Title A PRISMA review of expectancy-value theory in music contexts Author(s) Hui Xing Sin, Leonard Tan, and Gary E. McPherson

Copyright © 2021 SAGE Publications

This is the author’s accepted manuscript (post-print) and the final, definitive version of this paper has been published in Psychology of Music, 27 June 2021. https://doi.org/10.1177/03057356211024344 by SAGE publishing. All rights reserved.

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A PRISMA Review of Expectancy-Value Theory in Music Contexts

Hui Xing Sin*1, Leonard Tan1, and Gary E. McPherson2

1National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

2Melbourne Conservatorium of Music, University of Melbourne, Australia

*Corresponding author [email protected] National Institute of Education 1 Nanyang Walk Singapore 637616 Republic of Singapore

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A PRISMA Review of Expectancy-Value Theory in Music Contexts

Hui Xing Sin, Leonard Tan, and Gary McPherson

Abstract

In this paper, we systematically reviewed the research literature dealing with expectancy- value motivation theory within music contexts. Employing the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting

Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) approach, a total of 1,120 records were retrieved and examined, with 110 eventually included in the analyses.

Frequencies/percentages were generated for research output in five-year time periods, type of publication, sampling locations, and methodologies. Summaries of all 110 records were provided; content analyses on topics covered were also conducted. Findings indicated a clear increase in research interest over the past 15 years with quantitative methodologies being twice as prevalent as qualitative approaches. While the vast majority (97.7%) of quantitative research employed self-report questionnaires, the most common form of qualitative data collection was interviews (59.1%). Salient topics covered included students’ expectancy- value beliefs across music and other school subjects, continued music participation, intentions to pursue a career in music, and parental influences.

Keywords: expectancy-value theory, music, music education, PRISMA, psychology

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Introduction

What influences students’ motivation to study music? How can these be conceptualised within a single theoretical framework? Among the most influential explanations for addressing these two questions is expectancy-value motivation theory. This framework was originally conceptualised by Atkinson (1957, 1964) to explain individuals’ achievement motivation. It was further theorised by Eccles and her colleagues (Eccles et al.,

1983; Eccles & Wigfield, 1995, 2002, 2020; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000, 2002, 2020) to link individuals’ motivation to their achievement, performance, persistence, and decisions.

Expectancy-value theory consists of two main components: expectancies for success and subjective task value. Expectancies for success is defined as the self-beliefs individuals hold on how well they can perform a task, either now or in the future (Eccles et al., 1983;

Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). These beliefs are related to their feelings of competence (or ability) and the perceived task difficulty (Eccles & Wigfield, 1995). Compared to self- efficacy which is situational-specific (Bandura, 1997), expectancies for success are task- specific (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; McPherson & O’Neill, 2010; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000).

Subjective task values are domain-specific, which researchers in this area (Eccles et al., 1983) have categorised into four components: attainment value (i.e., importance of the task), intrinsic value (i.e., enjoyment or interest in the task), utility value (i.e., usefulness of the task), and perceived cost (i.e., effort or sacrifice needed to perform the task).

Researchers in the educational domain have reported that students’ expectancy-value beliefs towards a subject are positively associated with their academic outcomes, such as achievement in that subject (Guo et al., 2015; Guo et al., 2016; Perez et al., 2019), and course completion (Luttrell et al., 2010). Students’ expectancy beliefs towards a subject have also been found to be negatively associated with text anxiety (Selkirk et al., 2011), suggesting that those who believed they are competent in a subject are less likely to experience anxiety 4

during a test in that subject. Furthermore, researchers have found positive associations

between expectancy-value beliefs and several adaptive dispositions and behaviours, such as

flow experience (Elias et al., 2010), homework effort and completion (Yang & Xu, 2018),

and perseverance of effort (Muenks et al., 2018).

Given the insights that expectancy-value theory offers and its potential applicability to

the teaching and learning of music, several researchers have explored expectancy-value

theory in music contexts. For instance, researchers have examined students’ expectancy-value

beliefs across music and other school subjects (e.g., Koh, 2011; McPherson & Hendricks,

2010; Seog et al., 2011; Tossavainen & Juvonen, 2015). Other explorations included

students’ career intentions in music (e.g., Jones & Parkes, 2010; Parkes & Jones, 2011,

2012), factors for continued music participation (e.g., Amundson, 2012; StGeorge, 2010), and

parental influence on students’ music learning (e.g., Fredricks et al., 2006; Juvonen, 2019).

The importance of motivation in music contexts can be seen through a number of

literature reviews on this topic (e.g., Cogdill, 2015; Tan & Sin, 2020; Tucker, 2017; West,

2013). In the only known review of literature with a section focusing on expectancy-value

theory, Katsochi (2008) reviewed seven studies on students’ expectancy-value beliefs about

music and found that their beliefs were influenced by their musical behaviours and expected

intentions in the future. As far as can be determined, within the last decade, no published

study has systematically and comprehensively documented the research literature on

expectancy-value research in music contexts. Such a project would enable researchers to take

stock of extant research, chart future directions, and contribute to music psychology in a

novel and timely manner.

In this paper, we systematically reviewed the research literature on expectancy-value theory in music contexts. Key issues relating to this purpose include: (1) What was the output trend of expectancy-value research in music contexts? (2) Which methodologies were 5 employed? (3) What were the topics examined? (4) Based on the systematic review, what are some implications for future research?

Methods

We followed methodological procedures from PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses; Moher et al., 2009) to generate data. Relevant literature was searched on five databases (PsycINFO, Sage, Informit, Web of Science, and

Google Scholar) using the search string “music” AND “expectancy value.” To identify studies that may have been omitted during the initial database search, we conducted backward citation search.

The initial search was done on 3rd April 2020, yielding 1,120 records (PsycINFO: 36;

Sage: 36; Informit: 2; Web of Science: 48; Google Scholar: 998). After removing 105 duplicates, the titles and abstracts of 1,015 records were screened. Of the 1,015 records, 812 were removed as they were irrelevant (e.g., not related to music or expectancy-value). We retrieved the full texts of the remaining 203 records and examined them for their eligibility based on the following inclusion criteria: (1) the full text was written in English and available; (2) the expectancy-value framework was used or examined; and (3) the research was conducted in the music and/or music education domain. Three articles were added from the backward citation search. An additional search was conducted on 6th August 2020; no new records were found. The final number of records included in this review was 110. The process followed to identify the relevant literature for this systematic review is presented in

Figure 1.

#insert Figure 1#

Results

Figure 2 presents the research output trend in five-year periods. Based on the procedures described above, Chandler et al. (1987) was the first published study that 6

examined expectancy-value in the context of music. However, the research output surged

only after 2005, with 33 studies published between 2006 and 2010—a distinct leap from six

in the previous five-year period.

#insert Figure 2#

Of the 110 records, 62 (56.4%) were published as journal articles. The remaining

were dissertations/theses (n = 33; 30.0%), conference papers (n = 12; 10.9%), and book

chapters (n = 3; 2.7%). Of the 62 journal articles, 49 (79.0%) were published in music and

arts journals, while the remaining 13 were published in education and psychology journals.

Journals that published the most articles on expectancy-value in music contexts were

Research Studies in Music Education (n = 14), Music Education Research (n = 10), and

Psychology of Music (n = 5). When combined, these three journals accounted for more than a

quarter (26.4%) of all the records on expectancy-value in music contexts.

One hundred and one records (91.8%) were empirical studies while the remaining nine (8.2%) were non-empirical (e.g., literature reviews and conceptual articles). U.S. participants were the most often sampled (n = 33), followed by Australia (n = 31) and the

United Kingdom (n = 12). Other locations sampled were Hong Kong (n = 6), Canada,

Finland, and Mexico (n = 5 each), South Korea (n = 3), Brazil, Mainland China, Israel,

Portugal, and South Africa (n = 2 each), and Denmark, Malaysia, New Zealand, Norway,

Singapore, Spain, Sweden, and Turkey (n = 1 each).

#insert Table 1#

Analysis of methodologies

Table 1 presents a summary of the methodologies, countries sampled, study design, data collection methods, salient topics, and components examined. An overview of all 110 records is presented in Supplementary Materials 1 to 4, categorised according to the methodologies employed. The studies were displayed in chronological order, from the 7

earliest to the most recent. Information on the participants, components included, study

design, data collection methods, and key findings in relation to expectancy-value were

provided for each study. As can be seen from Table 1, of the 110 studies, 57 (51.8%) were

quantitative, 13 (11.8%) were qualitative, 31 were mixed methods (28.2%), and 9 (8.2%)

were non-empirical. Accordingly, 80% (51.8% + 28.2%) of all studies employed quantitative

methods either in whole or in part, while 40% (11.8% + 28.2%) adopted qualitative

approaches. Quantitative methodologies were therefore twice as prevalent as qualitative

approaches.

The majority (86/88 = 97.7%) of the studies that employed quantitative methodology

used self-report questionnaires. Researcher-constructed questionnaires were commonly used

(37/88 = 42.0%; e.g., Amundson, 2012; Leung, 2008; Parkes & Jones, 2012; Sichivitsa,

2007). These questionnaires were devised based on expectancy-value theory and other

existing theories (e.g., flow theory; Burak, 2014; Weiss, 2015) or scales (e.g., Intrinsic

Motivation Inventory; StGeorge, 2010). A questionnaire developed by McPherson and based

on guidelines outlined in Eccles et al. (2005) has also been used or adapted in several studies

(20/88 = 22.7%; e.g., McPherson & O’Neill, 2010; Koh, 2011; Leung & McPherson, 2010;

Lowe & Coy, 2016; Seog et al., 2011; Xie & Leung, 2011). Twenty-nine studies (33.0%)

used questionnaires that were used in earlier studies. For instance, Ivaldi and O’Neill (2010)

administered the questionnaire used by Eccles et al. (1993), which was in turn adapted from

earlier studies (e.g., Eccles et al., 1983). For the two studies (McPherson, 2001; Mota, 1999)

that did not use self-report questionnaire, the authors collected quantitative data during the

interviews with the participants.

