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PPC 252x192mm (for 246x189mm cover), spine 35mm Handbook of Bioenergy Crops ‘[The] most authoritative and rich source of information in biomass. It can be considered as a milestone and will be instrumental in promoting the utilization of biomass for human welfare in decades to come.’ Professor Dr Rishi Kumar Behl, University of Hisar, Haryana, India ‘This book enlightens the vital economic and social roles of biomass to meet the growing demand for energy.’ Dr Qingguo Xi, Agricultural Institute of Dongying, Shandong, China ‘The author’s decade-long expertise and dedication makes this publication unique. Global in scope, the standards of judgement and accuracy are high for a book that will become the biomass bible and reference for future generations.’ Professor Preben Maegaard, Director, Nordic Folkecenter for Renewable Energy and Chairman, World Council for Renewable Energy (WCRE) Biomass currently accounts for about 15 per cent of global primary energy consumption and is playing an increasingly important role in the face of climate change, energy and food security concerns. Handbook of Bioenergy Crops is a unique reference and guide, with extensive coverage of more than 80 Handbook of of the main bioenergy crop species. For each it gives a brief description, outlines the ecological requirements, methods of propagation, crop management, rotation and production, harvesting, handling and storage, processing and utilization, then finishes with selected references. This is accompanied by detailed guides to biomass accumulation, harvesting, transportation and storage, as well as conversion Bioenergy Crops technologies for biofuels and an examination of the environmental impact and economic and social dimensions, including prospects for renewable energy. This is an indispensable resource for all those involved in biomass production, utilization and research A Complete Reference to Species, Professor Dr N. El Bassam is the Director of International Research Centre for Renewable Energy Development and Applications (IFEED) in Germany. N. El Bassam Energy / Agriculture and Food www.earthscan.co.uk Earthscan strives to minimize its impact on the environment N. El Bassam Prelims.qxd 2/3/2010 4:48 PM Page i Handbook of Bioenergy Crops Prelims.qxd 2/3/2010 4:48 PM Page ii Prelims.qxd 2/3/2010 4:48 PM Page iii Handbook of Bioenergy Crops A Complete Reference to Species, Development and Applications N. El Bassam publishing for a sustainable future London • Washington, DC Prelims.qxd 2/3/2010 4:48 PM Page iv First published in 2010 by Earthscan Copyright © N. El Bassam 2010 The moral right of the author has been asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as expressly permitted by law, without the prior, written permission of the publisher. Earthscan Ltd, Dunstan House, 14a St Cross Street, London EC1N 8XA, UK Earthscan LLC, 1616 P Street, NW, Washington, DC 20036, USA Earthscan publishes in association with the International Institute for Environment and Development ISBN: 978-1-84407-854-7 Typeset by Domex e-Data, India Cover design by Yvonne Booth Earthscan publishes in association with the International Institute for Environment and Development A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data El Bassam, Nasir. Bioenergy crops : a development guide and species reference / N. El Bassam. -- 1st ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-84407-854-7 (hardback : alk. paper) 1. Energy crops. I. Title. SB288.E43 2009 333.95'39--dc22 2009012294 At Earthscan we strive to minimize our environmental impacts and carbon footprint through reducing waste, recycling and offsetting our CO2 emissions, including those created through publication of this book. For more details of our environmental policy, see www.earthscan.co.uk. This book was printed in the UK by MPG Books, an ISO 14001 accredited company. The paper used is FSC certified. Prelims.qxd 2/3/2010 4:48 PM Page v Contents List of figures and tables ix List of acronyms and abbreviations xxiii Foreword xxv PART I 1 Global Energy Production, Consumption and Potentials of Biomass 3 Structure of energy production and supply 3 Global potential of biomass 3 Perspectives of bioenergy crops 7 2 Bioenergy Crops versus Food Crops 9 Impact of bioenergy on food security and food sovereignty 9 Bioenergy and food prices 10 3 Transportation Biofuels 13 Automotive biofuels 13 Aviation biofuels 17 4 Primary Biomass Productivity, Current Yield Potentials, Water and Land Availability 21 Basic elements of biomass accumulation 21 Photosynthetic pathways 22 The potential biomass resource base 25 5 Harvesting, Logistics and Delivery of Biomass 29 Harvesting