POSTSCRIPTS TO PARADISE: WONDER WOMAN AND THE COMPLEXITIES OF
FEMINIST ICONOGRAPHY
by
Kathleen Schindler
A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of
The Wilkes Honors College
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Bachelor of Arts in Liberal Arts and Sciences
with a Concentration in American Studies
Wilkes Honors College of
Florida Atlantic University
Jupiter, Florida
May 2008
POSTSCRIPTS TO PARADISE: WONDER WOMAN AND THE COMPLEXITIES OF FEMINIST ICONOGRAPHY
by Kathleen Schindler
This thesis was prepared under the direction of the candidate‘s thesis advisor, Dr. Christopher Strain, and has been approved by the members of her supervisory committee. It was submitted to the faculty of The Honors College and was accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Arts in Liberal Arts and Sciences.
SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE:
______Dr. Christopher Strain
______Dr. Daniel White
______Dean, Wilkes Honors College
______Date
ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my gratitude to all of the professors who have aided in the creation of this thesis. Thank you, Dr. Strain for all of the time and effort you put in reading this thesis, and for recognizing when I made up words. Thank you, Dr. White for being my second reader and for providing me with new analytical perspectives on media. Thank you, Dr. Njambi, for inspiring this thesis.
I would also like to thank all of the family and friends who have made this thesis possible. To late nights with the ladies, coffee dates at Starbucks, and bad television programs. Natalie, thank you for the paper. Jaime, thank you for the provocative materials. Laura, thank you for being awake when I need you to do everything that I cannot. Mommy, thank you for always being my mommy. Computer, thank you for being reliable. Andrea, thanks for fighting with Word with me, for falling in love with the cheese man, and for being such a great friend. Joel, you are the best friend and proofreader ever. Without all of you, this work would not exist.
iii ABSTRACT
Author: Kathleen Schindler
Title: Postscripts to Paradise: Wonder Woman and the
Complexities of Feminist Iconography
Institution: Wilkes Honors College of Florida Atlantic University
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Christopher Strain
Degree: Bachelor of Arts in Liberal Arts and Sciences
Concentration: American Studies
Year: 2008
Since her creation in 1941, cultural critics have cited Wonder Woman as an emblem of femininity. In 1972, the American mainstream feminist movement – through
Ms. magazine – officially accepted the character as a representation of feminism. When writers at Ms. criticized changes in the character, in which she abandoned her costume and superpowers, they neglected to consider Wonder Woman‘s history as American
World War II propaganda. In doing so, they allowed the re-vamped 1973 version of the character, and her subsequent incarnations, to ignore the duality of her existence as both a feminist icon and a reinforcement of dominant American ideologies.
iv Table of Contents List of Illustrations ...... vi Chapter 1: Introduction ...... 1 Wonder Woman‘s Significance as Historical Artifact ...... 3 Wonder Woman‘s Potential to Create History ...... 5 Chapter 2: Wonder Woman and Ms. Merge ...... 10 A Brief History of Ms...... 13 Chapter 3: Ms. Misinterprets Wonder Woman ...... 19 Wonder Woman: 1968-1973...... 21 Chapter 4: Wonder Woman Reacts to Ms...... 29 Nubia: Wonder Woman‘s Black Sister ...... 34 Chapter 5: Wonder Woman‘s Present Predicament...... 40 Conclusion ...... 44 Works Cited ...... 46
v List of Illustrations Figure 1: Wonder Woman‘s mother reinforces Marston‘s psychological theory of emotional normalcy...... 4 Figure 2: Wonder Woman sells war bonds...... 11 Figure 3: The cover of Ms. issue #1...... 15 Figure 4:Wonder Woman shows her violent side...... 16 Figure 5: Racist images of minorities were common in early Wonder Woman comics. . 20 Figure 6: Wonder Woman was often found in bondage...... 21 Figure 7: Wonder Women tries on clothes in issue #1...... 22 Figure 8: Wonder Woman tries on clothes in issue #182...... 23 Figure 9: Diana stays up late thinking about Tim...... 24 Figure 10: Chinese communists search for traitors...... 25 Figure 11: Women of color point out the diverse interests of women...... 27 Figure 12: Queen Hippolyta gives in to her "yearnings" and begins to create her children...... 33 Figure 13: Wonder Woman is attacked by indistinguishable, savage black men on Slaughter Island...... 35 Figure 14: Feminists become violent against innocent men when threatened with the prospect of losing their leaders...... 38 Figure 15: Wonder Woman comics make repeated reference to the character's status as a feminist...... 40
vi Chapter 1: Introduction The banner ―Wonder Woman for President‖ graces the cover of Ms. magazine‘s first issue, dated July 1972. The comic book character, clad in her iconic red bustier, star-spangled panties, golden tiara, and red and white go-go boots, runs towards the viewer with a concerned expression on her face. She is enlarged, with legs that span several miles. To the right of her is a small town full of tiny, ecstatic figures reaching up towards the gigantic woman. There are two rows of buildings containing stores, houses, a water tower, and a church. Running between the rows of buildings is a white street lined with trees and sidewalks; on the street are cars and cheerful people. Her magical glowing lasso is tied to her waist and attached to an improvised scale hanging from her right hand. Resting on the scale is a small town. Falling directly below her left hand is a crushed fighter plane with figures parachuting out of it. To her left is a fiery wasteland complete with guns, tanks, aircrafts, and explosions. Tiny men with conical hats appear to be going about their daily business while a few small, straw-roofed huts burn down behind them. It is the Vietnam War. The words ―Peace and Justice in ‘72‖ are emblazoned across a billboard in the lower left-hand corner of the page.
For the women of the feminist publication Ms. magazine, Wonder Woman represented an idealized image of American liberation. In 1972, feminist activists Joanne
Edgar and Gloria Steinem published similar articles for Ms. detailing the importance of
Wonder Woman as a symbol of American feminist liberation. In both articles, the author began by recalling stories of her childhood experiences with the character and her comics. Edgar detailed the devaluation of the character in her neighborhood comic book trade while Steinem recollected hiding in trees guiltily reading about Wonder Woman‘s
1 adventures. Although both women felt ashamed by their interest in the character, their long-lasting interest in her and her comics attests to her far-reaching impact. Thus, when
Steinem and Edgars, along with the rest of the workers at Ms., chose to assign the
Wonder Woman as a liberating icon for women, soldiers, and Vietnamese, they called upon their nostalgia for the liberationist narrative of 1940s Wonder Woman comics.
Over the passage of time, however, an idealized image of the superhero solidified in the authors‘ minds. As a result, Wonder Woman was not the strong heroine that Edgar and Steinem remembered her to be. Although she was a feminist of sorts, the character frequently promoted racially charged, patriarchal institutions and ideologies that counteracted her feminist message. In particular, her status as American World War II propaganda took precedence over her feminism in her formative years. Consequently, although Wonder Woman claimed ―earth girls can stop men‘s power for evil when they refuse to be dominated by evil men,‖ 1 she also promoted the belief that ―it‘s unpatriotic to hoard even fat [on a woman‘s body].‖2 While the comics abandoned these blatantly propagandistic messages by the end of the war, its legacy of racial imagery and female subjection remained an influential piece of Wonder Woman‘s history.
By the time that Edgar and Steinem were writing for Ms., the war had been over for decades. Entranced more by nostalgia for the character than for her actual patriotic exploits, they criticized recent changes where she had abandoned her costume and superpowers in favor of a normal life. In their criticism, the feminists of Ms. embraced ii 1Charles Moulton, Wonder Woman 5, (New York: Wonder Woman Publishing Company, 1943): 11.
2Charles Moulton, Wonder Woman 1, (New York: Wonder Woman Publishing Company, 1942): 4D. 2 the original version of Wonder Woman as an idealized icon of liberation; however, the views actually expressed by the writers, illustrators, and creator of Wonder Woman contradicted the comic‘s feminist message.