Among the studies that employed qualitative methodology, interview was the most

common approach to collect data (26/44 = 59.1%; e.g., Burland, 2005; Buttermann, 2019;

Kelly-McHale, 2011; Leung & McPherson, 2011; Miksza et al., 2018). Semi-structured 8 interviews were conducted with students (e.g., Kelly-McHale, 2011; McEwan, 2013; Mota,

1999; Picone, 2012), teachers (e.g., Buttermann, 2019; Kelly-McHale, 2011; Tonissen,

2017), and students’ parents (e.g., McEwan, 2013; Picone, 2012) to elicit their beliefs and values towards music and music education. Sample interview questions for students included,

“Is music important to you? Why?” (Kelly-McHale, 2011, p. 346) and “Do you think you were good at classroom music?” (McEwan, 2013, p. 121). For music teachers, sample interview questions were, “What are your expectations for student success?” (Buttermann,

2019; p. 45) and “Why do you think it’s important to have music in elementary schools?”

(Kelly-McHale, 2011, p. 338). Sample interview questions for parents included, “Do you think it is important for students generally to learn a musical instrument while at school?”

(McEwan, 2013, p. 124) and “What motivated you to involve your child in music education either in the school band or taking private lessons?” (Picone, 2012, p. 322).

The second common qualitative approach was the use of open-ended items (14/44 =

31.8%; e.g., Deskins, 2019; McEwan, 2006, 2013; Parkes & Jones, 2011; Upitis, Abrami,

Brook et al., 2017). Sample open-ended items included, “If you are considering a career in music performance, what are some of the main reasons?” (Parkes & Jones, 2011, p. 22),

“What were the most important reasons why you decided to enter a doctoral program in music education?” (Deskins, 2019, p. 26), and “Why do you want to continue learning your instrument?” (StGeorge, 2010, p. 337).

Another qualitative approach used by researchers involved focus group discussions

(12/44 = 27.3%; e.g., Lowe, 2010, 2012; Underhill, 2015). The discussions were often semi- structured to allow open dialogue among the participants (e.g., Harvey, 2013; Lowe, 2010;

Weiss, 2015). Sample questions included, “Is music valued by other kids/staff/parents?”

(Underhill, 2015, p. 92), “Can you describe the importance of jazz education to you?”

(Buttermann, 2019, p. 150), and “Did you enjoy the process of composing with an iPad?” 9

(Chen, 2020, p. 158). The responses were transcribed and analysed based on thematic

analysis (e.g., Lowe, 2011b, 2012; Miksza et al., 2018; Weiss, 2015) and expectancy-value

theory (e.g., Lowe, 2008b, 2008c, 2010).

Finally, researchers have collected data through observations of participants (11/44 =

25.0%). Six of these studies video recorded the participants (e.g., Miksza et al., 2018; Picone,

2012; Weiss, 2015). The video recordings were used and analysed in various ways. For

instance, Evans (2011) used video recordings to determine the amount of time participants

spent on practising and non-practising activities. Miksza et al. (2018) employed behavioural

analysis to identify certain behaviours and the status (i.e., routine completion, failure,

improvement, or solution of task) of each practice frame. Picone (2012) analysed the video

recordings using expectancy-value theory and other frameworks such as self-regulation

(McPherson & Zimmerman, 2002) and self-determination (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

Analysis of components included

As noted at the beginning of this paper, expectancy-value theory consists of two main components: expectancies for success and subjective task value. While expectancies for success may be further understood in terms of beliefs that are related to competence and perceived task difficulty, subjective task values can be construed in terms of attainment value, intrinsic value, utility value, and perceived cost. Of the 101 empirical studies examined in this review, 72 included both expectancy and task value components. However, the task value component was examined more frequently than its expectancy counterpart (95 versus

78). Among studies that examined task value, intrinsic value was most frequently included

(88 studies); this was followed by attainment value (85 studies), utility value (78 studies), and perceived cost (28 studies). Furthermore, researchers often examined attainment, intrinsic, and utility value together (50 studies), omitting perceived cost. With respect to the expectancy component, competence was included in more than twice the number of studies 10 compared to its task difficulty counterpart (75 versus 32). Researchers often examined competence on its own (46 studies), while 29 studies looked at both competence and perceived task difficulty.

Topics covered

Salient topics covered included students’ expectancy-value beliefs across music and other school subjects (e.g., McPherson & O'Neill, 2010; Portowitz et al., 2010; Seog et al.,

2011, Xie & Leung, 2011), continued music participation (e.g., Amundson, 2012; Sichivitsa,

2007; Simpkins, Vest, & Becnel, 2010), continued music learning (e.g., Lowe, 2007, 2008b,

2011a; Lowe & Coy, 2016), intentions to study music as an elective (e.g., Freer & Evans,

2018; Kingsford-Smith & Evans, 2019; McEwan, 2006, 2013), intentions to pursue a career in music (e.g., Jones & Parkes, 2010; Parkes & Jones, 2011, 2012), and parental influences

(e.g., Fredricks et al., 2006; Juvonen, 2019).

First, researchers have compared students’ expectancy-value beliefs across music and other school subjects. An international research project led by McPherson and colleagues

(González-Moreno, 2010; Hentschke, 2010; Juvonen, 2011; Leung & McPherson, 2010;

McPherson & Hendricks, 2010; McPherson & O’Neill, 2010; Portowitz et al., 2010; Seog et al., 2011; Xie & Leung, 2011) investigated students’ motivation to study music as a school subject across eight countries (Brazil, Mainland China, Finland, Hong Kong, Israel, South

Korea, Mexico, and USA). Based on the data from these eight countries, McPherson and

O’Neill (2010) compared students’ motivation to study music and other school subjects (art, mathematics, mother tongue, and physical education). Findings indicated that compared to other subjects (except for art), students valued music less and perceived music as less difficult. Students’ ratings of their competence beliefs for mother tongue and physical education were significantly higher than their rating of competence for music. For all countries except for Brazil, students’ ratings of competence beliefs and values for most 11 subjects (including music) declined across grade levels. Significant gender effects were found; for music, female students had higher ratings of competence beliefs and values than male students. Female students also perceived music as less difficult than male students.

Compared to non-music learners, music learners had higher competence beliefs for all five subjects, higher values for three subjects (art, mother tongue, and music), and lower task difficulty for all subjects except physical education.

Second, researchers have explored the influence of expectancy-value beliefs on continued music participation and learning. Findings suggested that students’ expectancy- value beliefs towards music, which were shaped by their musical participation, had positive influence on their music learning experience and continued music participation and learning.

For instance, Simpkins, Vest, and Becnel (2010) investigated 567 children’s participation in music and sports and continued participation in adolescence. Findings indicated that participants’ participation throughout elementary school influenced their self-concept and interest towards the music or sport activity, which predicted their participation during adolescence. StGeorge (2010) investigated the influence of subjective music learning experience on students’ participation in formal music lessons during childhood and adolescence. Results showed that feelings of ability, competence, and self-esteem influenced the meaningful experience of music learning, which in turn increased the likelihood of continued participation. Amundson (2012) explored factors that influenced continued music participation from high school to college among 369 college students. Results revealed that intrinsic value, perceived cost, competency, and background (e.g., peers, advice from high school choir teacher, knowledge of college choir program) were significant factors in terms of students’ continued music participation in college. In similar vein, Lowe (2011a, 2012) explored retention in class music among lower secondary school students in Australia.

Findings indicated that the decline in task values towards class music (Lowe, 2011a) and 12

weak competence beliefs (Lowe, 2012) contributed to low retention and enrolment in class

music.

Third, researchers have examined the influence of expectancy-value beliefs on students’ intentions to study music as an elective. On the one hand, studies have found that students’ value towards music mattered. Venter (2019) explored possible factors that contributed to the continuation and discontinuation of learning music among 180 ninth and tenth grade students. Findings indicated that students who reported higher value and competence beliefs for music than other subjects were also those who were more motivated to study music as an elective. Lowe (2008b) investigated eighth grade students’ motivation to study music after their first academic year in secondary school and found declining values towards music and a corresponding low enrolment in music elective for the following year.

Qualitative findings suggested that the decline in value towards music may be related to the activities presented during Year 8 music classes. On the other hand, Kingsford-Smith and

Evans (2019) found that values towards music of 180 seventh and eighth grade students did not significantly predict intentions to study music as an elective. Instead, psychological needs satisfaction (i.e., perceived autonomy, competence, and relatedness; Deci & Ryan, 2000;

Ryan & Deci, 2017) in music classes was a predictor of their intention to study music as an elective and their value towards music.

Fourth, studies have explored the influence of expectancy-value beliefs on music

career intentions. Jones and Parkes (2010) found that music teacher identity was the most

influential reason why undergraduate music students chose to pursue a career in music

education, while perceived competence as a music teacher and perceived usefulness of music

teaching were the least important reasons. In a parallel study, Parkes and Jones (2011) found

that undergraduate music students chose to pursue a career in music performance because 13 they valued music performance (in terms of enjoyment and usefulness), perceived themselves to be competent at performing, and identified themselves as musicians.

In a later study, Parkes and Jones (2012) found that attainment value was the strongest predictor of students’ intention to choose a career in music education, followed by intrinsic interest value and expectancies for success. On the other hand, expectancies for success was the strongest predictor of students’ intentions to choose a career in music performance, followed by attainment value, perceived ability, and intrinsic interest value. However, Miksza et al. (2019) found that students’ socially prescribed expectations to be perfect at playing music was negatively associated with students’ intentions to pursue a career in music through autonomous motivation. In short, students’ expectancy-value beliefs towards music were found to positively influence their intentions to pursue a career in music (Jones & Parkes,

2010; Parkes & Jones, 2011, 2012), but socially-imposed extreme expectancy beliefs (i.e., perfectionism) may be detrimental to students’ motivation to pursue a music career (Miksza et al., 2019).

Finally, researchers have investigated parental influences on their children’s behaviours and beliefs towards music. Sichivitsa (2007) found that parental support and involvement indirectly influenced non-music-major students’ value towards music, which was the strongest predictor of students’ intention to continue music participation. In a study involving 849 third, fourth, and sixth graders (Yoon, 1997), children’s perceived parental value towards music significantly predicted their preferred choice for music activity.

