Sudan Journal of Science and Technology (2018) 19(1)

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Nest and nest –building behaviour of Laughing dove senegalensis, at Khartoum, Sudan in (2013-2014) Nawal Nugud Margani 1, Ali Saad 2 Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Science Sudan University of Science and Technology ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY Field observations were made of the breeding habits of the Laughing dove Streptopelia senegalensis at six sites in Received: 01/7/2018 Khartoum State, Sudan. Descriptions are given of the nest sites, Accepted:4 /6/2018 Available online: June nest building, nesting materials, nest measurements, and nest 2018 height was determined. In general the maximum number of nests was found in winter in January and February months and KEYWORDS: in wet season in August and September months, which indicate Nest number, that there would be abundant food in these months when young nest site, nest distribution, were in the nest. The nest distribution of the Laughing dove Laughing dove and Sudan (Streptopelia Senegalensis) was found to be moderate. With only 36 nests in the first breeding season (2013). In the second breeding season (2014), the nest distribution was also moderate with only 45 nests. One-way ANOVA was used to analyse variations in the number of nests in seasons and in the study area. The ANOVA revealed there was significant variation in numbers of nests in different seasons (P=0.011) and in study area (P=0.001) in 2013. In 2014 There was significant difference in numbers of nests in season (P=0.05),and in study area(P=0.005).

INTRODUCTION: The Pigeons and doves belong to the range in and Asia. Its African order Columbiformes and family range includes the major part of the . There are five subfamilies continent except the Sahara and within Columbidae, 50 genera and 351 someWestern regions (Cramp and species.( Baptista, et al., 2016). The Perrins 1994; Laughing Dove has an extremely large Isenmann and Moali 2000; Birdlife species has expanded its distribution to International 2014). The distribution the Canary Islands, within the extended to the Middle East and Macaronesian region (de Juana et al. southern Asia east of and 2000) and has established breeding Bangladesh (Baptista et al. 1997). The populations in five of the seven main Sudan Journal of Science and Technology June (2018) vol. 19 No. 1 75 ISSN (Print): 1605 427x e-ISSN (Online): 1858-6716 islands of this Spanish archipelago has (Tosco 2010 and Romano et al. 2010). It occurred in the Portuguese mainland, where one individual was recorded in Cascais in 1996 (Catry et al.,2010.). Throughout Africa, breeding times of records. In the Sudan no records and Laughing dove differ: In Malawi, studies on the breeding biology and breeding occurs in all seasons; in behaviour of Laughing dove ,although it Zimbabwe (formerly Rhodesia) mainly is. common and widely distributed in all May-November, as well as at other times habitat in sudan). also. In South Africa, breeding takes The present study describes the nesting place at least August-April and in Egypt, habits in a population of Streptopelia between February-June (Etchécopar & senegalensis in Khartoum Hüe, 1967). In North Africa Hanane, et State(Khartoum,Omdurmanand Bahari), al.(2011) reported the breeding season of Sudan. approximately six months in Morocco, Material and Methods Boukhriss and Selmi (2009) also 2.1Study area reported that the breeding season in The study was carried out at six sites in Tunisia lasted from February until Khartoum State(Khartoum,Bahari and August.The onset of egg laying, the Omdurman), there are two points in length of the breeding season, depend on Khartoum Jabal Awlia and Soba –El the habitat condition(Perrins and Bagair in Omdurman there are two Birkhead 1983). It was stated by points Omdurman1 and Omdurman2 in Hanane, et al , 2011 that the short egg Bahari also there are two point laying period and reduced density of Khartoum Bahari and Sharq El Neil, in Laughing dove breeding pairs indicate Khartoum state, the two sites in that their study site might not be an Khartoum is Jabal Awlia the optimum habitat for Laughing dove, geographical coordinates are (N15ο15´E despite the fact that olive orchards are 32ο 30´) within 45.9Km the other site is intensively used by the species for Soba –El Bagair the geographical breeding throughout North Africa coordinates are (N15ο 16´ E 32ο 44´) (Boukhriss and Selmi 2009; Hanane, et within 46.2 Km. In Bahri two point al., 2011). In India(Sikar) Laughing Khartoum Bahari, the geographical Doves laid eggs throughout the year(Ali coordinates are (N 16ο 17´ E 32ο 39´) 1964 and Maha.2014) Within Australia, within72.8 Km, the second site is Sharq breeding by Streptopelia senegalensis, is El Neil the geographical coordinates are variable according to Desire (2013), and (N15ο 17´E 33ο 04´) within 65.5Km.The may occur throughout the year if last two sites in Omdurman Omudrman1 conditions are favourable. In the United the geographical coordinates (N 15ο 45´ States, breeding extends March- E 32ο 4´) within 51.3 Km and November, and in Hawaii, February- Omdurman2 the geographical October. coordinates (N15ο 31´ E 32ο 09´) within Nikolaus (1987) recorded 23 species of 42.9 Km..The six sites were coordinate Columbidae (Doves and Pigeons) in by using GARMIN/ GPS map Sudan, although some of these were rare (Geographical Positioning System )

