Past, Present and Future: Photographic Presence in New Mexico Devorah Romanek A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Anthropology, Department of Anthropology, University College London (UCL), 2019 I, Devorah Romanek Confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been indicated in the thesis. Photograph on frontispiece: Will Wilson (2012). “Zig Jackson, Citizen of the Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara Nation, Professor of Photography, Savannah College of Art and Design.” Label text from the 2013 exhibition Toward a Critical Indigenous Photographic Exchange: Will Wilson’s CIPX at the Maxwell Museum of Anthropology, University of New Mexico: “Critical Indigenous Photographic Exchange, New Mexico Museum of Art, Santa Fe Indian Market, 2012. Archival pigment print from wet plate collodion scan. Jackson takes a picture of an Indian taking a picture of an Indian as Andrew Smith protects his soul from theft.” Photo credit: © Will Wilson, courtesy of the artist. ii Abstract This thesis investigates the relationship between historical ethnographic photographs of Native Americans, their disposition in archives and collections, and the relationship of those images to their contemporary circulation and use by Native American artists, and others, particularly in New Mexico. Having undertaken original research into mid-19th century photographs in archives internationally, pertaining to Native America in the American Southwest, new histories and a re- framing of the photographs in question has been assembled. This portion of the research was undertaken both as a starting point for further investigation, and as a return to the people of New Mexico, particularly the Indigenous inhabitants of that place. In light of the newly assembled history and reframing of various historical photographs within the photography complex/network, and in acknowledging the limitations of 20th century photographic theories, a variety of anthropological and visual culture theoretical frameworks, which value notions of ‘presence’ and ‘significance’ are given weight over previous ideas of ‘meaning’, ‘epistemology’ and ‘provenance’. This thesis explores the role of memory, notions of essentialism, and practices of racism, as they are strategically and aesthetically employed through the medium of the photographic image. The contemporary re-presentation of 19th century photographs by Indigenous artists is also examined, with an eye towards observing the manner in which, by reclaiming the past, Native Americans may go forward into the future in unimaginable and sovereign ways. The research centres on addressing the question: what is the role of the photographic image in the ongoing discourse about Native American identity? iii Impact Statement Research in the role of the photographic image on the ongoing discourse on Native American identity informs global public understanding of the need in building bridges between academic discourse and the politically inflected creative action of artists. It invites further academic research in this area and stresses the correlation between such research and the role it can play in supporting Indigenous sovereignty. This study returns ‘voice’ and contingency to long-silent historic photographs - and to the people to whom these photographs matter. iv Table of Contents Chapter Page Author’s Declaration ii Abstract iii Research Impact Statement iv List of Figures vi List of Plates xi Acknowledgements xv Introduction 1 New Mexico: The Specifics of Place 27 Fieldwork Locations: The Archive, the Internet and Santa Fe 35 Methodology 50 1 19th century photographs of Native America: In Theory 54 The 19th century photographic portrait of Native America 58 2 Fragmented Networks: The Archive 75 The Curator is Nervous 80 The Archive Framed 84 The Archive and the Market 89 3 Hardship, Greed and Sorrow: A Case Study 104 Photography in Mid-19th-Century New Mexico 116 Portraits and Landscapes in the Souvenir Album 118 Who took the Photographs in the Album? 139 Portraits of Benito Juárez and his Cabinet 147 Portraits of Army Officers and Prominent Merchants 152 Portraits of Navajo at Bosque Redondo 160 v 4 Images in Circulation: All Time is Eternally Present 200 Digital Presence 202 A Beam in Thine Own Eye 206 Late 19th and Early 20th Century Circulation 212 Digital Circulation 224 5 Images in Situ: ‘a close-up photograph of roast mutton!’ 