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DEFORESTATION in the AMAZONIA (1970-2013)

www.raisg.socioambiental.org in the Amazonia (1970-2013) The AMAZONIAN NETWORK OF GEOREFERENCED SOCIO-ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION is a space for the exchange and consolidation of geo-referenced © RAISG Amazonian Network of Georeferenced Socio-Environmental Information socio-environmental information, supporting processes that positively link collective rights with the valorization and sustainability of socio-environmental www.raisg.socioambiental.org diversity in the Amazonia Region. Since its foundation in 1996, the Network’s main objective is to encourage and facilitate cooperation between Institutions already DEFORESTATION GREW BY 37% OVER 13 YEARS AND Suggested citation of the document: RAISG, 2015. Deforestation in the Amazonia using socio-environmental georeferenced information systems in the Amazon, through a methodology based on coordinating joint efforts and by means of a (1970-2013). 48 pages. (www.raisg.socioambiental.org) EXERTS GREAT PRESSURE ON THE HEADWATERS OF AMAZONIAN RIVERS cumulative, decentralized and public process of information exchange, production, and distribution.

EcoCiencia Deforestation in the Amazonia (1970-2013) is an unpublished study about loss in each of the countries comprising the Amazonia Deforestation evaluation carried out by Deforestation Pasaje Estocolmo E2- 166 y Av. Amazonas – (Sector El Labrador - Norte de Quito). Working Group/RAISG. Team members: Tel: (593-2) 2 410 781 / 2 410 791 / 2 410 489 Region. It is estimated that throughout the historical occupation of the Amazonia, by 2000 up to 9.7% of the region was deforested; and ECOCIENCIA: María Olga Borja and Jose Luis Aragón http://www.ecociencia.org between 2000 and 2013 it rose to 13.3%; representing a 37% increase in only 13 years. FAN: Saúl Cuellar and Sara Espinoza GAIA: Andrés Llanos-Vargas and Adriana Sarmiento-Dueñas FAN - Fundación Amigos de la Naturaleza The study reviews, through a regional lens, pre-colonial settlement patterns; and analyzes contemporary occupation movements in the Amazon, Km.7 1/2 Doble Vía La Guardia – IBC: Sandra Ríos and Carla Soria Tel: +591-3-3556800 which began around 1930, at a time when State policies sought to modernize agriculture via settlements and deforestation. Then, based on IMAZON: Carlos Souza Jr. and João V. Siqueira http://www.fan-bo.org ISA: Cicero Cardoso Augusto satellite imagery analysis, it evidences the cumulative deforestation that took place up to and through the 2000s, which is a result of a number of PROVITA: María A. Oliveira-Miranda, Irene Zager, Grecia De La Cruz Melo factors entailing the first major changes in the Amazonia rainforest; changes that took place in the1970s. Finally, it evaluates changes in FGA - Fundación Gaia Amazonas Torres, Delymar Velarde, Juan Carlos Amilibia, Mario González-Gil and Carrera 24 nº 36-9 – Bogotá, loss in three periods: 2000-2005, 2005-2010, and 2010-2013. Karem Fuentes (571) 244 8100 Additional support throughout the evaluation: Karla Beltrán and Fabián Santos http://www.gaiaamazonas.org/ The study reveals that, apart from the rapid deforestation that characterizes the Brazilian Amazon, the pressures generated by economic (EcoCiencia); Melvin Uiterloo (ACT ); Milton Romero-Ruíz (Gaia); Erica Johnson, Fernando Machado, Rosa María De Oliveira-Miranda and exploitation in Andean countries are concentrated on the headwaters of several major watersheds, posing a major risk to the quality and IBC - Instituto del Bien Común Rosa Elimar Márquez (Provita), Sergio Zambrano-Martínez (IVIC); José Saito Av. Salaverry 818 – Jesús María, Lima 11, Perú quantity of forests and bodies of water. Many threats are common to all Amazonia countries, such as large scale agriculture, or the pressures and Jorge Fernández (IBC); Boris Hinojosa and Rafael Valente (Specific (511) 332-6112, 332-6037, 332-6088 caused by major infrastructure endeavors. Other pressures are country-specific, like the illicit growth of coca in areas of Perú and Colombia. services provision) http://www.ibcperu.org/

Analysis and preparation of cartographic data: The Amazonian Network of Georeferenced Socio-Environmental Information (RAISG) is a collective of civil society organizations of Amazonian IMAZON - Instituto do Homem e do Meio Ambiente da Amazônia countries dedicated to the production of easily available information and analysis for decision makers and civil society in order to support the Cícero Cardoso Augusto and Alicia Rolla (ISA) Rua Domingos Marreiros, 2020 CEP: 66.060-160 Belém – Pará, Brasil Tel: (55 91) 3182-4000 Fax: (55 91) 3182-4027 construction of a sustainable future and the strengthening of the socio-environmental diversity of the Amazonia Region. Preliminary review and standardization of chapters by country: http://www.imazon.org.br María Rosa Montes (IBC) In the second semester of 2008, RAISG established as a priority the elaboration of a deforestation analysis to estimate forest loss in the entire Provita Final edit of texts: Av. Rómulo Gallegos c/Av. 1 Santa Eduvigis, Edif. Pascal, Torre A, Piso 17, Ofic. 171-A, region as an indicator of the speed at which the landscape is being transformed, and as a key element in the monitoring process. Existing Humberto Gómez, Richard Chase Smith, Adriana Sarmiento-Dueñas, María Caracas, data was fragmentary, had partial coverage - even within each country -as it was generated following different conceptual and methodological A. Oliveira-Miranda, Víctor López A. and Beto Ricardo Tel: (58 212) 286-3169, (58 212) 286-1077 http://www.provita.org.ve focuses. Other characteristics of the heterogeneous origins of the data were the differences on geographic scales, time periods, and notation. Collaborators in the review of text and maps: ISA – Instituto Socioambiental The RAISG Protocol - a common analytical framework with standardized concepts and tool kit - was developed and introduced to address this Carla Soria y Pedro Tipula (IBC); Cícero Cardoso Augusto (ISA); Avenida Higienópolis, 901 – sala 30 CEP: 01238-001 São Paulo – SP, Brasil issue. This standard incorporates a broad perspective for the entire Amazonia region, and other territorial analysis units. Irene Zager (Provita); Marlene Quintanilla (FAN); Janette Ulloa (EcoCiencia) Tel.: (55 11 ) 3515-8900 Fax: (55 11 ) 3515-8904 http://www.socioambiental.org Review of content and standardization of reference sources: There are two sections to Deforestation in the Amazonia (1970-2013): the first summarizes the main deforestation drivers and processes up Coordination Humberto Gómez to the year 2000, and presents an estimate of current deforestation (2000 to 2013) for the entire region. The second section discusses recent and historic deforestation in each Amazonia country. In both sections the results for the 2000-2013 period are presented at Protected Natural English translation: RAISG Support: Camila Delgado-Montes Areas (PNAs), Indigenous Territories (ITs) and hydrographic basins, which are the unit of analysis used in previous RAISG studies.

Map creation: Alicia Rolla (ISA) and Carla Soria (IBC) 7 Layout and Graphic Project: Vera Feitosa/Duo Editoração Deforestation in the Amazonia Saúl Cuéllar, Humberto Gómez, Francis P. von Hildebrand, Daniel M. Larrea, Coordination within the RAISG network: Víctor López A., Robert Müller, María A. Oliveira-Miranda, Adriana Sarmiento-Dueñas and Richard Chase Smith ISA and RAISG coordination: Beto Ricardo; EcoCiencia: Víctor López A.; FAN: Natalia Calderón; Gaia: Francis P. von Hildebrand; IBC: Richard Chase Smith; Imazon: Carlos Souza Jr.; Provita: María A. Oliveira-Miranda. 12 Deforestation in Amazonia countries 12 Deforestation in the Bolivian Amazonia Robert Müller, Saúl Cuéllar and Daniel M. Larrea 16 * RAISG has chosen to maintain the names of the countries written in the original language in all versions of its publications. Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazonia Alicia Rolla, Carlos Souza Jr and João Paulo Capobianco 22 Deforestation in the Colombian Amazonia Milton Romero-Ruíz, Adriana Sarmiento-Dueñas and Andrés Llanos-Vargas 24 Map: Amazonia deforestation (1970-2013) Dados Internacionais de Catalogação na Publicação (CIP) (Câmara Brasileira do Livro, SP, Brasil) 28 Deforestation in the Ecuadorian Amazonia Deforestation in the Amazonia (1970-2013) / RAISG Amazonian Network of Georeferenced Socio-Environmental Víctor López A., María Olga Borja and José Luis Aragón Information. -- São Paulo : Instituto Socioambiental, 2015. 32 Deforestation in the Peruvian Amazonia Vários colaboradores. Richard Chase Smith and Sandra Ríos ISBN 978-85-8226-028-9 36 Deforestation in the Venezuelan Amazonia 1. Áreas protegidas - Amazônia 2. Bacias hidrográficas - Amazônia 3. Desmatamento - Amazônia 4. Florestas María A. Oliveira-Miranda, Irene Zager and Rosa De Oliveira-Miranda - Amazônia 5. Monitoramento ambiental 6. Povos indígenas - Territórios I. RAISG Amazonian Network of 40 Georeferenced Socio-Environmental Information. Deforestation in the , Guyane Française, and Suriname Amazonia Tony Gross 44 15-07339 CDD-304.2809811 Deforestation analysis: Methodological framework Índices para catálogo sistemático: Saúl Cuéllar, Sandra Ríos, João V. Siqueira, Cicero Augusto, María A. Oliveira-Miranda, Carlos Souza Jr., Milton Romero-Ruíz and Irene Zager 1. Região Amazônica : Florestas : Desmatamento : Monitoramento : Aspectos socioambientais 304.2809811 4 DEFORESTATION in the AMAZONIA (1970-2013) Map 1.DeforestationintheAmazonia living involuntaryisolationfrommodernsociety71indigenous indigenous peopleslivinginurbanzones,aswellanunknownnumber of recognitionbyAmazoniacountries.To thisnumberonehastoadd of 1,4millionpeoplelivingin2,244indigenousterritoriesdifferentstages people, including385indigenouspeoples,withanestimatedpopulation This highlycomplexnaturalspaceisinhabitedbymorethan33million of allknownlifeforms to thelargestbiodiversityinplanet,housingbetweenonethirdandhalf Moreover, theAmazoniaismuchmorethanwaterandcarbon,asithome arisen regardingtheroleofAmazoniarainforestincarbonfixation global warmingandclimatechangehave,evenasnewcontroversieshave regulation andplanetaryresilienceinlightoftheeffectshuman-induced These featuresattestfortheregion’simportanceintermsofglobalclimate process isknownas“flyingrivers”,or“Amazon bioticbomb” an airbornetransportsystemwherecloudcirculationisakeypart.This to east,whilethewaterreturnsAndesfromeastwestthrough it comprisesacomplexwatercyclewhereriverstendtoflowfromwest 15% to20%oftheglobalfreshwaterflowingintooceans discharge of6,300km Amazon Riverdrainsanareaof6.2millionkm found inthetropicalareasofAmerica,Africa,andAsia vegetation, thisrepresentscloseto38%(86,121MtC)ofthe228,700MtC continent ofSouthAmerica.Incarbonterms,andconsideringonlywoody planet, withanareaofalmost6millionkm The Amazoniacontainsthelargestexpanseoftropicalrainforestin AMAZONIA DEFORESTATION 6 3 . of water into the Atlantic Ocean, equivalentto ofwaterintotheAtlanticOcean, 2 , approximately 35%ofthe , approximately 2 withanaverageannual in the 1 . Additionally, the 2 3 . Moreover, . 4,5 . and managementoftheirterritories.Littleisknownaboutpre-colonial and toacolonialexpansionthatalteredindigenousformsofoccupation Amazon warn aboutthegrowingrateandglobalimportanceofdeforestationin During the1970s,conservationandindigenousrightsspheresbeganto transformation andforestcoverlossintheregiondatesfrom1950s without takingintoaccountforestfireemissions together, carbonemissionsreach400to500milliontonsayear, even million tonsofcarbonayear. WhenconsideringallAmazoniancountries Brazilian Amazoniaalone,deforestationcausestheemissionof200to300 threats facingtheAmazon the lackofurbanandterritorialplanningrepresentsonegreatest caused bylarge-scaleagriculture,mining,infrastructuredevelopmentand In thissense,thelossofforestcoverasaconsequencedeforestation traditional formsofterritorialandlandmanagement. services to areductionofbiologicaldiversity and environmentalimpactsatalargerscale and deforestationfrontiersaregeneratingincreasinglyacutecultural Nowadays, theexpansionofmarketandcolonization who dependontheAmazonia’sbiodiversityfortheirlivelihood. communities ( groups Historical contextofdeforestation Despite theregionaltrendofdecreasing 7 . Besides , there are thousands of traditional of . Besidesindigenouspeoples,therearethousands 11 15 deforestation, somecountriesdisplay intheAmazon,whileexertingpressureforabandonmentof . Butthehistoryofthisphenomenondatesbacktoearliertimes Caboclos in theirAmazoniarainforests an acceleratinglossincrease , Afro-descendantsorfarmersofdifferentorigins) 12 . The 2007estimatesindicatethatinthe 9 andenvironmental 8 . Thesedynamicshaveled 13 . However, thisprocessof 10 andcultural

14 . A keyaspecttothisapproachofdifferentpre-colonialsettlementpatterns sustenance. primarily onhuntingandgathering,withverylowscaleagriculturefortheir occupation andamoreitinerantcharacter. Thesepopulationsrelied able towinany–wererelegatedinterfluvialspaces,withlower-density The groupsthatlostaccesstothemorefertilelands–orwerenever two thousandyears settlements estimatedbetween200and300inhabitantsthatlastedover is evidenceofoccupationfertilevalleysinAndeanheadwaters,with villages atdifferentpointsalongtheAmazonRiver. Atthesametime,there Portuguese explorersreportedthesightingofhighlypopulatedindigenous lands fertilizedbyannualfloods.ThisishowthefirstSpanishand managed throughstrategichillsthatallowedlargepopulationstocontrol Denevan the Andeanfoothills to occupythemoreproductiveriverbanksofmainriversandvalleys ethnohistory pointtoanimportantcompetitionbetweenindigenouspeoples settlement patterns,butrelativelyrecentdiscoveriesinarcheologyand between Brasilia(DF)and Belem(PA) constructedinthe1960s;Trans- fragmentation offorestsand otherAmazonianecosystems:theroute Brasil wasandcontinues tobeoneofthemainfactorsinlossand Just asithappensinother countries,theconstructionofhighwaysin integrate soastonotrelinquish”(borderswithsovereignty) policies: “landwithoutmenforland” (colonization) and“ aligned withtwoformulas,sincethenconsolidated asPan-Amazonian in thecontextofinflationaryeconomies,aland-based accumulationpattern ideological andpoliticalterms,bythemilitarygovernment in1964tojustify, replacement bycattleranchingand(unproductive) estateswasused,in deforestation inthisperiodtookplacetheBrazilian Amazon,whereforest the Amazon’scontemporaryoccupationperiodbegan hard toaccess,butconsideredhavegreatpotential.Around1930, of agriculturalestatesintheso-called“vacantlands”areasthatwere and initiatedthereplacementofAmazoniaforestswithestablishment Rubber wastheprecedentformodernAmazonia southwest Amazon,stilleconomicallyimportanttodate the cinchonatreeinfoothillsandupperjungle,Brasilnut boom intheAmazon.Otherresourcesexploitedthisperiodinclude of BritishrubberplantationsinAsiaprovokedtheendfirst Amazonia sawthesemi-industrialproductionofcacao a lowimpactondeforestation.Additionally, the The needtosupplythesecentersbroughtaboutcattleranching,whichhad in , and Leticia inColombia),generallylinkedtoriverports. the majorAmazoniacitiesthatstillexisttothisday. (Ex. inPerú, Tena deforestation ofrelativelysmallareas,andallowedtheformationmany like theprosperouscityofManaus(Brasil).Thisboomprovoked inducing migrationtotheseforestsandtheformationofnewsettlements and theUSAledtoexploitationofrubberinsoutheastAmazon, a naturalresource.TherapidgrowthoftheautomobileindustryinEurope expanding theexploitationofindigenousworkforceforextraction also as countries, producingseveralcyclesofboomandbust.Therubber(known non-timber Amazonianresourcescaughttheattentionofnorthern thebirthoftoday’sRepublicsbeganextractiveperiod.VariousWith sugar, rice,andcacaofields,withlimitedimpacts. Perú) orJesuitandFranciscan missionswereconvertedintopasturesand areas aroundcolonialcities(suchasBeléminBrasil,orMoyobamba range andtheRíodelaPlatabasin.Untilmid-19thcenturyafewforest Spain andPortugal (1493),reachingintothefoothillsofAndesmountain Portuguese, whotrespassedthelimitssetbyTordesillas Treaty between European colonistsbegantoenterintoAmazonialands,especiallythe Tórrida” bythePortuguese hadastrongimpact Dorado bytheSpanishinAndean-Amazoniafoothillsand“Zona During colonialtimes,miningactivityderivedfromthesearchforEl areas intervention from thosetimesincludethe settlement patternshadlowandreversibleimpacts.Thefewtracesleft more than8,000yearsago which werecrucialtosustainlargesettlements,aprocessstarted was thedomesticationofcultivatedplants,suchassquashandtubers, 22, 23 siringa 17 . hassuggestedthatthevárzeazoneswereoccupiedand 20 , diverseengineeringworks or shiringa 18 16 . . ) boominparticularhadthegreatestimpact 19 terrapreta . For severalreasons,thesepre-colonial (blacksoil)createdthroughhuman 21 , andurbanagricultural várzea 24 . Duringthe16thcentury, fazenda 28 region ofthelower 26 27 . Mostofthe . In1913,theinflux . 29 . or hacienda 25 , , particularly ironandaluminum. InBrasiltheconstructionofenormous laying outoftransmission lines,andtheexploitationofmineralresources, of southernVenezuela fortheconstruction of hydroelectricplants,the countries (Colombia,Ecuador, andPerú). Italsoreinforcedthe occupation but onthesoilsandwatersofAmazon,particularly intheAndean increased dramaticallytheimpactofillegalmining notjustontheforests, Subsequently, ariseintheinternationalpricesofhydrocarbons and strong increaseofdeforestationinthecountryaround 2000 Brazilian Realencouragedtheoverexploitationof primary resources,witha in deforestationratestheregion.Furthermore, thedevaluationof global demandfor“forestriskcommodities”grew, leadingtorapidincrease ranching becametheprimarycauseofdeforestation.Inthisperiod southern bordersoftheAmazon ()soybeancultivationwasintroducedtopoorsoilsinthe mechanization ofproductiontoindustriallevelsbeganinearnest.InBrasil countries throughstructuraladjustmentprograms this neoliberalperiod,theroleofNationalStatewasreducedinmany replacement offoodimports,butonexport-oriented production aswell.In Plans forAmazoniandevelopmentnolongerfocusedonlyonthe agroindustrial periodsetinthecontextofamoreglobalizedeconomy. By themid-1980s,nationaleconomiesbegantoopen,leadingan roads thatcorrespondtotheaxesofcurrentdeforestation. expansion area.Probablyitslargestimpactwasrelatedtotheopeningof time constitutedthecentralaxisforwhatistodayagriculturalfrontier’s opening ofaccesstonewareas.Thedeforestationthattookplaceatthe hold intheAndeancountries,leadingtomoderatedeforestationand endeavors. Atthesametime,extensivecultivationofcocaintook of vastexpansesforestandunabletosucceedintheiragricultural to theabsenceofsupportforsettlers,whoremainedisolatedinmiddle Colombia). However, themajorityof1970sprogramsfailed,oftendue in Bolivia,theSelvaCentralPerú, andthedepartmentofCaquetáin these days,primarilyintheAndeanfoothills(suchasChaparezone As aresult,severalcolonizationzoneswereestablishedandpersistto the northeastofBrasil,aregionfacingfrequentdroughtsbackthen. occupation spacesinfavoroflandlessfarmerstheAndeancountriesand the displacementofindigenouspeoplesandlosstheirtraditional of landsto“settlers”didn’tjustincreasedeforestationbutalsofostered and citiesderivedfromhydrocarbonexploitationinEcuador that connectsBrasilwiththeAndeancountries of largeinfrastructureworkspan-importance,suchasthetrans-highway colonization efforts.Unlikepreviousprograms,theseledtotheconstruction of governmentaleffortstointegratethethroughdirectedand/ormassive their Pacific andCaribbeancoasts.Theseventiessawasecondwave accessibility, prioritizinginsteadtimberexploitationoftheirforestsalong later inEcuador, Colombia,Venezuela, andtheGuianasduetotheirlow This interestintheintegrationoflandsAmazonRiverbasincame land titling. deforesting oftheland,asproofitwas“beingworked”asapre-conditionto institutions inchargeoftheagrarianreform,whichoftenrequiredclearingor (Plan Bohan) of EasternIssues,ColonizationandTerritories) (Plan fortheValorization oftheAmazon) Amazonian lands,oftenwithinternationalfunding.AmongstthemareBrasil Many countriesimplementedplansfortheagriculturaldevelopmentof consolidation ofnational“sovereignty”byoccupying“vacant”spaces. reforms –longdemandedbypeasantsandfarmers-providedtothe first place,allegationsofnationalsecurity, andsecond,theboostagrarian governments tooccupythecontemporaryAmazon.Onecanmentionin Starting inthemid-20thcentury, manyfactorsgalvanizednational their currentlandsandterritories. especially aftergainingsomeofficialrecognitionandcontrolover recent timesthatindigenouspeoplesarebeingtakenintoaccount, an “obstacle”totheexpansionofagriculturalfrontier, itisonlyin displacement fromtheirtraditionalareasofoccupation.Oftenconsidered and tothisdaytakesplacewithoutconsiderationofindigenouspeoples’ was startedin1964.Theconstructionofroadsintensifiedcolonization with theCarreteraMarginalHighwayinPeruvian rainforest,which recently, theCuiaba-Santaremhighway highway; thehighwayconnectingBoaVistatoManaus,andmore (MT) toPorto Velho (RO)intheNortheastPole Project;theNorthPerimeter Amazonia highwayinthe1970s;constructionofCuiaba 33 . Later, beginningintheseventies,camecreationof 37 . InthecentralpartofAmazon,cattle 30 31 . Thesamehashappened , Perú (CreationoftheOffice 34 , oralltheoilaccessroads 36 . InBolivia(SantaCruz), 32 , andBolivia 38 35 . . Thegranting

5 DEFORESTATION in the AMAZONIA (1970-2013) 6 DEFORESTATION in the AMAZONIA (1970-2013) Table 1.DeforestationinAmazoniacountries(km Figure 1.HistoricalandrecentdeforestationintheAmazonia(km recent deforestation. with thehighestlossinabsoluteterms( Colombia andPerú withmorethan9%.Consequently, Brasilisthecountry forest lossby2013(17.6%),followedEcuadorwith10.7%,and the otherhand,Brasiliscountrywithlargestrelativeproportionof the mostinrecentperiod,with42.6%and34.2%lossrespectively. On Bolivia andVenezuela standoutasthecountriesthatproportionallylost 13 years,the2000-2013periodshowsanaccelerationindeforestation. account that27.1%ofthecumulativeforestlosstookplaceinonly cover continuedtodecrease,andby201313.3%ofitwaslost.Taking into and finallyColombiaPerú with7.4%and7.0%respectively. Forest Brasil havingthebiggestlosswith12.8%,followedbyEcuador9.6%, 58.8% forBrasil( of thewasaround6.1millionkm According totheassessmentcarriedoutbyRAISG,originalforestcover include thespatialoverlapbetweenbothtypesofprotectionunits. from 22%to67%forindigenousterritories.Insomecases,thesefigures countries rangingfrom16%to37%ofcoverageforprotectedareas,and 21.8% oftheregionandindigenousterritories27.5%,withvariationbetween analyzed byRAISGforthispublication,in2013protectedareascovered territories concentratemuchoftherainforest.Accordingtonewdata occupation oflands.Asawhole,naturalprotectedareasandindigenous indigenous peoples’territories,basedontheirtraditionalorcurrent had notdonesoyet(EcuadorandBolivia)recognizedlargeareasas and consolidatedinseveralcountries.Furthermore, thecountriesthat indigenous rightsperiod.Nationalprotectedareassystemswerecreated movement, the1990ssawconsolidationofaconservationand but mostofallduetothestrengtheningindigenousandecologist Possibly duetothesteepincreaseofdeforestationinpreviousyears, particularly withPerú. hydroelectric damsandplanningforcross-borderinterconnectivitybegan, total Amazonia Venezuela Suriname Perú Guyane Française Guyana Ecuador Colombia Brasil Bolivia Country Historic andrecentforestlossdeforestationrates T able 1 ). Bytheyear2000,atotalof9.7%waslost,with 2 : 41.2% for the Andean andGuyanese and : 41.2%fortheAndean Surface oforiginal Surface forest cover F km igure 3,587.052 6,099.788 2 150,254 792,999 192,405 465,536 333,004 397,812 83,195 97,530 1 ), bothinhistoricaland

Cumulative deforestation until 2000 2 ) km 2

591,414 458,500 55,649 34,673 14,035 3,097 9,343 8,914 5,664 1,539

2000-2005 territorial reserves.Ofthese,1,906,029km traditional usewithoutofficialrecognition,territorialreserves,andproposed 2,090,705 km In termsofIndigenousTerritories (ITs), theRAISGdatabasehadregistered analysis isrequired. in ordertobecertainabouttheeffectivenessofPNAs,moredetailed restricted seemtoshowabettercapacityforforestconservation.However, use. Asistobeexpected,theareaswherehumanactivitiesarerelatively that takesplacewithinPNAsofdirectuse,comparedtothoseindirect areas werecreated,thereisaglaringdifferencebetweenthedeforestation While thisanalysisdidnottakeintoconsiderationthedateinwhich these areas. 49.8% ofthecumulativetotal.Ingeneral,deforestationtendstodecreasein indirect useareas,whilerecentdeforestationinsidePNAscorrespondsto recent forestlossisequivalentto56.3%ofthecumulativetotal,and40%in use was2.5timesgreaterthaninthoseofindirectuse.Indirectareas, level areasofdirectusewas2.9%;andthatthelossratein in the2005-2010period,totalcumulativedeforestationfordepartment- followed byindirectusenationalareas(10,869km corresponds –inabsolutetermstonationaldirectuseareas(10,958km is higheroutsideofthePNAs.Thelargestexpansedestroyedforest of theseforestswerelost km Areas (PNAs)byDecember2013was1,814,947km According totheRAISGdatabase,totalextensionofProtectedNatural in the2010-2013periodwillseeanincreasedeforestation. Française, Suriname,andVenezuela) shouldtheymaintaintherhythmseen shows signsofaccelerationitsforestlossrate.Inothercases,(Guyane and Guyana).TheonlycountrywithanopposingtrendisVenezuela, which or indicationsofstabilization( on thistrendinsomecountries,withreboundsduringintermediateperiods, clearly correlatedinBrasil,Bolivia,andEcuador. Therearecertainvariations Regionally, adecreasingtrendindeforestation( 2 km ) 2 118,530 were originally covered by forests39. By 2013 some 31,034 km some 31,034 By 2013 wereoriginallycoveredbyforests39. 101,138 2 6,680 4,614 3,446 295 487 194 890 785 Deforestation rate 2 by 2013, including officially recognized territories, areas of territories, areas by2013,includingofficiallyrecognized 2005-2010 km 77,809 57,399 2 1,521 7,225 3,733 6,167 257 821 263 424 ( T able 2010-2013 F igure 2 km 23,909 15,395 ). Thesefiguresshowthatdeforestation 2,306 1,742 2 1,684 2,049 248 2 144 125 216 ) (Colombia,Perú, GuyaneFrançaise, 2 (91.0%) were originallycovered (91.0%)were 2000-2013 F % %oftheoriginalforest igures 2 ). Itisworthnotingthat 3.6 1.0 0.4 2.0 1.0 0.9 1.2 2.4 4.8 3.1 2 , ofwhich1,472,051 1 and 2 Cumulative total ) wasverified, % 2 or2.1% 13.3 10.7 17.6 3.3 4.2 9.1 2.8 2.5 9.9 7.3 2 ), analyzed Figure 2.Variations intheannualforestlossrate,byperiod practically thesameforboth:(15,466km increased fasterinthePNAs.Asaresult,arealostis,absoluteterms, was higherforITs untiltheyear2000.Since,speedofdeforestationhas 49.8%, comparedto35.8%inITs. Thismeansthatthespeedofforestloss in ITs thaninPNAs.However, intherecentperiodforestlossPNAswas cumulative deforestationbothinabsoluteandrelativetermswashigher There areinterestingdiscoveriesregardingPNAs.For example,the registered intheseareas. period understudy(2000-2013),35.8%ofthecumulativedeforestationwas apparent whencomparingITs, PNAs,andexteriorareas( ITs islesserthanintherestofregion.Thisdifferencebecomesmore forest (Table 3).AsisthecaseofPNAs,relativelossforestswithin by forests.By2013therewasalossof44,156km changed betweenthehistoricalandrecentperiods.Until2000,loss relationship betweendeforestationinsideandoutsideofPNAsITs and ITs represents91.8%ofthetotalfor and 2.2%,respectively. ThecumulativedeforestationoutsidethePNAs Forest lossisfargreateroutsidePNAsandITs thanwithin,at24.6% it roseupto14.2%inthe2000-2013period.Thesechangescouldbe within PNAsandITs didnotexceed7.5%oftotaldeforestation,whereas 2 of deforestationonlyoriginallyforested areaswereconsidered. 1 Table 3.DeforestationinAmazonia IT(km 2 of deforestationonlyoriginallyforestedareaswereconsidered. 1 Table 2.DeforestationinAmazoniaPNA(km ThesituationofexistingITs andPNAswasconsideredinDecember2013. Amazon,withinwhichexist non-forestedareas,likeenclavesofsavannasorfields.For withinthebiogeographic limitofthe Originalforestcoverreferstoformations the evaluation ThesituationofexistingITs andPNAswasconsideredinDecember2013. Amazon,withinwhichexistnon-forestedareas,likeenclavesofsavannasorfields.For withinthebiogeographiclimitof Originalforestcoverreferstoformations theevaluation Protected NaturalAreas Indigenous Territories state/departamental-indirect use state/departamental-indirect national-directandindirectuse state/departamental-direct use state/departamental-direct Proposed Territorial Reservation national-transitionaluse ITnotofficiallyrecognized national-indirectuse 2

