 Intrinsic motivation, 132, 133, 135, 140, 143, 167, Myers-Briggs, 27, 95–96 168, 205 IOC, 85 Isomorphism, 10–11, 171 N NASCAR, 16, 20, 32, 183 National Football League (NFL), 9, 11, 19, 20, 24, 29, K 31, 32, 63, 65, 83, 146n31, 152, 155, 171, 175 Kotter's eight-step plan, 87–88 National Hockey League (NHL), 17, 153 National Labor Relations Act (NLRA), 76, 77 National Labor Relations Board (NLRB), 77 L National Lacrosse League (NLL), 45 Labor, 15, 18, 71–79, 166 National Women’s Soccer League (NWSL), 15, 64, 81 Ladies Professional Golf Association (LPGA), 25 NCAA, 24, 40, 45, 77, 78, 137, 153, 190, 206, 208, 213 Leader behavior, 206, 208–209 Negotiation, 147, 159, 176–185 Leader-member exchange, 4, 166 Negotiation Range, 184 224 Index

Networking Ability, 195, 196 Permanency, 14 Nippon Professional Baseball, 17 Personality, 27, 91, 93–101, 142, 145, 155, 156, 178, NLRA, see National Labor Relations Act 181, 185, 204 NLRB, see National Labor Relations Board Personality frameworks, 93–94 Noise, 51, 52, 54 Personal values, 62–63 Non-pro!t, 16, 17, 19, 39, 45, 115, 141, 143, 146n26, Person-environment !t, 93, 99–100 146n31, 210 Person-group !t, 100 Nonverbal communication, 54, 57 Person-job !t, 100 Normative Isomorphism, 10 Personnel change, 84 Norms, 10, 15, 16, 18, 26, 27, 33, 49, 53, 56–57, 63–65, Person-organization !t, 100–101, 104 71, 72, 78, 104, 105, 107, 110–112, 150, Policies, 6, 10, 15, 30, 33, 42, 53, 63, 65, 67, 83, 157–161, 176, 191, 192, 210 105, 107, 109, 152, 153, 167, 180, 205–206, 209, 215 Political capital, 53 O Political Skill, 4, 189, 194–197 The Ohio State studies, 205–206 Politics, 1, 20, 21, 111, 147, 176, 189–197, 215 Olympic movement, 44 Positive organizational behavior (POB), 4–6, Olympics, 16, 62, 82, 84, 85, 87, 169, 213 125n41, 213 Onboarding, 63, 105 Power, 21, 24, 30, 37, 41, 42, 62, 72–74, Open systems, 9 94, 117, 122, 132, 157, 172, 176, 180, 182, 189–197, Open systems theory, 9–10 202–204, 209, 210, 216 Operant Conditioning, 130 Prejudice, 28, 32, 215 Optimism, 5, 6, 98, 99, 139 Pride, 97, 115, 116, 120–123, 131, 212, 216 Oral communication, 53–57 Problem Solving Teams, 153, 156 Organization, 1, 3, 13–21, 23–33, 35, 37–41, 44–46, Procedures, 14, 15, 39, 45, 88, 167, 208 49–57, 59, 72, 81, 91, 95, 99, 100, 103, 104, Process Con"ict, 177–179 120–121, 129–131, 138, 147, 150, 151, 165, Projection, 86, 111, 212 166, 176–178, 189–197, 202–217 Psychological capital, 5–6, 93, 97–99, Organizational behavior, 1, 3–11, 13, 16, 17, 19, 21, 50, 101, 121, 122, 125n41, 125n42, 138, 145n1, 150, 176, 177, 213 190, 197 Organizational change, 35, 66, 81–89 Psychological contract, 4, 19, 111–113, 146n32, Organizational citizenship, 121, 137, 138, 145n3, 145n4, 146n36, 146n38 145n7, 216, 217 Psycho-Social Differences, 26, 27 Organizational climate, 6, 59, 60, 67 Organizational culture, 3, 7, 18, 19, 32–33, 41, 56, 57, 59–68, 84, 104, 112, 196, 210 R Organizational effectiveness, 4, 60 Radical change, 83, 87, 88, 89n10 Organizational environment, 8, 9, 17, 154, 191, 197 Reasonable accommodation, 25 Organizational identity, 17, 18, 57n3 Receiver, 50–56, 104, 109, 111 Organizational membership, 3, 14–15, 150, 151 Recruitment, 28, 30–31 Organizational Politics, 189, 192–194, 197 Reinforcement Theory, 130 Organizational size, 1, 13, 19–20, 45 Relationship Con"ict, 178–180, 182 Organizational structure, 4, 18–19, 21, 37–46, 50, 53, 60, Relationship management, 118–120 84, 180 Resilience, 5, 6, 98–99 Organizational success, 29–30, 35, 39, 85, 112, 143, Resistance to change, 81, 83, 85–86, 211 167, 176 Resource acquisition, 10, 20, 189–192, 197 Organizational support, 166 Resource allocation, 81, 143, 178–180 Organizational systems, 65 Resource dependency, 8–9, 88, 190 Organizational values, 30, 63, 180 Resources, 1, 5, 8–11, 14, 