Ife Journal of Science vol. 16, no. 2 (2014) 319 REVIEW ARTICLE

STATUS OF DIVERSITY CONSERVATION IN NIGERIA: A REVIEW

Temitope Kehinde,1* Babatunde Amusan,1 Abel Ayansola,2 Seyi Oyelade,2 Williams Adu3 1Department of Zoology Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria 2Natural History Museum Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria 3Adeyemi College of Education, Ondo, Nigeria. Corresponding author: Tel: +234 80 513 17913 *[email protected], (Received: 28th April, 2014; Accepted: 25th July, 2014)

ABSTRACT

With a rapid surge in human population, there has been concomitant increase in anthropogenic threats to , especially for ecologically-important groups such as . With the loss of about 79% of its forest cover, Nigeria ranked as the nation with the highest rate of forest loss in 2005. How these and other environmental stressors affect insect biodiversity is yet to be fully understood. Nigeria, like most of the countries in the tropics is a treasure trove of insect diversity; however, limited information is available on the , ecology, genetics and biogeography of its insect fauna. This dearth of background scientific knowledge impedes successful insect conservation policy and practice. Even though a National Biodiversity Action and Strategic Plan has been formulated in line with the targets of Convention on Biological Diversity, these clear knowledge gaps have to be recognized and filled for sustainable progress to be made in insect conservation. This review identifies the key challenges to insect diversity conservation in Nigerian ecosystems. The need to provide sufficient baseline information on the taxonomy, distribution and ecology of Nigerian insects at both eco-regional and national scales is proposed. Well designed and targeted insect diversity surveys as well as citizen science programs are suggested as potential approaches to accumulating necessary baseline data to drive conservation of insects in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems in the country.

Keywords: Citizen Science, Distribution, Diversity Survey, Management, Taxonomy

INTRODUCTION Various anthropogenic threats such as intensive Insects are important components in most natural agriculture, land fragmentation and deforestation and transformed landscapes. They play crucial have plagued the success of biodiversity with functional roles that ensure delivery of various consequent limitations on the delivery of possible ecosystem services which are important for some biodiversity benefits (Laurance 2006). Estimates aspects of human livelihood such as agriculture, have shown that Nigeria has lost 55.7% of its tourism, natural resource use etc. (Samways 1994; primary forest to anthropogenic activities such as Tscharntke et al. 2005). Nigeria is an afro-tropical logging, subsistence agriculture, collection of fuel country endowed with rich flora and fauna wood etc. (FAO 2005). The high endemism of biodiversity, typical of most tropical countries of insects and other and plant taxa, coupled the world. The tropics which has been reported to with the extent of threat to these endemic species be home to about 70% of global biodiversity is confer the status of a global hotspot of also a treasure trove of insect diversity which is biodiversity on the Nigerian rainforest and estimated to parallel the extent of plant diversity savannah vegetation zones (Myers et al. 2000). of this region (Bradshaw et al. 2009). Nigeria's tropical rainforest and savannah vegetation zones Drivers of biodiversity loss act at local, regional lie within the Guinea Forests of West African and global scales (Green Facts 2012), hence the Biodiversity Hotspots (Myer et al. 2000). This need for a holistic approach in conservation region is identified as one of the most severely research and practice, especially for highly mobile threatened forests in the world, being left with just groups such as insects which move across local, 15% of its original forest cover (Conservation regional and in some cases across national International 2010). boundaries. Though insect loss is a global challenge, inventories, assessments and 320 Kehinde et al.: Status of Insect Diversity Conservation in Nigeria development of conservation strategies may be characterized by vegetation destruction and better targeted at local or regional scales. This landscape fragmentation. Large scale plantation would possibly remove the ambiguity that may establishment of cash crops as well as result when conservation efforts are approached indiscriminate bush burning and overgrazing lead globally with limited consideration for local scale to habitat destruction with consequent impact on dynamics that shape insect diversity loss and insect species (Emma-Okafor et al. 2010). At conservation needs (Tscharntke et al. 2008). This present, the destruction of natural habitats in review, therefore, examines the status of insect Nigeria continues apace resulting in the depletion diversity conservation in Nigeria, a biodiversity of the country's biodiversity (Imeht and rich country, currently faced with incipient Adebobola 2001). Every year, a considerable part biodiversity loss. of the nation's forest resources is destroyed through industrialization, urbanization, road NIGERIAN FORESTS AND INSECT construction, commercial agriculture and other POPULATION activities thereby disturbing the ecological balance Forests are among the world's