ITofficialyrecognized Territorial Reservation national-direct use 2

Surface oforiginal Surface Surface oforiginal Surface 2 forest cover in PNAs and 15,825km inPNAsand forest cover ( F km igure km 2 1,472.051 1,906.029 1,421.841 2 678,641 381,110 104,857 274,122 2 415,285 3 (2.3%) oforiginal (2.3%) 29,223 1 39,656 29,246 4,097 ). However, the 1 2

)

2 ) F igure Cumulative deforestation Cumulativedeforestation 3 ). Inthe until 2000 2 until 2000 inITs). km km 2 2 15,568 28,331 20,303 6,546 6,905 1,331 7,496 193 576 334 199 16 Perú, andthebasinsofMamoré,BeniItonomasriversinBolivia. Amazon; thebasinsofAltoMarañón,ApurímacandPachitea riversin riversinthe northwestarcoftheColombian Guaviare andPutumayo Other basinsthatstandoutincludetheupperofCaquetá, and Tapajós rivers),Pará, andRondônia. agricultural frontierofthestatesMatoGrosso(headwatersXingu their forestcovertodeforestation;almostallofthemlocatedalongthe ( reached a40%lossby2000andcontinuedbeingdeforestedafterwards Mato GrossoandRondônia( and eastofPará, alongtheCuiabá-Porto Velho highway, andbetween to thosehistoricallyoccupied:thestatesofMaranhão,northTocantins with morethan40%lossintheoriginalforest,areBrasilandcorrespond The 18mostdeforestedsub-basins(order3)by2000andalso2013, within thebiogeographiclimitsanalyzed. deforestation frontiersinColombia,Perú, andEcuadorhavebeenopened of landscapesoutsidethelimitsusedinouranalysis.Bycontrast,new Bolivia –wherethegreatexpansionofagriculturehaschangedlargeareas Pará, RondôniaandAcreinBrasil,thedepartmentofSantaCruz a fasterpacecanbefoundinthesouthern–statesofMatoGrosso, The majordeforestationfrontierswhereforestsarebeingconvertedat account thedatesofcreationPNAsandrecognitionITs. the dynamicsbehindthesevariations,andevenconsideringtakinginto As previousmentioned,amoredetailedanalysisisrequiredtoaccountfor existence ofdirectuseunitswherechangesinforestcoverareexpected. result ofincreasedpressureontheseunittypes,orcouldderivefromthe forest fires,andfloodsleadsonetothinkofasystemdominatedby resilience theAmazoniamayhave,itsinteractionwithrisingtemperatures, works and thesecondaryeffectsofhydrocarbonexploitationinfrastructure to alesserdegree.Next,andpredominantlyinsomecountries,aremining extensive cattleranching.Illicitcropsandsmall-scaleagriculturecontribute predominantly oflarge-scaleindustrialagriculture(mainlysoybean)and and betweencountries.Thedirectdriversofdeforestationintheconsist The causesfordeforestationassociatedwithhumanactivitiesvarywithin M ap Recent causesofdeforestation Recent 2000-2005 1 2000-2005 40, 41 ). Between2000and2013,17sub-basinslostmorethan10%of km km 2,972 2 1,977 1,721 6,981 2 . Climatechangewillexacerbatethesethreats,fordespiteany 6,413 1,269 5,096 281 29 1 21 26 Deforestation rate Deforestation rate 2005-2010 2005-2010 km km 2 1,569 1,626 2,586 5,910 2 6,505 1,471 4,963 34 11 85 37 33 T able 2010-2013 2010-2013 km 4,M km 2 1,001 2,576 2,907 1,115 1,772 2 777 706 10 aps 80 15 1

5 2 and 2000-2013 3 2000-2013 ). Ofthese,12hadalready %oftheoriginalforest % % oftheoriginalforest % 0.8 0.9 0.2 0.2 0.8 0.3 0.3 0.6 1.1 0.4 2.4 1.1 Cumulative total Cumulative total % % 0.9 0.7 1.6 2.9 1.0 2.9 2.1 2.3 2.7 1.0 0.9 2.3

7 DEFORESTATION in the AMAZONIA (1970-2013) 8 DEFORESTATION in the AMAZONIA (1970-2013) Map 2. Sub-basins with the greatest proportional deforestationuntil2000 Map 2.Sub-basinswiththegreatestproportional Map 3. Sub-basins with the greatest proportional deforestationuntil2013 Map 3.Sub-basinswiththegreatestproportional (basins withmorethan20%cumulativedeforestation) Table 4.CumulativedeforestationintheAmazoniabysub-basins of theAmazonia deforestationinthePNAandIT Figure 3.Recent “push” phenomenonofthecattleranchingfrontiertowardsinterior and (SantaCruzsouthernMatoGrosso).Nevertheless,the given thatlargepartofthesoycultivatingzoneisinforesttransitionzones ranching’s contributiontodeforestationprobablyreachesaround80% 44 in BrasilandBoliviaitisresponsibleformorethanhalfofitsdeforestation There arenoexactfiguresforthemajorityofcountries,butitisknownthat the mostdirect,highimpactdeforestationcauseataPan-Amazonia level. In therecentperiod(2000-2013),cattleranching-induceddeforestationis regions disturbances ofgreatmagnitude,particularlyintheSouthandEast (MB2) Mamoré Pacaja Am. MB2 Xingú (B) Tapajós (B) Pachitea Apurímac Huallaga Am. Medio Xingú (M) Am. Estuário Caquetá Curuá-Una Guaporé Marañón Am. MB3 Xingú Ronuro Manissaua-Missu Madeira MB2 Do Sangue Xingú (MA) Teles Pires(S.Manuel) Madeira MB1 Arinos Fresco (M) Juruena Gurupi Ji-Paraná ouMachado Guama Tocantins (B) Juruena Candeias doJamari Am. MB4 Araguaia (MB) Pindaré Atlântico NEOS Araguaia (B) das Mortes . Consideringthebiogeographiclimitusedinthisdocument,cattle Sub-basins (order3) 42 .

Surface oforiginal Surface forest cover km 38,577 68,956 61,746 29,490 98,455 74,955 50,675 1,269 61,726 26,869 68,156 76,207 36,957 14,605 17,309 25,989 22,613 16,441 22,031 35,618 36,901 29,277 67,541 45,415 71,553 26,589 31,268 47,364 60,583 4,487 2,295 3,138 9,834 5,649 2 4,882 76,21 3,564 5,088 3,726

570 Cumulativedeforestation until 2000 km 2

21,776 17,191 11,159 14,230 16,460 19,196 29,184 10,157 10,899 14,398 30,263 22,473 35,409 10,615 36,565 44,484 6,071 3,123 3,021 5,418 3,025 5,929 2,020 1,766 5,162 9,942 6,252 8,310 3,892 6,116 7,999 4,025 1,872 5,704 794 237 956 671 829 436 43, 2000-2005 km and assuchisnotconsideredadirectcauseofdeforestation.However, it Timber exploitationintheAmazoniaisusuallydoneaselectivemanner, disruptions intheforestthandamsthemselves km of allplannedhydroelectricplantsintheregionwouldfloodaround100,000 northeast axisoftheBrazilianAmazon. the destructionofforests,particularlyincertainregionslikesoutheast- The floodingassociatedwithhydroelectricplantsisalsoadirectcausein next years. foreseeable thatdeforestationrelatedtotheseactivitieswillincreaseinthe construction oftheroadsrequiredfortheseproductiveactivities.Itis deforestation, mainlythroughthefacilitatedaccessprovidedby as hydrocarbonexploitation Mining inColombia,theGuianas 23,000 ha;Perú, 49,800ha;andColombia,48,189hain2013 size ofcultivatedplots associated tococacultivation,whoseextensioncorrespondsthesmall Additionally, theAndean-Amazoniacountriesthereisdeforestation much lessthanindustrialagricultureintermsofextensionandcontribution. mountain rangeandinmanypartsoftheAmazoniainteriorBrasil,though Small-scale agriculturecausesdeforestationinthevicinityofAndes ranching) intheAmazoniarespondstointernationaldemand deforestation of Africanoilpalmwithmechanizedmethodsalsostartedcausing meantime, inPerú, ColombiaandnortheastEcuador, thecultivation the statesofPará andMatoGrossoontheAmazoniainBrasil Industrialized agriculture,primarilysoy’s,alsohasastrongimpactin agriculture. of theAmazoniaobservedinBrasil 3,040 2,050 1,813 1,233 1,032 4,467 1,256 1,519 3,503 1,442 1,260 2,133 3.127 3,058 1,700 2,289 8,269 4,817 3,078 5,355 1,625 3,597 3,638 1,205 1,087 5,692 2

188 209 916 477 483 684 173 285 263 2 17 61 34 67 47 , approximately 3% of Brasil’s Amazonia rainforest, creatinggreater , approximately3%ofBrasil’sAmazoniarainforest, Deforestation byperiod 2005-2010 46, 47 km 1,809 1,946 2,252 3,095 1,654 2,665 1,048 1,237 1,774 1,808 2,401 3,139 2,354 1,623 2,661 1,723 1,605 3,119 2 679 794 322 319 755 802 437 447 150 986 190 884 421 613 141 . Theproductionofthesecommodities(agriculture/cattle 11 72 64 30 43 73 23 51 , andavariableareaineachcountry:Bolivia, 2010-2013 56 km inEcuadorareimportantsourcesof 2 845 349 715 251 385 108 716 571 440 339 245 662 395 216 451 570 460 122 148 691 414 366 264 258 181 193 53, 54,55 26 11 32 99 59 23 51 15 16 87 25 2 8 1 45 constitutesanindirectimpactof It isestimatedthattheconstruction andVenezuela, aswell 2000-2013 % oftheoriginalforest % 12.0 10.5 11.0 19.0 16.0 23.5 13.6 12.7 11.4 18.3 17.6 17.2 14.2 12.4 21.2 17.4 14.9 12.5 57 7.6 8.6 2.4 7.7 5.6 8.2 3.3 0.8 6.3 5.6 5.9 9.9 6.5 3.1 5.9 8.1 9.3 6.2 5.0 9.4 2.3 7.6 . Cumulative total 48, 49,50 52 45 . . Inthe % . 20.9 20.9 21.1 21.2 21.3 22.7 22.8 23.3 24.0 28.2 28.7 30,1 30.6 31.7 32.1 32.3 32.4 36.4 36.8 36.9 38.1 39.6 41.1 41.5 46.1 46.7 51.0 55,0 57.2 57.5 58.7 60.4 61.1 61.3 75.4 79.1 79.5 88.3 89.1 99.0

9 DEFORESTATION in the AMAZONIA (1970-2013) 10 DEFORESTATION in the AMAZONIA (1970-2013) between 107and369millionhectaresby2030 cultivation inPerú. Generalestimatesbasedonpublishedpredictionsrange by 2020 of biofuelscouldcausethelossmorethan12millionhectaresforest will belostbetween2006and2020 deforestation-reduction policies,suggestthatmorethan6millionhectares Deforestation modelsforMatoGrosso,evenunderthegovernment’s located inthestatesofMatoGrosso,Rondônia,AmazonasandPará Brasil willconcentratemainlyaroundtheso-called“DeforestationArc” predicts a55%lossinthenext20years loss after50years collaborators predictalossof23%forestcoverin30years,and37% entire Amazoniaregion,withverysimilarprojections.SoaresFilhoand Many studiessuggestthatforestlosswillcontinuetooccurinthe deforestation atalocalscale increase ofpopulationduetohighreproductionratesisnotamainfactorin on deforestation.Itisworthnotingthatcontrarytopopularbelief, the consequent increaseinpopulationdensity, showasignificantinfluence migration ofsettlerstoscarcelypopulatedforestsareas,andthe towards forestenvironments.Amongstdemographicfactors,the causes fordeforestation,primarilyintheformofpublic’sindifference Cultural andsociopoliticalfactorshavealsobeenreportedasunderlying drivers offorestloss corruption ormismanagementoftheforestrysector)arealsoimportant based activities.Existinglandtenuresystemsandfailedpolicies(likethe programs associatedwithcolonization,transport,andsubsidiesforland- that favordeforestation,landusepoliciesandeconomicdevelopment crops ortimber)standout fuel ortimber)andtheincreaseinpriceofproducts(especiallycash synergistically. Economicfactorssuchaslowinternalcosts(forland,labor, At anunderlyinglevel,deforestationisalsoduetomultiplefactorsacting access foragriculturalusethroughtheconstructionofroads causes forestdegradation,increasestheriskoffires,andfacilitates Future forestlossscenarios 67 ; withincreasedlossesduetotheexpansionofprojectedoilpalm 63 . Amorerecentstudycarriedoutbythesameauthors 61 . 60 . Institutionalfactorsincludeformalmeasures 62 . 66 ; whilechangesinland-useasaresult 64 . Itisestimatedthatlossesin 68,69 . 58, 59 . 65 . Amazonia forestloss. reveals oncemorethenecessityforreliableandsolidinformationabout and hydrocarbonexploitationassociateddeforestation,climatechange This dynamicprocessintheexpansionofagriculturalfrontier, mining basin aremorevulnerabletochangesthanthenorthandnortheast AMAZALERT indicatesthatthesouthandeastregionsofAmazonia dynamics, droughtsandsocio-economicdevelopment.Theworkdoneby use change,particularlyinrelationtothefertilizationeffect,forestfires uncertainty abouttheAmazoniarainforests’sensibilitytoclimateandland unlikely. However, wecannotruleoutafastdeclineastherestillismuch a generalizedsavanizationcausedentirelybyclimatechange2100is that pairedclimateandvegetationshowwhendeforestationislow, amplified whenoneincludeslandusechangesandforestfires.Models change, includinghighertemperaturesandalongerdryseason,are of anearth’sareamodel.Theresultsshowthattheimpactsclimate of landusechange,climateandfireweretheresearchsubject environmental servicestherainforestsprovide.Thecombinedeffects could boostdeforestationimpactsandresultinthelossofsocio- Amazonia rainforests’vulnerabilitytodroughtsandforestfires Finally, alesspredictable factoristheimpactofclimatechangeon increase deforestation,particularlyincountrieslikeEcuadorandBolivia. and indicatesthatanincreaseinhydrocarbonexploitationwouldsimilarly link betweenhydrocarbonexploitationanddeforestationiswellknown, areas underexploitationintheAmazoniaregionhasbeenreported relationship betweeninternationaldemandforgoldanddeforestationof in particularcouldhaveasignificantimpactonAmazoniaforestssince countries andtheGuianas.Incaseofmining,exploitationgold sources ofdeforestationinthefuture,particularlyAndes-Amazonia Mining andhydrocarbonexploitationcouldhaveamajorimpactasdirect rendering productionanddeforestationmoreprofitable. the accessandespeciallytransportofagriculturalproductstomarkets, infrastructure, suchastheframeworkofIIRSAprogram,willfacilitate factor ofconsiderableimpact Ecuador and increaseinthedemandforAfricanpalmoilPerú, Colombia,and of futurepressure,includingtheexpansionagriculturalfrontier Additionally, considerationmustbetakenoftheknowndrivers eco-regions, withthereleaseof32±8Pgcarbonintoatmosphere. least twothirdsoftheforestcoversixlargehydrographicbasinsand12 translate intoalossof40%Amazoniarainforestsby2050,includingat According toSoaresFilho,currentagriculturalexpansiontendencieswill 70 . 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(2010).Greenhouse gasemissionsfrom alternativefutures ofdeforestation andagricultural managementinthesouthernAmazon.Proceedings oftheNationalAcademySciences107(46):19649- http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2 Op. Cit .

11 DEFORESTATION in the AMAZONIA (1970-2013) 12 DEFORESTATION in the BOLIVIAN AMAZONIA (1970-2013) (1970-2013) Map 1.DeforestationintheBolivianAmazonia basins. TheMamoréandBeniriversbasinsexceed100,000km Hydrologically, theBolivianAmazoniaencompasses17hydrological of thelossoccurredinthisperiod). 2000, whilecloseto1,7000km Bolivian Amazonia).Approximately800km were lost(10.1%ofthelossthatoccurredbetween1970and2013in Bolivian Amazonia(~129,700km Similarly, by2013indigenousterritories(IT)coveredcloseto27%ofthe happened inthisperiod). an additionalthousandlostbetween2000and2013(9.3%oftheloss Between 1970and2000,closeto1,000km of thelossthatoccurredbetween1970and2013inBolivianAmazonia). Bolivian Amazonia(~141,000km By 2013,protectednaturalareas(PNAs)coveredcloseto29.3%ofthe km 2000 and2013(recentdeforestation)forestslossreachedaround104,000 (historic deforestation)about14,000km annual rateofapproximately568km (~244,000 km the Chaco,andtropicalsub-Andeanforests.Closeto7.3%ofthisarea flood savannas,transitionalsemi-humidforeststowardstheCerradoand country’s area.Itconsistsofamosaicextensivetropicalrainforests, The BolivianAmazoniacoversaround489,000km

DEFORESTATION 2 Historical andrecentforestlossdeforestationrates ( T able BOLIVIAN AMAZONIA BOLIVIAN 1 ). 2 ) was lost in the last 43 years (1970-2013) at an average atanaverage ) waslostinthelast43years(1970-2013) 2 were lost between 2000 and2013(16.1% werelostbetween2000 2 2 ), of which some 2,000 km ), ofwhichsome2,000 ), where close to 2,500 km ), wherecloseto2,500 2 /year. Between1970and2000 2 of forests were lost,whilebetween offorestswere 2 2 werelostbetween1970and of forests were lost,with offorests

in the 2 , or of 43.7%the , or 2 2 werelost(8% offorests 2 in area, km place inthatperiod;Beni:11,000km 2013 period(Mamoré:57,000km Itonomas Riverbasin(400km that period),followedbytheBeniRiverbasin(18,000km deforestation (~10,000km Between 1970and2000,theMamoréRiverbasinsufferedhighest 14% ofthebasin’sarea;Beni:~29,000km highest forestlossthroughdeforestation(Mamoré:~156,000km and arealsothebasinsthatin43years(1970-2013)havesuffered 2 Amazonia, insideandoutsideofPNAIT deforestationintheBolivian Figure 1.Recent ofdeforestation,9.8%)( Of thethreemaindeforestation threats, cattleranching is themostimportant 2 , 71% of the deforestation that happenedin , 71%ofthedeforestationthat T able 2 , 2.9%). This trend continued in the2000- , 2.9%).Thistrendcontinued in recentyears 2,M 2 , 54.8% of the deforestation thattook , 54.8%ofthedeforestation 2 , 10.2%; Itonomas: morethan1,000 , 10.2%;Itonomas: ap 2 ). 2 , 2.7% of the basin’sarea). , 2.7%ofthe 2 , 12.9%)andthe

2 offorest, and recognitionofindigenousterritories,currently knownas of AgrarianReform(INRA)wascreated,initiating a processoflandtitling areas removedfromtheagriculturalfrontier. In1996,theNationalInstitute of thesemeasuresondeforestationwaslowbecause theyfocusedon sections offorestsweredeclaredprotectedareas.However, theimpact organized, efficientandsustainableuseofforests The 1990ssawtherenovationofforestrylawinsearchamore 600,000 hectarestoaround1millionhectares. Santa Cruz.Inthelasttenyears,soycultivationareaincreasedfrom generating theexpansionofsoycultivationtowardseastcity infrastructure, increasedaccesstolands,andtechnicalsupport,thus and exportationofsoy to internationalmarketsandgivingspacefortherapidgrowthofproduction investments inindustrialagriculturewasencouraged,openingtheeconomy production fornationalconsumption Between the1970sandmid-1980s,statepoliciesfocusedonfood nationals, primarilyJapanese and subsequentdeforestationoftheseareasweresettlementsforeign migration tothelowlands agriculture intheUpperBeni,ChapareandSantaCruz,Statepromoted (departmentofLaPaz). theallocationoflandstosmall-scale With cultivation intheChaparezone(departmentofCochabamba)andNorth Figure 2.DistributionofdeforestationintheBolivianAmazonia 1 Table 1.DeforestationintheBolivianAmazonia land wasnotusedagriculturally, itwaseitherreducedinsizeorits and economicfunction”(FES) oflands,whichestablishedthatifthe perverse incentivefordeforestation wastheneedtoprove“social between thestateagencies chargedwithcontrolandoversight.One the agriculturalfrontierwasineffectiveduetolack ofcoordination frontier. However, theregulationofforestsclearanceinareaswithin had lowimpactondeforestationduetotheirdistance fromtheagricultural Indígenas OriginariosCampesinos Santa Cruz,inthesouthernlimitofAmazonia lands fortheexpansionofindustrialagricultureinvicinitycity a policyoflowlandsoccupationthroughcolonizationandtheallocation Deforestation inBoliviawasslightuntilthemid-1980s,mainlycausedby 2 For theevaluationofdeforestationonlyoriginallyforestedareaswereconsidered. Original forest cover refers to forest formations within the biogeographic limit of the Amazon,withinwhichexistnon-forestedareas,likeenclavesofsavannasorfields. withinthebiogeographiclimitof Originalforestcoverreferstoformations ThesituationofexistingITs andPNAswasconsidered inDecember2013. Protected NaturalAreas Indigenous Territories Bolivian Amazonia Historical contextofdeforestation national-direct andindirectuse state/departamental-direct use state/departamental-direct ITnotofficiallyrecognized 2 IT officialyrecognized 2 national-indirect use outside PNAandIT national-direct use 5 . In the 1990s, agriculture was stimulated via credits, . Inthe1990s,agriculturewasstimulated 2 . Other important factors in the colonization . Otherimportantfactorsinthe 3 . (TIOC).TherecognitionofTIOCs 4 , but beginning in 1985,private , butbeginningin Surface oforiginal Surface forest cover km 1 2 , andtheincreaseincoca 6 110,289 164,498 333,004 . Additionally, important 33,858 31,018 45,049 72,915 24,181 97,096 1

363 Territorios deforestation Cumulative until 2000 km 2

12,346 14,035

228 587 151 978 283 515 797 12

2000-2005 the Amazonia. entailed increaseddeforestation justify theneedoflandownership.Inconclusion,policiesnineties ownership rightswererevoked.Thus,deforestationtookplaceinorderto trade. free fromfoot-and-mouth disease,whichinthepastrestrainedinternational are mountingfollowingthe declarationoflargeproductionareasasbeing degree internationalmarkets, primarilyPerú. Expectationsofexportmarkets ranching productionmainlysuppliesthenational market, andtoalesser per hectareofplantedpasturesinthedepartment ofPando mainly throughillegalclearing grasslands oftheBeniregion,althoughcultivated pastureshaveexpanded, Cattle ranchingtakesplacemainlyinthelowlands, primarilyinthenatural to 2010 deforestation remainedrelativelystable,between 15% and20%from1990 the departmentofSantaCruz.Small-scaleagriculture’s contributionto mountain range(northofthedepartmentCochabamba)andwest intercultural communitiessettledinthenortheasternslopesofAndes and nationalmarketsself-subsistence, carriedoutby thenational and withaslash-and-burnmethod.Itismainlyorientedtowardslocal corn, yucca,banana,cacao,coffeeandcoca Small-scale agriculturecomprisesthemanualproductionofrice, than 50%inthe1990sto30%presently contribution ofindustrialagriculturetodeforestationdecreased,frommore northern portionofthisdepartmentstartingintheyear2000.However, the east andnortheastofthecitySantaCruz,havingexpandedtowards Argentinian investments.Industrializedagricultureconcentratesinthe production costsandscarceregulationattractedimportantBrazilian and foreigncompaniesMennoniteJapanesecolonies.Thelow soy, sugarcane,rice,andsunflowerorsorghum Industrial agricultureencompassestheexport-oriented production of industrial agriculture,small-scaleandcattleranching Three maincausesofdeforestationstandoutinthe2000-2013period: km 2 Direct andindirectcausesofrecentdeforestation 4,272 4,614 160 105 342 110 420 530 Since 2000,cattleranching isthemaincauseofdeforestationin 76 0 8,12 Deforestation rate . 2005-2010 km 2 3,359 3,733 130 165 374 287 420 708 79 0 2010-2013 km 13 . Here,landuseisinefficient:0.5animals 7 2 1,798 2,049 , especially in the southern boundariesof , especiallyinthesouthern 112 108 251 222 213 435 30 1 8, 10 2000-2013 . 11 % insmalllandareas % oftheoriginalforest 9 conductedbyBolivian 0.5% 0.3% 1.3% 0.8% 0.9% 0.8% 4.4% 1.7% 5.7% 3.1% Cumulative total 14 . Cattle 8 % . 13.2% 1.2% 3.7% 3.2% 1.2% 1.8% 1.2% 6.5% 2.5% 7.3%