Wonder Woman’s Significance as Historical Artifact To comprehend fully the historical significance of Wonder Woman, the reader must analyze both visual and textual elements of the comics. Comic books, as Samuel
Delany points out, rely heavily on the images in them, and to ignore these images would mean ignoring the most dominant messages in the comics. Delany suggests, ―if you start out to ‗read‘ a comic, you‘re starting out wrong. You won‘t really be able to get into what‘s going on […] comics are to be looked at first – and reading is a subordinate process to that looking.‖3 Although Wonder Woman may say that women are strong and powerful, frequent images of women in bondage may suggest otherwise. Given that visual representations are the driving force of comic narratives, the reader of any Wonder
Woman comic must be wary of any textual suggestions of female power and solidarity on the basis that the visual message, which takes precedence over the narrative elements, may subvert the text with conflicting images of femininity.
These representations of femininity reflect the values of the time in which they are created, and therefore mimic the reality in which they are produced. Although comics present readers with fantastic worlds that appear to be divorced from our own, comic books in actuality mirror the values of their respective creators and societies. Comic
iii 3Samuel R Delany, Silent Interviews: On Language, Race, Sex, Science Fiction, and Some Comics, (Hanover: University Press of New England, 1994): 92.
3 books emerged during the early 1930s, evolving from pulp magazines and comic strips.4
As products of the Depression, early titles like Detective Comics and Action Comics chronicled the adventures of cynical detective- type crime fighters.5 These comics and their successors provide insight into the period of their production. During the early years of
DC‘s comics, which developed during World
War II, superheroes fought Nazis and the
Japanese. Following the attacks of September
th 11 , Marvel comics drew its superheroes into Figure 1: Wonder Woman‘s mother reinforces Marston‘s psychological theory of emotional the event assisting people and attempting to normalcy. save others.6 Throughout their existence, comic books have incorporated historical events into their own realities. In doing so, they provide their readers with another view of their own world and simultaneously delineate the history of American society.
Wonder Woman and her comics have not been exempt from this phenomenon.
Originally, Wonder Woman comics provided a means by which the character‘s creator,
William Moulton Marston, could publish his psychological theories and make them available to a much wider audience. In The Emotions of Normal People, Marston proposed a theory that emotional normalcy is ―dependent on the presence of a captivating iv 4Bradford W. Wright, Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America, (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001): 2-7.
5Wright, 7-9.
6Terry Kading, ―Drawn into 9/11, But Where Have All the Superheroes Gone?,‖ Comics as Philosophy (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2005): 219-221.
4 female‖ who serves as a ―love leader.‖7 The women of Paradise Island, particularly
Wonder Woman, exemplify Marston‘s concept of love leadership as seen in Figure 1.8
Hence, Wonder Woman is a ―love leader‖ for American Sergeant Steve Trevor and must tame Steve‘s ―masculine‖ aggression. Although Marston suggested that the character was a strong and emblematic female, the comics did little to challenge conventional understandings of femininity. Rather than questioning the qualities typically assigned to femininity, Marston‘s comics reinforced assumptions of womanhood. The comics also attempted to reverse the gender hierarchy established in American society rather than doing away with the concept as later feminists suggested. Consequently, Wonder Woman comics are ―a middle-class normalizing discourse that explicitly operates through gender and sexuality.‖9
Wonder Woman’s Potential to Create History Just as comics can represent historical societal values, they can also empower readers to create history. By fighting crime and promoting justice and freedom throughout the world, superheroes encourage their readers to champion similar principles and outcomes. The marketing strategies employed by major comic book companies target young audiences who are then presented with messages intended to indoctrinate them with the ideals of American society. Accordingly, the values promoted by comic books may potentially have a profound and lasting effect on their young readers. In their v 7Molly Rhodes ―Wonder Woman and her disciplinary powers: the queer intersection of scientific authority and mass culture,‖ Doing Science + Culture edited by Roddey Reid and Sharon Traweek (New York: Routledge, 2000): 99.
8Moulton, Wonder Woman 1: 13B.
9Rhodes, 108.
5 analyses of Wonder Woman comics, for instance, feminists Gloria Steinem and Joanne
Edgar begin their discussions with reflections on their own readings of the comics in their early years.10 Both theorists demonstrate that although they felt that the comics were not intended for them as females, they had a profound impact on their development. Edgar recalls,
―I was an avid comic-book reader, but I pretended not to like Wonder Woman. After all, it wasn‘t a real advantage in our daily comic trade. The boys on my block always bid on Superman, the Green Lantern, or Batman; even Donald Duck. But never Wonder Woman. ‗She‘s just a girl,‘ they said. And so, being ‗just a girl‘ myself, I hid my admiration for Wonder Woman and put my stakes on Superman. But in my apple tree, I read Wonder Woman anyway.‖11
Clearly, gender preferences were reinforced by images propagated through comics.
Although Edgar was a fan of Wonder Woman, gender-specific heroes created an image of inequality that prevented her further interest in the medium. As Edgar‘s experience suggests, by integrating particular values into comic books, writers, artists, and publishers can effectively mold the minds of their readers.
Societal standards of decency, however, limit the ability of comics to inspire readers. Beginning in the late 1940s, Wonder Woman suffered further limitations when
Fredric Wertham began to scrutinize comics, including Wonder Woman, for corrupting children. In his book Seduction of the Innocent, Wertham argued that comic books were the primary source of corruption in children. Following the publication of Wertham‘s study, the government undertook a thorough investigation of the genre. As a result of the high level of scrutiny during these years, the comic book industry suffered a significant vi 10Gloria Steinem, Introduction to Wonder Woman by William Moulton Marston, (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1972):1; Joanne Edgar, ―Wonder Woman Revisited,‖ Ms. 1 (1972): 52.
11Edgar, 52. 6 loss of popularity and severe censorship.12 The Comic Code Authority (CCA), a self- censorship system created by the comics industry, strengthened as a reaction to
Wertham‘s publication. While the controversy surrounding comic books has died down, the legacy of the Comic Code Authority remains.
The Comic Code Authority permitted only particular messages in mainstream comic books, thereby ensuring that comics could not contain any material considered indecent by the standards of the day. The codes demanded that comics ―show respect for parents, marriage, and family.‖13 Ultimately, these rules guaranteed that comic books would reinforce developing Cold War values. As a result of the CCA‘s continued presence, comic books are still constrained by the values of American society. To challenge society‘s norms, therefore, appears to be a difficult task for comic books because they must first meet the approval of society. Given the limitations prescribed to
Wonder Woman by the Comic Code Authority, Wonder Woman comics are intrinsically unable to subvert the values of American society. As a result of these limitations,
Wonder Woman comics can only produce a watered-down, easily consumable version of feminism.
In their efforts to portray versions of freedom and justice in line with American ideals and standards of decency, and as a result of society‘s influence,
―writers, artists, industry executives, and audiences have historically, although often unconsciously, employed an often divisive, exclusionary, and oppressive vocabulary of themes and images in the creation of vii 12LeRoy Ashby, With Amusement for All: A History of American Popular Culture Since 1830, (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2006): 312-313.
13Ashby, 313.
7 characters, landscapes, and narratives that sell the dream, but not the reality, of individual liberation and social transgression.‖ 14
Essentially, although Wonder Woman is purportedly a strong feminist leader, she conforms to the notions of femininity prescribed to her by American society. As a consequence of her existence within mainstream society, she fails to challenge prevailing concepts of womanhood, particularly the exclusion of minority women from the definition of femininity. Consequently, Wonder Woman marginalizes minorities and women allied with nations or ideologies unlike her own. When she does assist people outside of her prescribed conceptions of femininity, she does so in a way that mimics the methods of imperialism and capitalist domination.
As a consequence of globalization, Wonder Woman‘s message of limiting femininity can be heard throughout the world. Edward Said notes the expanse over which ideologies now have the potential to spread. He demonstrates that the world now has an international media presence that insinuates itself, frequently at a level below conscious awareness, over a fantastically wide range.‖15 As a comic book created as a form of World War II propaganda, the blind patriotism of Wonder Woman comics conveys messages of domination across the globe. The international reach of American media is exemplified in the availability of Spanish translations of Wonder Woman comics
– titled ―Marvila‖ –on the online market eBay. Marvila comics dating from as early as the 1960s can be found online and reflect the far-reaching effects of the character.