Similarly, Juvonen (2019) found that fifth and sixth grade students’ interest in music positively correlated with their perceived parental beliefs (students’ competence and importance) towards music as a school subject.

Simpkins and colleagues (Fredricks et al., 2006; Simpkins et al., 2012; Simpkins,

Vest, Dawes, et al., 2010) conducted a line of research on parental beliefs on children’s 14 motivation towards music. Parents’ perceived competence of children and value towards instrumental music predicted their children’s expectancy-value beliefs towards instrumental music and actual music participation (Fredricks et al., 2006). Elementary school students’ expectancy-value beliefs towards instrumental music were predicted by their parents’ musical behaviours during their childhood (Simpkins, Vest, Dawes, et al., 2010). Mothers’ musical behaviours were predicted by their own beliefs towards music from one year ago; these behaviours predicted their children’s expectancy-value beliefs towards music during adolescence, which in turn predicted their musical behaviours (Simpkins et al., 2012). Taken together, these findings suggest that parental support, musical involvement, musical behaviours, expectancy-value beliefs, and how their beliefs were perceived by their children have positive influences on their children’ musical behaviours and expectancy-value beliefs towards music.

Discussion

In this section, we distill and interpret the literature with the goal of presenting implications for research and practice. As noted earlier, research on expectancy-value in music contexts were often conducted in North American, Oceanian, and European countries.

South Africa (Parkes & Daniel, 2013; Venter, 2019) was the only African country covered, while Brazil (Hentschke, 2010) was the only South American country involved, resonating with Henrich et al.’s (2010) observation that in psychological research, participants from

“WEIRD” (western, educated, industrialised, rich, and democratic) populations were most often sampled. As Henrich et al. (2010) argued, “we need to be less cavalier in addressing questions of human nature on the basis of data drawn from this particularly thin, and rather unusual, slice of humanity” (p. 61). Future research may draw on a larger diversity of research participants to more accurately represent the psychological dispositions of music learners across varied cultures. 15

In our methodological analysis, we highlighted that the most common quantitative approach was the use of self-report questionnaires (97.7%), especially those constructed by researchers themselves (e.g., Leung, 2008; Parkes & Jones, 2012) and the questionnaire developed by McPherson and O’Neill (2010). Future studies may draw on data beyond self- report sources. Among qualitative studies, interviews were the most common sources of data

(59.1%). Less common approaches, such as keeping journals and diaries, may be considered.

As noted in our analysis of components, perceived cost was examined in only 28 out of 94 studies on task value—which stands in stark contrast to all other three aspects (i.e., 88 for intrinsic value, 85 for attainment value, and 78 for utility value). One possible reason for the relative lack of research attention on perceived cost may be that it has not been well defined operationally, which in turn led to the paucity of validated scales for this construct

(Barron & Hulleman, 2015; Wigfield & Eccles, 2020). Nonetheless, over the past decade, researchers in broader fields have developed scales to measure perceived cost (e.g., Flake,

2012; Flake et al., 2015; Kosovich et al., 2015). Future research may adapt these scales for music contexts, triangulating findings where appropriate with qualitative approaches.

Additionally, researchers could further theorise cost, including its subcomponents and how much it weighs within the larger expectancy-value framework (see Barron & Hulleman,

2015; Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Flake et al., 2015).

Another potential area of concern relates to the fact that with respect to the expectancy component, competence was included in more than twice the number of studies compared to its task difficulty counterpart (75 versus 32). Furthermore, researchers often examined competence solely (46 studies). Future research on expectancy-value theory in music contexts may pay greater research attention on task difficulty, examining in particular how it distinguishes from expectancies for success and ability/academic self-concepts so as to 16

“have a clearer sense of their interrelations and separate influences on outcomes” (Eccles &

Wigfield, 2020, p. 3).

As reported in our analysis of topics covered, expectancy-value beliefs positively

contributed to students’ continued music participation and learning (e.g., Amundson, 2012;

Lowe & Coy, 2016), intentions to study music (e.g., Freer & Evans, 2018; Kingsford-Smith

& Evans, 2019), and intentions to pursue a career in music (e.g., Parkes & Jones, 2011,

2012). However, no interventional studies were found. In other domains, there have been an increasing number of expectancy-value theory-based interventional studies (see Harackiewicz

& Priniski, 2018; Rosenzweig & Wigfield, 2016). A systematic review by Rosenzweig and

Wigfield (2016) found that interventions targeting students’ task values towards STEM (i.e., science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) significantly increased students’ self- reported levels of task values towards STEM activities or courses and their academic outcomes in those areas. This is a potentially fruitful future area of research for expectancy- value studies in music contexts that may yield positive outcomes in terms of practical strategies in music contexts.

One limitation of this study was that PRISMA guidelines were followed to retrieve the research literature on expectancy-value theory in music contexts. As stated in the inclusion criteria, the full text of records should be available and written in English; research published in other languages were excluded. Future studies could systematically review research literature published in other languages and make comparisons with this study.

Furthermore, this study was limited to the expectancy-value framework conceptualised by

Atkinson (1957, 1964) and Eccles and colleagues (e.g., Eccles et al., 1983; Eccles &

Wigfield, 1995; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000); research on similar notions (e.g., Lewin, 1938;

Tolman, 1932) might have been left out. 17

Notwithstanding the limitations, this study has presented an overview of the research literature in music contexts and offered some recommendations for future research. Eccles and Wigfield (1995) pointed out that “over time, there has been an evolution in the conceptualization of constructs linked to expectancy for success and task value, as well as a refinement in the components of each construct” (p. 217). Sustained research endeavours in music contexts will undoubtedly contribute to the “continued evolution” (Barron &

Hulleman, 2015, p. 508) of the theory and how the components work in concert to impact students’ motivation to study music during their schooling years—and beyond.

Declaration of Conflicting Interest

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. 18

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Records yielded on five databases (n = 1,120) • PsycINFO (n = 36) • Sage (n = 36) • Informit (n = 2) • Web of Science (n = 48) • Google Scholar (n = 998)

105 duplicates removed

Title and abstract screening (n = 1,015)

812 records removed • Not related to music • Not related to expectancy-value • Book review • Commentary • Title and/or abstract not in English 203 records were assessed in full for its eligibility: • Full text is available and published in English • Uses/examines expectancy-value framework • In the domain of music

96 records excluded • Full text not available (n = 7) Backward • Not published in English (n = 6) citation search • Not directly related (n = 36) (n = 3) • Did not use/examine expectancy-value (n = 47)

Final analysis (n = 110)

Figure 1. The PRISMA flowchart.

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0 1986 - 1990 1991 - 1995 1996 - 2000 2001 - 2005 2006 - 2010 2011 - 2015 2016 - 2020*

Number of articles

Figure 2. Expectancy-value research output in five-year periods. Note: *Number of articles until 6th August 2020.

Table 1 Summary of expectancy-value studies in music contexts

Overview Number of studies Methodology Quantitative 57 Qualitative 13 Mixed Methods 31 Others 9 Country/Location USA 33 Australia 31 United Kingdom 12 Hong Kong 6 Canada 5 Finland 5 Mexico 5 South Korea 3 Brazil 2 Mainland China 2 Israel 2 Portugal 2 South Africa 2 Denmark 1 Malaysia 1 New Zealand 1 Norway 1 Singapore 1 Spain 1 Sweden 1 Turkey 1 Study design (Quantitative) Between-subjects 50 Correlational 37

Within-subjects 30 Factor analysis 18 Longitudinal 17 Descriptive 10 Experimental/Quasi-experimental 4 Study design (Qualitative) Phenomenological 15 Case study 12 Grounded theory 5 Inductive 5 Deductive 4 Ethnographical 3 Narrative 3 Exploratory 2 Ontological 2 Genealogical 1 Microanalytic 1 Naturalistic 1 Data collection method (Quantitative) Questionnaire (Researcher-constructed) 37 Questionnaire (From previous studies) 29 Questionnaire (By McPherson) 20 Through interview 2 Data collection method (Qualitative) Interview 26 Open-ended items 14 Focus group discussion 12 Observation 11 Others (Journals, artifacts, etc.) 5 Salient topics Music and other school subjects 19 Continued music participation and learning 15 Intentions to study music as an elective 8

Parental influences 8 Intentions to pursue a career in music 5 Components Expectancy + Task value Competence + Task value 40 Competence + Task difficulty + Task value 29 Task value only 23 Competence only 6 Task difficulty + Task value 3 Task value Intrinsic + Attainment + Utility 50 Intrinsic + Attainment + Utility + Perceived 23 cost 8 Intrinsic only 3 Intrinsic + Attainment + Perceived cost 3 Intrinsic + Attainment 3 Attainment + Utility 2 Attainment + Perceived cost 1 Intrinsic + Utility 1 Attainment only 1 Utility only

Supplementary Material 1

Quantitative Studies (n = 57)

Authors (Year) Participant(s) Component(s) Study design Method(s) Key findings

Chandler et al. 234 high school Expectancy Correlational Questionnaire Students who perceived themselves as (1987) band students (competence) (Researcher- successful and satisfied with their performance 9th to 12th grade constructed) were more likely to challenge themselves for 148 females, 86 higher positions in band and attribute their males challenge success to internal factors. USA Eccles et al. (1993) 865 children Expectancy Exploratory factor Questionnaires Participants were able to differentiate their Aged 7–10 (competence, task analysis; confirmatory adapted from motivational beliefs towards different domains. 445 females, 420 difficulty); Task factor analysis; Eccles and Younger children reported more positive males value (attainment, between-subjects colleagues (e.g., motivational beliefs than older ones. Female USA intrinsic, utility) Eccles, 1984a, children reported higher motivational beliefs for 1984b; Eccles et instrumental music and reading while their male al., 1983; Parsons counterparts reported higher motivational beliefs et al., 1982) for mathematics and sports. Wigfield et al. 615 children Expectancy Between-subjects; Questionnaire The relationships between children's (1997) Aged 7–10 (competence); within-subjects; adapted from competence in each domain perceived by 325 females, 290 Task value longitudinal; Eccles and themselves and by their parents and teachers males (attainment, correlational colleagues (e.g., increased over time. Children’s self-reports of Students’ mothers intrinsic, utility) Eccles et al., competence beliefs, usefulness, and importance and teachers 1993) towards each activity declined over time. There USA were declines in their interests in reading and instrumental music. Gender differences did not change over time. Yoon (1997) 849 children Task value Between-subjects; Questionnaire Perceived parental value towards music was 3rd to 6th grade (intrinsic, correlational (Researcher- positively associated with their choice for music USA perceived parental constructed) activity and parental involvement in their music value) activity. Perceived enjoyment was also positively associated with parental involvement in their music activity.