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(Figure 1). The western side of the other sides in Bahari and Khartoum surveyed area is generally adesert passes through different farms plain(Omudrman1and Omudrman2). The

Birds Areas Samples

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Figure 1: The six site in the Study Area in Khartoum State (produced from Google earth and http://krt-loc.gov.sd/ Climate (November to Febuary ) is rather mild, The annual mean temperature and total followed by a hot dry summer lasting rainfall in 2013and 2014 at Khartoum from March to the beginning of the rainy areas were 37.7 οC and 97.1mm and season. Generally, the relative humidity 36.7οCand 166.4mm respectively . The in Khartoum area is low, especially rainy season start from July to the end of during the dry season, but increases September with occasional showers in during the rainy season. May &October .The average amount of rainfall decreases from south to north and from east to west. Winter Statistical Analysis One-wayANOVA test was carried out to The Nest & Nest Building Behaviour investigate the significance of seasons Nests building started in early January winter , dry season and wet season for and continues until late December in the the number of nests. Also one- first and second breeding periods (2013- wayANOVA test was carried out to 2014) in Khartoum (Jabal awlia, and investigate the significance of the study Soba Elbagair) , Bahari (Khartoum area Khartoum, Bahari and Omudrman Bahari and Sharq El Neil), but in for the number of nests. Omdurman the activity of nest building Correspondence analysis (CA), applied behaviour was recorded only in the in relation with the different season s second period (2014) in (wet season) in and also correspondence analysis applied Omdurman2.In general the maximum in relation with the different area, was number of nests found in the in winter ( represented on the Factorial and the January and February) months and in Factorial test analysis high lighted the wet season in August and September variation of number of nests in seasons months table (I) . The number of nests and in found in 2013 was 36 nests and in 2014 Study area. was 45 nests. RESULT Table 1: The distribution of nests in months during the breeding season in 2013 and 2014 year January February March April May June July August Sept Oct Nov December Total 2013 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 7 5 2 2 2 36 2014 6 5 3 1 1 2 4 8 5 4 3 3 45

The Nest building material & Nest Measurements: Nest building materials were gathered different twigs and constitute the nest from nearby areas surrounding nest sites. substrate. The nest which was flatform During incubation period no building made from thin and thick twigs,and lined materials were added to the nest. Nests with soft stems of grass like Najila were well built because no complete (Cynodon dactylon) and plastic wire, or nest was seen collapsing due to made from awire of plastic with thin or storms.Stem of grass and plastic wire thick twigs and with no soft stems of were probably used to fix together the grass like Najila (Cynodon dactylon) in

Sudan Journal of Science and Technology June (2018) vol. 19 No. 1 01 ISSN (Print): 1605 427x e-ISSN (Online): 1858-6716 man made structure, or without lined by 8cm and width 5cm in Nkheel (Phoenix soft material if the nest was built in semi dactylifera) tree in houses. In one case arid area. The maximum length for nest which was surprising to me there was 18cm, and for width13cm in semi arid two nests together in the area and the minimum length of nest same site in the same branch in lime seventy two nests were as follow: length trees which were discovered in January 11.5±2.03 cm; width, 8.60±1.98 cm and in a house around the farm in lime tree depth 2.35±0.96 cm . The mean height Citrus paradise. The male used dry of nests above the ground level was twigs of neem tree (Azadirechta indica), 2.49±0.77m.The lowest recorded nest Mahogany( Khaya senegalensis) and in was one meter above the ground in semi arid area used twigs of Kiter Meskeat Prosopis glandulosa, Tundub Acacia mellifera and tundab (Capparis Capparis deciduas, and highest was 4m deciduas). Meskeat( Prosopis in Nakheel Phoenix dactylifera .The glandulosa).Completed nests were flat – density for nesting, showing a clear shaped with slight central depression. preference for thorny trees Tamrhindi The mean external measurement of Pterolobium exosum constituted 12%, Tundub, Capparis deciduas10.7% Sedir,Ziziphaus spinachristi 10.7%Heglieg, Balanites aegyptiaca 9.3%, Nakheel ,Phoenix dactylifera findings at semi arid area where the 8%,Neem, Azadiracht indica 8%, species of nesting trees are thorny ones. Meskeat, Prosopis glandulosa 6.7%, Variation in nest numbers during the Lime, Citrus paradise 6.6%, Kiter, breeding period in 2013 Acacia mellifera 5.3%, talih, Acacia There was a difference in nest numbers Seyal 4%, Damas, Conocarpus between the three towns (Khartoum, lancifolius 2.7,, Larenga, Citrus larynge Bahari and Omdurman), also there was 2.7%, Guava, Pisidum guajava 2.7%, a difference in numbers of nests in Ushar, Calotropis Procera 2.7% three seasons; winter, wet season and Lantana, Lantana camara ,1.3%, Indian dry season. The highest number of nests Al Mond, Terminalia oatappa ,1.3%, were recorded in wet season(16 nests ) Mahogany, Khaya seneglensis,1.3% and and winter (13 nests), but in the dry 4% in building eaves.All trees with high season the numbers of nests decreased(7 percentage are thorny which probably nests). In Omdruman no nest was found provide a mechanical barrier against during the breeding period (2013) Table predators. This is supported by the (2a). Table 2a: Total numbers of nest in three towns during the breeding period (2013) Area Season Number of Nest Winter 8 Khartoum Dry season 3 Wet season 9 Winter 5 Bahari Dry season 4 Wet season 7 Winter 0 Omudrman Dry season 0