most important that nature maintains with living and non-living biomes in terms of the area of land surface they resources (Imeht and Adebobola 2001). cover (approximately 30% of all land, over 3.8 billion hectares) and the biodiversity they contain Insects are habitat-specific in nature and as a (approximately 90% of terrestrial biodiversity) result, they are highly sensitive to disturbance, (FAO 2000). Forests serve as reservoir of particularly habitat fragmentation (Kearns et al. biodiversity and serve as recreation and tourism 1998; Aizen and Feinsinger 2002; Ashworth et al. centres. Invertebrates account for the greatest 2004). Most forest insects have narrow amount of biodiversity in forest ecosystems. geographical range of distribution, often nearly Invertebrates (especially insects) dominate among endemic in a particular biogeographic forest type multicellular organisms in forests in terms of (Spitzer et al. 1993). Modifications of the natural richness, abundance and biomass (Erwin et al. environment as a result of sustained human 2004). A careful study of the vegetation of Nigeria activity will affect the relative abundance of shows that true and protected forest is mainly species and in extreme cases lead to extinction of found in the southern part of the country and it certain species (Groombridge 1992). Several occupied 93,345 km2 in 1993 i.e 9.6 % of the total studies from different parts of the world have land area of the country. This area increased to provided evidence to support the view that 11.4 % in 1994 but dropped to 10 % in 1995 (CBN deforestation and other forms of habitat 2001). Conservation efforts have led to the disturbance can cause a reduction in insect establishment of game reserves and protected abundance and species richness. Ricketts et al. ecosystems in some parts of the country, (2002) in Costa Rica; Kitching et al. (2000) in especially in the northern savannah e.g Yankari in Australia; Holloway et al. (1992) in Borneo; Watt et Bauchi state, Borgu in Niger State and the old Oyo al. (1997) in Cameroon; Eggleton et al. (1995,1996) National Park in Oyo state just to mention a few. in Cameroon. These studies brought about a general consensus in the field of insect Deforestation is a serious problem in Nigeria conservation that the most important factor in which currently has one of the highest rates of maintaining diversity is maintaining appropriate forest loss in the world. Since 1990, the country habitat (Pullin 1995). However, our understanding has lost some 6.1million hectares or 35.7% of its of the impact of deforestation and other forest covers (FAO 2000). According to the anthropogenic activities on insect species richness revised deforestation figures from FAO (2005), and abundance in Nigerian forests is poor due to between 1990 and 2005, Nigeria lost a staggering lack of published information. 79% of its forests and since 2000, the country has been losing an average of 11% of its primary Although, appreciable attempts have been made forests per year - double the rate of the 1990s. to quantify the impact of deforestation on global Intensive farming methods are among the primary species extinction, resulting in estimates of global causes of habitat destruction in Nigeria as it is species extinction rates of 1-10% species per Kehinde et al.: Status of Insect Diversity Conservation in Nigeria 321 decade (Reid 1992). These estimates have all been where they are found and their presence in water obtained by extrapolating from known serve various purposes; some serve as food for relationships between species richness and habitat fishes and other invertebrates, others acts as area. However, the fate of many species of vectors through which disease pathogens are organisms following forest disturbance is transmitted to both humans and (Foil uncertain (Lugo 1988) and there is a need to 1998; Chae et al. 2000). Most importantly, aquatic measure directly the impact of deforestation and insects are very good indicators of water qualities forest disturbance on insect diversity and since they have various environmental abundance. There is also the need to quantify the disturbance tolerance levels (Arimoro and Ikomi impact of forest plantations and other land use 2008). Some are very vulnerable and sensitive to activities on insect diversity and abundance pollution, while others can live and proliferate in (Laurance 2006). disturbed and extremely polluted waters (Merritt and Cummins 1996). Macroinvertebrates are Despite the fact that insects account for the important components of the food web of greatest amount of biodiversity in forests, they are aquatic ecosystems.For instance, benthic dipteran the least studied of all fauna (Cardoso et al. 2011; larvae e.g. Chironomus species and molluscs are Zou et al. 2011). Published research on the impact consumed in great quantities by many fishes and of tropical forest management practices on insects so play an important role in the ecology of the is currently limited to individual species (e.g aquatic ecosystem (Fagade and Olaniyan 1973; Eggleton et al. 1995, 1996; Estrada and Fernandez Ogari and Dadzie 1987). They have also been used 1999; Davis et al. 2001). Knowledge of insect to assess the biological productivity of lakes and community response to disturbances in forests is rivers (Mehmet et al. 2002). Their diversity and scanty. Also, little is known about the population abundance is