Despite her reach, her comics remain encoded with racial images and messages. Unlike viii 14Aldo Regalado, ―Modernity, Race, and the American Superhero,‖ Comics as Philosophy (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2005): 86.
15Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism (New York: Vintage Books, 1994), 291. 8 earlier periods, Wonder Woman is now capable of spreading American ideologies to a worldwide audience.
9 Chapter 2: Wonder Woman and Ms. Merge
Wonder Woman first appeared in issue #8 of All Star Comics in 1941.16 As noted previously, she was the product of William Moulton Marston, who created the character under the pseudonym Charles Marston. Presumably suggested by one of his wives and based on the other, Marston intended Wonder Woman to be ―psychological propaganda for the new type of woman who should…rule the world.‖17 Although both of Marston‘s wives likely played a role in the character‘s creation, they never became involved in the production of the comics, instead allowing men to create this supposedly progressive woman. Soon after her appearance, Wonder Woman earned the lead story in Sensation
Comics following the success of her preview in All Star Comics.18 By the summer of
1942, DC comics launched a new Wonder Woman comic, making her one of the most successful comic book characters at the time.19
Marston saw his creation as encouraging ―the growth in the power of women.‖20
In the character‘s first appearance, Wonder Woman appeared to be the female counterpart of the popular comic book character Superman.21 Her first several appearances explained her origin from Paradise Island – a peaceful island populated x 16 Daniels, Les, Wonder Woman: The Complete History, (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 2000): 24.
17Daniels, 31; 22.
18Daniels, 31.
19Daniels, 37.
20Daniels, 23.
21Daniels 25.
10 entirely by women – and how she arrived in the
United States after rescuing U.S. Sergeant Steve
Trevor. After arriving in the U.S., she took over the life of a woman who hoped to escape and start a new life. Consequently, Wonder Woman began her life in the U.S. under the name Diana Prince and with a career as an army nurse. Although Wonder Woman was not originally from the United States, she quickly Figure 2: Wonder Woman sells war embraced her new homeland and became an unofficial bonds. spokeswoman for the American causes. Throughout the 1940s, she promoted the country by suggesting that American women join the war effort, buy bonds, and support U.S. troops (see Figure 2).22 During these early years, most of the character‘s battles were against the Nazis, Japanese, or other members of the Axis powers. As a result, Wonder
Woman ultimately served as a promoter of America rather than women.
Marston based most of the characteristics of Wonder Woman and her world on his own experiences. The Wonder Woman character was possibly based on Marston‘s mistress Olive Richard (previously known as Olive Byrne). Both were tall, dark-haired, and pale skinned. The similarities between Wonder Woman and Olive extended beyond physical appearances as well. When creating Wonder Woman‘s gadgets, Marston continued to rely on Olive for inspiration. At one point, Marston alluded to the fact that the character‘s bracelets were based on bracelets that Olive frequently wore.23 The xi 22Marston, Wonder Woman 1: 13C. 23Daniels 36.
11 bracelets, which protected Wonder Woman from bullets, were only one of several gadgets which enhanced her powers. Her invisible airplane enabled her to fly long distances without being seen; and her magic lasso forced others to tell the truth. Wonder
Woman‘s magic lasso also served as a means by which Marston could integrate aspects of his own life into the comic. The lasso worked similarly to the polygraph, which
Marston invented, in that whoever was bound by it was compelled to tell the truth.
Over the years, Wonder Woman underwent many changes, but none were as significant as those which occurred in 1968. Between the period from 1968-1973,
Wonder Woman was a mere mortal. She exchanged her star-spangled uniform for a practical karate uniform; she gave up her super-powers, got a job at a boutique, and attempted to solve the common problems of the modern-day woman. In essence, she became more similar to the women whom she was intended to represent. Although the issues from this period are not without flaws, they come far closer than any other Wonder
Woman comics in achieving a strong female character who is capable of helping a multitude of women achieve liberation. The staff of Ms. magazine, however, failed to acknowledge the positive aspects of the powerless Wonder Woman, instead favoring the original version of the 1940s.
In the years following the revival of the superhero‘s powers, the comics resumed and arguably strengthened their portrayal of women as helpless and superficial. Several of the issues from the 1970s supported the feminist backlash while simultaneously claiming that the character was an emblem of femininity. They presented feminists as angry, arrogant, foolish, and incompetent. Due the Ms.‘s endorsement of the Wonder
Woman character, however, the harsh scrutiny of feminism went unnoticed. Although
12 the original character was full of inconsistent messages, the character that emerged in
1973 far surpassed the contradictions of the original. The 1973 Wonder Woman comics claimed to be representative of the feminist cause while simultaneously criticizing the movement.
A Brief History of Ms. In July 1971, three women contributed $126.67 each towards a magazine that would revolutionize the women‘s magazine industry. These women – Gloria Steinem,
Elizabeth Forsling Harris, and Pat Carbine – became the editor-at-large, the publisher, and the editor, respectively, of Ms. magazine, the first mainstream feminist publication.24
According to the magazine‘s founders, the only magazines targeted at women at that time were not in line with the feminist agenda. Consequently, the writers of Ms. aimed to provide a forum for feminists to voice their opinions on the ―ideas and people and programs‖ that most concerned them.25 Gloria Steinem, who gained prominence in 1963 after publishing an expose which showed the mistreatment of Playboy bunnies, soon emerged as the group‘s leader. Steinem became prominent in the search for funding and content and frequently served as a public spokesperson for the magazine.26
Eventually, Steinem found initial funding for the magazine through New York editor Clay Felker. Felker agreed to fund a preview issue under the condition that any profits from its sale were to be split fifty-fifty.27 When the issue appeared on newsstands xiii 24Mary Thom, Inside Ms.: 25 Years of the Magazine and the Feminist Movement, (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1997): 12.
25Thom 8.
26Thom 14-15.
27Thom 15. 13 in the spring of 1972, the Ms. staff did not have high expectations about its reception. To the staff‘s surprise, the issue sold out almost immediately. All 250,000 of the issues printed sold within days of hitting newsstands.28
Although the magazine‘s sales far exceeded expectations, the issue was not free of errors. In the following issue, dated July 1972, five pages were dedicated to addressing the comments that readers sent in to the editors regarding the preview issue.29
The staff‘s devotion to their readers became evident in their lengthy address to their audience. From feedback regarding the preview issue, the magazine‘s staff was able to identify the issue‘s weaknesses. One of the most prominent problems was the presence of advertisements that contradicted the messages of the magazine. To rectify this problem, the magazine‘s staff began to accept advertisements only from companies which promoted feminist messages and provided equal opportunities for women.
Consequently, financial assistance from advertisers became limited by restrictions, a problem which plagued the magazine until it became advertisement-free in 1990.30
Along with the lengthy section addressing problems of the preview issue, the first issue of Ms. also contained a plea from the magazine‘s staff to return Wonder Woman to the way she was in the 1940s. Demonstrating the influence of Wonder Woman comics during their childhood, these feminists promoted the character as an emblem of feminism
28Geraldine Fabrikant, ‗Turnaround Sought at Ma. Magazine,‖ The New York Times. (May 9, 1987): http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE5DC173DF93AA35756C0A961948260.
29Thom 207.
30Beth Raboin, ―Ms. Magazine and the Feminist Majority Foundation Join Forces‖ Feminist Majority Foundation,( November 12, 2001): http://feminist.org/news/pressstory.asp?id=5933.
14 during their adulthood. Wonder Woman appeared on the cover of the issue accompanied by a banner reading ―Wonder
Woman for President,‖ a reference to Wonder
Woman comic issue #7 in which the character ran for president in the year 3000AD (see
Figure 3).31 Inside, the article ―Wonder
Woman Revisited,‖ by Joanne Edgar critiqued recent changes in the character.32 Edgar began her article with a nostalgic reminiscence of her childhood experiences with Wonder Woman. Figure 3: The cover of Ms. issue #1. She then discussed the benefits of living in Amazonian society and how William Moulton
Marston promoted feminist philosophy. The article also included a two-page reprint of the origin story of Wonder Woman, highlighting how the character came to the United
States from her homeland of Paradise Island.33 Although Edgars admitted that the 1940s character was far from perfect, she nevertheless felt that the Wonder Woman of the 1940s was far superior to the Wonder Woman of the 1970s.