241 Framing, Relations of Power, and the American Myth 245 The Double-Bind 255 Noise: Additions, Subtractions and Presence 262 6 The Present: A Revolution Moving Forward 275 Kinship and Community 276 Mining for Presence 282 Radical Shifts 286 Historical Presence, Contemporary Perspectives 292 Palimpsest 303 Trauma and the Grotesque 311 Inferring Historical Photographs 315 Historical Images with Something New to Say 328 Conclusion: The Future 338 Bibliography 352 Appendix: Field Notes Timeline 386 List of Figures Fig. 1 Devorah Romanek with presence-at-hand hammer xv Fig. 2 Abraham Lincoln (Various) 22 Fig. 3 Un élégant Indien des Réserves 23 vi Fig. 4 (Detail) sculpture of Don Juan Oñate 28 Fig. 5 The man who said he cut off the right foot of the Don Juan de Oñate statue 29 Fig. 6 Jennifer Marley protesting the Entrada 31 Fig. 7 A cast of Oñate’s stolen foot 31 Fig. 8 “Indians are the worst this time of year” 41 Fig. 9 T-shirts for sale in a store on San Francisco Street 42 Fig. 10 Tourists in their cowboy hats, turquoise bolo ties and sneakers 42 Fig. 11 A hoop dancer 43 Fig. 12 An Apache gaan dancer 43 Fig. 13 Artists wheat-pasting a Chip Thomas image 44 Fig. 14 Lowrider day 45 Fig. 15 Burning of Zozobra during Fiesta 46 Fig. 16 Matachines dance 46 Fig. 17 Wheat-pasted graffiti 47 Fig. 18 My bike ride home past “the oldest house in Santa Fe” 48 Fig. 19 The Vanishing Race – Navaho 59 Fig. 20 Six unidentified Taos men 98 Fig. 21 Various carte de Visite 99 Fig. 22 Four postcards of Navajo women and children 102 Fig. 23 Plate XIX from Carl Dammann’s The Various Races of Men 107 Fig. 24 Souvenir of New Mexico album 110 Fig. 25 Unidentified Navajo man and Navajo headman Manuelito 112 Fig. 26 Peace Commission and the signing of the Navajo Treaty 113 Fig. 27 James E. Taylor scrapbook of the American West, page 117 126 Fig. 28 James H. Carleton, 1st California Infantry 127 vii Fig. 29 Unidentified Navajo woman 128 Fig. 30 Doña Jesús and her sister 129 Fig. 31 Portrait of Sobita 132 Fig. 32 Ute and Jicarilla Indians, in the studio of Nicholas Brown 132 Fig. 33 James E. Taylor scrapbook of the American West, page 114 133 Fig. 34 Unidentified Navajo man 135 Fig. 35 Navajo men at or on their way to Fort Sumner 136 Fig. 36 Cover of Dee Brown’s 1979 book Bury my heart at Wounded Knee 138 Fig. 37 Lieutenant Shepard 141 Fig. 38 Officers’ quarters, Fort Union 142 Fig. 39 Colonel Albert Pfeiffer 143 Fig. 40 Brevet Brigadier General Christopher ‘Kit’ Carson 144 Fig. 41 Captain David Hammett Brotherton 145 Fig. 42 Rio Grande crossing at El Paso del Norte 148 Fig. 43 Major Cyrus C. Clark 149 Fig. 44 First Sergeant William Messley 154 Fig. 45 Cuniffe family women 155 Fig. 46 Card Game 156 Fig. 47 Fort Stanton 158 Fig. 48 Personnel of L. G. Murphy and Company 159 Fig. 49 Coetta (Cadete), Chief of the Apache Nation 162 Fig. 50 Indians butchering cattle 164 Fig. 51 Military personnel in Masonic group portrait 168 Fig. 52 Navajo man 173 Fig. 53 Unidentified Navajo boy 174 viii Fig. 54 Carlisle Indian School 175 Fig. 55 Excerpts from various plates from the Souvenir album 179 Fig. 56 Portrait of a Navajo man 206 Fig. 57 Screengrabs of online digital records 210 Fig. 58 Cayatanito and Manuelito by Charles M. Bell 214 Fig. 59 Cayatanito and Manuelito, Allen & Ginter cigarette cards 216 Fig. 60 Cayatanito and Manuelito, Allen & Ginter cigarette cards 217 Fig. 61 Chief James A. Garfield 218 Fig. 62 Elle of Ganado 220 Fig. 63 Nesjaja Hatali 221 Fig. 64 Studio portrait of Geronimo 222 Fig. 65 image of Geronimo from the ‘Jesse James’ deck 223 Fig. 66 Image of ‘Jim’ 227 Fig. 67 Screengrab of digital record for the five copy prints of Navajo 229 Fig. 68 “Navajo Man C. 1914’” 230 Fig. 69 “Photo: Jim, Navajo”, Amazon 231 Fig. 70 “Photo: Jim, Navajo”, Media Storehouse 232 Fig. 71 “Navajo Man, C1914 iPhone 7 case” 232 Fig. 72 Yoga mat 233 Fig. 73 Throw Pillows 234 Fig. 74 Variations on Plate 57b from the Souvenir Album 237 Fig. 75 “A theme of culture: roast mutton!” 244 Fig. 76 Ralph Lauren window dressing 246 Fig. 77 Objects related to Ralph Lauren window dressing 247 Fig. 78 Video still: FUKC, 2011, by Will Wilson 253 ix Fig. 79 Vandalism of Kit Carson’s grave marker 254 Fig. 80 Postcard racks in Santa Fe 259 Fig. 81 Hot Springs signage 260 Fig. 82 Wheat-pasted graffiti of a graphic of Comanche Chief, quanah Parker 262 Fig. 83 Peelatchiwaaxpáash/Medicine Crow 263 Fig. 84 Bows and arrows 267 Fig. 85 Copies of Edward S. Curtis photographs at the Häagen-Dazs 270 Fig. 86 An Acoma Woman 275 Fig. 87 Shi masani by Jinniibaah Manuelito 278 Fig. 88 Detail from untitled photographic series by Andrea Ashkie 279 Fig. 89 Internal by Rapheal Begay 281 Fig. 90 Massacred Indian #4 and Portrait of an American No. 2 by Fritz Scholder 288 Fig. 91 Bicentennial Indian by Fritz Scholder 289 Fig. 92 Super Indian No. 2 by Fritz Scholder 290 Fig. 93 Navajo Woman Taking Photograph 291 Fig. 94 Watching the Sunset by Marcus Amerman and Gwendolen Cates 293 Fig. 95 Peaceful Defender: Chief Joseph by Marcus Amerman 294 Fig.