a reflection of the quality of water dynamics and management potentials of many and its sediments as well. forest insects. The possibility of manipulating forest vegetation or harvest practices to maximize In Nigeria, little information is available on or sustain forest insect population in Nigeria is yet aquatic insects (e.g Edokpayi et al. 2000; Ogbeibu to be carefully investigated. Furthermore, no 2001; Adakole and Annune 2003; Ogbogu 2001, group of insect in the country has received 2006). The number of studies on the aquatic significant attention and this makes it difficult to insects is far from adequate (Ogbeibu and Victor make knowledgeable decisions about their 1989; Tyokumbur et al. 2002). Presently, no studies population, diversity, the likely impact of forest have been conducted on the aquatic insect fauna disturbance on these insects and timely of major water bodies in the country to ascertain conservation strategies to the current losses. As a or estimate the abundance, diversity, distribution result, there is need for further studies on insect and the contributions of aquatic insects to taxa globally especially in the areas listed as Nigeria's freshwater ecosystems. According to hotspots for biodiversity such as Nigeria. Marques et al. (2003) the knowledge of the Estimates of the impact of deforestation on insect structure of the benthic macro invertebrate population and diversity should not be based only community provides precise and local on extrapolations derived from biogeography information on recent events, which can be seen theory but also on direct measurement of species in their structuring. Moreover, the taxonomy of richness and composition (Lugo 1988; Reid 1992). aquatic insects in Nigeria has received little attention over the years in spite of the INSECT RESOURCES IN NIGERIAN considerably diverse fauna in its freshwater FRESHWATER bodies. However, a few orders such as Odonata, Aquatic insects form an integral part of an Ephemeroptera and Trichoptera have received ecosystem and they are of ecological and some attention in the past (Gillies 1980, 1988; economic importance as they maintain various Hassan 1981; Ogbogu 2001, 2006; Adu 2012). levels of interaction between their community and the environment (Anderson and Sedell 1979). Most major cities in Nigeria contain a number of They are of great importance to water bodies waterways such as bays, harbours and rivers 322 Kehinde et al.: Status of Insect Diversity Conservation in Nigeria together with a small network of small streams. (Darlington 1977). Edokpayi et al. (2000), Most of these streams have been subjected to an Ogbeibu (2001) and Adakole and Annune (2003) increasing pollution load from contaminated reported low taxa number in some streams and urban run-off water originating from industrial, rivers in Nigeria. They however, ascribed this low agricultural, residential, commercial and species diversity to some physico-chemical recreational areas and institutions such as schools conditions of water like fast flow, high pH, low and hospitals (Adakole and Annune 2003). dissolved oxygen and low conductivity. These Various studies in Nigeria have shown high level factors probably caused disruption of life cycle, of heavy metals in some rivers where industrial reproductive cycle, food chain and migrations wastes are discharged, high level of siltation in or imposed physiological stress on even the areas with extensive logging and farming and other tolerant aquatic insects (Adakole and Annune disturbances (Ita 1994). Species confined to 2003). These changes in the physico-chemical running waters are much more likely to be conditions of the water bodies are usually brought threatened than those that prefer standing waters, about by pollution. especially if their habitat is forested, the main reason being that species connected with running In Nigeria, specific threats to aquatic habitats waters have smaller average ranges than those include damming and mining. Mineral resources linked to standing waters. Moreover, many forest in this country are often extracted by open-pit stream species are niche-conservative; adjusting mining. This is especially problematic in highlands poorly to changing ecological conditions and are composed largely of valuable deposits. Dams can therefore sensitive to the rapid impacts of flood critical river habitats, such as rapids and anthropogenic activity (Wiens and Graham 2005). gallery forests; for example, Paragomphus cataractae Pinhey 1963 is usually confined to the rapids along The degradation of Nigerian streams is clearly large rivers (Clausnitzer et al. 2012). Dams also associated with human population density and impact downstream flow regimes and activity. Anthropogenic activities of humans sedimentation patterns. However, small-scale encourage discharge of untreated animal waste, mining in rainforests can create valuable habitats such as releases from sewage and septic tanks, run for some aquatic insects when the canopy is left - off from agricultural lands, laundering into intact (Clausnitzer et al. 2012). River salination streams and rivers. Most water bodies have been resulting from intensive agriculture and subjected to increasing pollution loads, development of navigational canal primarily to consequently affecting their quality and health enhance the activities of the oil industries may be a status greatly (Popoola and Otalekor 2011). bigger