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Wet season 0 In (Table 2b) the total in the means Also there was a significant difference between the three towns(Khartoum, between the seasons ( winter, dry season Bahari and Omdurman), was found to be and wet season) was found to be statistically significant (p 0.05) at level statistically significant (p 0.05) at level 0.000 (P=0.001),the significant 0.011( P=0.011) , the significant differences in this level between difference in this level between winter Khartoum and Omdurman, also between and dry season also between wet season Bahari and Omdurman and dry season table(2b).

Table 2b: Variation between the three towns and the three seasons during the breeding period 2013 Season Winter Dry Season Wet Season Significance Area Mean± S.D Mean± S.D Mean± S.D Khartoum 4±1.4 1.5±0.7 4.5±0.7 Bahari 2.5± 0.7 2.0±0.0 3.5±0.7 Omdurman 0.0±0.0 0.0±0.0 0.0±0.0 significance * 0.011 **0.000 Main effect Areas Mean±S.E Significance Khartoum 3.33±0.27a Bahari 2.67±0.27a **0.000 Omdurman 0.00±0.27b Significance * Seasons Mean±S.E Significance Winter 2.17±0.27a Dry season 1.17±0.27b *0.011 Wet season 2.67±0.27a Significance *

Variation in nest numbers during the Omdurman there were no nests except breeding period in 2014 in wet season. There was difference in The highest of nests were recorded in nest numbers between the three towns wet Season (21 nests) and winter(17 Khartoum, Bahari and Omdurman table nests) but in the dry summer the (3a) numbers of nest were decreased(7).In Table 3a: Total numbers of nests in three towns during the breeding period 2014 Area Season Number of Nest Winter 10 Khartoum Dry season 4 Wet season 10 Winter 7 Bahari Dry season 3 Wet season 8 Winter 0 Omudrman Dry season 0 Wet season 3

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The differences in The means between the three towns (Khartoum, Bahari and Omdurman), was found to be statistically significant (p 0.05) at level 0.005 (P=0.005), the significant differences in this level between Khartoum and Omdurman, also between Bahari and Omdurman in table (3b). Also the significance difference between the seasons ( winter, dry season and wet season) was found to be statistically significant (p 0.05) at level 0.05( P=0.05) , the significant difference in this level between winter and dry season also winter and wet season, Also other significant differences between wet season and dry season in table (3). Table 3b: Variation between the three towns and the three seasons during the breeding period 2014 Season Winter Dry Season Wet Season Significance Area Mean± S.D Mean± S.D Mean± S.D Khartoum 5.0±0.0 2.0±1.4 5.0±2.8 Bahari 3.5± 2.1 1.5±0.7 4.0±1.4 **0.005 Omdurman 0.0±0.0 0.0±0.0 1.5±0.7 significance * 0.05 Main effect Areas Mean±S.E Significance Khartoum 4.0±0.57 a Bahari 3.0±0.57 a **0.005 Omdurman 0.5±0.57 b Significance * * Seasons Mean±S.E Significance Winter 2.83±0.57 a b Dry season 1.17±0.57 b *0.05 Wet season 3.57±0.57 a Significance *