13 DEFORESTATION in the BOLIVIAN AMAZONIA (1970-2013) 14 DEFORESTATION in the BOLIVIAN AMAZONIA (1970-2013) (1970-2013) needs oftheirmaincrops. Soilfertilityislessrelevantsincetheextensive conditions, ittendstobe practicedinareasofhighhumidityduetothe While small-scaleagriculture isrelativelyflexibletoenvironmental state-owned sugarmill.( Buenaventura (northofthedepartmentLaPaz), bytheconstruction ofa Another areathreatenedbytheconversiontoindustrial agricultureisSan expand industrializedagriculturetotheeastandsouth oftheChiquitanía. forests the relativelyintactbiodiversityofChiquitano-Amazonia transitional methods,potentially expandingeastwardandinmost likelihoodaffecting soils, eastofthecitySantaCruz,arelaboredwith mechanizedindustrial food andtheconsequentexpansionofagriculturalfrontier. Thebest to markets expansion are:soilsuitability, climateconditions,thepriceofsoy, access Amongst thefactorsthatmayinfluencespatialpatternofagricultural sector. a highlyregulatedforestrysectorandscarcelyofagricultural on landuse.Thisisreflectedatregulatorylevels,whichapparentlyresultin on forestryandconservation,arenotintegratedwithpublicpolicies agricultural use.Environmentalpoliciesaresector-oriented andcentered the valueofforest-covered landsisnotperceivedifitdoesalsohavean and otherbiomes,thecountryhasanagriculturalvocation,assuch clashes withtheagrarian yet itisnotasimportanthydrocarbons.InBolivia,theenvironmental patrimony andnationaldevelopmentwhereagriculturehasacentralrole goals, andwhatitwantstoachieveintermsofconservationthenatural to institutionalweakness to deforestation.However, theirrathermodestimpactcanbeattributed From 2006onwards,thegovernmenthasmodifiedpublicpoliciesrelated population growthincolonizationareas. improvement ofroadinfrastructure,themigrationtolowlands,and in thelast30years).Otherfactorstobeconsideredareexpansionand (in 2013,morethan2,000tonsofbeefwereexported,thelargestquantity important vectorfordeforestation,asarehighexportmarketsexpectations the sector’sscarceregulation Argentine capitalinagriculturalproduction,attractedbylowlandpricesand frontier aretheinternationaldemandforsoy;presenceofBrazilianand Chief amongsttheimportantfactorsforadvancementofagricultural There aremanyandcomplexunderlyingcausestodeforestationinBolivia. Madera Riveranditstributaries. areas offorestasaresulttheconstructionhydroelectricdamsin low andlittlestudied.Animportantthreatistheimminentfloodingoflarge The impactsoftimberextractionandminingondeforestationarerelatively 60% offorestclearings. Bolivia. Itisestimatedthatbetween2005and2010itwasresponsiblefor Table 2.CumulativedeforestationintheBolivianAmazonbysub-basins(basinslargerthan500km Yacuma Tahuamanú Purús Mamoré (M) Mamoré (B) Mamoré Madre deDios Madeira MB1 Itonomas Guaporé (B) Guaporé Beni (M) Beni (B) Beni Baures Abunã Sub-basins (order3) Future scenarios 19 . Asrevealedbyaspatialmodel,theMennonitecolonies could 18 , andnationalpublicpoliciesfocusedontheproductionof 16 http 17 Surface oforiginal Surface andthegovernment’sowncontradictory : despiteitslargeexpanseofAmazoniaforests :// forest cover 15 easba . Internationaldemandforbeefisanother km 17,798 12,314 74,955 27,103 11,287 26,400 78,434 39,494 22,925 . 2 produccion 8,926 1,917 5,308 1,653 3,306 960 221 . Cumulative deforestation gob . bo ). until 2000 km 2 9,942 1.813 334 316 206 339 400 227 177 121 12 88 13 37 4 5 2000-2005 km 3,040 129 181 100 132 398 297 166 2 27 12 54 63 5 7 0 3 1950s, anditseemsthispatternisnotlikelytochange. patterns withastrongagriculturalvisionhavebeen predominantsincethe one ofthemajorchallengesinlanduseagenda inBolivia.Landuse The reconciliationofthesetwoagendas–environmental vsagricultural–is unused ordegradedlands(alreadydeforestedin thepast). since itdoesnotmentionfactorslikeproductivity or theneedtorestore of SantaCruz.Thistrendcouldhavesignificantimpacts onforestcover, of thefoodproductionareaby10millionmorehectares, mainlytheregion projected, inalliancewithproductionandbusinesssectors,theexpansion remains tobeseen.Lastly, the publicpolicyforfoodproductionhas with landreversionbeingthepenalty. However, practicalapplication theory, thelawalsoinvolvesastricterregimeforapprovalofclearings, illegal clearings,givinggreenlightandsanctiontotheseclearings.In Production andForest Restitutionallowstheregularizationofpost-1996 potential impactofdeforestation.Law337fortheSupportFood (past) andMennonite(pastcurrent)colonies,withthesubsequent intercultural communitiestothelowlands,andpromotionofJapanese the expansionofagriculturalfrontier, anincreasedmigrationof The agriculturalcurrentofallgovernmentssincethe1950shasadvocated regulations. of deforestationthatwouldrequiredifferenttypesincentivesand communities andPNAforestmanagement,notatadirectreduction on deforestation,themechanism’simpactisaimedmoreatITs, rural intercultural communities,consideringthattheyarenotthemajoractors F for landusemanagementatalocallevel,hasbeencreated( adaptation mechanismforforestmanagement,whichincludestheplanning Mother EarthandIntegralDevelopmenttoLiveWell, themitigationand In thissense,undertheprotectionprovidedbyFramework Lawon development followingecologicalcriteriaandtraditionalusepractices. mechanism, whichpromoteslivinginharmonywithforestsandsustainable governance andmanagementagendaasanalternativetotheREDD+ The PlurinationalStateofBoliviaisdevelopinganambitiousforest cattle ranchingimpliesthebiggestthreatforBolivianforests the possibilityofexporting.Studiesrevealthatinfuture,uselandfor factors initsexpansionaretheinfluenceofBrasil,foreigninvestment,and Cattle raisingisindependentofenvironmentalfactors.Asnoted,themain of BeniandLaPaz). northern portionoftheBolivianAmazonia(departmentPando, andparts (department ofSantaCruz) new deforestationfrontsareopeningupintheElChoréForestry Reserve concentrated intheElChapareregion(departmentofCochabamba),but nutrients storedintheburntvegetation.Currently, smallscaleagricultureis practice ofslash-and-burnallowsfarmerstotakeadvantagethe oreign Deforestation byperiod A 2005-2010 ffairs km 1,809 2 215 453 406 170 203 140 2012 55 88 30 47 98 8 6 1 4 ). Thismechanism,whilecenteredonindigenousand 2010-2013 km 20 , inthenorthofChiquitanía,and 2 111 845 169 362 110 144 15 26 46 43 46 59 62 3 5 3 2000-2013 2 % ) % oftheoriginalforest 5.3 2.2 8.8 0.7 3.7 7.6 0.6 1.7 9.0 0.4 0.3 4.7 4.4 1.4 0.7 1.7 Cumulative total 21 M . inistry %

of 19.6 20.9 12.6 21.5 11.3 1.0 6.5 0.9 2.1 0.7 0.4 3.7 1.1 2.3 9.1 3.9

22

22 Orellana, R.&Pacheco P. (2012).Análisisdelestadodesituaciónlasnegociaciones cambio climáticoal2012.La Paz: FundaciónCordillera. 21 Müller, R. 20 Müller, R.(2009)Reserva Forestal ElChoré:Análisisdedeforestación yestrategiasparareducirla. BoletínNaturalia:3–5. 19 Araujo,N.;Müller, R.; Nowicki,C.&Ibisch,PL.(2010)PrioridadesdeConservaciónlaBiodiversidad deBolivia.SantaCruz:SERNAP, FAN, TROPICO, CEP, NORDECO, GEFII,CI,TNC,WCS,UniversidaddeEberswalde, EditorialFAN. 18 Müller, R., J.(2009)La17 Villegas,Z.&Martinez, visión agraristadelosactores deladeforestación enBolivia.Revista Tinkazos 27:33–47.Programa deInvestigaciónEstratégicaenBolivia(PIEB). 16 Redo, D.;Millington,A.&Hindery, D.(2011)Deforestation dynamicsandpolicychangesinBolivia’spost-neoliberalera.Land UsePolicy 28:227–241. 15 Urioste,M.(2012)Concentrationand“foreignisation” oflandinBolivia.CanadianJournalDevelopmentStudies33,4:439–457. 14 Müller, R.;Pistorius, T.; Rohde, S.;Gerold, G.&Pacheco, P. (2013)Policy optionstoreduce deforestation basedonasystematicanalysisofdriversandagentsinlowlandBolivia.Land UsePolicy 30,1:895–907.En:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. 13 Müller, R., 12 Müller, R., 11 Eyzaguirre, JL.(2005)Composicióndelosingresos familiares decampesinosindígenas.Unestudioenseisregiones deBolivia.La Paz: Centro de Investigación yPromoción delCampesinado (CIPCA).. 10 Müller, R.,D.M.Larrea-Alcázar, S.Cuéllar&Espinoza(2014)Causas directas deladeforestación reciente (2000-2010)ymodeladodedosescenariosfuturos enlastierrasbajasde Bolivia. Ecologíaen 9 CÁMARAAGROPECUARIADELORIENTE.(2013)Números denuestratierra[CDROM].SantaCruzlaSierra:CAO, 8 Müller, R.,Müller, D.,Schierhorn,F.,Gerold, G.&Pacheco, P. (2012)Proximate causesofdeforestation intheBolivianlowlands–ananalysisofspatialdynamics.Regional Environmental Change12,3:445–459.En:http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007 7 Hecht,S.(2005)Soybeans,DevelopmentandConservationontheAmazonFrontier. DevelopmentandChange36,2:375–404. 6 Pacheco, P. (2007)Elnuevorégimenforestal boliviano:unamiradaretrospectiva adiezañosdesuimplementación. Recursos NaturalesyAmbiente49:58–67. 5 Ribera,M.Expansióndelafrontera agrícola:elcasodelasoyaycomplejooleaginoso.[La Paz]: LigadeDefensadelMedio Ambiente(LIDEMA).En:www.lidema.org.bo 4 Pacheco, P. (2006)Agriculturalexpansionanddeforestation substitutionversus thestructuraladjustmentmodel.Land inlowlandBolivia:theimport UsePolicy 23:205–225. 3 Killeen,T.; Guerra,A.;Calzada,M.;Correa, L.;Calderon, V.; Soria,L.;Quezada,B.&Steininger, M.(2008)Total HistoricalLand-Use ChangeinEasternBolivia:Who,Where, When,andHowMuch?EcologySociety13,136.En:http://www. 2 Sandoval,CD.;AV.; C.&Parada, DelRío,MA.;Sandoval,F.;Mertens, C.(2008)SantaCruz:Economíaypoder. La Paz: FundaciónPIE. 1 Pacheco, P. (1998)Estilosdedesarrollo, deforestación ydegradación de losbosquesenlastierrasbajasBolivia.La Paz: CEDLA,TIERRA,CIFOR. landusepol.2012.06.019 %2Fs10113-011-0259-0 ecologyandsociety.org/vol13/iss1/art36/ (Consulta:Enero 2011). References Map 2. Sub-basins with the greatest proportional deforestation Map 2.Sub-basinswiththegreatestproportional et al etal. et al et al . (2013), . (2012). . (2014). (2014). Op. Cit Ibid Op. Cit Op. Cit . . . .

15 DEFORESTATION in the BOLIVIAN AMAZONIA (1970-2013) 16 DEFORESTATION in the BRAZILIAN AMAZONIA (1970-2013) Map 1.DeforestationintheBrazilianAmazonia The largestlosstookplacebetween2000and2005:101,138km (recent deforestation)reached173,933km on satelliteimageinterpretation,theforestlossbetween2000and2013 the year2000reached458.500km in thelastfortyyears(1970-2010)andthatcumulativedeforestationby covered byforests. km The areaanalyzedthroughsatelliteimagesfrom2000reached3,885,181 covers thetropicalforestsareaofAmazoniabiome. forests toriparianstripsandforests.Thecurrentdeforestationanalysis respectively. Its floodplainspossessformationsthatrangefromwetland sand ,whicharelocallycalled“”and“praderas”, extensions ofsandysoils,withstructuralandfloristicpatternsforest transition zonedemarcatedbetweenrainforestandsavanna,large of submontaneforestsassociatedwithlowelevations.Italsoincludesa interfluvial plainscoveredbyevergreentropicalrainforestsandpatches 4.2 millionkm the NorthandCenter-West regionsofBrasil.TheAmazoniabiome(with Amazonia biomeandpartsofthesavannas(locallycalled“”) is responsibleforplanningandinvestmentdecisions.Itincludesthe Legal Amazonia(“Amazonia Legal”)isaterritorywhere theBrazilianstate the country’sareaand64.3%ofPan-Amazonia region.TheBrazilian The BrazilianAmazoniacoverscloseto5millionkm

DEFORESTATION 2 Historic andrecentforestlossdeforestationrates (95.9%ofthebiome).Ofthese,some3,587,052km BRAZILIAN AMAZONIA BRAZILIAN 2 ) comprises a wide variety of environments, predominantly predominantly ) comprisesawidevarietyofenvironments, Theauthorsestimatethat632,433km 2 or 12.8% of the original forest or12.8%oftheoriginal 2 or 4.8% of theoriginalforest. or4.8%of

in the 2 , about58.8%of 2 wereoriginally 2 havebeenlost 2 lost, . Based areas reached 11,035 km reached 11,035 areas forest). Between2000and2013(recentdeforestation),forestlossinthese deforestation inPNAsby2000reached5,852km deforestation oftheBrazilianAmazoniaupto2013),whilecumulative due todeforestationup2013reached16,887km 1 based onsatelliteimagesoftheyear2000covered821,372km (950,097 km By 2013,ProtectedNaturalAreas(PNAs)comprisedcloseto19.7% period 15,395km compared to57,399km ) thatwereoriginallycoveredbyforests.Thecumulativeforestloss Amazonia, insideandoutsideofPNAIT deforestationintheBrazilian Figure 1.Recent 2 ) of Brasil’s Amazonia . The analysis conducted ) ofBrasil’sAmazoniabiome.Theanalysis 2 havebeenlost( almost 5%,between2000and2013 The rateofdeforestationdecreased 2 lost in the 2006-2010 period. In the2010-2013 lostinthe2006-2010period. the regionlost174,000km beginning in2006,although 2 , which corresponds to 1.3% of the original forest. of theoriginal to 1.3% , whichcorresponds T able 1 ). 2 (0.7% oftheoriginal (0.7% 2 (2.7%ofthetotal

2 ( T 2 able ,

Figure 2.DistributionofdeforestationintheBrazilianAmazonia to 4,013km The losswasgreaterbetween2000and2005(5,482km level) and2,785km 2013 periodwerethoseofdirectuse,withlosses6,180km 2010 and2013. Amazonia biomeinBrasil(1,024,961km By 2013,theIndigenousTerritories (IT)coveredcloseto22.1%ofthe wish toanalyzetheeffectivenessoftheseareasinimpedingdeforestation. taking intoaccounttheirdateofcreation,aswouldberequiredshouldone that thesecalculationswerebasedonthePNAs’statusin2013,without 590,259 km 2013 outsideofPNAsand ITs, cumulativedeforestation upto2013reached theareaofBrazilianAmazoniaoriginally coveredbyforestuntil Within rivers) andRondônia.( agricultural frontierofMatoGrosso(headwaters theXinguandTapajós lost morethan10%oftheirforestcovertodeforestation, mostlyinthe cover between2000and2013.Between 2013,17sub-basins continued beingdeforested,withsevenofthemlosing morethan10%of M) ( Tocantins B;Guamá;Ji-Paraná; MadeiraMB1; Gurupi; AbunãandJuruena S; Pindaré;AraguaiaMB;AmazonasMB4;Candeias doJamari;Juruena; Mato GrossoandRondônia(Tocantins MB2;AraguaiaB;AtlânticoNEO east ofPará, andalongtheCuiabá-Porto Velho highwaybetweenwestern historically occupiedinthestateofMaranhão,northTocantins and with morethan50%lossoftheiroriginalforest,arethosethatwere The 15sub-basins(order3)thatsawthemostdeforestationupto2013, 2010 and2013( km km and 2013(recentdeforestation),forestlossintheseareasreached4,709 the totaldeforestationofBrazilianAmazoniaupto2013).Between2000 of theyear2000covered931,112km original forestintheseareas cumulative forestlosstodeforestationup2013was12,357km Table 1.DeforestationintheBrazilianAmazonia 2 For theevaluationofdeforestationonlyoriginallyforestedareaswereconsidered. 1 ThesituationofexistingITs andPNAswasconsidered inDecember2013. Amazon,withinwhichexistnon-forestedareas,likeenclavesofsavannasorfields. withinthebiogeographiclimitof Originalforestcoverreferstoformations Protected NaturalAreas Indigenous Territories BrazilianAmazonia

2 2 . From 2000to2005theloss was2,178km lost in the subsequent 2005-2010 period and the 713 km lostinthesubsequent2005-2010periodand713 M ap 2 state/departamental-indirect use state/departamental-indirect ). Thesesame15sub-basinslostmorethan30% by 2000,and state/departamental-direct use state/departamental-direct 2 2 , or 93.3% of the total forest loss in the Amazon, 31.1% ofthe 31.1% , or93.3%ofthetotalforest lossintheAmazon, lost in the 2005-2010 period and the 1,540 km lostinthe2005-2010periodand1,540 The PNAswiththehighestdeforestationratesin2000- T able ITofficialyrecognized 2

national-indirectuse 2 outside PNAandIT national-directuse (nationallevel) 2 1 ). T able 2,M ( F igure ap 2 1 ). ( T ). able Surface oforiginal Surface 2 forest cover 2 ). Satelliteimagebasedanalysis 1 originally covered byforests.The originallycovered ). It is important tokeepinmind ). Itisimportant km 3,587.052 1,898.507 2 2 239,595 229,073 , comparedtothe1,818 247,847 104,857 821,372 931,112 931,112 1

2 lost)compared deforestation 2 Cumulative lostbetween until 2000 2 2 lostbetween (department- km 458,500 445,142 2 2 (2.0%of 5,852 7,648 7,648 1,058 3,038 1,180 576 2000-2005 km 93,586 101,138 colonize whatwereconsidered thefertilelandsofAmazon.Thus,it wanted thatthepopulation ofthesemi-aridnorthwesternregionsto the Cuiabá-Santarémand theTransAmazonia Highways.Thegovernment two highwaysbisectingtherainforestfromnorthto southandeasttowest: In 1970,theNationalIntegrationPlan(PIN)included theconstructionof as goodsdonatedbyforeignentitiesdestinedfor theAmazon. tax andrateexemptionsfortheimportofmachinery andequipmentaswell agricultural andcattleranchingactivitiesbasic services,itestablished region. Inadditiontoincometaxexemptions,federal rates,industrial, government launchedaseriesoftaxincentivesfavoring theAmazonia its naturalresources,particularlyminerals.To facilitateitsfeasibility, the purpose ofpromotingtheoccupationregionandextraction Superintendence forDevelopmentoftheAmazonia(SUDAM) withthe of internalsecurity. In1966,the militarygovernmentcreatedthe Brasil intoanattractivemultinationalinvestmentarea,andthecontrol occupation oftheAmazoniabasedonadoctrinecenteredtransforming During themilitarydictatorship(1964-1984)Statepromoted Amazonia. occupation andtheconsequentsocio-environmentaldegradationof linking theregionwithrestofcountry, launchingtheprocessof during JuscelinoKubitschek’s government,whichconstituted thefirstroad construction oftheBelém-Brasíliahighway(BR-010),finishedin1960 and cattleranching.ThemainprojectdevelopedbySPVEAwasthe development oftheAmazoniaregion,providingincentivesforagriculture (SPVEA), chargedwithpromotingtheoccupationandeconomic 1953 oftheSuperintendenceforEconomicValuation oftheAmazonia structured plansfortheregiontookshapeandderivedincreation theframeworkprovidedbyFederalWithin Constitutionof1946, 19th century. Miningbeganonlyinthe1950s. plants inthecolonialera,andexploitationofrubberatend impact humanactivitiesofindigenouspeoples,theextractionmedicinal Until 1970,theBrazilianAmazoniaforestshadbeenaffectedbylow 2 1,060 1,276 2,866 5,482 2,178 2,178 281 Historical contextofdeforestation Deforestation rate 2005-2010 km 51,641 57,399 2 1,050 2,421 4,013 1,818 1,818 457 85 2010-2013 km 13,174 15,395 2 1,540 713 108 459 893 713 80 2000-2013 % % oftheoriginalforest 0.7 1.1 0.4 2.7 1.3 0.5 0.5 8.3 4.8 Cumulative total % 31.8 17.6 1.1 2.3 1.0 3.2 2.1 1.3 1.3 17 DEFORESTATION in the BRAZILIAN AMAZONIA (1970-2013) 18 DEFORESTATION in the BRAZILIAN AMAZONIA (1970-2013) than 30%dedeforestation) Table 2.CumulativeDeforestationintheBrazilianAmazonbysub-basins(sub-basinswithmore Teles Pires(S.Manuel) Arinos Fresco Guaporé (M) Juruena Abunã Gurupi Madeira MB1 Ji-Paraná ou Machado Guamá Tocantins (B) Juruena Candeias doJamari Amazônia MB4 Araguaia (MB) Pindaré Atlântico NEOS Araguaia (B) das Mortes Tocantins (MB2) Curuá-Una Am. MB3 Xingu Ronuro Manissauá-Missu Madeira MB2 Do Sangue Xingu (MA) Map 2. Sub-basins with the greatest proportional deforestation Map 2.Sub-basinswiththegreatestproportional Sub-basins (order3) Surface oforiginal Surface forest cover 71,553 29,490 14,605 17,309 25,989 22,613 16,441 22,031 98,455 35,618 36,901 49,807 29,277 67,541 45,415 26,589 31,268 47,364 60,583 2,295 8,919 3,138 5,088 2,604 3,726 9,834 5,649 570 Cumulativedeforesta tion until2000 29,184 10,157 10,899 19,182 14,398 30,263 22,473 35,409 10,615 21,776 36,565 44,484 3,025 2,020 6,116 3,123 3,021 5,418 4,025 5,929 1,872 2,880 1,766 5,704 5,162 671 825 436 - 2000-2005 1,519 1,260 2,133 3,127 3,058 1,700 2,289 8,269 4,817 3,078 3,491 1,227 5,355 1,625 3,597 3,638 1,205 1,087 5,692 483 684 471 173 285 263 34 67 47 Deforestation byperiod 2005-2010 1,048 1,808 2,401 3,139 1,207 2,354 1,623 2,661 1,723 1,605 3,119 319 755 802 437 447 986 190 534 884 144 421 613 141 43 73 23 30 2010-2013 339 395 216 451 570 460 122 202 148 691 414 366 264 258 181 193 15 16 87 25 32 99 59 51 73 20 8 1