threat to aquatic insect resources in Nigeria Variations in water properties greatly influence the because some aquatic insects are salt-intolerant distribution patterns of aquatic insects in the (Suhling et al. 2006). This is however yet to be fully water, since some of them are highly sensitive to investigated especially in the oil-rich Niger Delta pollution while others are somewhat tolerant or in southern Nigeria. completely tolerant to pollution and environmental disturbances (Bauernfeind and Fishes are important predators of most aquatic Moog 2000). insect larvae. The introduction of regionally alien species, particularly Nile perch (Lates niloticus Edward and Ugwumba (2011) pointed out that the (Linnaeus 1758)) or brown trout (Salmo trutta characteristically low taxa number observed in the Linnaeus 1758), may have severe effects on aquatic study of the macro invertebrate fauna of a tropical insects (Clausnitzer et al. 2012). Similarly, invasive southern reservoir in Nigeria is not unusual in the alien trees can be a key threat: riparian Australian country and tropical waters in general. Victor and wattles (Acacia sp) may overgrow the natural Dickson (1985) and Umeozor (1996) observed a vegetation along streams, radically altering natural similarly low taxa number and diversity in Ikpoba habitats and affecting many widespread aquatic and Calabar Rivers, respectively in southern insect species and all localized endemics Nigeria. In Lake George, Uganda, the bottom (Clausnitzer et al. 2012). It is obvious that adequate fauna was also poor in species composition information on Nigeria's aquatic insect resources Kehinde et al.: Status of Insect Diversity Conservation in Nigeria 323 is essential to ground-truth the present status of Biodiversity informatics facilitates species conservation by determining those factors that identification and access to a wealth of contribute significantly to their diversity and information (Wilson 2000, 2003; Borges et al. success in order to facilitate future management 2010). These approaches may be supplemented practices. with user-friendly keys for none specialists engaged in conservation planning and with the C H A L L E N G E S O F I N S E C T deployment of computer recognition of CONSERVATION IN NIGERIA specimens. Insect conservation is facing several challenges in Nigeria. Efficient and sustainable biodiversity Biodiversity surrogacy, either by higher taxa or conservation cannot proceed without addressing indicator taxa (Pearson and Cassola 1992; Gaston the following challenges. and Williams 1993) can be an efficient way of obtaining useful information for conservation Taxonomic challenge without the need to identify every single species. Taking into cognizance the huge number of This approach allows the retention of broad species that remain to be discovered, adequate biological infor mation enabling the taxonomic knowledge is essential to research in understanding of distribution patterns and insect biodiversity and the development of insect efficiency in the definition of conservation conservation (Wilson 2000; Godfray 2002). Few priority areas (Cardoso et al. 2011). Its use is, insect species have scientific names in Nigeria. however, limited and for most conservation About 20% of all insect species found in Nigeria questions it is important to know the species have been catalogued by Medler (1980); others are identity. A way out of the current taxonomic yet to be identified. Many insects need challenge is the recognition that there is need to identification, taxonomic revisions, and many enhance the funding of traditional taxonomy with species, even common ones, have multispecies compilation of inventories using adequate complexes which are sibling species, standardized and optimized protocols. morphospecies or convergent evolutionary species. In short, the vast majority of insects ECOLOGICAL CHALLENGE remain unknown and getting them described In addition to inadequate taxonomic knowledge, before they go extinct, is the taxonomic challenge. the ecological knowledge of Nigerian insects is poorly understood. The distribution and Regrettably however, traditional taxonomy is on abundance of many species in the country are the verge of extinction, facing poor funding, and unknown while the ecosystem services associated mostly regarded as outdated science with with them are mostly assumed. Not knowing what “modern” sciences occupying taxonomy's place species contribute to what ecosystem services (Wheeler 2007; Leather and Quicke 2009; Boero means that the full consequences of species 2010). Insect taxonomists are very few in Nigeria, extinctions are extremely hard to predict and may not be up to ten (10) in number. Thus (Kozlowski 2008). Anthropogenic effect on insect addressing the taxonomic challenge would not be diversity is known only for a limited number of an easy task. There is therefore an urgent need for species (Kozlowski 2008). Even in the best- mass training of parataxonomists who will collect, documented faunas, the threats to most individual preserve and identify insect specimens. Inclusion species can be suggested in only general terms, of insect identification methods in the biology often drawing on knowledge of biologically curriculum of secondary school students in different but related species elsewhere. Nigeria would assist in the training of amateur entomologists who will become proficient in the