17, 19–21, 25, 30, 38, 39, Overestimation, 108 43–45, 53, 84, 85, 98–100, 104, 105, 122, 139, 141, 143, 150, 153–155, 158, 161, 165, 166, 171, 172, 177, 179, 180, 183, 190–192, 196, P 210, 212 Participative safety, 166–168, 172 Rest, 29, 71, 74, 85, 142–144, 152, 153, 157 Passion, 115, 116, 120–123, 124n32, 133–135, 143, 167, Revolutionary change, 83 205, 211 Rewards, 16, 128–130, 132, 138, 158, 165, Path-Goal Theory, 207, 208 166, 169–170, 172, 179, 190, Perception, 10, 11, 16–19, 21, 23, 51, 56, 67, 72–74, 78, 191, 215 79, 89, 91, 93, 95, 98, 99, 103–112, 117, 131, Reward systems, 65, 138, 154, 155, 170 133, 142, 145n13, 152, 168, 177, 179–181, Rituals, 11, 18, 63, 65, 66, 68 191, 209, 215, 216 Role Allocation, 156 Index 225

S Teams, 6, 13, 28, 37, 53, 61, 71, 82, 97, 108, 115, 128, Schemas, 103, 107–108 138, 147, 150–161, 165–172, 176, 190, 202 Security, 7, 39, 62, 107, 130, 208 Team size, 157 Self-concept, 96, 97, 99 Team structures, 41, 43, 44 Self-Determination, 127, 128, 131–132 Team success, 43, 149, 150, 152, 154–156, 158, 161, Self-direction, 62 167, 211 Self-ef!cacy, 5, 121, 139 Title IX, 24, 25, 44 Self-emotional appraisal, 118–119 Tradition, 10, 28, 33, 62, 66, 86, 104, 138, 142 Self-evaluation bias, 108 Traditional view of con"ict, 176 Self-managed teams, 41, 43, 153, 157 Trait theories, 202–205, 207, 209 Self-management, 118, 119 Transformational leadership, 4, 210–213 Sender, 50–55, 106 Type A personality, 94 Servant leadership, 4, 202, 213, 215–217 Type B personality, 94 Sex, 24–27, 29 Simple organizational structure, 41 Skunkworks, 153, 156, 157 U Small business, 19, 153 Union, 74, 76–77 Small organizations, 17, 19 United soccer league (USL), 16, 112 Small-medium enterprises, 45 Universalism, 62 Social Astuteness, 195 Universal values, 62 Social awareness, 118, 119 Upward communication, 52 Social identity theory, 3, 17, 97 Social interaction, 150, 168–169, 172, 194 Socialization, 91, 151 V Social Loa!ng, 158 Values, 3, 4, 7, 8, 10, 16, 18, 20, 21, 24, 25, 27, 29, 30, Social networks, 8, 96 33, 57, 60–67, 72, 75, 91, 93, 94, 96–99, 101, Societal values, 61, 64 108, 111, 120, 121, 128, 131, 133, 138, 139, Sociocultural, 13, 15, 17, 51 167, 169, 171, 178, 180, 181, 190, 191, 196, Socioeconomic, 26, 31 210, 213, 215, 216 Sources of Power, 189, 192 Video conferencing, 54, 55, 110 Span of control, 38, 40, 43 Virtual teams, 55, 153–154 Specialization, 18, 37, 38, 41, 133, 178–180 Vision, 18, 28, 37, 43, 44, 46, 61, 64, 84, 87, 88, 141, Sporting values, 61–62 155, 166–168, 170, 172, 204, 209–213 Stages of Team Development, 158, 160–161 Volunteers, 14, 15, 25, 50, 52, 76, 91, 93, 133, 193, 201, Stereotype, 26, 28, 32, 111 204, 208, 211 Stimulation, 62 Stories, 6, 32, 64, 68, 98, 109, 116, 128, 190, 210 Strategic behavior, 193 W Strength of in"uence, 61 WebEx, 55 Stress, 4, 8, 85, 86, 157 Well-being, 6, 16, 33, 79, 95, 115, 116, 120, 122, 123, Structural change, 33, 83, 84 131–133, 151 Structural factors, 51, 178–180 Win-lose, 182, 184, 185 Student-athletes, 28, 71, 73, 76–78, 122, 132, 137, 156, Win-win, 182, 183, 185 191, 197, 213 Work design, 157, 206 Submission behaviors, 94 Work environment, 4, 7, 60, 61, 63, 67, 74, 99, 143, Sub-unit, 40 165–169, 171, 172 Support for innovation, 166–168, 172 Work groups, 27, 32, 43, 63, 83, 84, 100, 139, 141, 142, Surface acting, 78, 79 147, 150, 151, 165–167, 184, 205 Symbols, 20, 50, 62–65, 67, 68 Workspace con!guration, 179–180 Work teams, 42, 84, 147, 151–152, 157, 160, 165, 166, 168, 169, 172, 184, 185 T Written communication, 53–56, 66 Tactical behavior, 193, 194 Task con"ict, 158, 166, 167, 177–181 Task identity, 157 Y Task motivation, 139–141, 145 Yielding, 184 Task orientation, 166, 168, 172 Task signi!cance, 157 Team effectiveness model, 154 Z Team ef!cacy, 158, 161 Zoom, 55, 71