Dai and Schader Parents of 231 Parental Exploratory factor Questionnaire Findings indicated that parents perceived their (2002) music students expectancy analysis; between- (Researcher- children to be more competent in music and (aged 6–18, 93 (competence); subjects; within- constructed) academic achievement than athletic activities females, 137 Parental task subjects; correlational and they adjusted their beliefs according to their males, 1 value (attainment, children’s musical development. unspecified) perceived cost) USA Ryan (2005) 506 children and Expectancy Longitudinal; Researcher- Children's aspiration to play an instrument was their parents (competence); correlational; within- constructed strongly influenced by their demographic and Aged 10–11 Task value subjects; between- questionnaires for parents’ characteristics (i.e., family 275 females, 231 (attainment, subjects parents and socioeconomic status, parental efficacy beliefs, males intrinsic, utility, children and gender) through their expectancy-value *126 children and perceived parental beliefs and perceived parental value and support their parents in value); Parental for music. longitudinal expectancy and component task value beliefs UK Bailey (2006) 29 high school Task value Quasi-experimental; Motivated Task value towards band class was positively instrumental (attainment, between-subjects; Strategies for correlated with intrinsic goal orientation. music students intrinsic, utility) correlational Learning 13 females, 16 Questionnaire males (Pintrich & de USA Groot, 1990; Pintrich et al., 1991) Fredricks et al. 367 elementary Expectancy Correlational; Children's Parental perceptions of children’s competence (2006) school students (competence); longitudinal; between- questionnaire and their value of their children’s instrumental and their parents Task value subjects (Eccles et al., music participation were the strongest predictor 3rd to 6th grade (attainment, 1993; Wigfield et of children’s self- and task beliefs towards USA intrinsic); al., 1997) instrumental music participation and their actual Parental Parents’ participation rates. expectancy and questionnaire task value beliefs (Researcher- constructed)

Lowe (2007) 300 Year 8 Expectancy Factor analysis Motivation as Year 8 students were able to differentiate students (competence) Values, between academic, social, and general Australia Competence and expectancies in the class music setting. Expectancy Questionnaire (Researcher- constructed) McCormick and 723 instrumental Expectancy Correlational; Questionnaire Students’ expectancies for success towards a McPherson (2007) music learners (competence); structural equation (Researcher- graded music examination was associated with Aged 9–19 Task value modeling constructed) their grades given by the examiner, which was Australia (attainment, associated with their expectancies for success intrinsic, utility) towards next graded music examination. Sichivitsa (2007) 130 non-music- Task value Correlational; path Choir Parental support and involvement in music major students (attainment, analysis Participation influenced students’ self-concept in music, enrolled in choir intrinsic, utility) Survey comfort in choir, and value towards music, classes (Researcher- which in turn influenced their intention to USA constructed) continue music participation. Value towards music was the strongest predictor of students’ intention to continue music participation. Leung (2008) 582 primary Expectancy Between-subjects; Questionnaire Male students reported lower levels of school students (competence, task within-subjects; (Researcher- motivational beliefs than their female Aged 9–16 difficulty); Task pretest-posttest constructed) counterparts while non-instrumentalists reported 328 females, 254 value (attainment, lower levels of motivational beliefs than males intrinsic, utility, instrumentalists. After experiencing music *Only 545 perceived cost) composing, male students’ self-reported levels completed post- of self-efficacy increased and non- test instrumentalists’ self-report levels of self- Hong Kong efficacy, intrinsic value, utility value, and expectancy increased. Lowe (2008a) 276 Year 8 music Expectancy Factor analysis; Questionnaire Year 8 students consistently reported higher students (competence) longitudinal; within- (Researcher- expectancies in other subjects compared to *Only 222 subjects constructed) music. By the end of the academic year, Year 8 completed post- music students' perceived physical abilities in questionnaire music decreased more than the understanding of Australia music subjects.

Martin (2008) 224 young Task value Confirmatory factor Motivation and Confirmation factor analysis indicated the good classical (attainment, analysis Engagement fit of the multidimensional model of motivation musicians and utility) Scale (Martin, and engagement (Motivation and Engagement 239 sportspeople 2006) Wheel) for both music and sports samples. Aged 12–18 Adaptive cognitions dimensions of the model 237 females, 226 included self-efficacy, valuing, and mastery males orientation. Australia Ghazali and 1,060 primary Expectancy (task Between-subjects Questionnaire Children perceived learning music outside of McPherson (2009) school children difficulty); Task adapted from school more favourably than learning music in Aged 9–12 value (attainment, Eccles et al. school. Chinese Christian and Indian Christian 578 females, 482 intrinsic, utility) (1993) children generally reported greater levels of males motivational beliefs towards learning music in Malaysia school than other ethnic groups. Females reported greater levels of motivational beliefs towards learning music in school than males. Music learners reported greater levels of motivational beliefs towards learning music in school than non-learners and those who ceased learning. González-Moreno 3,613 students Expectancy Confirmatory factor McPherson's Findings revealed that students and teachers (2009) 4th to 12th grade (competence, task analysis; adapted version of shared similar expectancy and value beliefs for 1,806 females, difficulty); Task correlational; expectancy-value music, placing music as the least important 1,807 males value (attainment, between-subjects motivational scale subject amongst other subjects (art, history, intrinsic, utility) (Eccles et al., math, physical education, science, and Spanish) 91 primary 2005; Wigfield et and held low expectations of being able to learn classroom al., 1997) and teach music successfully. teachers 69 females, 22 males Mexico Renwick and 677 music Expectancy Within-subjects; Questionnaire Competence beliefs and task value towards McPherson (2009) students (competence); between-subjects; based on Eccles et learning an instrument declined across age Aged 8–19 Task value exploratory factor al. (2005) groups. analysis

440 females, 237 (attainment, males intrinsic, utility) Australia González-Moreno 3,613 students Expectancy Within-subjects; Questionnaire Findings indicated students did not expect much (2010) 4th to 12th grade (competence, task between-subjects (McPherson & success in learning music in school and 1,806 females, difficulty); Task O'Neill, 2010) perceived school music as low in value. 1,807 males value (attainment, However, music learners exhibited better Mexico intrinsic, utility) motivation for all school subjects than non- music learners. Hentschke (2010) 1,848 students Expectancy Within-subjects; Questionnaire Music was highly valued by participants. Self- 6th grade to 3rd (competence, task between-subjects (McPherson & report levels of interest, importance, and utility year of high difficulty); Task O’Neill, 2010) for music as a school subject increased across school value (attainment, school grade levels. However, participants 950 females, 898 intrinsic, utility) perceived Portuguese, mathematics, and science males as more useful and important than music. Brazil Ivaldi and O’Neill 381 secondary Expectancy Between-subjects; Questionnaire Participants’ competence beliefs and values for (2010) school students (competence); correlational (Eccles et al., music influenced their aspiration and Aged 13–14 Task value 1983) attainability beliefs of becoming like their 186 females, 195 (attainment, musician role models. Instrumental participants males intrinsic, utility) reported greater competence beliefs and values UK for music than non-instrumental participants. The relationship between participants’ attainability beliefs and motivation to become like their musician role model might be mediated by their competence beliefs and values for music. Leung and 4,495 students Expectancy Within-subjects; Questionnaire Self-report levels of competence beliefs and McPherson (2010) Aged 14–17 (competence, task between-subjects (McPherson & values for music as a school subject declined 2,682 females, difficulty); Task O’Neill, 2010) while task difficult increased across school 1,813 males value (attainment, grade levels. Participants reported lower levels Hong Kong intrinsic, utility) of competence beliefs, values, and task difficulty for music than Chinese language, mathematics, PE, and visual arts.

McPherson and 3,037 students Expectancy Within-subjects; Questionnaire As compared to non-music learners, music Hendricks (2010) 6th to 12th grade (competence, task between-subjects (McPherson & learners reported stronger motivational beliefs USA difficulty); Task O’Neill, 2010) for music, art, English, and science. Participants value (attainment, held low interest in music as a school subject intrinsic, utility) but greater interest in music outside of school. McPherson and 24,143 students Expectancy Within-subjects; Questionnaire Music as a school subject in school was O’Neill (2010) Aged 9–21 (competence, task between-subjects (Researcher- generally perceived by participants as lower in 11,909 females, difficulty); Task constructed; value across eight countries. Except for 10,066 males value (attainment, adapted from Brazilian participants, self-report levels of Various countries intrinsic, utility) Eccles et al., competence beliefs and values for music as a (Brazil, China, 2005) school subject declined across school grade Finland, Hong levels. Females held better motivational beliefs Kong, Israel, than their male counterparts. Music learners Mexico, South reported greater motivational beliefs than those Korea, USA) who did not learn music. Portowitz et al. 2,257 students Expectancy Within-subjects; Questionnaire Israeli non-music learners in the upper school (2010) 5th to 12th grade (competence, task between-subjects (McPherson & level grades reported lowest self-report levels of Israel difficulty); Task O’Neill, 2010) competence beliefs and values, as compared to value (attainment, other countries (Brazil, China, Finland, Hong intrinsic, utility) Kong, Mexico, South Korea, and USA). Music learners reported higher values and lower task difficulty for music art, and science than non- music learners. All participants’ interest in music as a school subject was ranked below all other school subjects (art, math, mother tongue, PE, and science) but their interest in music outside of school was highly ranked. Simpkins, Vest, 567 students Expectancy Correlational; Self-Concept of Adolescents' participation patterns during and Becnel (2010) Mean age 8.72 (competence); longitudinal; Ability and childhood predicted their participation in years Task value structural equation Interest items adolescence through their self-concept and 289 females, 278 (intrinsic) modeling; cluster (Eccles et al., interest towards music or sports. males analysis 1993; Jacobs et USA al., 2002)