Improvement of sampling and analytical methods description of species. There is also the need to for biodiversity assessment and monitoring has develop cybertaxonomy and biodiversity been identified as an important priority in insect informatics in order to provide efficient and conservation and diversity research (Didham et al. universal access to species lists, distribution 2010; Kim 1993). Standard protocols have been databases and ecological data in Nigeria. proposed for large-scale comparative inventories 324 Kehinde et al.: Status of Insect Diversity Conservation in Nigeria of different taxa such as ants and butterflies ranging from preservation of prestine natural (Agosti and Alonso 2000; Pollard and Yates 1993). habitats to wildlife friendly use of resources. In Long term ecological studies are needed to line with the National Biodiversity Strategy and monitor ecosystem change through time and such Action Plan prepared in 1995, Nigerian studies also require standardized and optimized government should foster productive partnership protocols. that will engage and enlighten all stakeholders about the conservation targets, the processes Insect studies should be targeted in key involved and the potential benefits. geographical locations, ecosystem and habitats (Basset 2001; Cardoso et al. 2007; Odling-Smee There has been no consistent approach to the 2005). Analyses of insect distribution at the conservation of insects in Nigeria and several community and population levels may benefit gaps are still to be filled in terms of research and from recent advances and syntheses addressing management strategies that can support concepts such as ecological and evolutionary conservation of this important group of factors influencing diversity at local and regional scales; additive partitioning of diversity, organisms in the country. metapopulation dynamics, gene flow, inbreeding and introgression (Hill et al. 1995; Hawkins 2001; Successful biodiversity conservation research and Gering et al. 2003; Zeh et al. 2003). implementation is founded on a synthesis of other biological science disciplines such as ecology, Conflicts between conservation and human needs taxonomy, genetics, biogeography, evolution, have hampered efforts to prevent biodiversity loss among others (Khuroo et al. 2007). A timely in Nigeria. Areas of high conservation value are engagement of practitioners in these now characterized by high human population conservation related disciplines is needed to density, high agricultural productivity, road estimate how much genetic, species, community, construction and industrialization (Andrew et al. biotope and ecosystem diversity are available and 2001). Conservation centers are opened up to at what rate they are being lost and to give possible meet up with the increasing societal demands. directives on how to arrest declines (Samways Conservation and developmental needs must be 1993). For insects in particular, a good reconciled in Nigeria so that efforts of past understanding of the spatio-temporal distribution conservationists are not wasted. of insect diversity is essential for effective conservation strategies (Lewis and Baset 2007). Human impacts in different combinations result in Basic biological, ecological and taxonomic a fragmented secondary forest that is devoid of information of insects in Nigerian terrestrial and woody vegetation. For proper conservation of aquatic ecosystems is scanty. Consequently, these Nigerian insects we need to know how we are knowledge gaps have to be filled to guarantee altering the structure of these tropical successful conservation planning and action. The communities, what degree of disturbance is current trend of poor inventory of insect fauna in consistent with the persistence of acceptable the nation may imply that several species would be levels of tropical forest biodiversity and which lost before they are ever accounted for. Urgent groups of organisms apart from insects are most action is needed to embark on extensive seriously affected. This will cater for inter-species inventories that will lead to the discovery of new competition, relationship, dependence and any species as well as provide distribution and other factors of ecosystem that will directly or abundance data of insects in the different indirectly affect conservation of insects. vegetation zones within the country. This will provide base line information that can be used in POSSIBLE CONSERVATION conservation planning as well as in modelling APPROACHES response to ecologically important scenarios like Mitigating biodiversity loss in Nigerian climate change, agriculture, tourism etc. ecosystems requires urgent attention by all stakeholders as well as a synergy of approaches Kehinde et al.: Status of Insect Diversity Conservation in Nigeria 325