The same year that the first Ms. issue debuted, the magazine published a book titled Wonder Woman which contained a selection of comic excerpts that claimed to exemplify the strong feminist message of the character. The book downplayed ―the xv 31Ms. 1 (1972): cover.
32 Kelli E, Stanley, "‘Suffering Sappho!‘: Wonder Woman and the (Re)Invention of the Feminine Ideal," Helios. 32 no. 2 (Fall 2005): 154.
33Edgar, 52-55.
15 wilder aspects of Marston‘s imagination‖ in favor of the instructive narratives Steinem and Edgars endorsed.34 In her introduction to the book, Steinem proclaimed:
Wonder Woman symbolizes many of the values of the women‘s culture that feminists are now trying to introduce into the mainstream: strength and self-reliance for women; sisterhood and mutual support among women; peacefulness and esteem for human life; a diminishment of both ―masculine‖ aggression and of the belief that violence is the only way of solving conflicts.35
While Wonder Woman represented some feminist values, she was far from the ideal feminist that Steinem and Edgars suggested. The early comics in particular emphasized many aspects of the character that conflicted with feminist ideology. Though the Ms. book largely ignored these characteristics, the 1940s Wonder Woman blindly followed
Steve Trevor, fought against evil women, and participated in relatively violent acts (see
Figure 4).36 Wonder
Woman historian Les
Daniels describes the death of a character, noting, ―this was only the first of many incidents that would belie a claim, made by Marston and others, that Wonder Figure 4:Wonder Woman shows her violent side. xvi 34Daniels 57.
35Steinem, ―Introduction,‖ 2-3.
36Moulton, Wonder Woman 3, (New York: Wonder Woman Publishing Company, 1943): 6A. 16 Woman would not resort to violence.‖37 Despite attempts to downplay the obvious contradictions of the character, Wonder Woman was clearly not as ideal a feminist as the women of Ms. made her out to be.
During the 1980s and 1990s, Ms. experienced a decline in sales and revenues.
Throughout the two decades, ownership of the magazine changed repeatedly. In 1987, an
Australian publishing group by the name of Fairfax took over ownership of the magazine.
Just two years later, the magazine was sold to Lang Communications. MacDonald
Communications purchased the magazine in 1996. Between 1987 and 1998, the feminists behind the magazine maintained their editorial independence but had little say in financial matters.38 Finally, in 1998, Steinem and Marcia Gillespie organized a group of women to take back the magazine. Investors formed Liberty Media for Women and subsequently purchased the magazine from MacDonald Communications.39 In 2002, the
Feminist Majority Foundation, a ―cutting-edge feminist research and action organization‖ took over ownership Liberty Media for Women, thereby gaining control of Ms.40
Overall, the goal of Ms. was to give a voice to all women so as not to include any women ―in a marginal way.‖41 Nonetheless, the magazine failed to hold up to the criticism of emerging groups of minority feminists. Critics of the magazine claimed that it presented minorities in a marginalizing way. Alice Walker edited the magazine until xvii
37Daniels, 27.
38Raboin.
39Ibid.
40Ibid.
41―A Personal Report from Ms.” Ms. 1 no.1 (1972): 7.
17 1986 when she left abruptly citing tokenism as her reason for departure.42 Although the writers working on the magazine claimed to make some effort regarding the inclusion of minorities, their articles and publications generally suggested an emphasis on anti-sexism without regard to race. For instance, in writing about Wonder Woman, Gloria Steinem acknowledges that there is racism in the early comics, but maintains that it is not significant enough to skew the feminist message of the comic books. Steinem essentially misinterprets the long-lasting effects of Wonder Woman‘s racial history by assuming that they do not continue to define the character.
xviii 42Thom, 89-90.
18 Chapter 3: Ms. Misinterprets Wonder Woman Rather than a presentation of the ideal feminist that supported ―sisterhood and mutual support among women,‖ Wonder Woman‘s first several comics were primarily pieces of propaganda ―perfectly timed to coincide with the attack on Pearl Harbor that brought Americans into World War II.‖ 43 Frequently, the patriotism promoted in the original Wonder Woman comics conflicted with the feminist message. Steinem herself admitted in her introduction, ―Wonder Woman sometimes forgot her initial shock at
America‘s unjust patriarchal system and confined herself to defeating a sinister foreign threat by proving that women could be just as loyal and brave as men in service of their country.‖44 For readers like Steinem and Edgars, it simply did not make sense for the character to be promoting a nation that she did not even appear to support fully. Wonder
Woman critic Marc Edward DiPaolo attempts to rectify these oppositional messages of patriotism and feminism by claiming ―she states repeatedly that she fights for America because America fights for women‘s rights around the world.‖45 Wonder Woman‘s initial shock at the patriarchal system in America is emblematic of the fact that, at that time, the country did not treat women the way that she and Marston believed it should.
xix
43Daniels, 25.
44Gloria Steinem, Wonder Woman: Featuring Over Five Decades of Great Covers, (New York: Abbeville Press, 1995): 13.
45Marc Edward DiPaolo, The Amazing Transforming Superhero!: Essays on the Revision of Characters in Comic Books, Film, and Television, ed. Terrence R. Wandtke (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2007): 155.
19 In the early issues praised by Edgar and Steinem, Wonder Woman often fought foreigners, particularly Nazis and communists. Although Steinem acknowledged the issue of racism in the comics, she nonetheless claimed that ―all these doubts paled beside the relief, the sweet vengeance, the toe-wriggling pleasure of reading about a woman who was strong, beautiful, courageous, and a fighter for social justice.‖46 On the contrary, Wonder
Woman often neglected issues of social justice.
She ignored or was oblivious to issues of race, and the comics‘ messages were mixed at best. As noted earlier, Ms. experienced its own battled with inclusion when women of color claimed to be marginalized by the magazine. Given the rising awareness of the women‘s movement‘s historical exclusion of, and occasional benevolence towards, Figure 5: Racist images of minorities were common in early Wonder Woman comics. women of color, the acceptance of people of color seems necessary for any icon of feminism. Nevertheless, the Wonder Woman comics of the 1940s, which Ms. promoted, failed to challenge conventional concepts of race (see
Figure 5).47 She fought only for women allied with America while all others appeared to be cruel and barbaric.
xx 46Steinem, ―Introduction,‖ 4.
47Ibid. 20 Racism was not the only conflict with the
feminist message of Wonder Woman. Wonder
Woman‘s response to injustice was often to
violently lash out against villains. To make the
comics more appealing to female audiences, the
staff of Wonder Woman reduced violent images in
the comic. To do so, they relied on bondage
thereby restricting the characters‘, particularly
Wonder Woman‘s, ability to act aggressively (See Figure 6: Wonder Woman was often found in bondage. Figure 6).48 Despite the seemingly good intentions
of the creator, Marston was very aware of the bondage motif and consciously inserted it
into the comic.49 Fully aware of the sexual stimulation of these scenes, Marston
commented, ―women enjoy submission, being bound.‖50 Rather than address the
prominence of bondage in the comics, Gloria Steinem and her co-workers at Ms. chose to
avoid the issue altogether. Although Steinem and Edgars mentioned Marston‘s belief
that women should dominate men, they ignored the issue of bondage in their
publications.
Wonder Woman: 1968-1973 When Ms. published its first issue, Wonder Woman had no superpowers,
costume, or mystical accessories. In 1968, issue #178, Wonder Woman gave up her xxi 48Marston, Wonder Woman 1: 12C.
49Daniels, 59.
50Ibid 63.
21 status as an Amazon princess in favor of staying in ―man‘s world‖ to help Steve Trevor.
Unfortunately for Wonder Woman, Steve was shot and killed only one issue after she chose to give up her powers for him.51 With her newfound freedom, however, Diana
Prince became a far more independent character than ever before. She earned her own living, learned to fight without magical accessories, and pursued her own interests.