2000-2013 % oftheoriginalforest 12.4 21.2 17.4 14.9 12.5 11.0 19.0 16.0 23,5 13.6 12.7 11.4 17.6 17.2 14.2 20.6 24.4 9.9 3.1 9.8 5.9 8.1 9.3 6.2 5.0 9,4 2.3 7.6 Cumulative total 30.6 32.3 32.4 36.4 36.8 36.9 38.1 39.6 41.1 46.1 46.7 48.4 51.0 52.9 55.0 56.1 57.2 57.5 58.7 60.4 61.1 61.3 75.4 79.1 79.5 88.3 89.1 99.0 record figurein1955,withalmost30,000km the protectionofitsforests,ratedeforestationroseagain,reachinga Summit, wheretheBraziliangovernmentmadefirmcommitmentstowards Contrary toexpectationsandtheinstitutionaleffortgeneratedby92Rio results intermsofcontrolforestdegradationonlylastedashorttime. of Brasil’senvironmentallegalandinstitutionalframework,theirpositive the Amazon.Despiteimportanceoftheseinitiativesforcreation many legalprovisionswiththegoalofcontrollingdeforestation called the“OurNatureProgram”,andNationalCongressapproved for theDefenseofEcosystemComplexLegalAmazon,currently After theenactmentofCF, theFederal GovernmentsetuptheProgram conditioning constraintsforitsexploitation. defined, inarticle255,theAmazoniaasanationalheritageandestablishing the futureofitsrainforest,approving1988Federal Constitution(CF)that in the1980’s,Brasiltookitsfirstlegalstridetowardschangingvisionon Amidst thisintensemobilizationofinternationalandnationalpublicopinion and theirrecurringimpacts. multilateral Banks,whichnowhadtojustifytheirinvestmentsinthecountry, of intergovernmentalmeetings,involvingtheUnitedNationsand from theheadlinesofglobalmainstreammediatoagendas communities andextractiveactivities-basedmoved destruction offorests,buttheviolentdisaggregationindigenous The predatoryescalationoftheAmazon,whichincludednotjust through publicprogramsandfunds,butthebroaddisseminationof as anecessityforregionaldevelopment,andwasdirectlystimulated Policy ofthatperiod.Untilthen,largescaleforestlosswasmerelyseen In 1981,Law6938wasapproved,establishingtheNationalEnvironmental its perceptionofenvironmentalissuesandtheproblemsdeforestation. of 357,300km 1987 around20,400km deforestation hadalreadymultiplied:itisestimatedthatbetween1978and became animportantdriverofdeforestationaround1987.Bythen, 169,900 km It isestimatedthatby1997thedeforestationofAmazoniahadreached investing inthepreparationofsavannaforsoyproduction. interested inminingandthestreamliningofloggingAmazon,while In themid-1970s,governmentplansfocusedonlargecompanies unplanned settlementthatledtoseriousenvironmentalimpacts. failed andleftscarsintheforestpopulationasaresultfroman side ofthehighways.However, themajorityofcolonizationprojects established acolonizationandagrarianreformprogramwithin10kmeither process countless numberofforestfiresmarked1988asacrucialmilestoneinthis drafting ofproposalsforExtractiveReserves–andthedissemination creation oftheNationalCouncilSiringueiros(Rubbertappers)andin – anenvironmentalandunionleaderwhoplayedimportantroleinthe and 1980sstirredaninternationalscandal.ThemurderofChicoMendes verified informationonthehighratesofdeforestationlossin1970s C rement oftheannualrate forestloss. database usedbybothinstitutions forthedetectionofdeforestationandmeasu results arealsoexplainedbythedifferencesintermsof themethodologyand sulted inalargerdeforestedareadetectedbyRAISG thesecondperiod.The detected byPRODESpreviously, theyweredetectedonlyby RAISG,whichre 2010) thesedegradedareasbecamedeforestedareas, butsincetheyhadbeen period wereactuallyareasofdegradedforest.Inthesubsequent period(2005- PRODES detectedasdeforestation(logging/felling)during the2000-20005 These differencesrequireanexplanation.Someindications suggestthatwhat ding only1.5km2moreofdeforestation. Finally, the2010-2013periodhassmallestdifference,with PRODESrecor the deforestationdetectedbyRAISGwashigherthanPRODES4,000km2. lent toan11%differencefromwhatRAISGreported.For the2005-2010 period, PRODES datashowstherewere10,800km2moreindeforestedareas,equiva RAISG. The2005-2010periodhasthegreatestdifferenceinabsoluteterms: Amazon) (Figure1)showsthatPRODESdetected5%moredeforestationthan from PRODES(ProjectfortheMonitoringofDeforestationinBrazilianLegal rated byImazonintheRAISGframeworkfor2000-2013periodwithdata The comparisonofthedeforestationdataforBrazilianAmazoniagene arlos S 5 . ouza 2 1 J . Asaresultofthegovernment’sincentives,landspeculation 2 r , ./I 3, 4 mazon . From achangeon the1980sonwards,Brasilunderwent Prodes/INPE xImazon/RAISG 2 offorestwerelostannually 2 of forest cleared. Sincethen, offorest 2 , foracumulativetotal - - - - - mainly inthestatesofMato GrossoandPará forests foundbetweendensely forestedareasandthecentralsavanna, existing forestedareas.The expansionofsoyparticularlyaffectstransition reduces installationscostandforcescattleranching tomoveover implemented inpasturespreviouslyclearedamidst intheforest.This dynamic. Whileitisprimarilyfoundinthesavanna areas,ithasalsobeen The expansionofmechanizedplantingisakeyfactor inthedeforestation cumulative reductionfortheperiodwas74.79%. there wasasignificantdecreaseindeforestation, except for2008.The During PPCDAm’s firstsixyearsofoperationsbetween2004and2010, Time) andDetex(atoolallowingforthemonitoringofselectivelogging). like thedevelopmentoftoolsDeter(DetectionDeforestationinReal Plan promotedimprovementsinINPE’sdeforestationmonitoringsystem, The amongst thisnumber. 700 people,includingsomefederalanddepartmentalgovernmentofficials confiscation ofmorethan1millioncubicmeterstimber, andthearrestof leading totheclosureofupsome1,500illegalloggingcompanies, At thesametime,severallargeoversightoperationswereundertaken, ownership. introduced tothemechanismsandproceduresforregistrationof not abletoprovethelegalityoftheiroriginwerecanceled,andchanges (a processknowninBrasilas“grilagem”),around66,000titlesthatwere of IndigenousTerritories. Inordertofightthemisappropriationoflands of aITthroughthePresident’ssignature)closeto10millionhectares 70% increaseintheunits,andhomologation(orofficialrecognition 20 millionhectaresofnatureconservationunits,whichcorrespondstoa Amongst thePPCDAm’s firstdrasticactionswasthecreationofcloseto the LegalAmazoniaDeforestation(PPCDAm). budget of394millionreales:theActionPlanforPreventionandControl plan tocombatdeforestation,involving11ministriesandanassigned rates intheAmazonia,federalgovernmentlaunchedfirstintegrated In responsetothesesuccessiveandeloquentincreasesindeforestation since thespaceagencystartedmonitoringin1988. close to10%by2004,exceeding27,000km (INPE) showedrapidlyincreasingdeforestationrates,withanincreaseof Amazonia. ThedatapresentedbytheNationalInstituteofSpaceResearch Furthermore, 2003wasmarkedbytheexacerbationofdeforestation ofthe soy transportation invested heavilyinAmazoniainfrastructure,particularlywhereneededfor Integration. Thegovernment’splanofaction,Avance Brasil(2000-2007), and SUDAM re-created,andisnowattachedtotheMinistryofNational with asmallerstructureandbudget.In2007theADA wasdissolved In 2001,theAmazoniaDevelopmentAgency(ADA) substitutedSUDAM cattle ranching forest remainingaftercaobaextractionhasalowereconomicvaluethan secondly becausetheexploredareatendstobeclearedafterwardsas wind toreachtheground,reducinghumidityandfavoringforestfires, cover throughtheremovaloftalltrees(likecaoba)allowssunand in deforestationfortworeasons:firstly, becauseofthethinningforest The selectiveloggingofforestshasandcontinuestoplayanimportantrole after the(apparent)withdrawalofsubsidies” well capitalizedagents“that…haveaccesstootherinvestmentsources, factor indeforestation a key constituted and up tothemid-2000s, of theconvertedlands than 75% A studybytheWorld Bankpointsoutthat cattleranchingoccupiedmore agriculture intheestablishedfrontier deforestation wasdrivenbythefinancialviabilityoflargeandmedium-scale environmental impactuntiltheendofcentury, beginningin2000, While settlersandsmalllandownerscontributedsignificantlytothis km alongbothsidesofpavedhighways around 75%ofthedeforestationAmazoniatookplacelessthan50 the Amazoniauntilendof20thcentury. Between1978and1994, the federalgovernmentintomajorpromoterofforestcoverchangein Incentives andinvestmentsininfrastructure,particularlyhighways,made important recordeddecreasein1997 the deforestationratemaintainedanupwardstrenduntil2004,withonly Direct andindirectcausesofrecentdeforestation 11 . 12 . . Cattleranchingisdominatedbysophisticatedand 8 6 , andagrobusiness . 7 . 10 2 , thesecondhighestrateseen 13 . . 9 . 19 DEFORESTATION in the BRAZILIAN AMAZONIA (1970-2013) 20 DEFORESTATION in the BRAZILIAN AMAZONIA (1970-2013) not affecttheAmazoniabiomes,someofitstitleswillhaveadirectimpact Ranching ofBrasil(CNA).Whilethegreatestimpactthesechangesdoes This lawcameassuccessfortheConfederationofAgricultureandCattle the protectionofhighlandsandslopesregime. Conservation Areas(APP),butallowssomepropertiestobeexempted from Code (Laws12.651and12.727).ThenewlawnotonlyreducesPermanent In 2012,CongressapprovedconsiderablechangesintheBrazilianForestry and occupationofpubliclandsintheAmazon late 2006therestillweremajordisputesabouttheformalizationoflanduse land registryinselectedmunicipalities2001,2004,and2008–by a newlandregistrysystemforpropertiesover10,000hain1999; land registrysystem.Various initiativesforregularizationwereunsuccessful: tenure regularizationpolicies.Until2012,Brasildidnothaveaclearrural suppression oftheAmazoniarainforestreliedonabsenceland that ledtothesequentialmodelandpermanentdegradation It isimportanttohighlightthattheeconomicandgeopoliticrationale by Imazon,corroboratesofficialestimates 202,000 km Between 2000and2010,cumulativedeforestationnearlydoubled,from deforestation forthisregion beef andotherproductscultivatedintheAmazoniaaremaindriversof A recentstudydeterminedthattheinternalconsumptionandexportofsoy, agriculture the Amazoniawerededicatedtopastures,andapproximately8% In asimilarmanner, in2007morethan60%ofthedeforestedareas and datainterpretationanalysis becameavailableoninternet,addingtothe Since thenmanyimprovements wereintroducedinPRODES:(i)imagesand areas ofgovernment. the directinterventionofPresidentLula,givenreaction oftheconservative the EnvironmentundermanagementofMarinaSilva. Thisimpasserequired phic basewasnegotiatedfollowingastrongstanceon thepartofMinistry This situationprevaileduntil2003,whenthereleaseof PRODES’digitalcartogra registered inthepreviousperiod. (1995-1996), inablatantattemptatminimizingthe95% deforestationincrease event emphasiswasplacedonthedecreaseobserved inthefollowingperiod period. Thedatawasmadepubliconlyin1996andduring thepresentation opinion aboutthemaximumdeforestationthattookplace inthe1994-1995 pulation. Awell-knowncasereferstotheattemptreduceimpactinpublic other governmentagenciesorcivilsociety, allowingforintensepoliticalmani The lackoftransparencyondeforestationinformationmeantnovalidationfrom mental entitiesthemselves. deforestation, andaccesstothecartographicbasewasdeniedevengovern policies. Reportscontainednogeographicalinformationaboutthelocationof level atbest),whichrenderedthisinformationuselessforthedesignofpublic of twoyears,alwayswithgenericcalculationsandlittledesegregation(atstate Throughout the1990supto2003,datawasreleasedwithamaximumdelay environmentalists, severelyimpactingitscredibility. deliberately lowestimate,givingplacetoastrongreactionfromresearchersand covered byrainforestissignificantlysmaller, therateofdeforestation wasa on theareaofLegalAmazonia(Law1806,January1953).Since because thecalculationofpercentagedeforestationwasoriginallybased Since itsinception,PRODESwassurroundedbycontroversy. Thefirstone arose National EnvironmentalFund (Law 7.797,July1989). tion intheLegalAmazonia(Decrete97.637,April1989);andcreationof cessation ofthetaxincentivesforprojectsthatwouldhaveimplieddeforesta the EnvironmentandRenewableNaturalResources;Law7535,February 1989); ral Decree96.944,October1988);thecreationofIBAMA(BrazilianInstitutefor the endof1980s,aswelllaunchingOurNatureProgram(Fede PRODES emergedin1989fromaseriesofconservationinitiativesthatmarked communities thattookplaceinthe1970sand1980s. but alsotheviolentdisintegrationofindigenousandextractiveactivities-based recorded intheAmazon,whichimpliednotjustdestructionofrainforest, to thetremendousinternationalrepercussionsofescalatingpredation te MonitoringProgram)beganaspartoftheeffortsmadebyBrasiltorespond Institute ofSpaceResearch)throughPRODES(AmazoniaDeforestationSatelli The monitoringoftheBrazilianAmazoniaimplementedbyINPE(theNational Future scenarios 14 2 in1999to385,000km . 15 Democratization ofdataandanalysisdeforestationintheBrazilianAmazonia . 2 in2010.Thisassessment,conducted 16 . 17 . ------near future. protection throughthenewForestry Lawshouldbethetopconcernsin the increaseofpetroleumconcessions,andreductionforest The increasingdemandforbeefandbiofuels,aspointedoutbyNepstad could leadtoanewincrease. be notedthatdeforestationisnotundercontrol,andthewrongpolicies to 2012,ratesdecreased,withtheexceptionof2008and2013.Itshould relative totheaveragefromperiodbetween1996and2005.From 2005 reduction of80%theannualratesdeforestationLegalAmazonia emissions downto38.9%by2020.Oneofthemeasuresadoptedis In 2009,Brasilcommittedtoavoluntaryreductionofgreenhousegas environment. permit itsexploitationshoulditbefound,whichcouldfurtherdamagethe tenders of the terms gas, shale of the exploitation intended for are not areas new areasfortheexploitationofoilandnaturalgasinAcre.Whilethese In Novemberof2013,theNationalAgencyPetroleum (ANP),allocated , wheretheagribusinessfrontierispushingforward. most deforestationbetween2012and2013wereMatoGrosso,Pará, and of deforestationregisteredsince2004hasreverted.Thestateswiththe km year sinceitsinception,deforestationintheBrazilianAmazoniawas5,843 The newlawwasenactedinMay2012.AccordingtoPRODES,thefirst cleared). Reserve area(privatepropertywhereoriginalvegetationcannotbe of vegetation(mandatoryinmanycases),andthereductionLegal prior to2008,thereductionofAPPs, thelackofcriteriaforrestoration law istheamnestyforlandownersofpropertiesthathavebeendeforested on Amazoniadeforestation.Amongthemostdisputedaspectsofnew and lowerresolutionsatelliteimages(250meters),DETERhasproventobea Despite thefactthatinformationisgeneratedthroughuseoflessprecise response intermsofsupervisionandplanningintegratedcontroloperations. tion aboutchangesintheregion’sforestcoverisgenerated,allowingafaster system fordeforestationintheAmazon.Every15days,georeferencedinforma DETER (DetectionofDeforestationinRealTime) thatactsasapermanentalert Simultaneously, investmentsweremadeinthedevelopmentofanewsystem, with thedigitalPRODESdata. months, and(v)creationofaconsolidateddatabase(TerraAmazonia system) order toreducethetimeneededgenerateannualestimatesfromeightfive of cloudcoverage;(iv)increasethetechnicalpersonnelandinfrastructurein to generatetheestimatedannualrateofdeforestationbyminimizingeffect of thecartographicqualityanalysis;(iii)increasednumbersensorsused desegregated bystate,municipalandotherspatialunitlevels;(ii)improvement transparency oftheestimatedannualratesgrossdeforestation.Datawas Amazonia) mentation ofPPCDAm(Planfor thePreventionandControlofDeforestationin management, coordinatorforthe MMAInterministerialGroupforthecreationandimple the MinistryofEnvironment–MMAin2003-2008periodduring MarinaSilva’s J widely availablebecamerestricted. and duringthegovernmentofDilmaRousseffDETER datathatoncewas PRODES/INPE a keenawarenessoftherealityspecificregionsin Amazonas.( and territorialanalysis,thediscussionofmethodology and dataevaluationswith have asignificantcapacityintheoperationofgeographic informationsystems which mentioning fortheircontributionstothisdiscussionare ImazonandISA, deforestation ratesthathadstartedin2004.Two civilsocietyorganizationsworth and fosterdebatearoundthepublicpoliciesrequiredtosustainreductionin nizations andsocialmovements.Thegoalwastoanalyzedeforestationdata at thefederal,stateandmunicipallevels,universities,non-governmentalorga nology heldyearlytechnicalandscientificworkshops,involvinggovernments In the2003-2009period,ministriesofEnvironmentandScienceTech logs, andtheremovaloftrees. selective loggingofforest,suchastheconstructionroads,clearingstostore Exploitation) wasdevelopedandimplementedtomonitortheimpactof Additionally, anewsystemcalledDETEX (SystemfortheDetectionofForestry parties. ( more frequentdata.INPEalsomadeDETERimagesavailableontheinternet very helpfultoolinexpeditingthefightagainstillegallogging,sinceitprovides www.obt.inpe.br/deter oão 2 , anincreaseof28%fromthepreviousyear. decreasingtrend Thusthe P aulo . R.C x apobianco I mazon ), allowingunrestricteddownloadandusetoallinterested /RAISG

(National SecretaryofBiodiversityandExecutive ). Theseworkshopsceasedtotakeplacein2010, S ee

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- - - - 18 , 18 Nepstad,D.C.,Stickler, C.M.,Soares-Filho, B.,&Merry, F.(2008).Interactions amongAmazonlanduse,forests andclimate: prospects foranear-term forest tippingpoint.PhilosophicalTransactions oftheRoyal SocietyB:BiologicalSciences, 17 Barreto, P., Pinto, A.,Brito,B.,&Hayashi,S.(2008).QueméodonodaAmazônia?:umaanálisedo recadastramento deimóveisrurais.InstitutodoHomemeMeioAmbiente daAmazônia-IMAZON. 16 SouzaJr, C.M.,Siqueira, J.V., Sales,M.H.,Fonseca,A.V., Ribeiro, J.G.,Numata, I.,&Barlow,J.(2013).Ten-year Landsat classificationofdeforestation andforest degradation intheBrazilianAmazon.Remote Sensing, 5(11),5493-5513. 15 AgênciaFAPESP(2013).Por trásdodesmatamentodaAmazônia.http://agencia.fapesp.br/por_tras_do_desmatamento_da_Amazônia /17903/ 14 EMBRAPA/INPE(2011).Levantamento daterranaAmazônia. TerraClass deinformaçõesusoecobertura 2008.SumárioExecutivo. 13 Alencar, A.A.,Nepstad,D.,McGrath,Moutinho,P., Pacheco, P., Diaz,M.V., &Soares Filho,B.(2004).DesmatamentonaAmazônia:indoalémda”emergência crônica”.Manaus:InstitutodePesquisa Ambiental daAmazônia. 12 Fearnside,P. M.(2007).’s Cuiabá-Santarém(BR-163) Highway:theenvironmental costofpavingasoybeancorridorthrough theAmazon.Environmental management, 39(5),601-614. 11 Barros, A.C.&Veríssimo, A.(eds.)2002.AExpansãoMadeireira naAmazônia:ImpactosePerspectivas paraoDesenvolvimentoSustentávelnoPará. 2ªed.Belém:Imazon. 10 Margulis, S.(2003) 9 Nepstad,D. 8 Margulis, S.(2003).CausasdoDesmatamentodaAmazôniaBrasileira -1ªedición–Brasília,BancoMundial. 7 Nepstad,D. 6 Capobianco,J.P. R.(2002).BiomasBrasileiros. In:CAMARGO, A.;CAPOBIANCO, J.P.R.; OLIVEIRA,J.A.P. (Org.). MeioAmbienteBrasil:avançoseobstáculospósRio-92.SãoPaulo: EstaçãoLiberdade :InstitutoSocioambiental;RiodeJaneiro: Fundação 5 Mello,N.A.(2011). Território egestãoambientalnaAmazônia:terraspúblicasosdilemasdoEstado.SãoPaulo: Annablume, Fapesp. 4 Fearnside,P. M.(1996).Amazoniaindeforestation andglobalwarming:carbonstocksinvegetationreplacing Brazil’sAmazonforest. Forest ecologyandmanagement80(1), 21-34. 3 Fearnside,P. M.(2005).Deforestation inBrazilianAmazônia:history, rates,andconsequences. Conservationbiology19(3),680-688. 2 INPE(2004).MonitoramentodaFloresta AmazônicaBrasileiraporSatélite,Projeto PRODES.InstitutodePesquisa Espaciais,http://www.obt.inpe.br/prodes.html. 1 Fearnside,P. M.(2005).DesmatamentonaAmazôniabrasileira:história,índiceseconseqüências.Megadiversidade 1(1),113-123. 363(1498), 1737-1746. content/363/1498/1737>. Getúlio Vargas. References etal et al . (2008)InteractionsamongAmazonlanduse,forests andclimate:prospects foranear-term forest tippingpoint.Phil.Trans. R.Soc.B,London, v. 363,n.1498,p.1737-1746.Disponibleen:

DEFORESTATION Historic andrecentforestlossdeforestationrates COLOMBIAN AMAZONIA 2 ) was lower than the loss that occurred in the subsequent2005- ) waslowerthanthelossthatoccurredin 2 of forest, with a 7.4% cumulative deforestation (34,672 km (34,672 offorest,witha7.4%cumulativedeforestation 2 , equivalent to a loss of 0.36% compared to the original totheoriginal , equivalenttoalossof0.36%compared 2 ). For whichis thefirstperiodanalyzed(2000-2005), 1 , and6.2%oftheAmazonia 2 . The loss between 2000and2005 . Thelossbetween in the 2 , equalto42.3%of 2 . Itsoutstanding 2 ). deforestation intheareaswithoutlegalprotection. (2.5% inIndigenousReservesand2.7%NationalParks) inrelationtothe Amazonia). IthasbeennotedthatforestlossinAmazoniaparkswaslow National Parks andReservesisof319,769km overlap betweenbothcategories,theactualtotalexpansecoveredby Indigenous Reservescovering257,420km the NationalParks system,withanextensionof94,464km The ColombianAmazoniahas18NaturalProtectedAreas(PNAs)within approximately 10%( forest area.Thetotalcumulativedeforestationoftheoriginalwas Amazonia, insideandoutsideofPNAIT deforestationintheColombian Figure 1.Recent the expansionofagricultural 50% ofdeforestationisfoundin the northwesternarc,mainlyby T able frontier andillegalmining 1 ). 2 .As there is somespatial .As thereis 2 (69% of theColombian (69%of 2 , and206

Figure 2.DistributionofdeforestationintheColombianAmazonia 2 For theevaluationofdeforestationonlyoriginallyforestedareaswereconsidered. 1 Table 1.DeforestationintheColombianAmazonia deforestation upto2010reached724km area wereoriginallycoveredbyforests. the ColombianAmazonia;analysisofwhichshowsthat92,148km By 2013,PNAs–basedonofficialareafigurescomprisedaround17%of for the2000-2005periodreaching318km 2013 period was 45.9 km 45.9 was period 2013 86 km with aforestlossof142km there aresomeareas,liketheSierradelaMacarenaPNNthatstandout, 0.4% respectively took placebetween2005and2010,equivalenttoachangeof0.3% is 248,772km total areaofthe206IndigenousReservesColombianAmazonia the AustinCodazziGeographicInstituteandINCODER’sresolutions, Regarding indigenousterritories,accordingtothedigitalinformationof the NukakRN(131km deforested areaby2010was778km equivalent toa0.3%changerelativetheoriginalforestarea.The did nottakeplaceuntilthe early19thcentury. Atthetime,anumberof Amazonia Riverinthe17th century, thefirstoccupationbyAndeansettlers While thefirstreligiousmissionaries reachedtheregionthrough management policies. had littlerelevanceatthenationallevelandhasbeen addressedbyfew salubrity, theregionisconsideredanisolatedarea,andconsequentlyhas area deforestedwas294km time immemorial Diverse indigenousgroupshaveoccupiedtheColombian Amazoniasince ( indigenous groups’practiceofestablishingareastransitorycultivation a characteristiclook,showingassmallisolatedpatches,resultof that deforestationinthelowerbasinsofColombianAmazoniahas fragments connectthehighlandswithlowlands.Itisworthnoting origin, andmosaicsofgrassescrops.Smalldiscontinuousforest are primarilycoveredbypastures,secondaryvegetationofanthropogenic northwestern arcoftheColombianAmazonia.Presentlytheseupperbasins rivers,whichcorrespondstothe the Caquetá,GuaviareandPutumayo Finally, thelargestdeforestationcanbefoundinupperbasinsof ThesituationofexistingITs andPNAswasconsidered inDecember2013. Amazon,withinwhichexistnon-forestedareas,likeenclavesofsavannasorfields. withinthebiogeographiclimitof Originalforestcoverreferstoformations T Protected NaturalAreas IndigenousTerritories ColombianAmazonia able Historical contextofdeforestation 2 2 by 2005-2010 relative to the previous period. The lossforthe2010- by2005-2010relativetothepreviousperiod.The ). 2 . Ofthese,775km 3 . WhiledeforestationinProtectedAreasgenerallyislow, . Due to its climate, geography (difficult access)and . Duetoitsclimate,geography(difficult IT officialyrecognized 2 national-indirectuse Outside PNAandIT 2

2 ) both for the 2000-2013 period. ) bothforthe2000-2013period. 2 .Followingit cometheTinigua km (141 PNN 2 for the 2000-2005 period, and aforestlossof forthe2000-2005period, 2 , 0.1%. 2 weredeforestedby2005,whichis 2 or 0.3%. In the 2010-2013 period,the or0.3%.Inthe2010-2013 Surface oforiginal Surface The cumulativeforestlossdueto forest cover 2 2 ), withcumulativedeforestation . Thegreatestloss(406km km 2 465,536 248,772 248,772 156,369 92,148 92,148 1

deforestation until Cumulative 2000 km 2 2 29,058 34,673 ofthis 1,564 4,420 1,564 4,420 2 2

) and ) 2000-2005 km (Law 20of21September1959),aimedatoccupying6,920km 1950s: LaMono,MaguaréandValparaíso inthedepartmentofCaquetá frontiers wereestablishedinthreespecificlocationsbytheendof increased duetothecountry’sinternalconflictintensifying.Settlement In the1940s,migrationanddisplacementofAndeanpopulation southern Andeanregion. mid-thirties theagrarianreformcausedmigrationoffarmersfrom promoted bytheStategivenitsneedtosecurenationalsovereignty. Inthe communication roads.Therewasasecondwaveofmigrationinthe1930s, and rubber. Later, thegovernmentbeganconstructionofaccessand spurredby the commercializationofcinchona Caquetá andPutumayo, settlements wereestablishedinthefoothillsofdepartmentsMeta, Retorno-Calamar axis department ofMetaand the populationdisplacementfromSanJosé-El In the1990s,settlements’ advancecamefromthesouthwestof ranching, forestfires,andthetimberindustry. was duetotheexpansionofagriculturalfrontier, extensivecattle estimated at19,973km Natural Patrimonio displaced bythecountry’spoliticalviolence.According toECLACand deforestation historybeganinthe1950swith arrival ofthepopulation it ancestrallysufferedtheextractionofrubberand animalhides,its The caseofthedepartmentGuaviareissymptomatic: eventhough Vaupés andAmazonas. Caquetá; andtoalesserdegreeinthedepartmentsofVichada,Guainía, and Amazon RiverbasinsinthedepartmentsofMeta,Guaviare,Putumayo were concentratedinthelowerforestsandfoothillsofOrinoco approximately 110,026hectaresofprimaryforests following twodecadesthisclandestineagribusinessgeneratedalossof The establishmentofextensiveillicitcropsbeganinthe1980s.In in thelate1950s. leading tococacultivationandattractinganewmigrantpopulation booms leftasettlerspopulationwithnoincomesources as welltheexploitationoftimber, marihuana,andcoca.Thesetransient result oftheeconomicboomsassociatedwithrubberandcinchona, El Retorno.ThegrowthofurbancentersintheAmazoniaregionwasa mainly affectedthemunicipalitiesofSanJosédelGuaviareand place duringthe1950s took Migration drivenbyoilexplorationinthefoothillsofPutumayo 2 3,446 2,419 775 318 318 775 Deforestation rate 2005-2010 km 6,167 2 4,947 406 406 788 788 7 , the cumulative deforestation up to the1980swas , thecumulativedeforestationupto 8 . 4 2 . The settlements established in thoseyears . Thesettlementsestablishedin , reaching27,942km 2010-2013 km 2 1,167 1,684 246 246 294 294 2000-2013 % 2 bythe1990s.Thisincrease % oftheoriginalforest 1.1 1.1 0.7 0.7 5.5 2.4 6 . 55.1% ofthese crops . 55.1% 5 inthearea, Cumulative total 2 . %