Discussion The laughing dove (Palm dove), cultivated land, Sorghum and a lot of (Streptopelia senegalensis),is breeding insects bred there also in the semi arid throughout the year from early January area there were many trees providing the until late December. There were three with afruit for example Tundub ( breeding seasons throughout out the Capparis decduas)as a source of food. year; Winter( November, The other adaptation was associated with December,January, February ) Dry availability of half ripe grass and season (March, April, May, June), Wet insects which form the diet for young in season(July, Augusts, September, time of hatching. Also there were a October). In the study area there were peak number of nests in winter differences in breeding season cycles. In season(January and February ) which the first breeding season 2013 and were associated with the abundance and second breeding season2014with a peak diversity of vegetables especially number of nest in wet season(Augusts, Tomatoes which were harvested in this September) because in this time the time and this was associated with a nesting material are available in the decrease in the price of this vegetable study area birds were provided with ,that mean it was many source of food(there were many

Sudan Journal of Science and Technology June (2018) vol. 19 No. 1 06 ISSN (Print): 1605 427x e-ISSN (Online): 1858-6716 available in scrap of people and also in vegetables) are scarce and food stuffs field. In winter and wet season, the from the previous season are not physical condition of the species is plentiful enough to be viable, and optimal for breeding. The breeding declining surface water which explained demands peak physical condition, the low number of nests in study area, fuelled by high levels of protein intake and their physical condition is less than and access to moisture. ideal for breeding. Klomp (1970) found But in dry, season the weather conditions that the variation of food abundance has have an influence on the reproductive been often correlated with the success, The lower vegetations in the reproductive behaviour of altricial birds. area may have a greater influence indeed Also there was high risk of predation in that decay the food supply for breeding, this months in the study area (farm land naturally occurring foods (seeds and , semi desert area). Desiree(2013) in Australia hypothesised number of the nests between winter and that whilst the gonadal cycles of dry season also between winter and wet laughing dove were significantly season(p=0.05), also there were impacted by “fixed annual factors, significant difference between wet including photoperiodic effects and by season and dry season(P=0.05). There environmental factors including food. was significant difference in the numbers Also Frith et al. (1975) recorded that the of nests between Khartoum and nutrition levels of urban populations was Omdurman(P=0.000) , also between often above the threshold that triggers Bahari and Omdruman (P=0.000) . In breeding of laughing dove. 2014 also there was significant In the astudy area a peak of egg laying difference between Khartoum and was delayed some weeks after the Omdurman(P=0.005), also between commence of the rains. The rainfall and Bahari and Omdruman (P=0.005). This low temperature significantly affected was associated with the different types breeding. Despite the fact that changes in of habitats in Omdurman which was photoperiod are not sufficiently large to covered with desert area in Omdurman1 be used as breeding signal in the tropics. and arid area in Omdurman 2 for these Generally , breeding of birds depends on reasons there were no nests in 2013, but synchronizing reproduction with the in the 2014 the highest rate of rains fall period of minimum stress on adult and which were reflected in abundance of maximum survival of nestlings. In 2013 half ripe grass seeds and insects which There was significant difference in the form the diet for young in time of numbers of nests between winter and dry hatching ,for that reason there were three season (P=0.01), also between wet nests recorded in Omdurman2 near season and dry season(p=0.01), in 2014 human there wasa significant difference in the habitation in the selling point of cattle . with the reproductive behaviour of Frith et al. (1975) found that Laughing altricial birds. dove can maintain supply of sufficient But in Khartoum and Bahari the areas food and water to nourish the young in were covered with semi desert habitat harsh environmental conditions. Klomp and these reflect to the type of vegetation (1970) found that the variation of food cover the study areas which were abundance has been often correlated