Despite these positive changes, the staff of Ms. felt that Wonder Woman‘s transformation was not for the best. Much like Steinem, Joanne Edgar criticized the version of the character for becoming a ―female James Bond, but without his sexual exploits.‖52 She also complained about Wonder Woman‘s new blind Chinese advisor I Ching who provided her with guidance and karate lessons. Overall, the revised character was unappealing to the staff of
Ms,. who demanded that the character regain her superpowers and become as she was in her early years.
An analysis of the character, however, suggests that although the staff of Ms. rejected the 1968 version of
Wonder Woman, many aspects of her comics remained unchanged and those that did change were largely for the best. Figure 7: Wonder Women tries on clothes in issue #1. As in her early issues, Wonder Woman remained interested in stereotypical female endeavors. In the first issue of Wonder
Woman, the character appeared in front of a mirror putting on her costume while a xxii 51Denny O‘Neil. Wonder Woman 180 in Diana Prince: Wonder Woman. New York: DC Comics, 1969: 63.
52Edgar, 55. 22 caption above her head read, ―Diana, like any other girl with new clothes, cannot wait to
try them on!‖53 In the style of issue #1, issue #182 proclaimed, ―Happiness, for any
healthy, red-blooded young gal, is bedecking herself in the latest fashion finery…and our
Wonder Woman just happens to be a healthy, red-blooded young gal‖ (see Figures 7
and 8 for a comparison).54 Wonder Woman loves clothing to the extent that she opens
her own fashion boutique, although she spends little time in it given that she is often
fighting crime.
Additionally, Wonder Woman
pursues nearly every man she comes across,
primarily in an effort to replace Steve
Trevor. Almost immediately after Steve‘s
death in issue #180, Wonder Woman forms a
crush on a man named Tim.55 When that
relationship falls through, she takes interest
in Reggie. Ultimately, both men betray her
Figure 8: Wonder Woman tries on clothes in issue #182. and side with her adversaries (see Figure
9).56 Unlike the character‘s early involvement with Steve, the new version of Wonder
Woman is disappointed by the men that she follows, and ultimately learns that happiness
does not necessarily equate to having a man in her life. Instead, Wonder Woman learns xxiii 53Marston, Wonder Woman 1, 11A.
54Denny O‘Neil. Wonder Woman 182 in Diana Prince: Wonder Woman. New York: DC Comics, 1969: 110.
55Denny O‘Neil, Wonder Woman 181 in Diana Prince: Wonder Woman, New York: DC Comics, 1969.
56Ibid, 94. 23 to survive on her own, living with her friend Cathy, and frequently fighting battles without any man to inspire her (I Ching is often off on his own adventures).
The 1968-1973 Wonder Woman comics, like their 1940s counterparts, contain political messages which reinforce the polices and positions of the United States. Although less frequent than in the early issues of the comics,
Wonder Woman‘s encounters with non-American individuals are plagued by skewed representations of nationalities and ideologies. Notably, the
Chinese man leading Wonder Woman is named Figure 9: Diana stays up late thinking about Tim. after an ancient Chinese text. I Ching‘s first appearance is in issue #179. In the issue, I Ching explains his origins in a comically broken English dialect:
I am last surviving member of ancient sect! Our monastery was hidden high in mountain! It was our task to maintain ageless knowledge lost centuries past – when men foolishly concluded that magic and science are different! Only we knew they are two sides of the same coin!57
Throughout his time with Wonder Woman, I Ching serves as the embodiment of ancient
Chinese proverbs. Wonder Woman also describes I Ching as having ―mysterious
Oriental powers.‖58 In issue #189, she helps Ching‘s friends from the Ashai village escape from the persecution of China‘s communist leaders. Several of Ching‘s friends xxiv 57Denny O‘Neil, Wonder Woman 179 in Diana Prince: Wonder Woman, New York: DC Comics, 1969: 42.
58Denny O‘Neil, Wonder Woman 183 in Diana Prince: Wonder Woman, New York: DC Comics, 1969: 129. 24 provide bits of wisdom similar to his own, while the communist Chinese appear as militaristic dictators who seek to destroy peaceful societies (see Figure 10).59
Although many aspects of Wonder
Woman remained the same, the character‘s new career enabled her to break away from the limiting jobs of her past. Despite the fact that the 1940s Wonder Woman had jobs as a nurse and later as a secretary, these positions were reliant solely on the Figure 10: Chinese communists search for ongoing war. As Maureen Bradley, author traitors. of Creating Rosie the Riveter: Class, Gender, and Propaganda during World War II, points out, ―War work became a vehicle for women to shoulder their civic and moral responsibilities as good citizens rather than a way to become more independent and powerful.‖60 Furthermore, there was little evidence in the comics to suggest that women could or should participate in the working world equally with men.61 The character had typical white female war jobs and could always fall back on the support of her fellow
Amazons if she was unable to make a living in the ―world of men.‖ In contrast, Diana‘s career as a boutique owner during her ―powerless‖ years provided a means for the character to earn her own income and provide for her own needs. Unlike before, she xxv 59Michael Sekowsky, ed. ―Red for Death!,‖ Wonder Woman 189, (New York: National Periodical Publications, 1970): 14.
60Maureen Honey, Creating Rosie the Riveter: Class, Gender, and Propaganda during World War II, (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984): 6.
61Wright, 21.
25 wrestles with financial difficulties and must recognize the difficulties of independence as a woman.
When the men behind the character decided to make these changes to Wonder
Woman, they continued the character‘s history of female exclusion from production.
Samuel Delany recalls, ―the people they had writing it just didn‘t have much of a feel for the women‘s movement. Short of getting a woman writer for the series who did (Don‘t ask me why they didn‘t put some energy in that direction!) nobody could come up with anything.‖62 As a result of this omission, the revised comic, while attempting to appeal to women of the movement, ironically failed to fully embrace the values promoted by it.
Although the leaders of Wonder Woman failed to consult women on how to present the iconic figure, the all-male crew did attempt to revise the character with the feminist movement in mind. Dennis O‘Neil, a writer for the new Wonder Woman, commented years later on his intentions in revising the character: ―I saw it as taking a woman and making her independent, and not dependent on super powers. I saw it as making her thoroughly human and then an achiever on top of that, which, according to my mind, was very much in keeping with the feminist agenda.‖63 While the character‘s feminist appeal was shaky at best, the male writers of ―the new Wonder Woman‖ presented readers with an earnest appeal to the feminist audience, culminating in the special ―Women‘s Lib
Issue.‖
xxvi 62Samuel R Delany, Silent Interviews: On Language, Race, Sex, Science Fiction, and Some Comics, (Hanover: University Press of New England, 1994): 89.
63Daniels, 126.
26 Issue #203, the final issue before Wonder Woman regains her superpowers, acknowledges the complexities of feminism. In this special Women‘s Lib issue, written by Samuel Delany, Diana Prince takes a job as the spokesperson for a new line of clothing targeted at ―that newest factor in the American economic scheme, the new liberated woman!‖64 However, Diana soon discovers that the department store selling these clothes employs only women and pays them less than minimum wage. Initially, she
reacts with the declaration, ―I‘m for
equal wages, too! But I‘m not a
joiner. I wouldn‘t fit with your
[women‘s lib] group. In most cases, I
don‘t even like women…?‖65 Her
Figure 11: Women of color point out the diverse interests of women. reaction appears to be a way to mobilize women who may not be interested in women‘s liberation to recognize the importance of such issues. By positioning Diana as a woman who feels reluctant to fight for women‘s liberation, Delany not only challenges women not involved in the movement to take up the cause, but also recognizes the character‘s history as a strong yet patriarchic feminist figure. However, Delany attempts to alter the trajectory of the character when she recognizes that she should do something to change the store‘s practices. With the help of her friend Cathy‘s women‘s lib group, Diana captures the men who run the store and closes it down. As a final twist, however, a group of women of color enters into the women‘s lib‘s group‘s celebratory meeting upset that they have xxvii 64Samuel Delany, ―The Grandee Caper!‖ Wonder Woman 203 (1972): 8.