Simpkins, Vest, 589 families (589 Expectancy Correlational; Children’s self- Children’s motivational beliefs towards music Dawes, et al. children, 589 (competence); structural equation concepts of ability declined across school grades. Female children (2010) mothers, 387 Task value modeling; growth and values generally had greater motivational beliefs fathers) (attainment, curve analysis (Fredricks & towards music than their male counterparts. USA intrinsic) Eccles, 2002; Slower decline in children’s motivational beliefs Jacobs et al., towards music from first to sixth grade was 2002) predicted by their parents’ music behaviours at first grade and by the increase in their fathers’ music behaviours from first to sixth grade. Constantine (2011) 416 university Expectancy Descriptive; between- Questionnaire Possible factors that influence students’ decision students (competence); subjects (Researcher- to participate in high school music were: (1) 190 females, 203 Task value constructed) school schedule; (2) parental encouragement; (3) males, 23 (intrinsic) musical self-concept; (4) music teachers’ unspecified opinions; (5) having peer group or friends USA within music ensembles; (6) enjoyment in traditional repertoire; and (7) consumption of classical music Juvonen (2011) 1,654 students Expectancy Within-subjects; Questionnaire Findings indicated that participants liked music 5th to 12th grade (competence, task between-subjects (McPherson & as a school subject, but they did not perceive it 939 females, 715 difficulty); Task O’Neill, 2010) as valuable as compared to other school males value (attainment, subjects. Music learners reported better Finland intrinsic, utility) motivational beliefs for all school subjects than those who did not learn music. Koh (2011) 1,733 Primary 6 Expectancy Within-subjects; Questionnaire Music as a school subject was valued lowly by to Secondary 2 (competence, task between-subjects; (McPherson & participants, especially low aspiring non-music students difficulty); Task correlational O’Neill, 2010) learners. Older students reported lower values 859 females, 874 value (attainment, for music than the younger ones. Perceived males intrinsic, utility) usefulness of school music was a significant Singapore predictor of students’ intention to study instrumental music outside of school. Lowe (2011a) 276 students Task value Within-subjects; Questionnaire First year secondary school students’ ratings of Aged 12–13 (attainment, longitudinal (Researcher- all task values items for class music declined *Only 222 intrinsic, utility) constructed) across the academic year. completed post- questionnaire

Australia Seog et al. (2011) 2,671 students Expectancy Within-subjects; Questionnaire Across school grade levels, there was a decline 5th to 12th grade (competence, task between-subjects (McPherson & in participants’ self-report levels of values for 1,458 females, difficulty); Task O’Neill, 2010) music and an increase in participants’ self-report 1,209 males, 4 value (attainment, levels of task difficulty for music. However, unspecified intrinsic, utility) music as a school subject was highly ranked South Korea among other subjects (art, Korean, math, PE, and science), suggesting high interests to learn music in school. Whitbread and 300 students Expectancy (task Descriptive Questionnaire Participants perceived music as less important Leong (2011) Aged 12–16 difficulty); Task (Researcher- and useful than core subjects (Chinese, English, 150 females, 150 value (attainment, constructed) and math). Findings also indicated that males intrinsic, utility) participants’ perceptions might be related to Hong Kong their perceptions of their parents’ evaluations and expectations towards those subjects. Xie and Leung 2,750 students Expectancy Within-subjects; Questionnaire Participants valued music as a school subject (2011) 5th to 12th grade (competence, task between-subjects (McPherson & lesser than other school subjects (art, Chinese, 1,358 females, difficulty); Task O’Neill, 2010) math, PE, and science). Across school grade 1,392 males value (attainment, levels, participants’ self-reports of competence China intrinsic, utility) beliefs for music declined while interest in music and task difficulty for music increased. Amundson (2012) 369 college Expectancy Between-subjects Choral Findings indicated that intrinsic value, cost, students (competence, task Participation competency, and background (e.g., peers, advice Aged 18 and difficulty); Task Survey from high school choir teacher, knowledge of above value (attainment, (Researcher- college choir program) were significant 261 females, 107 intrinsic, utility, constructed) motivational factors of continued choral males, 1 perceived cost) participation from high school to college. unspecified USA González-Moreno 56 graduate Expectancy Between-subjects; Questionnaire Female participants reported higher task value (2012b) students (competence, task confirmatory factor adapted from towards graduate music degree while males 19 females, 37 difficulty); Task analysis; correlational Eccles and reported higher competence beliefs towards males value (attainment, colleagues graduate music degree. Students’ task value was Mexico intrinsic, utility, (Eccles et al. predicted by the perception of positive perceived cost) 1983; Eccles et environmental characteristics of programme

al., 2005) and (e.g., reputation of programme and university, McPherson and continuous relevant advice, professors’ O’Neill (2010) expertise). Negative environmental characteristics of programme (e.g., lack of sufficient faculty support, lack of adequate infrastructure) positively predicted student’ perceived cost and task difficulty and negatively predicted students’ competences beliefs. Parkes and Jones 270 Expectancy Correlational Expectancy-Value Attainment value, intrinsic interest value, and (2012) undergraduate (competence); Questionnaire for expectancies for success significantly predicted music students Task value Teaching students’ intention to choose a career in music USA (attainment, Classroom Music education. Expectancies for success, attainment intrinsic, utility, and Music value, ability perceptions, and intrinsic interest perceived cost) Performance value significantly predicted students’ intention (Researcher- to choose a career in music performance. constructed; based on Eccles & Wigfield, 1995) Simpkins et al. 987 families (987 Expectancy Correlational; Mother Beliefs Mothers’ beliefs towards a domain (sports, (2012) youths and 723 (competence); longitudinal (e.g., Eccles et al., music, math) significantly predicted their mothers) Task value 2000) behaviours in that domain in a year’s time, USA (attainment, Youth Beliefs which predicted their children’s motivational intrinsic, utility, (Jacobs et al., beliefs towards that domain. Youths’ perceived cost); 2002) motivational beliefs towards a domain (sports, mothers' music, math, reading) predicted their behaviours expectancy and in that domain four years later. Mothers’ task value beliefs behaviours in a domain (sports, music, math) mediated the relationship between mothers’ and youths’ beliefs towards that domain. Youths’ motivational beliefs towards a domain (sports, music, math) mediated the relationship between mothers’ and youths’ behaviours in that domain.

Hallam (2013) 163 instrumental Expectancy Correlational Questionnaire Level of expertise attained was negatively music students (competence); (Researcher- associated with perceived value towards playing Aged 7–17 Task value constructed) instrument. Future aspiration for music was 126 females, 37 (intrinsic) predicted by enjoyment of musical activities, males self-beliefs on competence, and perceived value UK towards playing instrument. Ivaldi (2013) 117 young Expectancy Exploratory factor Questionnaire Factor analysis of the expectancy-value musicians (60 (competence); analysis; between- (Eccles et al., questionnaire generated three factors: intrinsic conservatoire and Task value subjects 1983) value, extrinsic value, and competence. 57 county level) (attainment, Conservatoire students reported higher levels of Aged 13–19 intrinsic, utility) intrinsic value, extrinsic value, and competence UK than county level students. Conservatoire students also reported higher achievement attainability and aspiration beliefs to become like their role models than county level students. Older students (aged 17–19) reported higher intrinsic values but lower attainability beliefs than younger students (aged 13–15). Phillips (2013) 313 adolescents Expectancy Within-subjects; Questionnaire Domain-specific gender stereotypes in music Aged 11–18 (competence); between-subjects adapted from domain did not emerge in the study. Both male 188 females, 125 Task value Babkes and Weiss and female participants in all activity groups males (attainment, (1999), Fredricks (sport-only, music-only, sport-plus-music) USA intrinsic, and Eccles reported similar competence beliefs, and perceived cost) (2005), Raedeke perceived cost towards music. Music-only (1997), and Weiss participants reported high competence beliefs and Weiss (2003) for music and low competence beliefs for sports. Burak (2014) 190 music Task value Descriptive Questionnaire Gender, grade of students, daily practice students (attainment, (Researcher- duration, and being in a music conservatory may 101 females, 89 intrinsic, constructed) influence students’ motivation (i.e., expectancy- males perceived cost) value and flow) to play an instrument. Turkey Hamlin (2014) 191 high school Expectancy (task Correlational Hamlin Practice commitment was predicted by the band students difficulty); Task Instrumental orientations to practice (i.e., perceived task Aged 13–19 value (utility) Practice Survey usefulness, perceived task difficulty, ability to (adapted from