24.0 2.7 2.7 2.5 2.5 9.9

23 DEFORESTATION in the COLOMBIAN AMAZONIA (1970-2013)

26 DEFORESTATION in the AMAZONIA (1970-2013) Table 2.CumulativedeforestationintheColombianAmazoniabysub-basins(basinslargerthan500km Environment andRenewableNaturalResourcesin Colombia According totheForest Policy chaotic managementoftheseterritories. adequate territorialorganizationpoliciesandmeasures havegeneratedthe structural problemsthatsocialmobilitycreates land tenure;andtheimportanteffectsonlabor marketresultingfromthe progressively invadingtheagriculturalfrontier; unequaldistributionof foothills oftheAndes;stablegrowthanddevelopment ofdrug-traffic, to thefrontierareasoflowlandforestsAmazoniaand property intheAndeanregion,anditssubsequentincreasemigration industrialization ofthemajorcities;saturationsmallholdersland deforestation: theconsolidationofurbanizationtrendandgrowing Historically, thefollowingeconomic factorshavehadanimpacton already hadhighdeforestationinthisarc. state presenceandtheoilminingboom,aggravatingadynamicthat factors, suchasthepriceofillicitcrops,armedconflict,lacka Riverwereopenedtooilexploitation.Parallelthe Putumayu tothat,other manifest intheAndeanfoothills,whereseveralareasupperbasinof unprecedented oilandminingboombeginningintheyear2000.Thiswas Economic policiesimplementedinColombiagaverisetoan of firewood,forestfires,and timberproductionforindustryandcommerce. frontier, mining,colonization,infrastructure construction,illicitcrops,theuse causes offorestcoverloss havebeentheexpansionofagricultural Caquetá/Japurá (MyB) Yarí Am. Alto(B) Uaupés Putumayo/Iça Guaviare Caquetá Sub-basins (order3) Map 2. Sub-basins with the greatest proportional deforestation Map 2.Sub-basinswiththegreatestproportional 10 andtheAnnualReportonStateof Surface oforiginal Surface forest cover km 103,493 118,212 34,492 36,929 57,287 68,156 2 2,455 9 . Addedtothese,thelackof Cumulative deforestation until 2000 11 km , theprimary 2 16,460 1,722 1,846 4,505 9,028 580 73 2000-2005 without legalprotectionshow higherdeforestation. in naturalprotectedareas andindigenousterritoriesislow, whereasareas of theriversthatfeed Amazonbasin.It’sworthnotingthatforestloss a causeofmajorconcern astheseareasincludetheheadwatersofsome Amazonia foothillsanditsnorthernforests.Thisis aworrisometrendand RAISG showstheareaswithhighestdeforestation arethoseonthe alarming figuresperse,itisshowingatendencyto increase.Analysisby Although thedeforestationofColombianAmazonia doesnotpresent armed actors processes offorestcover:farmers,cattleranchers,miningcompanies,and a nationallevelhavebeenidentifiedfortheanalysisoftransformation areas remainingamongstotherimpacts degradation, changesinthehydrologicalcycleandlowqualityof of thenaturalforestmass,withsubsequentlossbiodiversity, soil more recently, mining oil exploitation and roadinfrastructureconstruction been theexpansionofagriculturalfrontier;increaseurbanareas to socioeconomicandenvironmentalfactors.Theprimaryagentshave Resources inColombia,itcanbeaffirmedthatdeforestationisrelated Report ontheStateofEnvironmentandRenewableNatural In conclusionandinagreementwiththeForest Policy andtheAnnual km 1,156 289 178 508 286 916 Direct andindirectcausesofrecentdeforestation 2 36 Deforestation byperiod 2005-2010 21 15 . km 1,685 2,665 , theexpansionofcultivationcoca 297 571 443 369 2 55 19 . Theseprocesseshavebroughtonthereduction 2010-2013 km 125 215 147 633 440 88 2 2 12,13 20 ; the navigability oflargerivers ; thenavigability 2000-2013 . Four groupsofmainagentsat % % oftheoriginalforest 0.7 2.8 3.8 3.0 1.3 2.9 5.9 2 ) 16,17,18, Cumulative total and % 10.6 30.1 2.4 4.5 6.8 8.0 9.2 14 , commerce. The the useoffirewood,forestfires,andtimberproductionforindustry settlements expansion,infrastructureconstructionworks,illicitcrops, level byorderofimportance:expansiontheagriculturalfrontier, human The Forest Policy Cordillera dePicachosPNN,andTinigua PNN). specifically, thoseofthedepartmentMeta(SierradelaMacarenaPNN, 2007) for thecultivationofillicitcropsasreportedbySIMCI-UNOD(2002to ranching andthecreationofpastures,whicharesometimeslaterused According toMurcia systemic integrity. a resourceextractionmodeloverrecentdecadesthatthreatensitseco- has beenseverelyunderminedbythelegalandillegalimplementationof with theconsequentadvanceofsettlements.Biodiversityinregion This sameareaiswherepresentoilandminingexploitationtakingplace, migratory flows,primarilythoseintheAndean-Amazoniatransitionzone. The analysisrevealsthatdeforestationhasbeenlinkedforyearsto 29 CEPAL&Patrimonio Natural(2013). NacionaldePlaneación(DNP)(2015).BasesdelPlanDesarrollo28 Departamento 2014-2018. 27 CEPAL&Patrimonio Natural(2013). 26 CEPAL&Patrimonio Natural(2013). 25 González,J.J., NacionaldePlaneación(DNP)(2007). VisiónColombia2019:Consolidarunagestiónambientalquepromueva24 Departamento eldesarrollo sostenible.Propuesta paradiscusión. DNP, Bogotá. Nacional dePlaneación.(1996).Política23 MinisteriodeMedioAmbiente,Departamento NacionaldeBosques.CONPESNo.2834.Bogotá,Colombia. 22 García, U.G. M., 21 González,J.J., 20 Romero-Ruiz M.;Sarmiento,A.(2011). 19 Romero-Ruiz M.&Sarmiento,A.(2011).Presiones yAmenazasdelacuencaAmazonía [enlínea].Bogotá:FundaciónGaiaAmazonas,2011. 18Etter, A., 17 Armenteras,D., 16 Dávalos,L.M., G.&SánchezE.(2007). 15 Martínez 14 Armenteras,D., 13 RincónA., 12 Etter, A., 11 InstitutodeHidrología, Meteorología yEstudiosAmbientales(IDEAM)2004.InformeAnualsobre elEstadodelMedioAmbienteylosRecursos NaturalesRenovables enColombia[enlínea].Bogotá. 10 ExpedidamediantedocumentoCONPES2750de1994(MinisterioMedioAmbienteyDNP, 1996)(Ortega 9 González,J.J., 8 García, U.G.M., 7 CEPAL&Patrimonio Natural(2013). 6 GobiernodeColombia(2010).Colombia:Monitoreo deCulitvosCoca2009.UnitedNationsOfficeonDrugsandCrime(UNODC),Bogotá,Colombia. 5 CEPAL&Patrimonio Natural(2013).Amazoníaposibleysostenible.CEPAL&Patrimonio Natural.Bogotá. 4 Etter, A., G.&SánchezE.(2007).ContextofísiconaturaldelsurdelaAmazonía.En:Ruiz,S.L., 3 Martínez 2 Amazônia(2012).Áreas protegidas yterritoriosindígenas,Red AmazónicadeInformaciónSocioambientalGeorrefrenciada. www.raisg.socioambiental.org 1 García, U.G.M., the Caquetábasin pressure onillicitcrops,andthepresencefundingofillegalgroupsin of goldandothermineralsintheinternationalmarket,publicforce’s lack ofstatesurveillance,theabsenceeconomicoptions,highprice Caquetá, Orteguaza,Vaupés andGuainíarivers,whereitpersistsgiventhe and saleofproperties.Illegalminingisconcentratedonthebasins forest reserveareas,leadingtoactionsallowingforthesubtraction,titling, Vichada developments, particularlyinthedepartmentsofGuianía,Meta,and place isnourishedbyincreasedlabordemandfromagriculturalandmining population densityinalreadyexistingones.Theincreasedmigrationtaking conflict anddrug-traffic,generatingnewsettlementsincreasing the frontiersandininterioroffoothillsarea;aswellbyarmed Current dynamicsaredrivenbyagriculturaldevelopmentsandminingon extraction andforestfires settlements, includingillicitcrops,followedinimportancebytimber processes totheexpansionofagriculturalfrontierandhuman References . DeforestationimpactstheNationalParks ontheAndeanfoothills, et al et al et al 26 etal . (2008).HistoricalpatternsanddriversoflandscapechangeinColombiasince1500:aregionalized spatialapproach. AnnalsoftheAssociationAmericanGeographers,98(1),2-23. . (2008).HistoricalpatternsanddriversoflandscapechangeinColombiasince1500: aregionalized spatialapproach. AnnalsoftheAssociationAmericanGeographers,98(1),2-23. . (2008).HistoricalpatternsanddriversoflandscapechangeinColombiasince1500:aregionalized spatialapproach. AnnalsoftheAssociationAmericanGeographers,98(1),2-23. . Settlementdynamicsaretakingplaceinuncultivatedlandsand et al etal etal et al . (2007).Modelamientodepresiones sobre labiodiversidadenGuayana.Revista InternacionaldeTecnología, SostenibilidadyHumanismo,diciembre 2006.Nº1:211-244. etal etal et al et al etal . (2011).Análisisdetendenciasypatrones espacialesdedeforestación enColombia.Bogotá,InstitutodeHidrología, Meteorología yEstudiosAmbientales(IDEAM). . . . (2011).Forests anddrugs:coca-drivendeforestation intropical biodiversityhotspots.Environmental science&technology, 45(4), 1219-1227. . (2009). . (2009).Monitoreo delaAmazonía colombiana.InstitutoAmazónicodeInvestigacionesCientíficas”SINCHI”. delosbosquesyotrascoberturas . (2009).Are conservationstrategieseffectiveinavoidingthedeforestation oftheColombianGuyanaShield?.BiologicalConservation,142(7),1411-1419. . (2009).Are conservationstrategieseffectiveinavoidingthedeforestation oftheColombianGuyanaShield?.BiologicalConservation,142(7),1411-1419. Op. Cit Op. Cit . (2009).Monitoreo delaAmazoníacolombiana.InstitutoAmazónicoInvestigacionesCientíficas”SINCHI”. delosbosquesyotrascoberturas Visión Colombia2019 23 27 . . rankedthecausesofdeforestationatnational Op. Cit . et al Op. Cit Op. Cit . Op. Cit Ibíd Op. Cit 22 25 Ibíd . . , deforestationisprimarilyduetocattle . . . . . document 24 attributesdeforestation et al . (eds.).DiversidadbiológicayculturaldelsurdelaAmazoníacolombiana-Diagnóstico.Bogotá:CorpoAmazônia,Humboldt,Sinchi,UAESPNN. et al. , 2010). and sustainability. development withtheregion’ssocial,culturalandenvironmentalresilience to buildajointpoliticalvisionfortheAmazonia,combiningeconomic from thecentralStatelevelwithexistinglocaladvancesandproposals Amazonia territory. Thechallengeliesinhowtoarticulatepoliticalinitiatives working andcontributingtotheprotectionmanagementof as isthecaseofindigenousgovernmentsandentitiessystemically worth mentioningthatthereareimportantadvancementsatthelocallevel, the manyinstitutionsandactorswithinfluencingrolesinregion.Itis allows forafragmented,andinmanycases,contradictoryvisionamongst region toguidethedevelopmentofspecificpolicies.Consequently, this and Reserves,itdoesnotyethaveacoherentvisionoftheAmazonia construction ofregulatoryframeworksfortheprotectionNationalParks In conclusion,eventhoughColombiahasmadeadvancesinthe differentiated andsustainabledevelopmentstrategy. of economicgrowthintheAmazoniaregion,andencouragementa and responsibilitiesregardingthemitigationofenvironmentalimpacts conflict contextwillbringbothgreatopportunitiesandchallenges the governanceanddeforestationprocessesinAmazonia State andtheFARC-EP inHavanawillbeofenormousimportanceto could possiblyresultfromtheongoingnegotiationsbetweenColombian Additionally, thepost-conflict scenarioandpeace-buildingthat and thefightagainstillegality. productive activitiesandsteeringofresearch;infrastructuredevelopment; growing pressurefornaturalresourceslikeminerals,land,waterandoil;the conservation andprotectionofindigenouscultureknowledge;the border protectionvision,theimportancegiventoclimatechange, on thoseissueshighlyrelevantfortheregion:state’sgeopoliticaland diverse futuresoutcomes,dependingonthedecisionscountrytakes Colombian Amazoniamaybeconfrontedbydistinctscenariosandvery ECLAC and to supportingandstrengtheningthegovernanceinITs andPNAs the “NationalDevelopmentPlan2015-2020”.Bothpoliciesarecommitted through its zero netdeforestationby2020,carriedouttheMinistryofEnvironment Along theselines,Colombiacurrentlyhasaninternationalcommitmentto forest lossandforthatmatter, thelossofanentiresystem. come fromthecentral,regional,andlocalgovernmentsinordertostop the takingofpreventativeandcorrectivemeasures.Thisinitiativemust need formaintainingadeforestationmonitoringsystemfollowupand these areasandstrengtheningtheirenvironmentalgovernance.Asisthe revealed bythisstudyisreasonenoughfortheimportanceofmaintaining The lowerdeforestationinprotectedareasandindigenousterritories Future scenarios http://www.gaiaamazonas.org/es/presiones-y-amenazas-de-la-cuenca-amazonica Visión Amazonía2020 Patrimonio Natural Patrimonio

29 bothconcurinassertingthatthe policyandthegreengrowthstrategyof https://www.siac.gov.co . Apost- 28 .

27 DEFORESTATION in the COLOMBIAN AMAZONIA (1970-2013) 28 DEFORESTATION in the COLOMBIAN AMAZONIA (1970-2013) 216 km greater thanthelossof424km Map 1.DeforestationintheEcuadorianAmazonia reached 1,127km interpretation, forestlossbetween2000and2013(recentdeforestation) km before thebaseyear(cumulativedeforestationuntil2000)reached9,343 km 10,470 estimated that It is 2000. from satellite images analyzed through was The totalareaofthebiome,including97,530km and 2013. 1970 and2000recentdeforestationastheonerecordedbetween study definescumulativedeforestationasthatwhichtookplacebetween covering anestimated103,426km in theareacorrespondingtobiogeographicAmazonia(Amazonbiome), and floodmontanegrasslands.Thepresentevaluationwasundertaken foothill forests,sandstonemesaforestsontheCondormountainrange, semi-deciduous forests,evergreenpeneplainplains,montaneand : shrubland,floodandfloodedforests,riparianwoodland, Continental Ecuador” ecological perspective,andinaccordancewiththe“EcosystemsMapof country’s areaandlessthan2%oftheAmazonmacro-basin.From an administrative limits(provinces)andcovers116,588km In Ecuador, theAmazoniaisofficiallydefinedfollowingpolitical-

DEFORESTATION 2 2 Historic andrecentforestlossdeforestationrates , equivalent to 9.6% of original forests. Based on satellite image , equivalentto9.6%oforiginalforests.Basedonsatellite Deforestation oforiginalforestswerelostbetween1970and2013. 2 ECUADORIAN AMAZONIA inthe2010-2013period. 2 . Thelossof487km 1 , Amazonia consists ofthefollowing , Amazoniabiogeographyconsists 2 in 2005-2010 and the subsequent lossof in2005-2010andthe 2 , or 41.2% of the country’s area. The , or41.2%ofthecountry’s 2 duringthe2001-2005periodwas 2 in the of original forestcover, oforiginal 2 , or45.5%ofthe area of62,474km Additionally, in themostrecentperiod68km 190 km reached 398km Between 2000and2013(recentdeforestation),forestlossintheseareas this year, cumulativedeforestationinPNAs(1970-2000)reached500km some 29,090km the biogeographicAmazonia(31.8%).Basedonsatelliteimagesfrom2000, By 2013,ProtectedNaturalAreas(PNAs)coveredanareaof30,977km Amazonia, insideandoutsideofPNAIT deforestationintheEcuadorian Figure 1.Recent 2 lost, while the following period (2005-2010) reached 140km lost,whilethefollowingperiod(2005-2010)reached by2013,theIndigenousTerritories (IT)coveredanestimated 2 2 . Forestwith (2000-2005) losswashigherinthefirstperiod were identified as covered by forests inPNAs( wereidentifiedascoveredbyforests 2 of the Ecuadorian biogeographic Amazonia (60.4%), oftheEcuadorianbiogeographicAmazonia Crude oilopensthewayfor will remainthemainthreat exploitation oftimberand in thefollowingyears 2 wererecordedinonlythreeyears. T

able

2

, and 1

). In 2 2 of . Table 1.DeforestationintheEcuadorianAmazonia Figure 2.DistributionofdeforestationintheEcuadorianAmazonia

with anestimated60,240km as follows:334km reached 752km Between 2000and2013(recentdeforestation)forestlossintheseareas 2013), withanestimatedforestlossof3,676km covered 56,564km analysis ofsatelliteimagesitwasdeterminedthatforestcoverinITs in2013 selective loggingofAmazonia forestsaroseinwhatcametobeknown a blackmarketforland,and theindiscriminatetimberexploitationand identity, thiscontext, culture,andterritoryofAmazonia populations.Within policy of“integrationistindigenism”,thelatterto detrimentofthe (1973), theexpansionofextractivefrontiers,amarket economyanda agrarian reform(1964)andthecolonizationof Amazoniarainforest “Land withoutpeopleforPeople withoutland” vacant lands,takingupthepolicyofBrazilian dictatorship knownas the Amazoniabeinganemptyspace.Thisconcept waslaterdefinedas around themiddleof20thcentury, reflectinganexistingperceptionof international dispute,a“livingborders”policypromotion wasintroduced To safeguardEcuadoriansovereigntyinaterritoryinvolvedan andPastaza).Putumayo, the northeastandcentralsub-regionsofEcuadorianAmazonia(Napo, 2013, thesub-basinswithhighestdeforestationareasrecordedwere remaining three(Morona,Pastaza, Between 2010and andPutumayo). and Tigre), remainedthesameinone(Santiago),andincreased 2005-2010, deforestationdecreasedinthreesub-basins(Napo,Numbaia, bothinthenortheastsub-region.Infollowingperiod, and Putumayo, 2000-2005 period,thesub-basinswithhighestforestlosswereNapo islocatedintheextremenorth(borderwithColombia).In (Putumayo), in theextremesouthofEcuadorianAmazon.Thethirdsub-basin basins withthegreatestdeforestation(MarañónandSantiago)arelocated three unitsrepresents54.2%ofthetotallossinperiod.Thetwosub- ( (Numbaia), Santiago,andPutumayo had lostmorethan15%oftheiroriginalforestcoverby2013:Marañón In Ecuador’sbiogeographicAmazon,threehydrographicunits(order3) and 2013( 2010, andtheremaining140km 2 For theevaluationofdeforestationonlyoriginallyforestedareaswereconsidered. 1 ThesituationofexistingITs andPNAswasconsidered inDecember2013. Amazon,withinwhichexistnon-forestedareas,likeenclavesofsavannasorfields. withinthebiogeographiclimitof Originalforestcoverreferstoformations EcuadorianAmazonia Indigenous Territories Protected NaturalAreas Historical contextofdeforestation Traditional T able occupation withoutrecognition 1 2 , distributed in a decreasing manner over timeperiods , distributedinadecreasingmannerover ). 2

2 2 between2000and2005,278km 2 (35.1% of forest loss in the biogeographic Amazonia till Amazoniatill (35.1%offorestlossinthebiogeographic

ITofficialyrecognized national-indirectuse OutsidePNAandIT 2 beingoriginallyforestcover 2 inthethreeyearperiodbetween2010 T

able Surface oforiginal Surface 2 forest cover ). Thecombinedlossofthese 2 . Statepoliciesfostered km 2 between1970and2013. 2 48,701 11,539 97,530 23,026 60,240 29,590 29,590 2 1 between2005and

. Basedon deforestation until Cumulative 2000 km 2 1,049 9,343 1,875 2,924 8,836 500 500

2000-2005 0.88% wasrecorded,while thefollowingdecadesawitdecreaseto0.56%, in the1990-2000period, where anannualnationalnetdeforestationrateof More thantwothirdsofthe deforestationinthelasttwodecadestookplace lands andterritories loss inthePNAsandforestdegradationison increase inindigenous biologically orculturallyimportantzones,recentstudies showthereisforest is clearthattheseareashaltedrelativelytheexpansion ofdeforestationin well astheCommunities’Lawof1937anditsmore recentcodes land tenureregimedefinedbytheagrarianreform andcolonizationlawsas territorial rightsunderanewapproach,quitedifferent fromthecommunity rainforest. Meanwhile,theindigenoussectorpressured forcollective with thefoothillsandupperrainforest,followinglower established, aimingforthecreationofprotectednaturalareas,beginning and eighties,conservationpoliciesforbiologicallyimportantareaswere and logging)unsustainableagriculturalfrontierduringtheseventies Given therapidadvanceofextractive(non-renewableresources north oftheregion. valley southoftheEAR,andKichwacooperativesinhigherNapo, their lands,possiblywiththeexceptionofsomeShuarcentersinUpano their primaryproductionsubsistencepatterns,withlittlecattleranchingon the colonistormestizosector. Ontheotherhand,indigenousmaintained for extensivecattleranchingwithoutmajormanagementpracticesfrom cycle cropsforself-subsistence, andlatertheestablishment ofpaddocks time. Theprocesscontinuedwiththeestablishmentofpermanentorshort- access tothemarketandreducedcostsofexploitationtransport of thedeterminingfactorswasconstructionroads,whichfacilitated species inhighdemandtheformalmarketorillegaltrafficcircles.One for deforestation”.Theprocessstartedwithselectiveharvestingoftimber that generatedrightsofexclusionforestuse,undertheconcept“land which requiredtheclearingofuptohalffarm(50ha)show“work” guidelines toensurethepossessionandsubsequenttitlingofland, Until themid-nineties,occupationof“vacantlands”hadtofollowofficial sub-region in1987 crude (EAR), beginningin1967whentheLagoAgrio1wellstartedpumpingout transport ofcrudeoilinthenortheastEcuadorianAmazoniaRegion natural andculturallandscapesoftheAmazoniawasexploitation as “frontiersocieties”.H km 2 487 190 . Theprocesscontinuedonuntiltheconsolidationoftoday’soil-rich 281 334 53 190 83 Deforestation rate 2005-2010 km 2 3 424 278 218 140 140 . 5, 6,7 60 75 owever, thefactorthatdecisivelytransformed . 2010-2013 km 2 115 216 140 40 68 25 68 2000-2013 % % oftheoriginalforest 1.2 1.2 0.9 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.3 Cumulative total % 4 . Whileit 10.7 39.2 17.4 6.1 3.4 3.0 3.0

29 DEFORESTATION in the ECUADORIAN AMAZONIA (1970-2013) 30 DEFORESTATION in the ECUADORIAN AMAZONIA (1970-2013) 2013, theestimatedforest lossareareached10,470km As aconclusion,itcanbesaidthatthepresentstudy showsthatby the forest,especiallyininternationalrawmaterials market to theseboomandbustcyclesfueledbytheprice of“riskcommodities”in in theEAR.Earlyandrecentdeforestationare environmentalcorrelative effectiveness andadecreaseoffamilyincome,exacerbating ruralpoverty reached worryinglevels.Together, thesetwo bringforthalossincost crop lossarea(differencebetweenplantedand theareaharvested) Agricultural ResearchInstitute(INIAP) for anareaof988,229ha–average9perAPUtheNational with arecord108,707agriculturallyproductiveunites(APU),registered The advanceof linked toroadconstructioninaprovincewithlowdensityuntil2007. being consistentwiththeregionalstudiesreferredtobefore,andclearly level. OnesuchbeingtheAmazoniaprovinceofMoronaSantiago,data an increaseintheirannualnetdeforestationratebothperiodsatnational (2013) as indicatedbyarecentstudybasedoninformationprovidedMAE Table 2.CumulativedeforestationintheEcuadorianAmazoniabysub-basins(basinslargerthan500km of thecountry’sbiogeographic Amazonia. equals87,060 km Ecuador’s Amazoniabiome. Theforestsarearemainingbythesameyear Tigre Marañón (MA)(Morona) Pastaza Napo Putumayo/Iça Santiago Marañón (Numbaia) Sub-basins (order3) Map 2. Sub-basins with the greatest proportional deforestation Map 2.Sub-basinswiththegreatestproportional 8 . This study of the Sierra suggests that only two provincesregistered . ThisstudyoftheSierrasuggeststhatonlytwo minifundios 2 , which corresponds to 89.3% of the original forest cover original forestcover , whichcorrespondsto89.3% ofthe (smallholdings)intheregionwasconfirmed, Surface oforiginal Surface 9 forest cover . The same study alsoshowsthatthe . Thesamestudy km 2 11,853 49,087 13,709 8,733 6,043 5,221 2,877 deforestation until2000 2 , or10.7%of Cumulative 10 . km 2 4,752 2,428 258 862 600 436

8 2000-2005 space, itsresources,and population.Theyarealsolinkedtotheextractive threats andpressureslinked totheaccessandcontrolofAmazonian The RAE’slandandaquatic ecosystemsandlocalpopulationsface plains ofthesoutheast(Trans-Kutukú). were theCóndorandKutukú mountainranges,aswelltheflood valleys. Lefttothetraditionalsubsistenceeconomy ofindigenouspeoples the betterandmoreaccessiblelandsofUpano, Santiago,andMorona with landlessfarmersfromthecoastalandAndean regions,particularlyin from themid-1950ssoughttoconsolidatesettlements andagriculturalunits the southcentralareaofEAR,colonizationand agrarianreformpolicies transitable orpassableroadalongtheborderwith ColombiaandPeru. In undetermined volumesoftimber(selectivelogging),fromtheirsourcetoa a “multimodal”primaryextractionscheme,theillegalmovementof the extremewesternandsouthernedgeofEAR,riversallow, under agricultural productionweredetermined,usinga“fishspine”pattern.At lines (1st,2nd,3rdline,etc.)fortimberexploitationandnon-sustainable the northeasternEAR.Taking intoaccountthesepractices,colonization opened tofacilitateexploration,extraction,andtransportofcrudein spatial patternsofdeforestation,particularlyalongsidetheaccessroads Changes inlanduseandthelossofvegetationcoverhaveconfigured km 224 Direct andindirectcausesofrecentdeforestation 26 20 48 75 34 60 2 Deforestation byperiod 2005-2010 km 166 23 39 56 78 33 28 2 2010-2013 km 15 14 30 84 33 17 23 2 2000-2013 % % oftheoriginalforest 0.7 1.2 1.1 1.0 3.6 0.6 3.8 2 ) Cumulative total % 10.6 15.1 18.3 19.0 0.8 5.5 8.4 are fundamentallyaptforforests,changesinsoil-useandvegetationcover the consolidationofmarketspaces(cities) which favoredtheexpansionofdemographicfrontiers(colonization)and hydrocarbons, andtimber)requiredtheconstructionofaccessroads, in land-usepractices.Theopeningoftheextractivefrontiers(formining, colonization policiesfavoredtimberexploitationandpromotedchanges Both theoil(orientedtocrudeexport)andagrarianreform peoples orgroupsinvoluntaryisolation,althoughwithquestionableresults. implemented regardingtheenvironment,conservation,andsafeguardingof of environmental,conservationandsafeguardingpolicieshavebeen the wavesofchangehistoricallyrecorded.To halttheseimpacts,aseries the naturalandculturallandscapeofindigenousAmazoniapriorto southeast Amazoniaand1967inthenortheast),havetransformed are relativelyrecent(beginningsofthe20thcenturyincentraland forests). TheimpactsoftheoccupationcontemporaryAmazonia environmental deterioration(likecertainAndeanvalleysanddrycoastal affected bylandscarcity, overexploitationandsmallholdings,orbyextreme rural poverty–throughcolonizationandagrarianreformfromregions economic specializationassignedtotheAmazoniaandtransferof 11De Marchi, 10 Rautner, M.,Leggett, M.,Davis,F.,(2013):ElPequeño Libro de lasGrandesCausaslaDeforestación, Programa GlobalCanopy:Oxford. 9 Nieto,C.,Caicedo,C.(2012):Análisis reflexivo sobre eldesarrollo agropecuario sostenibleen laAmazoníaEcuatoriana.InstitutoAutónomodeInvestigacionesAgropecuarias (INIAP).JoyadelosSachas,provincia deOrellana. Ecuador. 8 Sierra,R.(2013). 7 Santos,F.(2013).MemoriatécnicadelosMapasDeforestación de la CuencaAmazónicaEcuatorianaeintegraciónconelMapadeDeforestación delaCuencaPanamazónica paralosescenarios2000,2005y2010,escala1:100.000.Proyecto “Atlasde 6 Sierra,R.(2013).Patrones yfactores dedeforestación enelEcuadorcontinental,1990-2010.Yunacercamiento alospróximos10años.ConservaciónInternacionalEcuadoryForest Trends, Quito. 5 Calles,J.yRodríguez, F.(2011):Caracterizaciónecológica espacial delacuencadelríoDashino,cantónGonzaloPizarro, provincia deSucumbíos. Quito.EcoCiencia. 4 LópezA.,V. históricadeÁreas (2015):Cartografía NaturalesProtegidas yTerritorios IndígenasdelaAmazoníaEcuatoriana.EcoCiencia.Quito. 3 LópezA.V., EspíndolaF.,CallesJ.,yUlloaJ. (2013):Amazoníaecuatorianabajopresión. EcoCiencia-RAISG. Quito. 2 Schmink,M.&Wood, Ch.(1992): Contested frontiers inAmazonia.ColumbiaUniversityPress. NewYork. 1 MinisteriodelAmbienteEcuador(MAE).(2013):MapadeEcosistemas Continental,SistemadeclasificaciónlosecosistemasdelEcuadorcontinental,Subsecr of theAmazoniaprovinces. recorded onthenewextractivefrontiersthroughoutallbiogeographicareas palm) orhydrocarbonandminingactivities.Suchsituationshavebeen to theexpansionofextractivefrontiers,beitthroughagro-industrial(African these areas,whereastheirincreaseinotherunitsofanalysiscorresponds analysis canbemainlyexplainedbythedepletionofforestresourcesin Finally, thedecrease indeforestedarearecordedbydifferentunitsof sub-regions areverydifficulttoovercome. agricultural productionsystems,astheclimaticconstraintsofdifferent imply adeteriorationoftheecosystemsandlimitscosteffectiveness Presiones yAmenazassobre Áreas Protegidas yTerritorios IndígenasdelaAmazonía”.EcoCiencia.Quito. References et al . (2013):ZonaIntangibleTagaeri Taromenane ypueblosindígenas aisladosenelcamaleónicosistematerritorialdeYasuní. (ZITT).¿Una,NingunaCienmil?.Delimitacióncartográfica CICAME-FundaciónLabaca. Quito. Op. Cit . . GiventhattheAmazoniasoils management andcommunicationtools. and deserveaninformeddebatewiththepublic,wellbeyondsimple environmental impactstudiesfortheselinesandtheirlayoutdesignrequire settlements, agricultureunits,naturalheritageandprotectiveforests.The strip requirements(rightsofwayandservice),itspotentialimpactson under construction.Athreatmostlyduetotherigidityofeasement the transmissionofelectricitygeneratedbyhydroelectricprojectscurrently security istheoneposedbypowerlines(upto500kV),requiredfor But themostseriousthreattoenvironmentalmanagementandenergy frontiers inthecentersouthprovincesofEAR(MoronaandZamora). Another identifiedthreatincludestheexpansionoflarge-scalemining factors encouragingforestdegradationanddeforestationintropicalareas. construction ofoilroads,campsandurbanmarketswouldaddtothe State naturalheritageunit(PANE). Shouldthistakeplace,theforeseeable where paradoxically, thereisonlyoneprotectedforestandnotasingle Sapara, Wao, ShiwiarandKiwchwaofPastaza indigenousterritories, the oilexploitationfrontier, fromthenortheastandintoAchuar, Andoa, State’s expectation,andthatoftheinterestedcompanies,istoexpand diversity (headwatersofthePastaza, Tigre andMoronarivers).The a sub-regionofgreatimportancegivenitslargesocio-environmental extraction, andinaquaticecosystems).Thus,pressureisincreasedon ecology studiesrecordhighdegradationintheforestsduetoprimary where thePastaza andMoronaITs stillhaveforestcover(althoughhuman East isunderway. ItrepresentsapotentialthreattotheEARcentersouth, in voluntaryisolation Taromenane bothinhabitedbyextremelyvulnerableindigenousgroups IZ, blockintheYasuníthe exploitationofITT NationalPark andtheTagaeri- imminent threatassociatedtotheState’slatestpolicydecisionsbegin indigenous territories(IT),andprotectednaturalareas(PNAs)isan The expansionofthepetroleumfrontierwithinintangiblezones(IZ), Future scenarios 11 . Further, thetenderforXIOilRoundofSouth etaría dePatrimonio Natural.Quito.