65Ibid, 13. 27 lost their much needed jobs, as shown in Figure 11.66 Unfortunately, the problem never got resolved in the next issue due to the revival of the character‘s super powers.
xxviii 66Ibid, 23. 28 Chapter 4: Wonder Woman Reacts to Ms. During the 1970s, the feminist creators of Ms. magazine chided the direction that the character had taken since the death of its creator in 1947.67 Shortly following the feminists‘ complaints, a revised version of the character appeared in comics. Although some readers took issue with the change, prominent feminists like Gloria Steinem welcomed the new Wonder Woman. Agreeing with the views of feminist critics, the editors of the comic touted the character as a powerful woman who was ―greater than ever.‖68 However, the reworked comic books often provided the perfect medium for the writers, cartoonists, and editors to criticize the feminist movement. Additionally, the new comics failed to alter the portrayal of women of color in a positive way, despite their increased presence, and appeared to have misinterpreted the goals of the feminist movement. Nonetheless, Gloria Steinem continued to praise the comic for its feminist messages of love and equality.
In issue #204 (January-February 1973), the character was reunited with her superpowers, costume, and dual identity in ―The New Adventures of the Original Wonder
Woman.‖ Although the new character appeared to promote feminist ideologies at first glance, an in-depth look at the comics suggests that concepts supporting the creation of the new Wonder Woman comics contradicted the goals of the women‘s movement. In the editorial ―Princessions‖ page of issue #206, reader Jim Balko gave his approval of the new Wonder Woman and criticized the de-powered version of the character, writing,
―There are many women around who are experts in karate and judo, but THEY don‘t xxix 67Joanne Edgar, ―Wonder Woman Revisited,‖ Ms. 1:1 (1972): 55.
68Allan Asherman, letter to the editor, ―Princessions,‖ Wonder Woman 207 (1973): 14.
29 have their own magazines.‖69 Ironically, the point of Ms. magazine, and the women‘s movement at large, was to give the everyday woman her own voice. In one section of the first issue, the magazine‘s editors noted that the preview issue had presented certain groups of women ―in a marginal way,‖ and attempted to rectify this issue, stating, ―Ms. belongs to us all.‖70 By putting Wonder Woman back into her costume and returning her superpowers, the comic‘s creative team effectively reinforced the notion that no common woman was worth paying attention to. Furthermore, the character‘s 1973 revision suggested that a successful, empowered woman is one who must hide her abilities.
Reader Lynne Cullen refuted this suggestion, remarking, ―Wonder Woman discovered long ago that she doesn‘t have to pretend to be something she isn‘t.‖71 Given the fearless femininity promoted by the women‘s movement of the 1970s, encouraging Wonder
Woman to keep her powers a secret contradicted the intentions of most feminists.
As Bradford Wright points out, comic books in general often vilified and mocked feminists during the second wave of the movement, and Wonder Woman was no exception.72 In her 1972 essay promoting the character, Joanne Edgar mused that when
Wonder Woman returned with her costume, Dorothy Woolfolk would be the editor.73
Woolfolk edited the comic in 1971 but was replaced only a few issues later.74 Edgar xxx 69Jim Balko, letter to the editor, ―Princessions,‖ Wonder Woman 206 (1973): 24.
70―A Personal Report from Ms.,‖ Ms. 1(1972): 7.
71Lynne Cullen, letter to the editor, ―Princessions,‖ Wonder Woman 206 (1973): 24.
72Bradford W Wright, Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America, (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001): 250.
73Edgar, 55.
74Daniels, 129.
30 proudly and prematurely declared: ―Next year, Wonder Woman will be reborn. With the help of her first woman editor, Dorothy Woolfolk, she will rise again as an Amazon, complete with superhuman powers. Ms. Woolfolk also plans to decrease violence in the plots and return our heroine to the feminism of her birth.‖75 When the comic returned, however, the editor was not Woolfolk but rather Robert Kanigher; nor was the comic less violent. Contradictory to Edgar‘s optimistic assumption of decreased violence in the comics, Kanigher began the issue with a sniper attack on a character named Dottie
Cottonman. Undoubtedly, Cottonman, described as a women‘s magazine editor, was a reference to Woolfolk.76
The violence continued when the sniper shot and killed Diana‘s mentor I Ching within the first four pages of the rebirth issue. As I Ching lay dying in Diana‘s arms, she woefully told him, ―Farewell… …Father…I never had…‖ 77 Diana‘s apparent remorse for not having a father ran contradictory to her Amazonian history. Given that both
Edgar and Steinem praised the character for her ―Amazonian spirit of strength and self- sufficiency,‖ such a comment appears uncharacteristic of a self-sufficient woman who claimed to be proud of her all-female heritage.78 Although Diana appeared unaffected by the death of her father-figure just a few pages later, the moment in which she accepted I
Ching as a father undermined her stance as an Amazon who took pride in her fatherless genealogy. xxxi 75Edgar, 55.
76Daniels, 133.
77Kanigher, ed., Wonder Woman 204 (1973): 4.
78Edgar, 55.
31 After making her way back to Paradise Island in issue #204, the comic offers a glimpse into Diana‘s memories beginning with the creation of Amazon society. In brief, the goddess Aphrodite created a race of super women to be stronger than men by breathing into them the power of love. To make the women undefeatable, Queen
Hippolyta was required to wear a magic girdle.79 Despite the controversy surrounding the de-powered Wonder Woman‘s ―boutique pant suits and tunics,‖ the implications of the girdle went unnoticed by feminist critics.80 While feminists chastised the de-powered
Wonder Woman for simply working in a boutique and wearing manly karate uniforms, the revised character relied on clothing as the source of her power. The image presented by the new revision of Wonder Woman consequently reaffirmed the stereotype that women are deeply concerned with clothing and appearances in the same way that they did in 1942 and 1968.
In the same issue, the god Mars, enemy to the Amazons, commented that the
Amazons‘ weakness was that they were led by their hearts.81 Ironically, this proved to be true. Following Greek mythology, Hercules wrestled the girdle away from Hippolyta after seducing her with meaningless flattery- ―you are as beautiful as Aphrodite herself!
You fill my veins with fire! I dream of you night and day-my queen!‖82 This manipulation convinced Hippolyta to forbid any man from ever stepping foot on Paradise
Island again. xxxii 79Kanigher, Wonder Woman 204: 14.
80Edgar, 55.
81Kanigher, Wonder Woman 204:14.
82Ibid, 15.
32 Although the story claimed that Amazon society thrived without men, one frame described Hippolyta as having ―the yearnings of a woman.‖ (see Figure 12).83 These
―yearnings‖ were for children, which she promptly created from clay. The obvious suggestion of this frame was that women have a natural propensity for children. Additionally, the reader may note the absence of a desire for procreation through sexual intercourse. Once
Aphrodite freed the Amazons from Mars and Figure 12: Queen Hippolyta gives in to her "yearnings" and begins to create her children. Hercules‘s captivity, she gave them wrist bands to remind them of ―the folly of ever submitting to men!‖84 At that time, Hippolyta decided that Paradise Island was for women only, creating an ambiguously asexual island where women could reproduce without any partners, male or female. The image of womanhood presented was consequently non-sexual and motherly. In this instance, motherhood took precedence over sexuality and the comics suggested that motherhood is a defining characteristic of femininity. However, the feminist movement, including the writers of Ms., offered a contradictory argument. In an article titled ―Motherhood,‖ Letty
Cottin Pogrebin argued that motherhood, while important, is only one of many possible aspects of femininity. According to Pogrebin, ―In the minds of so many women, xxxiii 83Ibid, 16.
84Ibid, 15.
33 motherhood is prescribed, nonmotherhood is deviate [sic]. Childless women are to be pitied. Motherhood is synonymous with womanhood (in a way that fatherhood has never been considered sufficient to fulfill a man or to prove manhood).‖85 Much like the rest of the comics‘ revisions, the changes in Wonder Woman‘s history presented a viewpoint in conflict with the one promoted by Ms.