123 females, 68 various research get help and resources on practising, and belief males such as Miksza, that achievement is related to effort) USA 2006; Smith, 2005) Waters et al. 293 male students Expectancy Descriptive; between- Questionnaire Participants were more motivated to choose (2014) Aged 13–16 (competence); subjects (Researcher- sport as an elective than to choose music. Australia Task value constructed) Results indicated that individual factors (e.g., (attainment, interest, competence beliefs) were more intrinsic, utility) important than social-environment factors (e.g., parental influence) in influencing participants’ decision to choose music or sport as an elective. McPherson et al. 2,727 students Expectancy Within-subjects, Questionnaire Across school years, participants’ self-reports of (2015) 5th to 12th grade (competence, task between-subjects (McPherson & competence beliefs and values (interest, 1,193 females, difficulty); Task O’Neill, 2010) importance, and usefulness) declined while their 1,534 males value (attainment, self-reports of task difficulty increased. For Australia intrinsic, utility) English, math, and music, music learners generally reported better motivational beliefs than non-music learners. Female students perceived music as more important and useful but less interesting than male students. High- SES participants’ self-reports of values towards music declined across school years while younger low-SES participants expressed desire to learn an instrument. Tossavainen and 1,654 students Task value Within-subjects, Questionnaire Students were more interested in studying music Juvonen (2015) 5th to 12th grade (attainment, between-subjects; (adapted from than mathematics, but students were more Finland intrinsic, utility) correlational McPherson & interested in studying music outside of school. O’Neill, 2010) Females were more interested in studying music than males. Students enjoyed studying music more than mathematics, but they perceived mathematics as more important and useful than music. Interest in studying music was strongly associated with enjoyment, perceived importance, and usefulness of studying music. Positive relationship was found between interest

in studying mathematics outside of school and motivation to study music. Hallam (2016) 2,131 young Expectancy Between-subjects; Questionnaire Participants who failed their examination musicians (competence); correlational (Researcher- reported significantly lower enjoyment of Aged 6–19 Task value constructed) performing and enjoyment of playing, lessons, UK (attainment, and practice than those who passed. Adoption of intrinsic) ineffective practising strategies was the strongest negative predictor of examination outcome while enjoyment of performing was the strongest positive predictor. Lowe and Coy 256 secondary Expectancy Descriptive; Questionnaire Participants of all year groups reported higher (2016) school students (competence, task exploratory factor (McPherson & levels of importance value than interest and Aged 10–14 difficulty); Task analysis O’Neill, 2010) utility values. Three factors emerged from EFA: Australia value (attainment, factor 1 (competence and task difficulty), factor intrinsic, utility) 2 (importance and utility), and factor 3 (interest and cost). Phillips and Weiss 278 adolescents Expectancy Within-subjects; Questionnaire Domain-specific gender stereotypes in music (2016) Aged 11–18 (competence); between-subjects adapted from domain did not emerge in the study. Both male 155 females, 123 Task value Babkes and Weiss and female participants in all activity groups males (attainment, (1999), Fredricks (sport-only, music-only, sport-plus-music) USA intrinsic, and Eccles reported similar motivational beliefs towards perceived cost) (2005), Raedeke music. Participants in the music-only group (1997), and Weiss reported high motivational beliefs for music and and Weiss (2003) low for sports. Upitis, Abrami, 3,920 music Expectancy Correlational Questionnaire Enjoyment of music and competence beliefs Varela, et al. students (competence); (Researcher- were predicted by intrinsic motivation. (2017) Median age 15 Task value constructed) Likelihood of performing well in public years (intrinsic) predicted examination outcome, performance 2,822 females skills (performing, aural abilities, and 1,098 males practising), and competence beliefs. Canada Freer (2018) 403 students Task value Correlational; Motivation and Satisfaction of needs in the music classroom Aged 12–14 (attainment, structural equation Engagement predicted students’ intentions to take music as 246 females, 153 intrinsic, utility) modeling; between- Scale – High an elective. Students’ perception of support from males, 4 others subjects their teachers influenced the development of

Australia School (Martin, needs satisfaction. Latent profile analysis 2007) indicated that students’ music learning experiences in primary school may contribute to their motivation to continue learning music in high school. Freer and Evans 204 male students Task value Correlational; Motivation and Value towards music, psychological needs (2018) Aged 12–14 (attainment, structural equation Engagement satisfaction, and instrumental experience were Australia intrinsic, utility) modelling Scale – High significant predictors of students’ elective School (Martin, intentions. Instrumental experience, however, 2007) was not as influential as value and psychological needs satisfaction. Psychological needs satisfaction was also found to be a significant predictor of students’ value towards music. Uy (2018) 372 students Expectancy Descriptive; between- Questionnaire Students rated highest value for musical theatre 9th to 12th grade (competence, task subjects; correlational (adapted from and individual music lessons and highest 185 females, 182 difficulty); Task McPherson & expectancies for success for individual music males, 4 others, 1 value (attainment, O’Neill, 2010) lessons. Students’ socio-economic status (SES) unspecified intrinsic, utility, and gender influenced their values and USA perceived cost) expectancies towards music activities: (1) those with higher SES valued music more than those with median SES; (2) females had higher expectancies and values for vocal music activities than males while males perceived music technology less difficult than females. Students’ values towards music activities predicted their choice to participate in music. Bernabé-Valero et 84 non-music- Task value Correlational Musical Profile Perceived importance of music in life al. (2019) major students (attainment, Scale (Bernabé- significantly predicted effort and gratitude Aged 18–45 perceived cost) Valero et al., towards music. Sacrifice (perceived cost) was 59 females, 25 2016) positively correlated with effort and gratitude males towards music. Spain Juvonen (2019) 403 students Expectancy Descriptive; between- Questionnaire In general, students perceived music as an 5th and 6th grade (competence, task subjects; correlational (McPherson & interesting school subject, but females were difficulty); Task O’Neill, 2010) more interested that males. Intrinsic value was

211 females, 192 value (attainment, positively correlated with self-efficacy and males intrinsic, utility, attainment value and negatively correlated with Finland perceived cost); perceived cost. Attainment value was also perceived parental strongly correlated with utility value. Students beliefs and values who had a music hobby reported higher reports of intrinsic value than those who do not have a music hobby. Intrinsic value was found to be positively correlated with perceived parental beliefs on children's competence and importance of music as a school subject. Kingsford-Smith 180 male students Expectancy Correlational; Value: Motivation Students’ psychological needs satisfaction was a and Evans (2019) Mean age 13.73 (competence); structural equation and Engagement predictor of their value towards music and years Task value modelling; Scale (Martin, intention to study music as an elective. Australia (attainment, longitudinal 2007) However, values towards music did not intrinsic, utility) Expectancy: significantly predict the intention to study music Students' as an elective. expected grade for music class (10% to 100%) Miksza et al. Sample one: Expectancy Correlational; path Perfectionist Socially prescribed perfectionist expectation (2019) 386 music (competence; analysis expectations was found to be negatively associated with students perfectionism) items adapted autonomous motivation, which was positively Aged 17–43 from Cox et al. associated with intentions to pursue a career in 229 females, 152 (2002) music. males, 5 others Sample two: 74 music students Aged 18–48 50 females, 24 males Australia and USA Venter (2019) 180 music Expectancy Descriptive; between- Questionnaire Participants who had higher self-reports of learners (competence, task subjects; correlational (McPherson & values and competence beliefs for music than 9th and 10th grade difficulty); Task O’Neill, 2010) other subjects were also those who were

108 females, 72 value (attainment, motivated to study music as an elective. These males intrinsic, utility) students also had higher self-reports of South Africa competence beliefs and lower self-reports of task difficulty for most subjects that those who had no intention to study music as an elective. Males had higher self-reports of value and competence beliefs and lower self-reports of task difficult for several subjects, including music, than females. Regression analyses indicated that gender, school, and grade were significant predictors of students’ value towards music. School was also a significant predictor of perceived task difficulty.

Supplementary Material 2

Qualitative Studies (n = 13)

Authors (Year) Participant(s) Component(s) Study design Method(s) Key findings

McEwan (2006) 15 students and Task value Interpretive case study Open-ended Students’ intrinsic task values were important their parents (attainment, survey factors of their motivation to enrol into a music Year 8 intrinsic, utility) Student interview elective. Intrinsic task values were influenced by 5 females, 10 Parent interview the school culture, values held by peer group, males and parental interests, perceptions, and values Australia towards class music. Lowe (2010) 48 students Expectancy Grounded theory Focus group Participants expressed strong interest and Year 8 (competence); discussion enjoyment while playing an instrument, but their Australia Task value competence beliefs were unstable as they felt (attainment, incompetent when playing in front of others. intrinsic, utility) Participants also expressed the importance of the teacher in creating a positive learning environment and their decision to continue learning their instruments. Kelly-McHale 4 students (whose Expectancy Collective case study Student interview Children’s musical identities were shaped by (2011) families (competence, task Teacher interview their musical experiences outside of music immigrated to difficulty); Task Observations classroom, which was influenced by their USA from value (attainment, Fieldnotes family’s expectancy-value towards music. Mexico) and their intrinsic, utility); Teacher's journals Music classroom environment was created by music teacher family’s beliefs Researcher's music educator’s instructional approach and 5th grade and values journal beliefs about students and their families. 3 females, 1 male Artifacts USA Leung and 24 music students Expectancy Phenomenological Interview A three-stage theoretical framework was McPherson (2011) Aged 8–16 (competence, task developed: (1) initial motivation; (2) short-term 18 females, 6 difficulty); Task involvement and the learning process; and (3) males value (attainment, long-term involvement and ongoing Hong Kong intrinsic, utility, commitment. perceived cost);

parental beliefs Stage 1: High-achieving students’ curiosity and and values positive feelings from music increased their intrinsic interest while their parents created positive extrinsic influences. Stage 2: High-achieving students developed positive perceptions of music (e.g., importance, enjoyment, usefulness) allowed them to progress to the next stage. Some students also developed negative perceptions of music (e.g., perceived cost, anxiety) kept them from progressing to the next stage. Stage 3: High-achieving students valued music more than other subjects and expressed commitment and intentions to pursue a career in music. Parkes and Jones 91 undergraduate Expectancy Grounded theory Open-ended Participants chose to pursue a career in music (2011) music students (competence); survey performance because they valued music 44 females, 47 Task value performance (enjoyment and usefulness), males (attainment, perceived themselves to be competent at USA intrinsic, utility) performing, and identified themselves as musicians. Lowe (2012) 48 students Expectancy Grounded theory Focus group Even though participants expressed strong Aged 12–13 (competence); discussion values towards learning and playing an Australia Task value instrument, their competence beliefs were weak. (attainment, The dislocation at the transition to secondary intrinsic, utility, school emerged as a reason for participants’ perceived cost) weak competence beliefs. StGeorge et al. 17 children Expectancy Inductive; Interview The combination of participants’ beliefs about (2012) Aged 10–12 (competence); interpretive- music and learning (simple or complex), 11 females, 6 Task value descriptive; volition (high or inconsistent), and practice males (attainment, phenomenological strategies (low, mid, or high level) shaped their intrinsic, utility) music learning and practice patterns 17 tertiary (constructive, expedient, or impetuous), which students may influence their successful outcomes of Aged 19–25 learning and practice.