31 DEFORESTATION in the ECUADORIAN AMAZONIA (1970-2013) 32 DEFORESTATION in the PERUVIAN AMAZONIA (1970-2013) Map 1.DeforestationinthePeruvian Amazonia comprised26.1%ofthePeruvianIBC) Amazonia(~205,750km Native CommunitiesofthePeruvian AmazoniaInformationSystem(SICNA- By 2013,theIndigenousTerritories (ITs) registeredinthedatabaseof period, or2.5%ofthetotalareaPNAsin2013. of thetotalareadeforestationPeruvian Amazoniaduringthe close to5,000km period). Altogether, by2013thePNAsofPeruvian Amazoniahadlost of thetotaldeforestationPeruvian Amazoniathattookplaceinthis Between 2000and2013,PNAslostmorethan1,000km deforestation (7.0%ofthetotalthattookplacein2000) Peruvian Amazonia(~188,600km By 2013,ProtectedNaturalAreas(PNAs)comprised23.7%ofthe M 2000. Between2000and2013,forestlossreached16,000km It is estimated that 8.7%offorestcover(~56,000km local, regional,nationalandgloballevels. species, bothfloraandfauna,makingthemaconservationpriorityatthe to avariedmosaicofecosystemshousingvastdiversityhigh-value of ecologicalfloorsbetweentheAndesandAmazoniaplaingiveorigin 783,000 km The Peruvian Amazon,locatedintheeasternportionofPerú, covers ap PERUVIAN DEFORESTATION 1 Historic andrecentforestlossdeforestationrates ). 2 , comprising 60.9% of the country’s land area. The gradient Thegradient , comprising60.9%ofthecountry’slandarea. 2 of forest cover to deforestation, corresponding to 6.8% to6.8% offorestcovertodeforestation,corresponding 2 ). By2007,4,000km AMAZONIA in the 2 ) waslostbytheyear 2 2 werelosttoforest offorest(7.0% 2 . ( 2 ). Closeto T able . 1, 1, km ITs showdecreasingnumbers(1,282km Deforestation trendsinITs andPNAsvarybetween20002013.While Peruvian Amazoniainthesameperiod. corresponding to13.0%ofthetotaldeforestationthattookplacein the Peruvian Amazonialostmorethan9,000km place inthesameperiodPeruvian Amazonia).Intotal,by2013,TIsin lost morethan3,000km total deforestationthattookplacein2000).Between2000and2013,ITs 6,000 km 2 between2005and2010;428km Amazonia, insideandoutsideofPNAIT deforestationinthePeruvianFigure 1.Recent 2 offorestinITs ofthe 2000 (11.4% werelosttodeforestationby Infrastructure investments will determinethemore 2 of forest (19.0% of the total deforestation thattook offorest(19.0%thetotaldeforestation vulnerable areasfor the nextdecades 2 between2010and2013),PNA 2 between 2000and2005;1,292 2 of forest todeforestation, offorest

2005; 625km numbers fluctuatefromoneperiodtothenext(319km Figure 2.DistributionofdeforestationinthePeruvian Amazonia and LowerYavarí (6.4%)rivers.( cover arethoseoftheMarañón(11.1%),Santiago(9.6%),Pachitea (8.2%), the 2000-2013periods,basinsthatlosthighestpercentageoftheir (33.2%), Huallaga(23.3%),Apurímac(22.8%)andPachitea (22.7%). For largest percentageoftheiroriginalforestcoveraretheUpperMarañón RAISG classification.Theriverbasinsthathavelostinabsoluteterms,the The Peruvian Amazoniacontains28level3sub-basinsaccordingtothe burning offorestswereseen ascivilizingactions. migration tohelpexpand theagriculturalfrontier. Theloggingandthe the Amazoniaasarichand emptyland.Statepoliciesencouragedsettlers’ Central regionattractedwavesofmigrationbyAndean settlers,whosaw From the1940’sonward,roadsconstructionandimprovementinSelva and employmentintheregion. these cycles,withoutanyofthewealthleadingto sustainable investments Resources likerosewood,jute,cinchona,gold,timber andoilhavefed and bustcycleshavecharacterizedthePeruvian Amazon‘s economy. of competitionbytheBritishplantationsfromMalaysia. Sincethen,boom Beginning in1910,thedemandforAmazoniarubber declinedintheface the slave-likelaborofindigenouspeoples. allowed anenormousaccumulationofwealthwhichregrettablyreliedon the rivertoEuropeanandUnitedStatesmarkets.Thiseconomicboom linked toamarketingchainthatusedtheAmazonRiver, exportingthrough The centerofcommerceforrubberinPerú wasthecityofIquitos,closely rainforest. industry, triggeredtheindustrial-scale exploitationofrubberinthePeruvian indispensable forthemanufacturingoftiresgrowingautomobile end ofthe19 The AmazoniabeganenteringthePeruvian consciousnesstowardsthe Table 1.DeforestationinthePeruvian Amazonia 2 For theevaluationofdeforestationonlyoriginallyforestedareaswereconsidered. 1 ThesituationofexistingITs andPNAswasconsidered inDecember2013. Amazon,withinwhichexistnon-forestedareas,likeenclavesofsavannasorfields. withinthebiogeographiclimitof Originalforestcoverreferstoformations Protected NaturalAreas Indigenous Territories Amazonia Peruvian Historic contextofdeforestation Traditional th 2 Proposed Territorial Reservationl century, ofthissap, duringtherubberboom.Theharvest between2005and2010;120km occupation withoutrecognition 2

2

national-transitional use IT officialyrecognized Territorial Reservation national-indirectuse Outside PNAandIT national-directuse T able 2,M

ap Surface oforiginal Surface 2 ). forest cover 2 between2010and2013). km 123.869 205.750 2 188.599 404.103 792.999 78.209 81.167 29.223 29.246 39.656 12.978 2 1 between2000and deforestation until Cumulative 2000 km 2 45.856 55.649 3.858 6.328 1.545 2.120 5.487 193 199 334 308

2000-2005 communities havebeengrantedpropertytitlesfor almost130,000km for theJungleRegionsofPerú. Sincethen,morethan1,300indigenous the approvalofLawonNativeCommunitiesandAgrarianDevelopment Titling oftheAmazon’sindigenouscommunitiesbeganin1974,following demanding recognitionoftheirrightsandguaranteestoterritories. people –thefirstofitskindsubmittedaClaimtoPresidentPerú, indigenous peoples.In1969,theorganizationofYánesha Decades ofcolonizationbroughtonanewcrisisfortheAmazon’s agriculture dreamedofbyBelaundeandothers. sustainable profitable and initiative did notleadtothemuch-anticipated this fromnorthtosouth,integratingaseriesofaccessroads.However, the CarreteraMarginalhighway, whichwouldcrosstheeasternflankof overflow ofAndeanpopulations. had infiniteagriculturalpossibilitiesandpotentialforsettlingthenatural Between the1970sand1980s,presidentBelaundebelievedAmazonia was exportedtootherforestareas. Oxapampa. However, despitethis,theOxapampamodeloftimberindustry impact ofagricultureandlogging,withonlytwosmallsawmillsleftactivein By then,theforestsofSelvaCentralhadsufferedfromcombined forest managementdidnottakeholdintheindustryuntillate1990’s. more thantwo-dozensawmills.Regrettably, theconceptofsustainable Region) wheremoderntechnologyimportedfromGermanywasusedby The 1950’ssawthebirthofatimberindustryinOxapampa(SelvaCentral cocaine pasteproduction areas,linkedtodrugtrafficandguerrilla Regrettably, inthe1980sand1990sthese specialprojectsturnedinto settled theareaformany generations. the workdonewithindigenous communitiesandthepopulationsthathad of timberandnon-timberforestresources,agroforestry systems,andto when thePichisPalcazú SPappliedanew approachtothemanagement technology packagesandtrainingforsettlers.Afirst changecamein1982, sought toincreaseagriculturalproductionlevelsthrough thedistributionof Peruvian Amazon,complementarytoroad construction.Theseprojects During thisperiod,theStatepromotedSpecialProjects (SP)inthe km 1.189 2 1.282 5.105 6.680 319 199 45 21 29 92 26 Deforestation rate 2005-2010 km 1.292 2 1.179 5.353 7.225 626 224 368 37 43 34 33 2010-2013 km 2.306 2 1.771 Thisvisionpropelledtheconstructionof 385 120 428 10 26 84 15 23 5 2000-2013 % % oftheoriginalforest 0.3 0.4 0.8 0.6 2.2 0.2 0.2 0.9 1.5 3.0 2.0 Cumulative total % 2 . 14.4 0.9 2.4 3.4 2.6 6.7 0.9 1.0 3.2 4.5 9.1

33 DEFORESTATION in the PERUVIAN AMAZONIA (1970-2013) 34 DEFORESTATION in the PERUVIAN AMAZONIA (1970-2013) Table 2.CumulativedeforestationinthePeruvian Amazoniabysub-basins(basinslargerthan500km Tarauacá Putumayo/Iça Alto Yavarí Juruá Bajo Marañón Purús Tigre Alto Amazonas Medio Marañón(III) Napo Medio Marañón(II) Medio Marañón(I) Bajo Amazonas Pastaza Medio Yavarí Tahuamanú Urubamba Madre deDios Alto Ucayali Bajo Ucayali Santiago Tambo Mantaro Pachitea Apurímac Huallaga Alto Marañón Sub-basins (order3) Map 2. Sub-basins with the greatest proportional deforestation Map 2.Sub-basinswiththegreatestproportional Surface oforiginal Surface forest cover 108,256 km 44,372 22,327 22,192 34,011 26,969 25,449 41,255 35,792 28,386 18,461 15,101 42,200 83,749 21,348 24,394 26,869 76,521 34,080 2,566 9,719 2,022 4,005 2,852 7,808 2,493 4,882 2 deforestation until2000 Cumulative km 2 17,191 1,433 1,730 3,277 1,278 8,693 3,671 3,892 7,563 295 245 125 269 539 384 540 956 164 793 444 591 449 956

57 93 8 5 2000-2005 km 1,018 1,032 1,382 2 139 145 216 152 106 236 675 218 248 408 188 83 20 14 12 42 81 58 83 33 13 61 0 2 Deforestation byperiod 2005-2010 km 1,021 1,745 2 337 771 173 360 206 794 322 153 325 304 92 17 72 66 27 11 65 51 76 85 81 52 1 6 4 2010-2013 km 2 392 139 385 108 639 19 10 10 66 24 22 25 66 20 14 83 87 68 71 26 4 0 3 6 7 0 9 2000-2013 % 11.1 % oftheoriginalforest 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.2 1.5 0.5 0.4 1.0 0.7 0.6 0.1 0.7 2.1 2.6 3.3 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.1 2.2 9.6 2.8 1.3 8.2 3.3 0.8 2 ) Cumulative total % 10.3 10.8 17.9 19.3 22.7 22.8 23.3 33.2 5.3 5.7 5.7 8.1 0.4 1.0 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.7 2.0 2.5 2.8 2.9 4.2 4.7 4.9 5.0 5.3 cattle ranchingarethemaindirectcausesofdeforestationinPerú for agriculturaldevelopment.Manysourcesconcurthatagricultureand been guidedbyanagrarianvisionthatconsiderstheforestsasobstacle The developmentofthePeruvian Amazoniainthelastseventyyearshas increase ofdeforestationinsomeareas. succeeded atslowingdowncolonizationandtheacceleratedrateof directly generatelargedeforestedareasinPerú’s Amazon. like mining,hydrocarbonextractionandinfrastructureconstructiondonot activities In general, settlers. for roads access and penetration serve as also wide astheareadeforested5.Further, roadsopenedfortimberextraction the areaaffectedinPerú bydegradationthroughselectiveloggingisas cause ofdeforestation,butrather, offorestdegradation.Itisestimatedthat Due toitsselectivenature,timberexploitationisnotconsideredadirect forest. by the The historicalanalysisofdeforestationinthePeruvian Amazoniaprepared growing occupiescloseto55,000haannually. ThePeruvian Statehasbeen causes deforestationofvastextensions.AccordingtotheUN,coca The extensivecultivationofcoca,bothlegalandillegalfordrugtrafficking, in thePeruvian Amazon,coveringmorethan188,000km (SINANPE) wascreated.Overthelast25years,39PNAswerecreated areas (PNAs).Thatsameyear, Peru’s NationalSystemofProtectedAreas unique forestareasintheAmazoniaforconservationasprotectednatural Beginning in1990,Peruvian civilsocietypressuredtheStatetoidentify of SanMartín,Huánuco,Junín,Ayacucho, Cusco andPuno. movements. To thisday, thisillicitcropisstillcultivatedinthedepartments Ministerio delAmbiente(2009).Causas delaDeforestación. En:MapadeDeforestación delaAmazoníaPeruana 2000.Lima:Minam,pp.79-89. Che Piu, H.;García, T. (2011).EstudioREDDPerú: La SituacióndeREDDenelPerú. Lima:Derecho AmbienteyRecursos Naturales(DAR),73p. Bajo La Lupa. (2010)BajolaSombradelBosque.Lima:GrupoEditorial Bajolalupa.http://www.bajolalupa.org/06/03_tex.html Aramburú, C.;Bedoya,E.(Eds).(2003). Amazonía: Procesos DemográficosyAmbientales.Lima:Consorcio deInvestigaciónEconómicaySocial(CIES),182p. D.(2007).Deforestación5 Martino, enlaAmazonía:principalesfactores depresión yperspectivas.Revista delSur, 169(1),3-20. J.L.(2014).Cambiodeusosuelos poragriculturaagranescalaenlaAmazoníaandina:elcasodepalmaaceitera.UnidadapoyoICAA/IRG.Lima,Perú.4 Dammert, 76p. 3 Mason(1981)enMapadeDeforestación delaAmazoníaPeruana 2000delMINAM. 2 Caballero, J.D.,&deManejoForestal, A.D.(1980).Tendencias deladeforestación confines agropecuarios enlaAmazoníaperuana.Revista Forestal delPerú, 10(1-2), 1-8. 1 Dourojeanni, M.,Barandiarán,A.,&Dourojeanni, D.(2009).Amazoníaperuanaen2021:explotaciónderecursos naturaleseinfraestructuras:¿quéestápasando?¿Quéesloquesignificanparaelfuturo?. FundaciónPeruana paralaConservaciónde the MitigationofClimatechange,whichintendstoconserve540,000km of EnvironmentlaunchedtheNationalProgramForest Conservationfor what littlecontrolithadonlogging.Ontheotherhand,in2010Ministry Forest categorytopromoteitssustainableuse,theforestrysector soonlost Even thoughtheForestry Actof2001createdthePermanent Production custodian thatthePeruvian forestrylegislationassignstothesameState. economic developmentatStatelevelisincontradictionwiththeroleof The previouslymentionedagrarianvisionthatpermeatestheconceptof cause tocreatepressureonthelandsandforestsalongitsprojectedroute. Dios withBrasil.Theexpectationofanewroadaloneissufficientenough rainforest, andtheIIRSA-SouthhighwayconnectingCuscoMadrede northeastern interoceaniccorridor, theCarreteraMarginalofsouthern along bothsidesofthemainroads.Thisimpactisevident the highestratesofdeforestationarefoundin20kmwidestripsstretching has increaseddramatically number ofrequestsforconcessionsthecultivationpalmandcacao to theRomeroGroupforcultivationofAfricanpalm.Sincethen, of Loretograntedinconcessionmorethan7,000haprimaryforests tropical forestswasinsignificant.However, in2009theregionalgovernment the developmentoflarge-scaleagroindustrialplantationsinPeruvian unable toreducethetotalareausedforcocagrowing Direct andindirectcausesofrecentdeforestation Aditional bibliography Naturaleza. References Instituto delBienComún 4,5 . (IBC) inthecontextofRAISGshowsthat (IBC) . Untilveryrecently, 2 . Theseunits 1, 2,3 . 2 of inclusive governmentsystemsandsustainabledevelopment. development planssoastotakeadvantageofthenaturalcapitalthrough consider theintegrationofthesespacesintomunicipal,regional,andbasin should valuetheenvironmentalservicesofPNAsandITs, andalso a paradigmchangeinthenationaldevelopmentmodel.Suchmodel indigenous territoriesmustbearticulatedwithlargerscaleefforts,seeking Efforts toimprovethemanagementofprotectednaturalareasand of forestmustbesacrificed? the Amazoniainnameofdevelopment.Thequestionstands:whatarea possible thesedemandscouldjustifythedeforestationofsomeareas sanitation systems,electricity, educationandhealthfromtheState.Itis The inhabitantsoftheAmazoniaregiondemandbasicserviceslikewater, PNAs andtheconservationofforestsindemarcatedindigenousterritories. net deforestationtozeroin10years,withanemphasisonthecreationof highlight istheNationalProgramofForest Conservation’sgoaltoreduce assumed byPerú andthroughthesupportitisreceiving.Inthiscontext,a natural areasistobeexpectedasaresultoftheinternationalcommitments An improvementonthemanagementofnationalsystemprotected 2013 were lost,1,918km in theseunitscovered384,163km showsthatintheyear2000forests The deforestationanalysisdonebyIBC a groupareveryimportantfortheconservationofforestsinAmazon. areas andthe205,750km In lightofthisscenario,whatroledothe188,599km more than430,000km Dourojeanni’s projectionsfor2021arealarming:heestimatestherewillbe in thePeruvian Amazoniabetween2009and2021: According toDourojeanni 16,330 km was beenlost.Aconservativeprojectionsuggeststhatby2020another 2005 and2010.Inthesetenyears,2%ofthePeruvian Amazoniarainforest period, 6,680km Peruvian Amazoniawascoveredbyforestsin2000.Duringthe2000-2005 deforestationanalysisrevealsthat89.5%ofthe782,820km IBC’s Future scenarios 73,000 km     of pavedroads.  90 newwellsplanned). more planned)andwhere648exploratorywellshavebeendrilled(with already carriedouton10,659linearkm(with8,6890new  undetermined numberofkilometerselectrictransmissionlines. 26 wouldbelocatedinAmazoniarainforestsandaddanasyet  . 584 contractson1,182unitsofforestmanagement,foratotal 51 proposalsforinvestmentinbiofuelanareaof4,835km 6 proposalsforwaterwayswith4,213kmoflength. 7 proposalsforaccessrailwaysinthePeruvian Amazon. 7,455 kmofimprovedroads,880newand2,089 53 oilblockswith353,000km 54 hydroelectricplants,whichwouldproduce24,500MW, ofwhich 2 ofAmazoniarainforestwillbedeforested. 2 . 2 were deforested, and an additional 7,225 km weredeforested,andanadditional7,225 2 inthenextfiveyears,and548km 2 impacted by deforestation and degradation. impactedbydeforestationand 1 2 , there is a long list of projects tobedeveloped , thereisalonglistofprojects of indigenous territories play? ofindigenousterritoriesplay? 2 . During the 2000-2005 period 1,601km . Duringthe2000-2005 2 in concessions, with seismictests inconcessions,with 2 ofprotectednatural 2 between2011and PNAs andITs as 2 between 2 ofthe 2 . 2

35 DEFORESTATION in the PERUVIAN AMAZONIA (1970-2013) 36 DEFORESTATION in the VENEZUELAN AMAZONIA (1970-2013) Map 1.DeforestationintheVenezuelan Amazonia terms, withalossof2.3%.However, asmentionedearlier, forestlossis Venezuelan Amazoniarainforest(28%).ITs comesecondindeforestation forest coverlostby2013.Theofthisunitisthesmallest place outsideofPNAsandITs ( Deforestation hasnottakenplaceuniformly. Thelargestforestlosstook region. period ( Annual lossfromAugust2000onwardshasincreasedineachsubsequent reached around4,150km (2.2%) ofitsoriginalforestsby2000.Between2000and2013,deforestation estimated thattheVenezuelan Amazoniahadlostapproximately 8,900km a zonewheremorethan94%ofVenezuela’s populationresides territory. Deforestation wasgreatestnorthoftheOrinocoRiver the largestextensionofforestincountry By 2000,Venezuela’s Amazoniarainforestsspannedalmost398,000km marked bygranitetable-topmountainsknownas Amazonia istheGuianaShield,oneofoldestformationsinplanet vegetation a largenumbersofendemicspecies and ischaracterizedbythegreatdiversityofitsbiologicalcommunities, 469,000 km anapproximateareaof Amazonas, BolívarandDeltaAmacuro.With criteria Based onbiogeographic,hydrologic,andpolitical-administrative VENEZUELAN VENEZUELAN DEFORESTATION Historic andrecentforestlossdeforestationrates 1,2,3,4 T able 7 . From intheVenezuelan ageologicalviewpoint,thelargestunit 2 , theVenezuelanthree states: Amazoniaencompasses 1 , this region comprises around 52% of the country’s land area, country’sland , thisregioncomprisesaround52%ofthe ), asopposedtothegeneraldecreaseinPan-Amazonia 2 , or 47% of the cumulative loss upto2000. , or47%ofthecumulativeloss T able 1 1, 5,6 and , andpredominantforest F igure 9 and 85% of Venezuela’s and85% 1 in the ), with6.3%oftheoriginal AMAZONIA 8 . 9, 10,11,12 13 . Itis , 2 , 2 PNAs recordalossoflessthan1%theiroriginalforestarea( proportional loss(2.4%)oftheiroriginalforestsby2013.Ontheotherhand, that ITs, whichencompass67%ofVenezuela’s rainforest,hadthelargest When deforestationlosswithineachunittype,itcanbeobserved assessing recognition ofITs beganonlyin2005theDeltaAmacurostate that inVenezuela, PNAswereallrecognizedby1992,whiletheofficial five years,showinganincreaseinthedeforestationrate is proportionallylargerinthe2010-2013periodthanitwasprevious the 2006-2010periodrelativeto2000-2005period,whilePNAloss the threeperiodsanalyzed. increasing inasustainedthoughheterogeneousmannerallthreeunits Amazonia, insideandoutsideofPNAIT deforestationintheVenezuelanFigure 1.Recent will betheworstperiodyet expected that2010-2015 deforestation, anditis For example,thelossinITs waslargerduring Data showsgrowing . Itisworthnothing

F

1 igure .

2 ). semi-deciduous anddeciduousforests,amongothers) Forests werethe predominantvegetationofVenezuela (evergreenforests, mining andincursionsfromillegalarmedgroups. at theGuaviaresub-basininlastthreeyears,associatedwithillegal with illegalmining.Moreover, therehasbeenanupturnindeforestationloss those sub-basinstookplaceafter2000.Furthermore, thislossisassociated is causeforconcernasthemajority, ifnotallofthedeforestationlossin deforestation intheOrinocoDelta,Paragua andOrinocosub-basins,there accelerated recentdeforestationrate.Despitetherelativelylowvaluesof basins between2000and2013beforeweresimilar, indicatingan The forestlossintheCaroníB,OrinocoMouth,Cuyuníandsub- metals. years inthesesub-basinscoincideswithadroptheproductionofboth for morethan30years.Thedecreaseinlossrateobservedthelast13 Upper OrinocoBsub-basin,wherebauxiteandironmineshavebeenactive Figure 2.DistributionofdeforestationintheVenezuelan Amazonia 2 For theevaluationofdeforestationonlyoriginallyforestedareaswereconsidered. 1 Table 1.DeforestationintheVenezuelan Amazonia was doublethatofBrasil’s, andthreetimeslargerthanPerú’s, positioning According tothesenumbers, Venezuela’s deforestationrate inthe1980s 1990), withaslowdownin thedecreaseratebetween1990and2000. ha/year between1970and 1980,and600,000ha/yearbetween1980 1970, showinganacceleratingtrendforthefollowing decades(280,000 to whichVenezuela lost240,000haofforestayearbetween1960and Amongst thedataavailableatnationallevelis FAO’s scarce, contradictory, andinmanycases,restrictedtoisolatedlocations than 74%ofthecountry the largestdeforestationtookplacebefore2000( Furthermore, deforestationhasvariedthroughtime.Insomesub-basins, ranching, mining,hydroelectricplants,roadinfrastructure,amongstothers). as wellthehighestnumberofproductiveactivities(agriculture,cattle occupation patterns part ofthestateAmazonas,whichcorrespondswithtraditionalland deforestation losspercentageareinthestateofBolivar, andthenorthern not homogeneous(Table 2,Map2).Thesub-basinswiththehighest The cumulativedeforestationamongsttheregion’ssub-basinsis concerning ( last 13years,exceedingthecumulativedeforestationlosspriorto2000is However, thefactthatPNAoriginalforestlosshappenedmostlyin ThesituationofexistingITs andPNAswasconsidered inDecember2013. Amazon,withinwhichexistnon-forestedareas,likeenclavesofsavannasorfields. withinthebiogeographiclimitof Originalforestcoverreferstoformations

Protected NaturalAreas Indigenous Territories Venezuelan Amazonia Historic contextofdeforestation Traditional F igure occupation withoutrecognition 2 2

). . Thosesub-basinsconcentrateboththestatecapitals, 2

OutsidePNAandIT 11 national-indirect use . Regrettably, informationaboutdeforestationis

Surface oforiginal Surface forest cover km T 110,503 able 155,089 155,089 266,956 266,956 397,812 2 2 15,11 1 ), namely, the 16

data,according , coveringmore deforestation Cumulative until 2000 km 4,513 8,914 4,513 4,348 511 511 2 10

. 2000-2005 period ( increased cumulativedeforestation intheUpperOrinoco-Bbasinthis Meanwhile, theexploitation ofironandaluminumwasresponsibleforthe the magnitudeofdeforestedareas,givenextraction methodsused. the majorthreatitposesisassociatedwithriverpollution, ratherthan and toalesserdegree,illegalmining road infrastructureconstruction,theexpansionof agriculturalsettlements, aluminum miningandtheconstructionofreservoirs anddams,followedby Up to2000,themajorsourcesforchangeinland usewerelegalironand overlap). 1992, andencompassapproximately31%oftheregion (excludingspatial monuments consideredinthisanalysiswereestablishedbetween1962and Imataca forestreservefortimberproduction.Thenationalparksandnatural the firstprotectedareainVenezuelan Amazoniatobeestablished: the for alongtimetheywereconsideredunnecessary isolation, whichalsoinfluencedthelatecreationofprotectedareas,as Low deforestationrateshavebeenassociatedwiththisregion’svirtual values thatarewellbelowthenationalaverageratesforsameperiod follows: 0.25%inBolívar, 0.03%inAmazonas,and 0.11%inDeltaAmacuro, estimated theannualdeforestationratesfor1982-1995periodas in Amazonas,and3,322,572haDeltaAmacuro.Basedonthisthey the forestcoverin1995was18,242,552haBolívar, 16,556,408ha in time(e.g.20).Bevilacqua available regardingforestcoverinAmazonianstatesislocalandscattered Much liketheinformationavailableforrestofcountry, thedata some authors of Amazonas,BolívarandDeltaAmacuro Venezuelan Amazon deforestation couldhaveuseddifferentareasasareferenceforthe An importantaspecttoconsideristhatthecalculationsforrateof estimations broadlycoincide. The lowestrate(0.02%)correspondstothe1920-1960period.Thus,both of 0.93%,followedbythe1960-1982with0.73%,and0.46%for1995-2001. the authors,periodofgreatestdeforestationwas1982-1995,witharate rates ofdeforestationinVenezuela between1920and2001.Accordingto Pacheco Venezuela asthetropicalcountrywithhighestrate ofdeforestation km 178 178 423 423 459 890 2 T able et al. Deforestation rate 2 2005-2010 11 ). 11 completelyexcludethelaststate. pointoutexistingvariationsintheestimatesforannual km 1,521 2 648 648 211 211 858 3, 11 . In general, the entirety or partial areaofthestates . Ingeneral,theentiretyorpartial et al. 2010-2013 km 10 1,032 1,742 2 254 254 687 687 report,usingofficialsources,that . Inthecaseofillegalgoldmining, 18, 7,8,19,9 2000-2013 % oftheoriginalforest % 21 areconsidered,but . Ittookuntil1961for 0.4 0.4 0.7 0.7 2.1 1.0 Cumulative total % 0.7 0.7 2.3 2.3 6.1 3.3 17 . 11 .