Nubia: Wonder Woman’s Black Sister In an effort to become more inclusive, the men behind Wonder Woman introduced a seemingly strong, black female character in issue #204. After giving in to her motherly urges, Hippolyta created two children: Wonder Woman and Nubia, a black sister of
Wonder Woman whose powers and appearance were almost identical to Wonder Woman with the exception of her skin color. Over the course of three issues, the mysterious
Nubia challenged Wonder Woman to prove her authenticity as the real Wonder Woman, and she even engaged in competitions with Nubia which ultimately end in ties.86
However, the comics hinted at Nubia‘s inferiority: after Hippolyta created Diana and
Nubia, Mars stole baby Nubia before she was able to be endowed with beauty, wisdom, and strength from the gods. Consequently, only Diana received these gifts.87
Nubia‘s equally inferior home was an island later revealed to be named
―Slaughter Island.‖88 In contrast to Paradise Island, which housed hordes of white women, Slaughter Island was the home of black men, with the exception of Nubia. These xxxiv 85Letty Cottin Pogrebin, ―Motherhood,‖ Ms. 1:11 (1973): 48.
86Kanigher, Wonder Woman 204-206.
87Robert Kanigher, ed., Wonder Woman 206 (1973): 7.
88Ibid.
34 men, dressed in identical tribal loincloths and with identical facial features, fought with swords for the possession of Nubia.89 Once Diana arrived on the island, black men with
―savage spears‖ surrounded her, as shown in Figure
13.90 Clearly, the savageness of the men‘s spears extended to the men and their homeland as well.
Conjuring images of Africa in Joseph Conrad‘s Heart of Darkness, Slaughter Island appeared to be a barbaric locale. The comics portrayed the island as
―perpetually girdled by concealing fog,‖ a murderous jungle, and a ―savage domain.‖ 91 Similarly, Edward
Said argued that Conrad‘s narrative was preoccupied with the same characteristics, namely ―the jungle, the Figure 13: Wonder Woman is attacked by desperate natives, the great river, Africa‘s indistinguishable, savage black men on Slaughter Island. magnificent, ineffable dark life.‖92 As Said pointed out, cultural forms focusing on non-
Western locations were generally:
markedly ideological and selective (even repressive) so far as ‗natives‘ are concerned, just as the picturesqueness of nineteenth century colonial painting is, despite its ‗realism,‘ ideological and repressive: it effectively silences the Other, it reconstitutes difference as identity, it rules over and represents domains figured by occupying powers, not by inactive inhabitants.93 xxxv 89Robert Kanigher, ed., Wonder Woman 205 (1973): 4-5.
90Kanigher, Wonder Woman 206, 14.
91Kanigher Wonder Woman 205, 3; Kanigher Wonder Woman 205, 7; Kanigher Wonder Woman 206, 7.
92Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism (New York:Vintage Books, 1994), 165.
93Said, 166. 35
At another point during Nubia‘s appearance in the comics, the face of her black roommate reminded Diana of the face of Nubia.94 Thus, not only were the black men of
Savage Island indistinguishable from one another, so too were black women from different locations. Consequently, black people in the new Wonder Woman narrative were all distinguished by their collective difference from the white majority. The inhabitants of the island were literally silenced, as their only words were to claim possession of Nubia and to agree with Wonder Woman after she trapped them in her lasso. Mars, in this colonial narrative, began the story as the ―occupying power‖ who ruled over the land and established it as a base for his armory.95
The colonization narrative of Nubia and her home island continued. After Mars stole baby Nubia, he controlled her through a powerful ring that he placed on her finger.
Inspired by Mars to put an end to Wonder Woman, Nubia possessed a magic sword as her equivalent to Wonder Woman‘s magic lasso.96 The use of an active, harmful weapon rather than a passive one like Wonder Woman‘s lasso pointed to the barbarity of her character due to her association with Mars. Further mimicking colonization narratives, it was the task of the white Wonder Woman to set Nubia free by showing her how the war god controlled her.97 Hence, although it appeared that Wonder Woman challenged
Mars‘s male dominance over Nubia, she also effectively reinforced colonial dominance.
94Kanigher, Wonder Woman 206, 4.
95Ibid, 7.
96Ibid, 16.
97Ibid, 17-21.
36 Aspects of domination, which ―depend uncritically on natives and their territories perceived as in need of la mission civilisatrice,‖98characterized the necessity of Wonder
Woman‘s help in freeing Nubia, and consequently the rest of her home island.
After Diana helped civilize the black society, Nubia chose to stay on Slaughter
Island. This was the last time readers saw Nubia in the Wonder Woman comics until later writers recreated her post-Infinite Crisis under the name Nu‘Bia.99 Nubia‘s short- lived appearance in the comic suggested a reinforcement of tokenism, a concept familiar to most feminists of the 1970s. Steinem recalled years later, ―One day some months after her rebirth, I got a phone call from one of Wonder Woman‘s tougher male writers.
‗Okay,‘ he said, ‗she‘s got all her Amazon powers back. She talks to the Amazons on
Paradise Island. She even has a Black Amazon sister named Nubia. Now will you leave me alone?‘ I said we would.‖100 Just as Ms. magazine struggled against accusations of tokenism, the Wonder Woman comics praised by the magazine‘s creators undermined their attempts. Steinem and others gladly accepted Nubia as an adequate representation of minorities and consequently continued to ignore issues of race while simultaneously claiming to provide a voice for everyone.
The conflicting messages continued as the revised comic progressed. Issue #219, published in 1975 under the title ―World of Enslaved Women,‖ continued the trend of xxxvii 98Said, xix.
99In 1985, DC issued a mini-series titled Crisis on Infinite Earths which attempted to correct the discrepancies that had emerged in its comics by condensing the multiple dimensions of the DC Universe into one. For a complete discussion of the impact of Crisis on Infinite Earth on Wonder Woman, see Les Daniel‘s Wonder Woman: the Complete History.
100Steinem, Wonder Woman: Featuring Over Five Decades, 17.
37 presenting concepts which appeared to support the feminist cause when taken at face value yet were undermined by anti- feminist nuances. Overall, the issue highlighted the animosity felt towards feminists. In one pane, the comics depict a mob of
―militant angry feminists‖ attacking men because they wrongly accused the men for the disappearance of their leaders. Figure 14: Feminists become violent against innocent men when threatened with the prospect of losing their The angry feminists yell at the men leaders. calling them chauvinists, as Figure 14 shows.101 Steinem and Betty Friedan, the author of
The Feminine Mystique credited with initiating the Second Wave of feminism, received the brunt of this scrutiny. In the issue, two women from XRO, a dimension where women are strong but enslaved, used a teleporter to transport themselves to Earth under the hope of liberating the women of their planet. Inexplicably, the movement of women between the dimensions caused them to experience reversed emotional responses. Fittingly, the names of the two troublesome alien women who mistakenly reversed women‘s emotions are STNM and FRDN. The male leader of the XRO (cleverly named MCHSM) saw this emotional reversal as an opportunity to bring women from Earth to XRO as slaves. Thus,
Wonder Woman must correct the problems caused by these alien women in their attempts xxxviii 101Julius Schwartz, ed., ―World of Enslaved Women!‖ Wonder Woman 219 (1975): 6..
38 to gain freedom.102 Once again, Wonder Woman assumes the role of cultural dominator as she must save the alien women from their confusion and captivity.
Surprisingly, such mockery appears to have gone unnoticed by Gloria Steinem and her cohorts. In a revised version of her original 1972 declaration, Steinem continued to boast of the character‘s positive feminist message. She praised the ―true revolution‖ encouraged by the new version of Wonder Woman and spoke positively about the character‘s future.103 Despite the reinforcement of female stereotypes, patriarchal dominance, and outright mockery of the women‘s movement, Steinem and other feminists embraced the newly revived Wonder Woman character.
xxxix 102Schwartz, 11.
103Steinem, Wonder Woman: Featuring Over Five Decades, 17, 18.