6 females, 11 males

32 adults Aged 18–75 19 females, 13 males Australia McEwan (2013) 15 students and Task value Interpretive case study Open-ended Students' school culture, peer group, family their parents (attainment, survey values, and perceptions of teachers were factors Year 8 intrinsic, utility); Student interview that shaped students’ motivation to enrol into a Australia family beliefs and Parent interview music elective. value Braz Nunes (2018) 26 music Task value Ethnographical; Interview Findings indicated that music educators’ formal educators (attainment, phenomenological Open-ended music education experiences shaped their Aged 18–64 intrinsic, utility) survey motivations and beliefs towards music 12 females, 14 education. males Portugal Harry (2018) 12 high school Expectancy Critical ability theory; Interview Findings indicated that students’ constructions students (competence, task ethnographical; of musical ability and talent were influenced by 7 females, 5 difficulty); Task genealogical various sources, such as social locating males value (attainment, themselves and their peers as different types of USA intrinsic, utility, musicians based on their perceptions of their perceived cost) peers’ passion, confidence, leadership, and interest for a music career. Bhachu (2019) 30 teachers and Expectancy Inductive; grounded Interview Although participants saw the importance of practitioners (competence) theory; teaching and learning music, they had low Aged 20 and phenomenological; confidence in teaching it and perceived it as low above narrative priority among other school subjects. Findings 22 females, 8 indicated that Western European Art Music males culture negatively influenced Scottish teachers’ UK past music learning experiences, which shaped their beliefs in teaching music and eventually their music teaching practices.

Buttermann (2019) 49 college Expectancy Phenomenological Interview Factors that motivated students to engage in jazz students and 6 (competence); Focus group were enjoyment, social elements of jazz jazz educators Task value discussion ensemble, their desire to exercise creativity, and USA (attainment, their valuing of jazz learning experiences. intrinsic, utility, perceived cost) Garrett (2019) Generalist Expectancy Case study Interview Findings indicated that teachers’ personal teachers at a (competence); motivation and beliefs towards teaching music primary school Task value can be enhanced through social processes at the UK (attainment) school contextual and socio-interactional levels.

Supplementary Material 3

Mixed Methods Studies (n = 31)

Authors (Year) Participant(s) Component(s) Study design Method(s) Key findings

Mota (1999) 100 children, their Expectancy Exploratory; within- Children Decline in children’s motivational beliefs parents, and (competence) subjects; longitudinal interview towards music after three years of music teachers Children's own education might be due to the poor teaching Aged 6 ratings of musical strategies and overemphasis on a small area of Portugal self-competence musical knowledge (e.g., aural skills). Parent interview Teachers' diary Video McPherson (2001) 133 children and Task value Between-subjects; Children Findings indicated that children were able to their mothers (attainment, within-subjects; interview differentiate the components of task value Aged 7–9 intrinsic, utility, longitudinal Mother interview towards learning a musical instrument (i.e., 78 females, 55 perceived cost) Open-ended and interest, importance, and cost) even before they males circled response commenced any instrumental lessons and these Australia beliefs towards learning a musical instrument may shape their subsequent musical development. Burland (2005) 32 undergraduate Expectancy Longitudinal; Questionnaire Coping strategies, belief systems, and music students (competence, task phenomenological; (Researcher- motivation (e.g., enjoyment, perceived task Aged 19–21 difficulty); Task descriptive; between- constructed) difficulty) were important aspects of musicians’ 25 females, 7 value (attainment, subjects Interview musical identity development, which males intrinsic, utility, subsequently influenced the career choices of UK perceived cost) musicians. Lowe (2008b) 276 students Expectancy Longitudinal; within- Questionnaire Even though Year 8 student’s competence Aged 11–12 (competence, task subjects; inductive; (Researcher- beliefs towards music remained stable, their *Only 222 difficulty); Task ontological constructed) values towards music declined across the year completed post- value (attainment, Focus group which subsequently resulted in low enrolment of questionnaire and intrinsic, utility, discussion music elective at Year 9. Qualitative findings 45 students in perceived cost) suggested that the decline in value towards

focus group music may be related to the activities presented discussion during Year 8 music classes. Australia Lowe (2008c) 222 students Task value Longitudinal; within- Questionnaire Specific activities during class music Year 8 (attainment, subjects; ontological (Researcher- contributed to the decline of students’ values *45 in focus intrinsic, utility, constructed) towards music, which influenced their music group discussion perceived cost) Focus group participation in the following year. Australia discussion Renwick (2008) Phase One: Expectancy Correlational; Items adapted Participants' internal and exam-related 677 music (competence, task structural equation from Eccles and motivation and their competence beliefs examination difficulty); Task modelling; colleagues (e.g., influenced their self-regulated practice candidates value (attainment, naturalistic; Eccles et al., behaviours. Aged 8–19 intrinsic, utility) exploratory 1983, Wigfield et 440 females, 237 al., 1997) males Video Interview Phase Two: 4 of phase one participants Aged 15–16 2 females, 2 males Australia Park (2009) 136 students (71 Expectancy Descriptive; between- Researcher- Participants from Sydney reported significantly from Seoul, 65 (competence, task subjects constructed greater self-concept of musical ability than those from Sydney) difficulty); Task questionnaires for from Seoul but parental beliefs and expectations Aged 7–18 value (attainment, students and in Sydney were lower than those in Seoul. 72 females, 64 intrinsic, utility, parents Findings suggested that lower parental beliefs males perceived cost); Open-ended items and expectations may influence students’ parental beliefs expectancy-value towards music. 88 parents and values Aged 30–60+ 66 females, 22 males

Australia and South Korea Jones and Parkes 143 Expectancy Grounded theory; Identification with Identification with music teaching was a (2010) undergraduate (competence); correlational Teaching significant predictor of music students’ music students Task value Classroom Music likelihood to choose a career in music 81 females, 62 (attainment, (adapted from education. Perceived competence as a music males intrinsic, utility) Schmader et al., teacher and perceived usefulness of music USA 2001) teaching were the least important motivation for Identification with music students’ decision to choose a career in Music music education. Performance (adapted from Schmader et al., 2001) Talent in Teaching Classroom Music (Researcher- constructed) Talent in Music Performance (Researcher- constructed) Open-ended survey StGeorge (2010) Stage 1: Expectancy Descriptive; between- Questionnaire Findings suggested that feelings of ability, 376 students (competence); subjects; (Researcher- competence, and self-esteem may influence Aged 10–17 Task value correlational; constructed based students' subjective experience of music 183 females, 169 (attainment, inductive; on various learning, which may in turn influence the males, 24 intrinsic, utility, phenomenological existing scales likelihood of continued participation. unspecified perceived cost) such as Intrinsic Motivation Stage 2: Inventory) 17 children from Open-ended items stage 1 Interview

Aged 10–12 11 females, 6 males 17 tertiary students Aged 19–25 6 females, 11 males 32 adults Aged 21–75 19 females, 13 males Australia Evans (2011) Study 1: Expectancy Longitudinal; within- Questionnaire Competence beliefs and value towards music 157 children (competence); subjects; between- (Researcher- and music learning were formed during early 3rd to 9th grade Task value subjects; constructed) experiences of psychological needs satisfaction. 87 females, 70 (attainment, correlational; Interview The general decline in students’ competence males intrinsic, utility) descriptive; Video beliefs during adolescence may be an influence *104 participated phenomenological on their decision to cease music learning. in 10-year follow- up Study 2: 31 students of those in Study 1 follow-up 22 females, 9 males Study 3: 104 students from Study 1 follow-up Aged 18–20 58 females, 45 males, 1 unspecified Australia

Lowe (2011b) 222 students Task value Longitudinal; within- Questionnaire Year 8 students’ ratings of most task values Year 8 (attainment, subjects; case study (Researcher- components for class music declined across the *56 in follow-up intrinsic, utility) constructed) academic year. Findings from follow-up focus discussions Focus group group discussions indicated that relevance and Australia discussion familiarity (i.e., the use of popular music and the use of technology), achievability (i.e., activities to allow students to feel challenged during class, such as using music software to make music), and transferability (i.e., perceive repertoire as relevant) may enhance students’ values towards their class music activities. González-Moreno 51 participants Task value Confirmatory factor Questionnaire Participants reported higher task values (2012a) (27 music (attainment, analysis; descriptive; adapted from (interest, usefulness, and importance) and lower educators, 24 intrinsic, utility, between-subjects Eccles and perceived cost towards the technology-based music students) perceived cost) colleagues (Eccles program for professional development in music. 18 females, 29 et al. 1983; Eccles males, 4 et al., 2005) and unspecified McPherson and Mexico O’Neill (2010) Observations Interviews Open-ended questions O’Neill and 95 music students Expectancy Confirmatory factor Music Factor analysis of the Music Engagement Scale Senyshyn (2012) Aged 10–18 (competence, task analysis; between- Engagement Scale revealed seven factors (values, artistry, 45 females, 50 difficulty); Task subjects; (Researcher- community, learning, social support, challenge, males value (attainment, phenomenological constructed) competence). Elementary students reported Canada intrinsic, utility) Interview higher scores for value of music activities than Phenomenological secondary students. Qualitative analysis of the Mapping Method Music Engagement Map indicated that positive emotional expressions and interconnections to other people, cultures, and perspective transformations were the central characteristics of positive and transformative music engagement.