37 DEFORESTATION in the VENEZUELAN AMAZONIA (1970-2013) 38 DEFORESTATION in the VENEZUELAN AMAZONIA (1970-2013) The maincausesofdeforestationreportedare: formations from1988and2010 transformed) landareainthecountry, obtainedbycomparingvegetation These valuesareconsistentwiththe84%increase intheintervened(or Venezuela tenthamongcountrieswiththehighestannualforestloss. a deforestationrateof0.6%peryearforthe2000-2010 period,placing deforestation thattookplaceinthenorthofcountry within thenationalcontexthasgrownoverlastfewyears,given The relativeimportanceoftheforestcoverVenezuelan Guyana Table 2.CumulativedeforestationintheVenezuelan Amazoniabysub-basins(basinslargerthan500km Guyana-Esequibo (Costa) Orinoco Negro Paragua Orinoco Delta Guaviare Ventuari Caroní Or. Alto(M) Or. Alto(A) Cuyuní Orinoco (B) Or. Boca Or. Alto(B) Caroní (B) Direct andindirectcausesofrecentdeforestation basic sectorsin1975.Small-scale alluvialgoldmining small andlargescale.The latterresultedfromthenationalizationofkey diamond, ironandbauxite  international marketprices. Map 2. Sub-basins with the greatest proportional deforestation Map 2.Sub-basinswiththegreatestproportional Legal andillegalmining(metalnon-metal)including gold, Sub-basins (order3) 24,20,25 9 . . Metalminingtakesplace atboth Surface oforiginal Surface forest cover km 54,845 50,800 35,505 23,666 36,173 30,153 18,026 32,253 75,954 12,881 12,790 2 1,172 6,961 1,662 4,666 9,22 . FAO deforestation until 26 wasfueledby Cumulative 23 2000 km gives 2 3,920 1,381 306 152 163 88 596 328 372 656 499 364 41 46 0

2000-2005 Caura Riverbasin border withColombia,along theNegroandOrinocorivers;northof (Amazonas) highway;in the westernpartofAmazonasstatenear AyachuchoOrdaz withBrasil;andtheCiudadBolívar(Bolívar) -Puerto have higherdeforestationimpacts,likethehighway thatconnectsPuerto Delta Amacuro;andlogginginBolívarAmacuro. Sometransects Amacuro; mining,inBolívarandAmazonas;hydrocarbon extractionin of Bolívar, Ayacucho thesurroundingsofPuerto and thewestofDelta Agricultural andcattleranchingactivitiesaremore relevantinthenorth km 2 125 229 131 fires infrastructure projects,oilindustry, tourismrelatedactivities,andforest forests, poorplanninginmining,theexecutionofhydroelectricand  states ofAmazonasandBolívar  20 12 72 27 66 31 70 49 52 0 2 5 Deforestation byperiod The expansionoftheagriculturalfrontier, illegallogginginnatural The increaseandconsolidationofagriculturalsettlementsinthe 23,28,29,16,10,30,26,31,25 2005-2010 km 23, 32,9,33 2 143 270 297 176 193 64 48 79 51 81 72 32 0 8 7 . On the other hand, the use offire(slash and . Ontheotherhand,use 2010-2013 km . 2 103 117 216 593 150 125 73 92 75 41 55 42 50 3 7 10, 27,25 2000-2013 . % % oftheoriginalforest 2 ) 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.6 1.2 0.7 0.5 1.1 0.8 1.2 2.2 1.3 3.1 1.0 7.9 Cumulative total % 11.8 15.8 0.3 0.4 0.9 1.1 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.9 4,0 4.3 6.5 6.9 that istheoppositeofAmazoniaasawhole. major causesofdeforestation.Inthisregard,Venezuela maintainsatrend deforestation yet.Inthisperiod,illegalminingisemergingasoneofthe and itisquitepossiblethatthe2010-2015periodwillhavehighest The deforestationoftheVenezuelan Amazoniacontinuestoincrease, for goldanddiamonds contributed totheincorporationofindigenousgroupssmallscalemining agricultural systems.Highnationalandinternationalpriceshavealso (family orcommunityfields)intocommercialsemi-commercial factor hasledthetransformationfromsmallscaleagriculturalsystems and thesubsequentextractionofmoreresourcesfromforest.This process, withemergingneedsanddemandsfornewgoodsservices, and itscontactswiththewesternworldhasgeneratedatransculturation the dynamicofthisregion:increaseindigenouspopulation Demographics areanimportantfactortoconsiderinorderunderstand modeling landscapeandtheeliminationofforestcover some states burn) isanintegralpartoftheancestralcustomsindigenousgroupsin 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 the competentauthorityonforestmanagementandinprinciple,should regulates forestconservationandproduction,wherethegovernmentis show Delta AmacuroandApureaswell, the restinBolívardepartment,eventhoughitincludesstatesof given itslargesizeof330,000km of monitoringandsurveillancetheVenezuelan Amazoniarainforest, potential contradiction.Ontheonehand,ithasstressedimportance The nationalgovernmenthastakenalreadysomestepsframedwithinthis model, ashashappenedinthepast. implementation ofactionsmoreakintoaclassicalresourcedevelopment socio-environmental development.However, itcouldalsoleadtothe more inclusivedevelopmentstrategythatfulfillsthecriteriaforsustainable could resultinanopportunityfortheVenezuelan Guyanatodevelopanew, coordinating actionswithotheractorsandstakeholdersintheregion.This and policiestheexecutionofgovernmentalinitiatives,involves of Venezuela, April222013).Theentityseekstocoordinateprograms and DeltaAmacuro(OfficialGazette401.087oftheBolivarianRepublic was establishedbydecree,encompassingthestatesofAmazonas,Bolívar, In 2013theStrategicRegionforIntegratedDevelopment(REDI)Guyana Biosfera. Unespacioparalaintegracióndeconservaciónydesarrollo. ExperienciasexitosasenIberoamérica. París: UNESCO. pp.209-236. 39–59. pp: 40-42. Hábitat yTierra delosPueblos yComunidadesIndígenas,República BolivarianadeVenezuela. y FundaciónPolar. 132p. Rodríguez, J.P.; Rojas-Suárez, F.;Giraldo-Hernández,D.(Eds.).Libro Rojo delosEcosistemasTerrestres deVenezuela. Caracas:Provita, ShellVenezuela, Lenovo. pp:107-235. Silvia Beaujon.130pp. de CooperaciónAmazónica/CCIIspra,7/8junio2005.JRCOTCA.EUR21808-ES.X+39pp. References Future scenarios COIAM2014 Bilbao,B.A.;Leal, A.V.; Méndez,C.L.(2010).Indigenous useoffire andforest lossinCanaimaNationalPark, Venezuela. Assessmentofandtoolsoralternativestrategiesfire managementinPemón indigenous lands.HumanEcology38:663-673. Rull,V. (2009).Newpalaeoecological evidenceforthepotentialrole offire intheGranSabana, Venezuelan Guayana,andimplications forearlyhumanoccupation.Veget HistArchaeobot 18:219–224. Rodríguez, I.(2004).Conocimientoindígenavs. científico:ElconflictoporelusodelfuegoenParque NacionalCanaima,Venezuela. Interciencia 29:121-129 Pacheco, C.;Aguado, I. yMollicone,D.(2011a).Dinámicadeladeforestación enVenezuela: demapashistóricos.Interciencia Análisisdeloscambiosapartir 36:578-586. Bevilacqua,M.,J.Ochoa.(2001)Conservación delasúltimasfronteras forestales delaGuayanavenezolana:propuesta paralacuencadelríoCaura. Interciencia 26:491-497. Colonnello,G.;Oliveira-Miranda,M.A.;Álvarez, H.;Fedón,C.(2010).Parque NacionalTuruépano, EstadoSucre, Venezuela: unidadesdevegetaciónyestadoconservación.MemorialaFundaciónLa Sallede CienciasNaturales172:5-36. D.(2007).Deforestación Martino, enlaAmazonía:principalesfactores depresión yperspectivas.Revista delSur169:3-22. Amorin,C.(2000)La destruccióndelaAmazonía.ReI-UITA. Disponibleenhttp://www.rel-uita.org/old/ambiente/La Destruccion Amazonía.htm,consultado28/06/11 Ochoa,J.(1998).Análisispreliminar delosefectosdelaprovechamiento demaderassobre lacomposiciónyestructuradebosquesenGuayanavenezolana. Interciencia 23:197-207. Ramos,J.;Royero, R.;Sánchez,L.;Aponte,C.; González,C.;Esteves,J.(2007).Reserva deBiosferaDeltadelOrinoco:La conservación alserviciodelatransformaciónsocial,Venezuela. En:ArayaRosas, P. yClüsener-Godt, M.(Eds.)Reservas dela Aymard, G.A.(1987).Observacionessobre elestadodela vegetaciónenlasconcesionesmineras,alnoroeste deLa Clarita(06°13’N;61°26’O) DistritoSifontes,EstadoBolívar, Venezuela. Bol.Téc.Programa deR.N.R.(UNELLEZ-Guanare) 13: Pacheco, C.,Aguado,I.yMollicone,D.(2011b).Las causasdeladeforestación enVenezuela: Unestudio retrospectivo. Biollania10:281-292. Huber, O. (1995c).ConservationoftheVenezuelan Guayana.En:Berry, P. E.,Holst,B.K.,Yaskievych, K.(Eds.).FloraoftheVenezuelan Guayana1,Introduction. MissouriBotanicalGarden Press, Portland, EE.UU.:193-218. FAO. (2010)Evaluacióndelosrecursos forestales mundiales(2010).Informeprincipal.EstudioFAO:Montes.Roma: FAO:p.163. Pacheco, C.(2011).Análisisdeladeforestación enVenezuela: BasesparaelestablecimientodeunaestrategiaREDD+.Tesis Doctoral.UniversidaddeAlcalá,España,2011.177pp. Huber, O. (2001).Conservationandenvironmental concernsintheVenezuelan Amazon.BiodiversityandConservation, 10:1627–1643. Bevilacqua,M;Medina,D.;Cárdenas, L.(2006).SituacióndelosBosquesenlaGuayana,Venezuela: La CuencadelRíoCauracomoCasodeEstudio.Caracas:AsociaciónVenezolana paralaConservacióndeÁreas Naturales(ACOANA).8p. Huber, O.; Oliveira-Miranda,M.A.(2010).FormacionesvegetalesdeVenezuela 2010.En:Rodríguez, J.P.; Rojas-Suárez, F.;GiraldoHernández,D.(Eds.).Libro Rojo delosEcosistemasTerrestres deVenezuela. Caracas:Provita, ShellVenezuela, Lenovo. Huber, O.; Alarcón. C.(1988).MapadevegetaciónVenezuela 1:2.000.000.TheNature Conservancy, MARNR.Caracas:OscarTodtmann Editores, 1988. MovimientoMundialparalosBosquesTropicales [WRM],2001.http://wrm.org.uy/es/ FAO. (2001).GlobalForest Resources Assessment(2000).Mainreport. Roma: FAOForestry Paper 140: 479pp. Pittier H.(1920).MapaEcológicodeVenezuela 1920.LitografíaComercio: Caracas. MinisteriodelPoder Popular paraelAmbiente(2014).MapaTierras Indígenas.Ministeriodel Poder Popular paraelAmbiente,Dirección GeneraldePlanificaciónyOrdenación Ambiental,Secretaria TécnicadelaComisiónNacionalDemarcación del INE(InstitutoNacionaldeEstadísticas).2015.Censo2011.Consultamarzohttp://www.ine.gov.ve/ Oliveira-Miranda,M.A.2013.Riesgodecolapsolosecosistemasterrestres deVenezuela ysurelación conelriesgodeextinciónmamíferos yaves.Tesis DoctoradoenCienciasBiológicas.UniversidadSimónBolívar. 190pp. Pacheco, C.;Aguado,I.yMollicone,D.(2011a).Dinámicadeladeforestación enVenezuela: demapashistóricos.Interciencia Análisisdeloscambiosapartir 36:578-586. Bevilacqua,M.;Cárdenas, L.;Flores, A.L.;Hernández,Lares B.,E.;MansuttiR.,A.;Miranda,M.;OchoaG.,J.;Rodríguez, M.;Selig,E.(2002).SituacióndelosbosquesenVenezuela. La Guayanacomocasodeestudio.Caracas:GlobalForest Watch Oliveira-Miranda,M.A.,Huber, O.; Rodríguez, J.P.; Rojas-Suárez, S.;Giraldo-Hernández,D.(2010).Riesgodeeliminaciónlosecosistemasterrestres F.;DeOliveira-Miranda,R.;Hernández-Montilla,M.;Zambrano-Martínez, deVenezuela. En: Huber, O. (1995b).GeographicalandPhysicalfeatures. En:Berry, P. E.,Holst,B.K.,Yaskievych, K.(Eds.).FloraoftheVenezuelan Guayana1,Introduction. MissouriBotanicalGarden Press, Portland, EE.UU.:193-218. Huber, O. (1995a).Vegetación de la GuayanaVenezolana. Mapa.En:Berry, P. E.,Holst,B.K.,Yaskievych, K. / id /5488 ); andithaspassedtheForestry Act(August2013),which 34 , atraditioninagriculturetightlyrelatedwiththeprocessof 11,24 . 2 (180,000 in the Amazonas state, and (180,000intheAmazonas http :// www . asambleanacional 35, 36 . gob . . ve / noticia / will takeregardingtheenvironmentremainsuncertain. creation oftheMinistryEcosocialismandWater, whatpathwillVenezuela eliminated, attachedtoanotherministry, andlater“restored”throughthe the MinistryofPeople’s Power fortheEnvironment,whichwasfirst peoples andlocalactors.Furthermore, judgingfromthechangesaround are clearresponsesfromtheauthoritiestodemandsofindigenous purely classicalresourcedevelopmentapproach,andontheotherthere in thecomingyears.Ononehandaredevelopmentplanswitha Thus itremainsunclearwhatcoursethesteeringofdeforestationwilltake mineria www or riverofheavymachinery, accessoriesandpartsthatservemining.( areas, andtheprohibitionofaccess,transportmobilizationbyland inputs andsuppliesrequiredformining,theremediationofaffected the SupremeCourtorderdismantlingofcampsanddisposalall be required.Notwithstanding,theprecautionarymeasuresdictatedby already illegal,nofurtherprecautionarymeasuresandprohibitionsshould are somewhatparadoxical,forifactivitiessuchasillegalgoldmining the AltoOrinocoBiosphereReserve,amongstothers).Allthesemeasures Yapacana, Parima Tapirapeco, laNeblina,ElSiapa,CerroArcamoni,and national parksandnaturalmonumentsoftheregion(DuidaMarawaka, against theillegalminingofgold,iron,diamond,bauxiteandcoltanin Supreme CourtofJusticeemittedprecautionaryenvironmentalmeasures called foritsmoratorium.Afewmonthsafterthisdecreewaspassed,the decree, claimthatitviolatestherightsofindigenouspeoples Several indigenousinstitutionslikeCOIAMin2014haveopposedthis an existinglawthatforbidsextractiveactivitiesinthestateofAmazonas. Region. Undertheaegisofthisdecreearisespossibilityrepealing Protection, Development,andPromotionofLegalMiningintheGuiana government haspassedDecree841(March2014),whichprovidesforthe On theotherhand,andinparalleltoabovementionedmeasures, ecological corridorintheEssequiboRiverbasin. Atlantic) ecologicalcorridor, and2)theBi-national(GuyanaVenezuela) creation oftwoecologicalcorridors:1)theTriple A(Andean,Amazoniaand is nottakingintoaccounttwoproposalsfromcivilsocietysupportingthe be created,itwouldbecomethelargestnationalparkinworld.Andthis hydrographic basinasitsguidelineforthedefinitionofborders.Shouldit (PNCaura),whichtakestheboundariesofCauraRiver’s there isanimportantdiscussiontakingplaceoverthecreationofanew favor increasedplanningfortheexploitationofforestresources.Further, . elmundo - ilegal -. . com aspx . ve ). / noticias / actualid ad / noticias / acuerd an - medi as - de - prohibicion 37 andhave - de http - ://

39 DEFORESTATION in the VENEZUELAN AMAZONIA (1970-2013) 40 DEFORESTATION in the GUYANA, GUIANE FRANÇAISE, and SURINAME AMAZONIA (1970-2013) Map 1.DeforestationintheGuyana,GuyaneFrançaise, andSurinameAmazonia forest). Between2000and2013(recentdeforestation)forestlossinthese deforestation inPNAsreached2,300km (20% ofthetotaldeforestationinregionupto2013),whilecumulative from 2000.Cumulativeforestlossupto2013exceeded2.6millionkm 1 three countries’Amazoniabiome(76,130km By 2013,ProtectedNaturalAreas(PNAs)coveredcloseto17%ofthe 2013 periodshowedasimilarlossinlesstime( 1,275 km highest lossoccurredfrom2005to2010(1,341km 2000 and2013(recentdeforestation)reachedmorethan3,000km of theoriginalforest).Basedonsatelliteinterpretation,forestlossbetween with cumulativedeforestationin2000reachingmorethan10,000km forests. It’sestimatedthat13,432km 2000 comprised425,000km The areaoftheregionthatwasanalyzedthroughsatelliteimagesfrom of thePan-Amazon. are completelywithintheAmazon,correspondingto465,000km Following biogeographiccriteria,Guyana,GuyaneFrançaise andSuriname ) wereoriginallycoveredbyforests,asanalyzedthroughsatelliteimages and DEEFORESTATION Historical andrecentforestlossdeforestationrates GUYANA, GUYANEGUYANA, FRANÇAISE, 2 lost in the previous 2000-2005 period, even though the2010- lostintheprevious2000-2005period,even SURINAMEAMAZONIA 2 (91.5% of the region) originally coveredby (91.5%oftheregion)originally 2 werelostinbetween1970and2013, 2 by 2000 (3.1% oftheoriginal by2000(3.1% 2 ), of which 74,966km ), ofwhich T able

2 ), comparedtothe 1 in the ). 2 and6% 2 2 . The ( 2 T (2.4% 2 able

the territoryofthreecountries(102,683km Moreover, by2013IndigenousTerritories (ITs) coveredcloseto22.9%of Française, with204km PNAs thathadthehighestrecentdeforestationrateswerethoseofGuyane areas reached388km inside andoutsideofPNAIT Guyane Française, andSurinameAmazonia, deforestationintheGuyana, Figure 1.Recent 2 2 . The loss was similar in all evaluation periods.The . Thelosswassimilarinallevaluation (indirectuse)and94km increased energydemand; ecotourism couldbe a positivepressure Economic growth 2 ). Basedontheanalysisof 2 (directuse)(Table 1).

Table 1.DeforestationintheGuyana,GuyaneFrançaise, andSurinameAmazonia than 50%ofallcumulativedeforestation was 972km (recent deforestation),forestlossintheseareasreached2,075km total deforestationoftheirAmazoniaupto2013).Between2000and2013 These landshadacumulativelossofover3,700km satellite imagesfrom2000,96,103km territories, with1,731km Things changedinthe1990s whenlargeinternationalminingcompanies of logging,mining,fuelwood gathering,andconversiontoagriculture. Prior to2000,deforestation ratesin lost peryear). world, butrelativelyhighfortheGuianaShieldregion (approximately542ha period wasabout0.3%peryear, verylowcomparedtootherregionsofthe According totheFAO (2010),thelossofforest coverinthe1990-2009 country intheworld. Additionally, theyhavethehighestratioofforestareapercapitaany forest cover:97%(Guyana),96%(Suriname)and 97% (GuyaneFrançaise). forest cover, and lowdeforestation,conservingahighproportionoforiginal The threecountriesoftheGuianaShieldhavesmallpopulations,high 5.1%, and4.8%respectively, historically occupiedandshowa18.5%lossofitsoriginalforests(8.5%, sub-basins ofSuriname,Guyana,andGuyaneFrançaise, whichwere the 2000-2013period:4.2%ofitsforestedarea.Itisfollowedbycoastal proportional deforestation,withatotallossof8.6%,andthehighestfor The Tacutu sub-basinontheBrasil-Guyanafrontiershowshighest 2 For theevaluationofdeforestationonlyoriginallyforestedareaswereconsidered. 1 Figure 2.DistributionofdeforestationintheGuyana,GuyaneFrançaise, andSurinameAmazonia SurinameTraditional GuyaneFrançaise ITofficialyrecognized GuyanaITofficialyrecognized IndigenousTerritories Suriname GuyaneFrançaise Guyana Suriname GuyaneFrançaise Guyana Amazonia Surinamenational-directuse GuyaneFrançaise national-directuse Guyananational-direct/indirectuse Protected NaturalAreas ThesituationofexistingITs andPNAswasconsidered inDecember2013. Amazon,withinwhichexistnon-forestedareas,likeenclavesofsavannasorfields. withinthebiogeographiclimitof Originalforestcoverreferstoformations Historical contextofdeforestation 2 ( T able 2 1 2 ). Guyana has the highest forest loss inindigenous ). Guyanahasthehighestforestloss

occupation withoutrecognition 2 ofrecentdeforestation. M national-indirectuse national-indirectuse ap ainlidrc use national-indirect OutsidePNAandIT 2 ). Guyana 2 wereoriginallycoveredbyforests. . This lossinthe2005-2010period wereinsignificant;theresult

original forest Surface of Surface 2 of forest(28.1%the cover km 269,265 74,966 156,785 150,254 192,405 425,855 19,609 24,245 83,195 2 19,144 62,470 26,550 96,103 73,195 39,285 6,298 3,734 7,083 1 1,935

deforestation 2 , more Cumulative until 2000 km 2 10,300 2,305 3,131 2,549 1,111 1,701 6,506 5,664 1,539 3,097 257 364 794 797 545 916 89 45

4 Act (1996),Forestry Act(2009),ProtectedAreasSystem (2011),and between 1989and2009: MiningAct(1989),EnvironmentalProtection The legalframeworkforthe forestandenvironmentalsectorwasupdated over halfofallexportsin2010. Guyana’s economy, representing11%ofitsGDPin2009,andmakingup that canbeattributedtomining.Mining(goldand bauxite)iscrucialfor between 1990and2009to0.06% 2010,anincrease In km of thePetit-Saut hydroelectricdambetween1989and1999flooded310 impact ofsomesmall-scalegoldprospectinginsignificant.Theconstruction non-existent accordingtotheFAO (2005).Loggingwasminimal,andthe Similarly, the in deforestation ratebefore2000 Brokopondo hydroelectricplanintheearly1970sflooded160,000ha. land usechangesinthecoastalzonewerelow. Theconstructionofthe was littleevidenceofseverethreatstoforestresources.Thepotentialfor of bauxiteandgoldminingwerepracticallyinsignificant.By2000there restricted almostexclusivelytothecoastalzone.Deforestationasaresult 2.5 millionhaclosetothecoast.Agriculturalandplantationactivitieswere In deforestation priorto2000cannotbequantified. on Guyana’sforestresources.However, itsrelativecontributionto As aresult,theminingsectorwasresponsibleforlargestimpact exportations. Theproductionofbauxiteanddiamondswasalsoimportant. were attractedtoGuyana.Goldproductioncomprised22.6%ofnational 2000-2005 Guyana Suriname 2 Direct andindirectcausesofrecentdeforestation offorest. km 2 1,275 151 891 79 100 785 846 194 295 785 17 181 586 13 33 79 6 , thedeforestationrateincreasedfromanaverage of0.03% 7 1 Deforestationrate , commercialforestryactivitiesbefore2000werelimitedto 2005-2010 km 2 1,341 153 141 559 263 821 75 141 821 972 766 257 17 27 11 11 54 3 8 2010-2013 km 2 125 344 144 211 160 106 248 517 11 125 97 78 78 1 34 50 0 9 0 2000-2013 % Guyane Française % oftheoriginalforest 1.1 0.2 0.6 6.5 0.8 0.7 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.4 2.2 0.3 1.3 0.4 0.9 0.7 1 Cumulative total % isvirtually 41.8 3.0 2.3 1.0 3.1 1.4 3.6 3.9 3.6 4.2 2.8 4.3 1.8 0.4 8.6 4.6 2.4 2.5 3.2

41 DEFORESTATION in the GUYANA, GUIANE FRANÇAISE, and SURINAME AMAZONIA (1970-2013) 42 DEFORESTATION in the GUYANA, GUIANE FRANÇAISE, and SURINAME AMAZONIA (1970-2013) development, energyproduction,housing andforestfires. kaolinite anddiamonds).Otherdriversconsistof logging, infrastructure mining, includingsmall,mediumandlarge-scale mining (bauxite,gold, The maindriverofdeforestationandforestdegradation inSurinameis storage paymentswasplanned. Policy wasformulated.In2009,aGreen DevelopmentStrategywithcarbon Foundation forSustainable Forest Management.In2006aNationalForest National InstituteforEnvironmentandDevelopment inSuriname,andthe management structureswererevised:NationalEnvironmentalCouncil, Between 1998andthe2000s, implementation oftheLEDSstrategyupto2015. of theGuyanaREDD+InvestmentFund (US$250million)forthe the establishment led to Moreover italso over fiveyears. funding for Norway and development.GuyanasignedaMemorandumofUnderstandingwith to combatclimatechangeandsimultaneouslypromoteeconomicgrowth In 2009,GuyanaadoptedaLowCarbonDevelopmentStrategy(LCDS) populations (stronglycriticizednationallyandinternationally). the AmerindianAct(2006)thatguaranteeslandrightsofindigenous (National OfficeofForests), illegalandlegalminingcontaminated and Française It isestimatedthatthenumber ofillegalminersoperatingin by sub-basins(basinslargerthan500km Table 2.CumulativedeforestationintheGuyana,GuyaneFrançaise, andSurinameAmazonia Corantijn Amapá (Costa) Marowijne Esequibo Cuyuní Guayana Fr. (Costa) Guyana-Esequibo (Costa) Suriname (Costa) Tacutu Map 2. Sub-basins with the greatest proportional deforestation Map 2.Sub-basinswiththegreatestproportional Sub-basins (order3) in2005rangefrom3,000 to8,000.AccordingtheONF Suriname Surface oforigi Surface nal forestcover ’s forestandenvironmental km 63,680 13,354 73,027 64,680 44,485 41,540 51,346 67,309 5,652 2 - 2 ) deforestation Cumulative until 2000 km 1,405 1,893 5,348 Guyane 2 136 275 378 522 249 53

2000-2005 km 2 211 259 385 138 21 64 91 93 9 implementation mechanisms. TheGuianaShieldFacility (GSF)iscurrently State ofAmapásince2013, modelingmanagementscenariosandREDD+ supports lowcarbondevelopment inSuriname,Guyana,andtheBrazilian The GuianaREDD+Project,financedbyFrance andtheEuropeanUnion, degradation, andcarbonstocks. reporting andverificationsystems(MRVS)fordeforestation, forest Suriname since2013).Thesecountriesaredeveloping nationalmonitoring, the implementationofREDD+nationalprograms (Guyanasince2012,and countries receivesupportfromtheForest CarbonPartnership Facility for interior forestsoftheregion,particularlyinSuriname andGuyana.Both The growthofforestextractionandminingisincreasing pressureonthe expansion ofagricultureandhumansettlements. 2000s, anestimated1,500to2,000hawereillegallyclearedannuallyforthe period isestimatedat60,000m other Amazoniancountries.Theaverageannualfigureforthe2000-2009 While timberextractionisincreasing,itstillsmallincomparisonwith threat totheforestsofGuyaneFrançaise. affected bysecondarypollution.By2012,illegalminingwasconsidereda directly impacted1,333kmofwatercoursesin2005,andafurther4,671 Deforestation byperiod Future scenarios 2005-2010 km 2 134 272 180 301 161 137 43 13 99 2010-2013 km 2 176 37 89 17 41 57 91 3 of timber (reaching 86,000 m oftimber(reaching86,000 4 4