Sudan Journal of Science and Technology June (2018) vol. 19 No. 1 04 ISSN (Print): 1605 427x e-ISSN (Online): 1858-6716 covered with some permanent trees and temporary vegetation in rain season. Walsh et al (2009) mentioned that birds the year. But Najila (Cynodon dactylon) build nests according to a genetic available only in wet season and local 'template' little influenced by learning or people play negative role in abundance memory .Nest construction in the of it they used it as a source of fire for laughing dove, especially may be cooking. In Semi desert area the nest considerably more responsive to was built only by the dry twigs and environmental influence than is typically wood stick of Kiter (Acacia mellifera, considered to be the case for nest tundub (Capparis deciduas), building in other birds (Walsh et andMeskeat (Prosopis glandulosa). This al,2009).In this study there was a high difference in materials in study area is adaptability in nest building material in adaptation according to environmental laughing dove which were dwelling in influence. In India there were the same human habitation area, there they used a habit, patil and Shende (2015) found that wire of plastic with dry twigs to build Laughing dove collected soft and the nest in most nests in the area, instead semidried materials, thin grass ,few of using Najila(Cynodon dactylon) with wood sticks and plastic wires for nest dry twigs because awire of plastic was building . available around human habitation all There were different nesting habitat; some of the laughing dove were nesting in open semi-arid Also Desiree(2013) found that the ability area in thorny trees ,others in houses of the Laughing dove to adapt to human (nest site in trees and building eaves) modified habitats has made it a which were supported with food, also successful urban. It has been adapted by nesting in thorny trees proximity to utilising built structures or trees as industry of block near the Blue Nile shelter and nest, and foraging for food River bank, and association with human stuffs or food scrap left by people. residential areas probably to avoid However its dependence on these urban predators like snakes.but the most provisions has limited its spread into important nest site habitat in houses in natural environments, this is similar to trees or in building eaves because its results of the present study most of the more safe for the adult and nestling and nests were constructed in human supported with sufficient food. habitation area. The mean height of nests above the which is an important factor affecting ground level was 2.49±0.77m. The same nest height in the case of many result was recorded by Boukhriss and species (Taberner, et al., 2012; Selmi, (2009) they found that nests were Bensouilah et al.2014). built at an average height of 2.58 ± 0.09 The species of plant, the thorn tree prefer m in the farm and semi desert area supports That mean the habitat condition is the the nest and location of the nest inside major factors to build the nest on it and it the plant or with the features of the will match adaption with the different immediate area around the nest. And height of trees which cover the areas. there were the same results which This behaviour may be a response to the supported this study. The Laughing dove height of trees available for nesting preferring thorny trees thus improving

Sudan Journal of Science and Technology June (2018) vol. 19 No. 1 07 ISSN (Print): 1605 427x e-ISSN (Online): 1858-6716 their breeding success. According to Probability of predation may decrease O'Connor 1984, the Long Tailed Tit with increasing abundance of potential Parus spp breeding success was nest sites,because predators must search improved by 12 to 47times by nesting in more empty sites to find an occupied site thorny vegetation which offer protection (Colin,et al 1998). Predation may also against predator increase in lower nests (Monkkonen,et al O'Connor, (1984). The extent of 2007). These predators may be able to distribution of nests are mainly affected reach lower nests more easily and by predation. The solitary well hidden provide parent birds less time to detect nests and the nests which was higher and perhaps dislodge climbing nest were difficult to attack due to predators (Nilsson 1984). Ability to inaccessibility .According to Runde and detect and attack predators may also be Capen (1987) quality of nest site can be reduced by dense foliage near the cavity affected by micro-climate, food (Finch,1989).Conversely, dense foliage availability, and nest predation. near nests may reduce predation by However, density of snags and live trees concealing the nest ( Martin, 1988). could also affect risk of nest predation. Most studies of nest site selection have Nest predation is usually the primary assessed whether there are differences source of nest mortality for both open – between the general habitat and the and cavity –nesting birds(Nilsson, 1984) portion of the habitat used for nesting, as a result, choice of nest sites with and whether habitat characteristics of reduced risk of nest predation and more successful and unsuccessful nest sites foraging substrates should be favored. differ (Kelly, 1993). This approach may show that some with the species of plant that supports patterns might have emerged over the nest and location of the nest inside evolutionary time due to the process of the plant or with the features of the natural selection and that this process immediate area around the nest. Thus, it may be acting on short-term scale (Clark is widely believed that nest site selection and Shutler, 1999). Nevertheless to in birds may have evolved mainly as an strengthen the evidence supporting the adaptive response against nest predation action of the process of natural selection (Kelly, 1993). in shaping nest site preferences it is also In this result variation in the breeding necessary to show that some measure of season and peak of breeding fitness is higher in preferred nest sites Furthermore, the densities of breeding (i.e.,that there is an adaptive response). pairs increased in 2014, which was However, this prediction is seldom rainier, pairs of Laughing dove found tested in studies of nest site selection conditions in 2014 better, than 2013 (Clark andShutler, 1999). .Newton (1964) reported that the year to It has been found in some species that year variation in the breeding season . the probability of nest predation varies Conclusion and remark The Laughing dove started their season and in different study area in breeding from January to December, Khartoum State. they bred solitary at tree or building The following recommendations are eaves around human habitation. The suggested. number of nest was statistically significance differences in different

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Sudan Journal of Science and Technology June (2018) vol. 19 No. 1 05 ISSN (Print): 1605 427x e-ISSN (Online): 1858-6716