Picone (2012) 13 novice Expectancy Experimental; pretest- Motivated Before the guided practice intervention was musicians and (competence); posttest; longitudinal; Strategies for introduced, pre-test interviews indicated that their parents Task value phenomenological; Learning participants’ intrinsic interest towards practising Aged 7–13 (attainment, descriptive Questionnaire was their main motivation to practice and 6 females, 7 intrinsic, utility, (Pintrich & de attainment value towards practising was related males perceived cost) Groot, 1990) to their perception of ability. Attainment value Canada Items from towards practising emerged in the post-test McPherson and interviews as a source of motivation to practice Zimmerman and prepare for band rehearsals. Six months (2002) after a guided practice intervention, participants Student interview self-reported high levels of utilitarian value, Parent interview attainment value, and expectancy towards music Video recordings learning. Harvey (2013) 47 undergraduate Task value Descriptive; narrative Questionnaire Participants reported positive values (usefulness music students (attainment, (Researcher- and importance) towards university music Aged 17–40 utility) constructed) courses even though they had not taken those 28 females, 19 Focus group courses. males discussion *4 in focus group discussion Australia Parkes and Daniel 173 instrumental Expectancy Within-subjects; Expectancy-Value Participants reported higher levels of expectancy (2013) teachers (competence); correlational; Questionnaire towards music teaching than for music *At least 160 Task value descriptive adapted from performing but lower levels of intrinsic interest responses were (attainment, Parkes and Jones value for music teaching than for music analysed intrinsic, utility, (2012) performing. Career satisfaction positively Various countries perceived cost) Open-ended items correlated with all expectancy and value (Australia, constructs for both music performing and music Denmark, teaching. For both music performing and music Finland, New teaching, the strongest predictor of career Zealand, Norway, satisfaction was perceived cost (i.e., effort South Africa, needed and stress). Sweden, UK, USA)

Garrett (2014) Quantitative Expectancy Descriptive; narrative; Questionnaire In general, teachers perceived music as one of phase: (competence); case study (Researcher- the least important school subjects. Among 126 primary Task value constructed) those who perceived music as important, school teachers (attainment, Interview majority were music coordinators. Majority of 115 females, 11 intrinsic, utility, Case study generalist teachers perceived music as enjoyable males perceived cost) for students. Generalist teachers reported lower competency beliefs towards teaching music than Qualitative phase: towards teaching other school subjects (e.g., 35 primary school English, math, science). From the qualitative teachers findings, an eight-dimensional model of 29 females, 6 teachers’ motivation for music was proposed: males (1) personally held theories on music and UK teaching; (2) self-theories and self-perceptions on music and teaching; (3) dispositional factors; (4) interpretations of past experiences; (5) contextual factors; (6) social factors; (7) socio- contextual factors; and (8) current opportunities and experiences. Hawkinson (2015) Quantitative Expectancy Between-subjects; Perceived Task School music non-participants reported phase: (competence, task correlational; case Value scales significantly higher musical task difficulty but 319 high school difficulty); Task study; (Eccles et al., lower competence beliefs and values (i.e., students value (attainment, phenomenological 2005) usefulness, interest, and importance) towards Mean age 15.91 intrinsic, utility) Student interview music than school music participants. Predictors years Teacher interview of school music participation and non- 184 females, 135 Observations participation were ethnicity, lunch status (free or males Field notes reduced), perceptions of school music, task Artifacts difficulty of music, personal perceptions (e.g., Qualitative phase: interest in music, perceptions of musical skills), 12 students from conflicting activity (e.g., involvement in other quantitative phase activities), and constraints of school music (e.g., and their teachers content and structure of music program). Aged 15–18 Qualitative findings supported quantitative 6 females, 6 results on task difficulty of music and males perceptions of musical abilities and enhanced USA quantitative results on musical activity values

(e.g., prioritisation of activities). Qualitative findings, however, contradicted quantitative results on perceptions of school music program, as students held positive perceptions towards their school music program. Underhill (2015) 3,750 students Expectancy Between-subjects; Researcher- Findings indicated that students’ socio- Aged 14–18 (competence); ethnographical constructed economic backgrounds, their attitudes towards 1,864 females, Task value questionnaires for music lessons, their parents’ attitude towards 1,758 males, 128 (attainment, students and music, their music experience at home, and unspecified intrinsic, utility); parents school music cultures may influence their music parental beliefs Observations participation. 279 parents and values Informal conversation Heads of Aural and photo department and elicitation music teachers Focus group UK discussion Weiss (2015) 13 band students Task value Descriptive; Adolescent Band Students’ engagement during secondary band Aged 14–18 (intrinsic) phenomenological; Student classes was related to their enjoyment (i.e., 7 females, 6 case study Engagement and flow) and interest towards band classes (i.e., males Motivation relevant class instructions to their goals). *11 participated Survey Students’ goals were often intrinsic and process- in focus group (Researcher- based, rather than extrinsic and product-based. discussions constructed) Observation Students’ band Video teacher Lesson documents Male Interview USA Focus group discussion Harvey et al. 207 commencing Task value Correlational; Questionnaire Usefulness and importance of each music course (2016) undergraduate (attainment, descriptive (Researcher- were strongly and positively correlated. music students utility) constructed) Practical courses (e.g., music performance) were 119 females, 88 Open-ended perceived as more useful and important than males survey

Australia non-practical courses (e.g., music history) by commencing music undergraduates. Kang (2016) 141 elementary Expectancy Between-subjects; Motivation to Students’ preference for mode of instruments school students (competence); within-subjects; Learn a Musical (acoustic or iPad) was influenced by their 88 females, 53 Task value descriptive Instrument Scale motivational beliefs (intrinsic motivation, self- males (attainment, (adapted from efficacy, and expectancy-value) towards *Only 138 intrinsic, utility) Socio-Educational learning music. Students who reported greater included in Model of Music motivational beliefs preferred the use of analysis Motivation acoustic instruments while those who reported USA instrument; lower motivational beliefs preferred the use of Maclntyre et al., iPad instruments. 2012) Open-ended survey Gallina (2017) 3 community Expectancy Descriptive; Motivated In general, participants who reported higher music ensembles (competence); phenomenological; Strategies for scores for task value towards music were (38 community Task value case study Learning females and those who began studying music at musicians and 3 (attainment, Questionnaire primary school, followed by those began at musical directors) intrinsic, utility) (Pintrich & de adult age and at secondary school age. Aged 16–75 Groot, 1990; Australia Pintrich, et al., 1991) Observations Interview Tonissen (2017) 1,324 band Task value Confirmatory factor MUSIC® Model Factor analysis of the MUSIC Inventory students (intrinsic, utility) analysis; between- of Academic revealed four factors: Usefulness/interest, 9th to 12th grade subjects; Motivation success, caring, and empowerment. Bands that 576 females, 722 phenomenological Inventory (Jones, focused on competitive musical activities had males, 2 other, 4 2015) higher levels of usefulness/interest, caring, and unspecified Teacher interview empowerment than bands that focused on concert performances. 16 band directors 3 females, 13 males USA

Upitis, Abrami, 1,468 music Expectancy Descriptive; deductive Questionnaire Findings indicated that music teachers would Brook, et al. (2017) teachers (competence); (Researcher- use technology to teach music if they held high 1,292 females, Task value constructed) expectancy-value beliefs about teaching music 176 males (attainment, Open-ended items through technology. Canada intrinsic, utility) Varela (2017) 3,920 music Expectancy Between-subjects; Questionnaire Musical self-regulation and its associated students (competence); deductive; inductive (Researcher- psychological constructs varied according to age Aged 7–78 Task value constructed) groups. Enjoyment of performing and music *Only 1,184 (intrinsic) Open-ended items learning was one of the crucial factors for music responses to the students’ membership. open-ended item Canada Hallam et al. 671 students Task value Case study; Questionnaire With the implementation of the ‘Musical (2018) Aged 11–16 (intrinsic) descriptive; between- (Hallam et al., Futures’ approach, most students reported that 277 females, 394 subjects; deductive 2008) they enjoyed their music lessons. The approach males Focus group enhanced students’ interest, confidence, and *171 in focus discussion musical skills for music lessons but did not group interviews develop their music identity. UK Miksza et al. 3 undergraduate Task value Experimental; Interview Participants expressed high levels of task value (2018) music students (attainment, microanalytic; pretest- Observation towards practicing during forethought phase of 2 females, 1 male intrinsic, utility) posttest; deductive Video self-regulated behaviours. USA Focus group discussion Questionnaire adapted from McPherson et al. (2019) Wan and Gregory 15 digital tools Expectancy Case study Researcher- Based on various motivational theories (e.g., (2018) Australia (competence); constructed self-efficacy and expectancy-value theory), five Task value instrument on the categories of digital tools were identified as (attainment, perceived extent tools that may enhance and sustain children’s intrinsic, utility) of facilitation for instrumental practice motivation to a limited ARCS extent. The five categories were: (1) practice motivational logs; (2) note feedback tools; (3) portfolios; (4)

strategies and music stand software; and (5) accompaniment musical tools. achievement Deskins (2019) 12 former music Expectancy Descriptive Student Gender difference between amount of time education (competence); Motivation in spent on music education doctorate program doctoral students Task value Graduate Music was not significant. Male participants reported 6 females, 6 (attainment, Programmes: An that the top motivational factor to enrol into a males intrinsic, utility, Examination of doctorate program was their desire to work in USA perceived cost) Personal and higher education while for female participants, Environmental the top motivational factor was to challenge Factors themselves professionally or to broaden their (González- perspective. Moreno, 2012b) Chen (2020) 159 students and Expectancy Experimental; pretest- Questionnaire For both instrument and non-instrument their music (competence); posttest; within- (McPherson & learners, students’ expectancy-value beliefs teacher Task value subjects; between- O'Neill, 2010) towards the use of mobile tablets to compose Aged 12–13 (attainment, subjects Focus group music significantly increased after using mobile 77 females, 82 intrinsic, utility, discussion tablets to compose popular music. Qualitative males perceived cost) Teacher interview findings revealed that using mobile tablets were Hong Kong more enjoyable and effective than traditional ways of learning, but participants also faced difficulties and challenges while using them.

Supplementary Material 4

Others (n = 9)

Authors (Year) Topic(s)

Hallam (2002) Music participation; personality; self-concept; personal goals; environment Eccles et al. (2005) Children and adolescents; ability self-perceptions; subjective task values Ghazali and Alam (2005) Children; attitude towards music learning McPherson et al. (2006) Children's instrument learning; musical development McPherson (2007) Misconceptions about music; children's motivation to study music as subject in schools Katsochi (2008) Students' self-beliefs McPherson (2009) Children's musical development; parental role Osborne (2010) Musical Futures; young people’s experience of music learning Waters (2014) Affect Valence model of motivation