2000-2013 % % oftheoriginalforest 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.5 1.4 0.6 4.2 Cumulative total 3 ) . Duringthe % 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.2 2.0 4.9 5.1 8.5 8.6 imports forelectricitygenerationamountedtoathirdofGDPin2008). waterfall hydroelectricdamprojectontheKuribrong Riverhasstalled(fuel third willofferanalternativetotheManaos-Caribeconnection.TheAmaila and northernBrasilwithManaus,BoaVista,Venezuela andGuyana;the proposed GeorgetownLethemcorridor;theconnectionbetweenwestern program, withplansfortheconstructionofthreeroadcorridors: – bauxite,diamonds,andaboveallgold.AnotherfactoristheIIRSA considering deforestationinGuyanaarethepricesofitsmineralexports to GuyanaunderitsagreementwithNorway Should theincreasebeconfirmed,itwillleadtoareductionofpayments The estimatedtotaldeforestationrateofGuyanafor2012was0.079%. and theimplementationofagreedpoliciesprojectsisprovingdifficult. support forthesepolicies,thethreatstoforestsinregionaregrowing, of deforestationandforestdegradation,theincreasinginternational adoption oflowcarbonemission,developmentstrategiesandthereduction Notwithstanding thecommitmentsbyGuianaShieldcountriesto multilateral environmentagreements. financed bytheEUandDutchGovernment,willimplement 12 Gemerts, Glenn;StateMineralandMiningCompany;MinistryofNaturalResources12 Gemerts, (2013).SmallScaleGoldMininginSurinamee[enlínea]. Ginebra.http://www.globaldialogue.info/Nov1_ASM_2013/IGF%202013%20-%20Small%20Scale%20Gold%20 11 Forest CarbonPartnership Facility(2013).REDDReadiness Progress FactSheet.Country: Surinamee.October2013[enlínea].Washington. http://www.forestcarbonpartnership.org/sites/fcp/files/2013/Oct2013/Surinamee%20Country%20progress%20 10 ClimateCompatibleDevelopmentAgency/Forest CarbonPartnership Facility (FCPF)(2013).Surinamee’sReadiness Preparation Proposal (R-PP) [enlínea].Paramaribo. http://www.forestcarbonpartnership.org/sites/fcp/files/2013/june2013/REVISED_ 9 MinistryofLabour, Technological DevelopmentandEnvironment (2013).NationalBiodiversityActionPlan(NBAP)2012-2016[enlínea].Paramaribo. http://www.cbd.int/doc/world/sr/sr-nbsap-v2-en.pdf 8 BID/GEF(2012).Surinamee:DevelopmentofRenewable Energy, Energy EfficiencyandElectrificationofSurinamee[enlínea].Washington: BID/GEF.http://www.thegef.org/gef/sites/thegef.org/files/documents/document/11-29-2012%20ID%204497%20 7 Van Dijck,Pitou.(2010) TheIIRSAGuyanaShieldHub:CaseofSurinamee.Amsterdam. http://www.cedla.uva.nl/20_research/pdf/vDijck/Surinamee_project/IIRSA.pdf 6 FAO(2010).GlobalForest Resources Assessment2010:CountryReports: Surinamee.Roma: FAO.http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/al634E/al634E.pdf 5 AnnualReport (2010)[enlínea].Paramaribo: AmazonConservation Team Surinamee,2010.http://jubitana.com/actdata/images/stories/final2010.pdf 4 AnnualReport (2009)[enlínea].Paramaribo: AmazonConservation Team Surinamee,2009.http://jubitana.com/actdata/images/stories/actreport2009web.pdf 3 Playfair, M.(2007)Law ComplianceandPrevention andControl ofIllegalActivitiesLogging intheForest SectorinSurinamee[enlínea].Washington: World Bank.http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTFORESTS/Resources/985784-1217874560960/ 2 FAO(2005).GlobalForest Resources Assessment2005:CountryReports: Surinamee[enlínea].Roma: FAO. ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/ai966E/ai966E00.pdf 1 Tropenbos International.IssuesPaper: InformationIssuesintheSurinameeForest Sector[enlínea].Tropenbos International,2004.http://www.natlaw.com/interam/sr/en/sp/spsrag00005.pdf Suriname Mining%20in%20Surinamee%20-%20Glenn%20Gemerts.pdf sheet%20REDD%20Oct%202013.pdf Surinamee%20R-PP%20finaldraft%2022Juni.pdf Council%20letter.pdf Surinamee.pdf fonts References . Themainvariableswhen could contributetothereductionofdeforestationdrivers. will growduetotheeconomiccrisisinEuropeandUnitedStates,it their economiesremainstobeseen.Whileitisunlikelythatthesesectors In allthreecountriesecotourismisrising,althoughitsrealcontributionto deforestation. wealth, andadministrativecapacity, itislikelytomaintainitslowlevelsof than BrasilorAndeancountries,andgivenitslowpopulation,comparative driver,mining willcontinuetobeadeforestation butatamuchsmallerscale space center, andfinancialtransfersfrommetropolitanFrance. Illegal The economyof deposits. to aregionwithhighbiodiversityvalue,andbauxite,golddiamond plans toexpandtheroadjoiningParamaribo withBrasil,openingaccess encouraging investmentsinhydrocarbons.IntheIIRSAframework,it sugarcane fieldsforethanol,convertinglargeportionsofforest.Itisalso and deforestation.Additionally, Surinamehasplansfortheexpansionof land converted,withsubstantialamountofsecondaryforestdegradation dams: itisestimatedthatGrankrikiwouldresultin47,000haofforested To fulfillitselectricdemand,itisconsideringbuildingmorehydroelectric Suriname wastheeconomywithhighestgrowthinSouthAmerica2012. Guyane Française depends predominantlyontheKorou

43 DEFORESTATION in the GUYANA, GUIANE FRANÇAISE, and SURINAME AMAZONIA (1970-2013) 44 DEFORESTATION in the AMAZONIA (1970-2013) 2. Acquisitionofsatelliteimages:Landsat5/TM,7/ETM+ and8areused, 1. Creationofthedatabasestoragestructure:astructuredirectories Acquisitionandconditioningofbaseinformation A. which aredescribedasfollows(Figure1): From anoperationalpoint of viewRAISGprotocolincludesvarioussteps, procedures forbothprocessesareexplainedinthesubsequentsections. as definedthecumulativeforestlossuptoyear2000.Specific the entireAmazoniaisyear2000.Historicdeforestationwasestimated, 2000 –2005,20052010and2010-2013periods,wherethebaselinefor This publicationpresentsamulti-temporaldeforestationanalysisforthe 8) remote sensors(Cbers,Modis,SPOT5MS,Aster, Landsat5/TM,7/ETM+, have beentestedandappliedtotheBrazilianAmazoniathroughvarious At presentRAISGpossessesconsolidatedmethodologyandtoolsthat Thus itwaspossibleto: analysis. Guianese Amazon,andtheirexperienceinremotesensingspatial IVIC, Provita)contributedtheirknowledgeoftheAndean-Amazoniaand member institutionsoftheNetwork(EcoCiencia,FAN, ICV, Gaia,IBC, ISA, in existinganalysesordertobetteridentifyforestdegradation of deforestationinBrasil,andhadintroducedindexesimprovements use. Thisorganizationpossessedsignificantpriorexperienceinthestudy form ofsoftwaretoolsdevelopmentaswelltrainingmembersontheir Homem eMeioAmbientedaAmazônia)assumedTechnical Supportinthe recording theforest-loss processesintheregion.Imazon(Institutodo existing experienceswiththegoalofobtainingstandardizedproducts and theirimpact.Thiswasreasonenoughtojustifytheendeavoroflinking for estimationsattherightscaleinordertounderstandchangeprocesses data ontheregionwasunavailable,aswereotherapproximationsallowing network’s memberinstitutions.Asmentionedbefore,by2008deforestation and synergyoftheknowledgecapacitiesexistingwithinRAISG Amazonia region The RAISGProtocolappliedtotheanalysisofdeforestationin 4 DEFORESTATION ANALYSIS andinthePan-Amazonia context fact thattherearenotenough goodqualityimagesforonegivenyear, years 2005,2010and2013 aresetasanalysisbreakpoints.Duetothe Amazonia region.Theyear 2000isdefinedasthebaseline,and earthexplorer.usgs.gov). Approximately294Landsat imagescoverthe (http://glovis.usgs.gov) andTheUnitedStatesGeological Survey(http:// www.inpe.br), EarthResourcesObservationandScienceCenter(EROS) uniacs.umd.edu acquired throughtheUniversityofMarylandwebsite ( for therequiredbands,coveringanapproximate180 kmx180were ideally withlessthan20%cloudcoverage.Images of30mresolution information generatedbyeachoneofthecountries. data forpre-processing,processingandsubsequentintegrationofthe that madepossibletheorganizing,manipulatingandanalyzingof and sub-directorieswasdefinedforthestoragehandlingofimages Contemporary deforestation Pan-Amazon. (Image ProcessingTools)3 developedbyImazontoapplytheentire Guianese AmazoniatoimproveandbroadenthecapacityofImgTools  semi-automatic analysistools;  heterogeneity presentintheAmazoniaregion; sub-regional andlocaldifferencesthatexpresstheenvironmental comparative analysesbetweendifferentcountries,incorporating  incorporate thegroupknowledgeonAndean-Amazoniaand establish atechnicalteamthatwastutoredbyImazonontheuseof have astandardconceptualandmethodologicalframeworkallowing METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK 1 isshownin ), theInstitutodePesquisas Espaciales (INPE)(http:// F igure 1 5 . It is based on the integration . Itisbasedonthe . http://www.glcf. 2 . Other 1. Bandcompilation:referstotheprocessofselecting andgroupingbands B. Pre-processing 3. LegendDefinition.Thefollowingclassesareconsidered: Cirrus, ThermalInfrared(TIRS) 1andThermalInfrared(TIRS)2. Coastal aerosol,Blue,Green, Red,NearInfrared(NIR),SWIR1,2, compilation forsensorincluded thefollowingbands:Landsat8are SWIR werecompiledfrom Landsat5/TMand7/ETMimages.However, (MIR) and (NIR), MidInfrared Blue, Green,Red,NearInfrared how bands of satelliteimagesinadeterminedorderaccording tothesensor. Thisis images ofbandscontainingnoinformation. with theoriginalimages,e.g.faultsinLandsatETM+ sensorgenerating Unclassified given analyzedperiodoftime. Clouds andshadows meanders, etc. Water completely withinthestudyperiod. Deforestation and sandysoils. moors, savannas,grasslands,culturedlands,burnedareas,beaches correspond tonon-forestedecosystems,suchasrockyoutcrops, been deforestedpriortotheyear2000(baseline),orbecausethey No-forest than 5metershigh,orabletoreachtheseminimumlimits 10% oftheareaandasurfacesuperiorto0,5hectares,treestaller Forest 2012 andMarch2014. September 2011.Finally, forthe2013period,imagesbetweenAugust are considered;andfor2010,imagestakenbetweenJune2008 year 2000;for2005,imagestakenbetweenJune2003andJuly2007 images takenbetweenJune1998andJuly2002areconsideredforthe analysis ofthePan-Amazonia Figure 1.RAISGprotocolfordeforestation : areaswithbodiesofwater, suchasrivers,lakes,ponds, : landwithwoodedvegetationacanopycoversuperiorto : areaswithnoforestcover, eitherbecausetheyhave : areaswithlackofdataattheoriginasaresult problems : areawheretheoriginalforestcoverhasbeeneliminated : areascoveredbycloudsandshadowsinany

in situ 6 . 4. CalculatingtheNormalizedDifferenceFraction Index(NDFI) 3. Masking:thecollectionofinformationaboutbodieswater, clouds,and 2. Spectralmixtureanalysis(SMA)determinesthecomponentpartsof 4. Radiometricandatmosphericcorrection:inordertocorrectdistortions different to compare order in columns: and of lines resizing and Definition 3. 2. Orthorectification:thisprocessallowsthecorrectionofspatialandrelief 1. Reviewandeditingofresults:toavoidtheclassification ofmultiple E. Post-Classification The missing4.2%correspondstoareasinBrasillacking evaluation. The areaoftheAmazoniaeffectivelyanalyzedrepresents 95.8%ofthetotal. and startingin2005,deforestation. identification ofclassesinallimages:forest,no waterandclouds, NDFI, andoptionallywatercloud/shadowmasks. Thisallowsthe The datainputusedfortheclassificationarefractionimages(SMA), A decisiontreeclassificationmethodisappliedtoallimageswithImgTools. D. Classification 1. SpectralMixtureAnalysis(SMA) C. Processing other classesofcoverinthefinalclassification. shadows insatelliteimagesisnecessarytoavoidconfusingthemwith forest areas. degraded forestareas,andtheGVfraction,helpsidentifyingdense timber gatheringplaces;theNPVfractionhelpsidentifying identifies withprecisionthestructureofforestuse,likeroadsand as inputforthefinalclassification.For instance,theSoilfraction that correspondtofeaturesontheground.Theseimagesareused endmembers. Itconvertsradiancetofractionsofspectralendmembers particular classorfeaturebasedonthespectralcharacteristicsofits mixed pixelsbypredictingtheproportionofapixelthatbelongsto shadows. photosynthetically activevegetationareas,baresoilandclouds/ identification ofphotosyntheticallyactivevegetationareas,non- fractions areobtained(GV, NPV, SoilandCloud),whichallowthe caused bysensorsoratmosphericconditionsrelatedtotheeffectsof used asbaseforlargeimageresizing. generate errorsinLandCoverChangeAnalysis.Thus,smallimagesare and columns.Thispreventspixelslocationdisplacement,whichwould period images,theymusthavethesamesizeintermsofnumberlines 7/TM images. This rectificationismadewhennecessaryonLandsat5/TMand mean squareerrorvalueof0.5(R2≤0.5),whichiswidelyaccepted. resulting interraindisplacementlowerthan2pixelsandamaximum Landcover Facility (http://glcf.umd.edu). Theimagesareorthorectified, 90-meter spatialresolutiondatasetasproducedbytheGlobal images areusedaswellShuttleRadarTopography Mission(SRTM) tilt ofthesatelliteoraerialsensor. To thisend,previouslyorthorectified the sensor, topographicalvariationsinthesurfaceofearth,and distortions insatelliteimagedatathatoriginateopticalcharacteristicof and 7images–http://ledapsweb.nascom.nasa.gov. Ecosystems DisturbanceAdaptiveProcessingSystem)forLandsat5 In somecases,thisconversionwasmadethroughLEDAPS (Landsat Atmospheric AnalysisofSpectralHypercubes(FLAASH)fromENVI. applied: RadiometricCalibrationfromImgTools, andFast Line-of-sight Spectral MixtureAnalysis(SMA).For thisend,thefollowingtoolsare to surfaceradianceandreflectancevalues,thenappliedthe Correction Modulealgorithms.Laterdigitalvalues(DN)areconverted pixel levelonLandsat5/TMand7/ETMimagesbasedImgTools’ Haze wavelength (Blue,GreenandRedbands),correctionsaremadeatthe wavelength dispersionaffectingmulti-spectralimagebandswithshorter inaccuracies arerelatively commonwhenusingautomaticand results arecomparedwith pre-processedsatelliteimages.These elements withinoneclass withsimilarspectralresults,classification forest andvaluescloseto-1correspondexposedsoil. values between-1and1,wherecloseto1corresponddense and intactforests,detectingdeforestedareas.TheNDFIuses changes inforests,allowingthedifferentiationbetweendegradedforests is obtainedfromfractionimages,andenhancesspectralsignalsof 7 . Through this process, spectral . Throughthisprocess,

8 : thisindex

be expressedinunitsofareabytimeunit(forexample,km forest losscausedbyhumanactivitieswithinaperiodoftime.Theycan The deforestationratesareestimatesoftheforestedareasaffectedby H. Calculatingdeforestationrates mosaics foranalysis,mapping,andinternetdissemination. whereitisreviewedandpreparedfortheelaborationofregional in ISA, The classificationresultsareincludedintheRAISGdatabasehoused G. DataIntegration accuracy calculatedfortheentireregion. high resolutionimagesorfielddata,andanerrormatrixclassification of theareaclassified.Thecombinedreferencepixelsarecomparedwith error, andwithit,thesizeofarepresentativepointsampleforverification with theimagesorfielddataprovidedandusedtoestimateinitial point setswithinclasses.Ateachthepixelclassificationiscompared The firststepisthegenerationofasamplethroughrandomselection SPOT 10m,IKONOS 5m,CBERS5mandGeoEye),fielddata,orboth. selected pointsarecomparedwithhighresolutionimages(SPOT1.5m, correspondence withtheterraincover. Theclassificationsofrandomly Accuracy ofthefinalclassificationiscalculatedinordertoestimateits F. AccuracyAssessment 2. Temporal Filter:thetemporaryinformationofeachimagepixel(minimum determine theregion’soriginal forestcover. Deforestation class,2000 (sub-classwithintheNo-forestclass,2000)to After thishistoricalanalysis, theForest class,2000isaddedtothe forest coverlostupto2000and2013. nation’s situation.Basedonthisinformationitispossible toestimatethe the mosaic,whichisanalyzedwithdataavailable accordingtoeach In ordertocarryouttheanalysis,No-forestclass isremovedfrom the fieldforentireAmazoniaregion. approaches areevidenceandtheresultoflack ofsystemicstudiesin and theexpertiseofeachanalystwithnationaldata isused.Thevarious the remainingcountries,datafromGlobalLandCover Brasil, andEcuador, dataavailableatanationallevelisused extension istheresultofrecenthistoricdeforestation.IncaseBolivia, areas detectedfortheyearareevaluatedwithgoalofassessingwhich non-forest areas,anddeforestedareas.Consequently, the non-forest differentiated, specifically:naturalnon-forestformations,transformed three categoriesofdatathatwithoutpriorinformationcannotbe As previouslymentioned,theNo-forestclassassignedto2000groups and standardizing. hydrographic basins,usingthedatalayersRAISGhasbeenconsolidating at thelevelofcountry, protected areas,indigenousterritories,and in differentscenesthroughoutthewholeregion.Theratesareestimated image evaluated,whichguaranteescomparisonbetweenthesameperiods Additionally, thismethodallows theconsiderationofrealdateseach July of2010,andthe1stAugust2010to31st2013. 2000 tothe31stofJuly2005,1stAugust2005 is 2001.Allperiodsaredefinedthesameway, fromthe1stofAugust example 2000,untilthe31stofJulynextyear, whichinthiscase calculation, breakpointsareassignedtothe1stofAugustayear, for area decreasesduetodeforestationinanexponentialmanner the Food AdministrationOrganization(FAO) whichassumesthatforest year) orinpercentages.Theyarecalculatedusingamethodadaptedby forest. years 2000and2010,butidentifiedascloudsin2005,itisreassignedto in eachimage.For example,ifapixelisidentifiedasforestinthe pixel’s historyareusedtotakefulladvantageofallpossibleinformation classification withinacertainperiod.Certainrulesthatvalidateeach unit ofsatelliteimage)isusedtocorrectinconsistenciesandadjustthe of experience. reliable supplementaryinformationandanalystswithacertainlevel this procedurereliablyandaccuratelyrequireshigh-quality detected, theirclassificationsaremanuallyedited.To perform plantations, whicharefrequentlyclassifiedasforests.When semi-automatic classifiers.Oneexampleisthecaseofforest Historic deforestation 14 , aDEMof90m, 2 /year, orha/ 10,11,12,13

9 . For the

. For

45 DEFORESTATION in the AMAZONIA (1970-2013) 46 DEFORESTATION in the AMAZONIA (1970-2013) 15 RAISG(2012). delatierraAmazoníacolombianaaño2002.InstitutoAmazónicoInvestigacionesCientíficasSINCHI.Bogotá. 14 Sinchi-Ideam-Humboldt-UAESPNN-IGAC.(2008).Convenioespecialdecooperación0182008Mapacoberturas 13 Eva,H.D.,E.E.deMiranda,C.M.DiBella,V.Gond, O.Huber, M.Sgrenzaroli, S.Jones,A.Coutinho,A.Dorado,M.Guimarães,C.Elvidge,F.Achard, A.S.Belward, A.Baraldi,G.DeGrandi,P.Vogt, E.Bartholomé, S.FritzyA.Hartley. (2002).MapadelaVegetación 12 MinisteriodelAmbiente.(2012).LíneaBasedeDeforestación delEcuadorContinental,Quito-Ecuador. 11 PRODES,escala1:250.000 10 Killeen,T. J.,Calderon V., SoriaL.,QuezadaB.,SteiningerM.K.,HarperG.,SolórzanoL.A.&Tucker yearsoflandcoverchangeinBolivia.AMBIO:AJournaltheHumanEnvironment C.J.(2007).Thirty 36(7):600-606. 9 Puyravaud, JP. (2003).Standardizing thecalculationofannualratedeforestation. Forest EcologyandManagement.177.593-596p. 8 SouzaJr, C.M.,D.A.Roberts yM.A.Cochrane.(2005).Combiningspectralandspatialinformationtomapcanopydamagefrom selectiveloggingandforest fires. Remote SensingofEnvironment 98(2–3):329–343 7 Gillespie,A.R.(1992).SpectralMixture AnalysisofMultiespectralThermalInfrared Images.Remote SensingofEnvironment 42:137-145 6 FAO. 2000. Ondefinitionsofforest andforest change FRAworkingpaper33Rome. 5 RAISG(2012). 4 SouzaJr, C.M.,Siqueira,J.V., Sales,M.H.,Fonseca,A.V., Ribeiro, J.G.,Numata,I.,Cochrane,M.A.,Barber, C.P., Roberts, D.A.&Barlow,J.(2013).Ten-year Landsat classificationofdeforestation andforest degradationintheBrazilianAmazon.Remote 3 SouzaJr., C.&Siqueira,J.(2013).ImgTools: asoftware foropticalremotely senseddataanalysis.XVISimpósioBrasileiro deSensoramientoRemoto doInpe(pp.1571-1578).FozIguaçu:INPE. 2 SouzaJr, C.M.,D.A.Roberts yM.A.Cochrane.(2005).Combiningspectralandspatialinformationtomapcanopydamagefrom selectiveloggingandforest fires. Remote SensingofEnvironment 98(2–3):329–343 1 RAISG(2012)AtlasAmazoníabajopresión. Descargable de:http://raisg.socioambiental.org/Amazônia -bajo-presion-2012. of newdatamakesfuturevariationsintheforestlossestimatesand Likewise, thecontinuousimprovementofmethodandinclusion deforestation classes. surface effectivelyanalyzedwithineachoftheforest,no-forest,water, and or unclassifiedduetoproblemsoriginatinginthesensor. This increasesthe and decreasesthenumberofpixelsclassifiedasclouds,cloudshadows, tools –likethetemporalfilterwhichallowsalargernumberofcorrections equal parts.Additionally, thisstudyusesagreaternumberofimagesand is thesameineachimagesinceareasofspatialoverlaparedivided publication isproducedscenebyandtheareausedforcalculations differences regardingthescopeusedineachimage.However, this relative totheirdecreasedcoveragebyclouds.Thiscouldresultin from amosaicofimages,whereareasspatialoverlapwereconsidered Pressure used inthecalculationofforestloss.For example,inAmazoniaunder consequence ofseveralfactors,butismainlyduetotheapproximation found inpreviousRAISGpublicationsforthesameperiod.Thisis The deforestationestimatespresentedinthisstudycandifferfromthose Examples ofthelessonslearnedwithmethodologyuse de AméricadelSur. ComisiónEuropea European Commission–JointResearch Centre. Italia,34pp.Desargado de:http://bioval.jrc.ec.europa.eu/products/glc2000/data_access.php Sensing, 5(11),5493-5513. References Protocol concerns 15 Op. cit. , estimatesweremadebycountryandfortheentireregion Op.cit.

is locatedinforest ( Construction sitein2000.Thedot( green corresponding toforest lossordeforestation ( 2013) showsthedisruptionofsitebydetecting“pixels” verified theconstructionsite.Deforestation analysis(2000- the nextimages).Duringconstruction,EcoCienciastaff plant andrelated infrastructure were constructed( deforestation. InAhuano,province ofNapo,ahydroelectric the identificationofzoneswere humanactivitygenerates Remote sensingmethodsintheEcuadorianAmazoniaallow ) Photo takenonsiteduringthehydroelectric plant’sinfrastructure red ) in thezonehavebeendetected. Construction sitefrom 2005to2010.Thedotisstilllocatedinforest, butchanges construction phase.(VíctorLópez,Nov. 2014). yellow red dot ). in methodology. of increasedqualityandquantitydata,handinwithimproved In thismanner, possiblechangesintheestimatesarelikelytoberesult same timeperiodslikely. Thiswillpossiblyprimarilybedueto: deforestation ratespresentedherecomparedtolaterevaluationsforthe     The spatialresolutionofthesensorsusedastechnologicaladvances The deforestationratecalculationisdirectlyrelatedtotheamount Adjustments intheclassificationsresponsetonewscientific The reclassificationofpixelscurrentlyclassifiedasclouds/shadowsor considered. the accuracyandprecisionofestimatesinalltypescover increase theavailabilityofhigh-resolutionimagesandimprove classifications) willresultinmoreexactestimates. of informationavailable,soincreasednumbersimages(annual information. categories (forest,no-forest,water, deforestation). unclassified/without information,anditsassignationtoanyoftheother

are indicatedin surroundings were deforested and Construction sitein2013.Thedot’s yellow .. by theendof2014followthem. black (noforest). Photosoftheareas taken in theimages’period,andlaterchangeto in in theclassification(below)theyappear mining are visibleas images (above),thechangescausedby tributaries (CarraoRiver)inVenezuela. In Mining alongtheCaroní Riverandits sensor. result ofdamageintheLandsat 7satellite’s Additional gapsinthecenterofimagesare the frontier ofMetaandCaquetá. inthedepartments affected bytheadvanceofagricultural deforested areas inoneofthezonesmost 45% clouds,hamperingtheidentificationof foothills. Theseimageshavebetween15%and coverage intheAndeanareas andtheAmazonia the different studyperiodswasthehighcloud of thedeforestation mapofColombiathrough One ofthegreat challengesintheelaboration yellow (deforestation) iftheytookplace white zones,while

Path 8Row 58 2000/08/06 -Landsat7 19/11/2000 2005/02/01 -Landsat7 12/03/2005 2008/11/08 -Landsat7 21/01/2010 Photos: Valentina Quintero,October2014 2013/09/11 -Landsat8 12/10/2013

47 DEFORESTATION in the AMAZONIA (1970-2013) 48 DEFORESTATION in the AMAZONIA (1970-2013) Bolivia. 232-72 locatedeastofthecitySantaCruz, Index) andimagereflectance. Landsat Scene the NDFIimage(NormalizedDifference Fraction 2010-2013 periodsanditscorrespondence with Example ofaclassifiedsceneforthe2000-2005- cont./ Examples ofthelessonslearnedwithmethodologyuse This isaregionalstudyonAmazoniaforestlossundertakenthrough analysisdeveloped It isaproductoftheAmazonianNetworkGeoreferencedSocio-Environmental Information isgeneratedaccordingtoaprotocolthatallowstheproduction and with auniquemethodologyforallthecountriesthatcomprise Amazon. Information (RAISG),acollaborativespaceopentoallthoseinterested DEFORESTATION inthe in asustainablefutureandthestrengtheningof integration ofdatafromeachAmazoniacountry. NDFI Image reflectance Image classified Amazon’s socio-environmentaldiversity. 2000 AMAZONIA 2005 (1970-2013) 2010

Coordination

2013