39 Chapter 5: Wonder Woman’s Present Predicament Since the 1970s, Wonder Woman‘s awareness of her status as a feminist icon has grown. The comics make numerous references to her celebrity among women, highlighting the lasting effect that Ms. has had on Wonder Woman. In issue #7 of the second series, dated August 1987, Wonder Woman‘s publicist launches a campaign to increase the heroine‘s celebrity. Her efforts include placing Wonder Woman on the cover of several magazines including Time, Life,
National Geographic, People, and Ms.104 In another issue, Superman‘s love interest Lois Lane refers to
Wonder Woman as ―God‘s-Honest-Post-Feminist-
Woman with a capital W.‖105 Yet another issue contains a young woman who informs Wonder Woman that she wrote a paper about her for her Feminist
Theory class (see Figure 15).106 When writer George
Figure 15: Wonder Woman comics Pérez revamped the character in 1986, he referred to make repeated reference to the character's status as a feminist. Gloria Steinem for assistance, signifying the role that
Ms. and Steinem have played in creating the character.107 Despite significant changes in the character since 1972, her status as a symbol of female empowerment remains xl 104George Pérez, ―Rebirth!‖ Wonder Woman 7(second series), (1987): 19.
105Phil Jimenez, ―She‘s a Wonder!‖ Wonder Woman 170, 2001 in Wonder Woman: The Greatest Stories Ever Told, (New York: DC Comics: 2007): 174.
106Jodi Picoult, Wonder Woman: Love and Murder, (New York: DC Comics, 2007): n.p.
107Daniels, 168-169. 40 unchallenged108. Undoubtedly, Ms.’s endorsement of the character continues to have an impact on her development as a feminist icon.
In 2006, DC revamped the Wonder Woman comic once again. The new series began with Donna Troy, Diana‘s sister, filling in as Wonder Woman while Diana is missing. Wonder Woman‘s disappearance was due to her distress while trying sort out her problems after killing Lord Maxwell, a man who used mind-control on superheroes.109 Diana soon returned to her position as Wonder Woman and acquired a new secret identity as an agent for the Department of Metahuman Affairs. She quickly discovered that Wonder Woman‘s popularity waned while she was gone: her museum was closed, her merchandise was marked half-off, and her Wonder Woman milkshake was discontinued110
Although the character is now far more self-aware and critical of her idolization, she continues to remain tied to her past as a questionable feminist icon. In her introduction to her Wonder Woman story Love and Murder, writer Jodi Picoult explained,
―My first attempt to effect subtle change was to take her out of her bustier, as any woman writer would know it‘s impossible to fight crime without straps. I was soundly rejected.‖111 Similarly, the character continues to fight Nazis, although they have now
108See footnote 99 on page 37.
109Allen Heinberg, Wonder Woman 1 (second series), 2006.
110Picoult, n.p.
111Picoult, ―Introduction‖ in Wonder Woman: Love and Murder, (New York: DC Comics, 2007): n.p.
41 become mechanical.112 The reluctance to alter significantly Wonder Woman comics and the character is indicative of DC‘s unwillingness to challenge societal norms for fear of losing readers as well as its devotion to nostalgic images of early Wonder Woman comics.
Nevertheless, Wonder Woman comics are progressing. In 2007, novelist Jodi
Picoult became the second female to ever write the comic.113 Later that year, Birds of
Prey writer Gail Simone became the first ever ongoing writer of Wonder Woman.114
Issue #14, dated January 2008 and titled ―The Circle: Part One of Four, What You Do
Not Yet Know,‖ marked the beginning of Simone‘s run on the comic. Like many other female Wonder Woman fans, Simone credits the character for being a role model during her childhood: ―She was a princess who didn‘t need someone to rescue her. I grew up in an era –and a family – where women‘s rights were very important, and the guys didn‘t tend to stick around too long. She was an amazing role model.115‖ While Simone‘s position may be a step forward for Wonder Woman comics, DC‘s 66-year delay in making a female an ongoing writer of the series alludes to its tumultuous relationship with its female audience and adherence to traditional values.
Outside of the comics, Wonder Woman‘s image has become common for purposes of sexual objectification. Calling upon the patriotic aspects of the character, xlii 112Gail Simone, ―The Circle: Part One of Four, What You Do Not Yet Know‖ Wonder Woman 14, 2008.
113Picoult, ―Introduction‖ n.p.
114George Gene Bustines, ―Wonder Woman Gets a New Voice, and It‘s Female,‖ The New York Times, November 27, 2007.
115Gail Simone, ―Wonder Woman Gets a New Voice, and It‘s Female,‖ by George Gene Bustines, The New York Times, November 27, 2007.
42 Playboy‘s February 2008 issue, labeled the ―Sex in America Issue,‖ features celebrity and former Playmate of the Year Tiffany Fallon on the cover wearing nothing but body paint designed to resemble Wonder Woman‘s infamous ensemble. While few readers appear surprised or even offended by the image, the contents of the issue have caused controversy. An article inside the issue describes Fallon as ―a modern-day Lynda Carter‖ and ―a wonderful woman.‖116 Moreover, the article describes Wonder Woman as the
―champion of truth, justice and American sensuality.‖117 Critics of the issue have released complaints about the magazine‘s ―habit of appropriating powerful symbols for women into pleasurable symbols for straight men (which robs the women‘s symbol of it‘s
[sic] power).‖118 However, such an argument rests on the belief that the character was not a pleasure symbol to begin with. In the November 2007 issue of Playboy, the magazine reprinted an image of Wonder Woman naked drawn by her original artist H.G.
Peter.119 In the image, she argues with some miniature men who are flying her uniform like a kite, yelling ―Hey! Pull it in! Superman might fly by…and steal my pants!‖ The existence of such materials leads one to conclude that Wonder Woman has been viewed as a sex symbol for heterosexual men since her creation, although her status as one at present may be more blatant.
xliii 116Frank Luntz ―Sex In America‖ Playboy, February 2008,
117Ibid.
118Lisa Fortuner. ―Just Past the Horizon: That‘s Not Power‖ review of ―Sex in America,‖ by Frank Lutz, Blog@Newsarama, January 11, 2008, http://blog.newsarama.com/2008/01/11/just-past-the-horizon- thats-not-power/#comments
119H.G. Peters, ―Fleshed Out,‖ Playboy, November 2007, 20.
43 Conclusion While Ms. and Wonder Woman have changed substantially since their formative years, both publications continue to maintain a connection to one another. Recent
Wonder Woman comics make constant reference to Wonder Woman as a feminist, as a magazine icon, and as a source of general public fascination. She has essentially become the unquestioned source of female empowerment. Although other appropriations of the character have occurred since her initial interaction with Ms., the comics make few, if any, references to them. However, they continue to reinforce values that conflict with the message of Ms. Wonder Woman remains clothed in her provocative costume while she continues to fight foreign threats and search for a man on which she can rely. Despite these contradictions, Ms. remains a prominent feature of Wonder Woman, appearing in several issues both directly and indirectly.
Although Ms. largely ignores recent events in the character‘s history, the magazine continues to promote Wonder Woman as a feminist icon. She has appeared on the cover of several of the magazine‘s landmark issues including the Fall 2007 35th anniversary issue and the July/August 1997 retrospective issue.120 The Ms. website also devotes a section of their online store to the character, selling postcards, notebooks, posters, and other paraphernalia with the heroine‘s image printed on them.121 However, the images promoted by the magazine are reminiscent of the Wonder Woman of the
1970s, when Ms. premiered, rather than current images of her. Although the staff of Ms. claim that Wonder Woman continues to be a feminist leader, her commercial image appears to be stuck in the past. Companies now market Wonder Woman‘s 1970s image xliv 120―Ms. Magazine Online,‖ Ms. Magazine 2007, http://msmagazine.com/.
121Ibid. 44 to young women on journals, school supplies, and t-shirts, among other items. While the character has gone through several incarnations, Ms. and the feminists who admire her remain content promoting nostalgia for the original character and for the magazine‘s early years. Ms.‘s desire to cling to a romanticized image of Wonder Woman suggests that the magazine itself may be stuck in the golden age of mainstream feminism.
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49