PROPOSED RESEARCH ACTION Citizen science program for insect distribution Possible research-oriented approaches include; i) Citizen science is the gathering of data for the Research coordinated by Entomologist and advancement of scientific knowledge through Taxonomist ii) Citizen science program for insect coordinated activities of volunteer members of distribution the public who are not necessarily professional scientists (Oberhauser and Prysby 2008). This Research coordinated by Entomologist and Taxonomist approach has been used successfully to compile This involves independent as well as combined distribution and abundance data for various taxa effort of insect biologists and taxonomists in in different regions globally (Table 1). Country various tertiary institutions and research institutes wide citizen science program coordinated by all over the country. Taxonomy which involves Professional Nigerian Entomologists is a discovery, description and identification of new potential tool for compilation of insect diversity species has suffered a lot of setbacks ranging from data. Due to increased accessibility to technical poor perception to inadequate funding as well as tools and facilities that promote dissemination of dearth of trained taxonomists and para- information about projects and gathering data taxonomists who specialize in description of from the public, there has been an upsurge in the various taxa from the vast array currently known to use of citizen science programs for biodiversity science (Godfray et al. 2002). Concerted effort has inventory (Silvertown 2009). Electronic, web- to be geared towards surmounting these evident based programs such as ESRI Conservation challenges through the provision of grants locally, Program Biodiversity Survey Platform are freely training opportunities for potential insect available for hosting citizen science programs and taxonomists as well as establishment of insect biodiversity surveys (ESRI 2012). Citizen science collection museums in different eco-regions in the programs are now involved in projects on climate country that will house collections of various taxa. change, invasive species, ecological restoration Researchers should also be supported to attract and conservation biology. foreign grants that will complement funds that are available locally to drive goal oriented projects in this field. Table 1. Successful Citizen Science Programs in Different Regions of the World Program name Focus taxa Region Audubon Christmas bird count Birds North America Butterfly Counts Butterfly North America Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology Citizen Science Program Birds Global Dragonfly Migration Project Dragonfly USA Terrestrial Salamander Monitoring Program Salamander Pacific Northwest British Trust for Ornithology Birds Britain The Lost Ladybird Project North America Protea Atlas Project Protea plant South Africa

326 Kehinde et al.: Status of Insect Diversity Conservation in Nigeria

SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT ACTION Tropentag 2007, University of Kassel- Management action towards sustainable insect Witzenhausen and University of conservation has been categorized into coarse- Göttingen, October 9-11, 2007 filter/landscape and fine-filter/species level Adu B. W. 2012 Biodiversity assessment of management approaches (Samways 2007). Critical d r a g o n f l i e s a n d d a m s e l f l i e s (Odonata:Insecta) in Akure Forest investigation of the ecology of insects in Nigerian Reserve. Unpublished Ph.D thesis ecosystems approached from both the insect Department of Zoology Obafemi taxon and habitat perspectives should precede Awolowo University Ile-Ife. conservation management decisions. Germane Agosti D, Alonso L. E. 2000. The ALL protocol a considerations that take into account the needs standard protocol for the collection of and limitations of various taxa such as food, ground-dwelling ants. In: Agosti D, Majer nesting sites, habitat pollution and fragmentation J. D., Alonso L. E., Schultz T. R., (ed.) Ants - will proffer valuable insight for sustainable Standard Methods for Measuring and Monitoring management of both terrestrial and aquatic insect Biodiversity, Biological Diversity Handbook communities. Series. Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. 204-206. Nigeria has environmental laws which legislate Aizen M. A., Feinsinger P. 2002. Bees not to be? against various threats to biodiversity such as Responses of insect pollinator faunas and deforestation and habitat pollution, however, f l o w e r p o l l i n a t i o n t o h a b i t a t these laws which could have a far reaching positive fragmentation. In: Bradshaw G. A., effect on conservation efforts are violated Mooney H. A., (ed). How landscapes change: consistently by individuals, companies and human disturbance and ecosystem fragmentation in corporate bodies all over the nation. Enforcement the Americas. Springer-Verlag. pp. 111-129. of these environmental protection laws holds Anderson N. H., Sedell J. R. 1979. Detritus promise for protection of the nation's endemic processing by macroinvertebrates in some biota, which include insects and other taxa with ecosystems. Annual Review of Entomology 24: which they interact to provide indispensable 357-377. ecosystem services (Klein 2007). Nigerian Andrew B, Joslin L. M., Thomas B., Neil B., Louis government being signatory to Convention on A. H., Paul W, Carsten R. 2001. Biological Diversity is under obligation to Conservation conflicts across Africa. Science, New Series 291: 2616-2619. implement the National Biodiversity and Strategic Arimoro F. O, Ikomi, R. B. 2008. Ecological Action of the country. integrity of upper Warri River, Niger Delta using aquatic insects as bioindicators. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Ecological Indicators 395: 1-7. We appreciate Michael Samways and Sylvester Ashworth L, Aguilar R. L., Galetto L, Aizen, M. A. Ogbogu for their insightful comments on the 2004. 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