systems and machinery 30 Multi-phase procedure 30 Single-phase Procedure 31 Upgrading and storage 33 Chopped material 33 Bales 33 Bundles 34 Pellets 34 Chips 34 Prelims.qxd 2/3/2010 4:48 PM Page vi vi HANDBOOK OF BIOENERGY CROPS 6 Technical Overview: Feedstocks, Types of Biofuels and Conversion Technologies 37 Ethanol 39 Oils 41 Solid biofuels 46 Wet biofuels 47 Biogas 49 Conversion of biofuels to heat, power and electricity 50 Heat 50 Electricity 52 Fuel cells 58 The Stirling engine 59 Biofuel properties 59 7 Environmental Impacts 61 Energy plant species 64 Environment impact 64 Energy balances 66 Reductions in greenhouse gas emissions 67 8 Economic and Social Dimensions 69 Energy and development 69 Jobs and employment 72 Biomass stoves 73 Investment in the energy supply sector 75 Economic and social impact of bioenergy in developing countries 76 Investments and market development 78 9 Integrated Bioenergy Farms and Rural Settlements 81 Integrated energy farms (IEFs) – a concept of the FAO 81 Jühnde bioenergy village 87 Prelims.qxd 2/5/2010 6:28 PM Page vii CONTENTS vii PART II 10 Energy Crops Guide 93 Scope and definition 93 Lupins 234 Bioenergy crops 94 Meadow foxtail 237 Aleman grass (carib grass) 96 Miscanthus 240 Alfalfa 98 Neem tree 251 Algae 102 Oil palm 253 Annual ryegrass 107 Olive tree 266 Argan tree (ironwood) 109 Perennial ryegrass 272 Babassu palm (babaçú) 111 Pigeonpea 274 Bamboo 114 Poplar 278 Banana 124 Rape and canola 281 Black locust 128 Reed canarygrass 289 Broom (genista) 133 Rocket 294 Buffalo gourd 137 Root chicory 298 Cardoon 139 Rosin weed 301 Cassava 144 Safflower 302 Castor oil plant 150 Safou 308 Coconut palm 154 Salicornia 313 Common reed 161 Shea tree 317 Cordgrass 164 Sorghum 319 Cotton 167 Sorrel 333 Cuphea 170 Soya bean 335 Date palm 174 Sugar beet 341 Eucalyptus 184 Sugar cane 350 Giant knotweed 190 Sunflower 359 Giant reed 193 Sweet potato 366 Groundnut 199 Switchgrass 370 Hemp 202 Tall fescue (reed fescue) 376 Jatropha (physic nut) 206 Tall grasses 378 Jojoba 213 Timothy 382 Kallar grass 219 Topinambur (Jerusalem artichoke) 384 Kenaf 224 Water Hyacinth 387 Kudzu 228 White Foam 390 Leucaena (horse tamarind) 230 Willow 392 Prelims.qxd 2/5/2010 5:04 PM Page viii viii HANDBOOK OF BIOENERGY CROPS PART III 11 Ethanol Crops 399 Barley 401 Maize 402 Potato 405 Rice 406 Wheat 409 Pseudocereals: Amaranthus, buckwheat, quinoa 415 12 Oil Crops 41 Calendula officinalis 41 Camelina sativa 417 Carthamus tinctorius 417 Crambe abyssinica 417 Dimorphoteca pluvialis 417 Flax 417 Lesquerella grandiflora and L. gordonii 417 Limnanthes alba 417 Linseed 418 13 Biogas from Crops 423 Biogas in developing countries 423 Biogas from crops and their residues 424 14 Hydrogen and Methanol Crops 433 Bio-feedstocks 433 Conversion pathways 433 New developments 435 15 Underutilized and Unexploited Crops 437 Index of botanical names 489 Index of common names 493 Index of general terms 505 Prelims.qxd 2/3/2010 4:48 PM Page ix List of Figures and Tables Figures 1.1 Primary energy resources, supply and utilization 4 1.2 Global final energy consumption, 2006 4 2.1 Correlation between energy input and availability of food as calorie supply 10 2.2 Food price indices 11 2.3 Correlation between oil and food prices 11 3.1 First and second generation of biofuels 14 3.2 Pathways of innovative synthetic biofuels 14 3.3 Integrated bioenergy plantations, Braunschweig, Germany 16 3.4 Total flex technology (alcohol or gasoline), Brazil 17 3.5 Air New Zealand biofuel test flight (747-400) 18 3.6 Brazilian ethanol-powered crop duster Ipanema 19 4.1 The almost closed cycle of energy production from biomass 22 4.2 Determinants of potential biomass production 23 4.3 Production of biomass of the C4 crops miscanthus and maize and the C3 crop rye under two water supply conditions 24 5.1 Mass- and volume-related energy density of biofuels 30 5.2 Big round baler 31 5.3 Whole crop chopping machine and collecting and transportation tracks 31 5.4 Harvesting devices for large bioenergy crop fields 31 5.5 Biomass combine harvester 32 5.6 Biotruck for harvesting and pelleting 32 5.7 Different types of pellets and briquettes 33 5.8 The recovery capacity and storage space requirements for different harvest products as biofuel feedstocks 34 5.9 Harvesting poplar for fibre and fuel 35 5.10 Land requirements for biomass power plants 35 6.1 Main conversion options for biomass to secondary energy carriers 38 6.2 Conversion possibilities for biomass rich in oils, sugars and starch 39 6.3 Conversion possibilities for lignocellulose biomass 40 6.4 An ethanol-powered plane 41 6.5 Biodiesel fuel station 42 6.6 The ‘bio-pipelines’
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