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Home , American exceptionalism, Chinese Exclusion Act, Gilded Age, John Bigler

University of Hawai‘i at Hilo HOHONU 2016 Vol. 14

finde [sic] that the God of is among us, when ten Gilded Freedom: U. S. of us shall be able to resist a thousand of our enemies Government Exclusion of [Indians]…,” in which this “Model of Christian Charity” would later justify Indian decimation.3 A first known Chinese Migrants, 1848-1882 example of this came on May 26, 1637, when Captains John Mason and John Underhill led a Puritan militia into Robert Villanueva History 382 Mystic River, Connecticut, and massacred 400 Pequot Indian villagers, bringing upon a white xenophobic Inscribed within the U.S. construct of hatred for future to follow.4 archives, nineteenth century American expansionist Historian Alvin Josephy Jr. stated that British policy is noted for enslavement of African Americans, Puritan colonists of aimed “… to instruct of Mexican Americans, and the systemic the peaceful and exterminate those who resisted,” decimation of Native Americans, instilling a legacy of resting on the belief that all uninhabited lands of ‘savage bigotry that exist in the today. Seldom Indians’ were rightly given to them by God, whereupon discussed in college lectures, the Chinese Exclusion American politicians adopted this Act of 1882 depicts another tragic event in U.S history, concept to justify black , American Indian when Chinese migrants were falsely accused of causing decimation, and persecute other distinct ethnic groups.5 America’s economic hardships. This study will examine This initial period in American history, in essence, the social and political developments that led to the embedded a fixed social construct of white supremacist in 1882, which became the first bigotry in the United States. immigration law to deny entry and U.S. After defeating the British in the American to a group based on its ethnic and national origin, as Revolution in 1776, the United States began an stated in Sections 14 and 15: “That hereafter no State expansionist program to broaden its nation’s borders, court or court of the United States shall admit Chinese from which journalist John O’Sullivan defined as to citizenship;” whereby “…the words Chinese laborers, doctrine in1845, which read: wherever used in this act shall be construed to mean both The far-reaching, the boundless future will be skilled and unskilled laborers and Chinese employed in the era of American greatness. In its magnificent mining.”1 The Chinese, at first, worked calmly alongside domain of space and time, of many whites in the business sector, railway nations is destined to manifest to mankind the industry, and goldmines, until the gold rush excellence of divine principles; to establish on of 1848 bottomed out and the economic panic of earth the noblest temple ever dedicated to the 1873 raised anti-Chinese sentiments. The closure of worship of the Most High -- the Sacred and the goldmines, recession, , and job competition, True. Its floor shall be a hemisphere -- its roof indeed, led to the Chinese Exclusion Act; yet, evidence the firmament of the star-studded heavens, and suggests that politicians were primarily its congregation a Union of many Republics, culpable for pushing the U.S. Government, judicial comprising hundreds of happy millions, calling, system, and many white Americans, into indorsing a owning no man master, but governed by God's national anti-Chinese migrant campaign. Although the natural and moral law of equality, the law of United States Government initially welcomed Chinese brotherhood -- of "peace and good will amongst migrants into its nation, Gilded Age politicians were men.6 primarily responsible for instigating a racist anti-Chinese movement that ended with President Chester A. Arthur , for instance, was responsible signing the Chinese Exclusion Act on May 6, 1882.2 for relocating 46,000 southern Indians west across the This paper intends to describe how Gilded Age (including existent treaties),7 during his politicians used and Manifest two presidential terms (1831-1839). According to historian Destiny ideals to sway many white Americans and the Russell Thornton, most of the 100,000 Native Americans federal government into enacting a ten year moratorium that relocated west by the mid-1800’s, were members on Chinese immigration. U.S. politicians, during this era, of the Five Southern Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, used race as a pretext to falsely accuse Chinese migrants Seminole, and Creek Tribes. Since all eastern territories of devaluing American standards, when in fact, many were secured, the United States Government focused merchants helped stimulate the nation’s economy. The on incorporating Mexico’s southwestern provinces.8 Page Act (1875), Chinese Exclusion Act transcript (1882), The year 1848 marked a turning point in court documents, newspaper tabloids, and political American expansion policy when the United States won speeches will be examined, to perhaps hold these its battle with Mexico, resulting with Mexican officials politicians responsible for excluding Chinese migrant. signing the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo on February The origins of American bigotry originated from 2, which ceded 500,000 square miles of their northern Puritan Minister ’s 1629 “City upon a territory (California, Arizona, Texas, New Mexico, and hill” sermon on exceptionalism that stated: “We shall portions of Colorado, Utah, and Nevada) to the United

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States for $15 million in return.9 According to historian and merchants. In defense of his people, San Francisco Rodolfo Acuña, the United States “got a colony two and restaurant owner Norman Asing sent a letter to half times as large as France from this incorporation of Bigler in April 1852 that read: Mexican land,” which contained large reserves of silver, Sir: I am a , a republican, and a lover of 10 zinc, oil, uranium, copper, and gold. free institutions; am much attached to the principles Gold was also discovered in California during of the government.” “…. [Y]our late message have this year by James W. Marshall and John Sutter, bringing been thus far to prejudice the public mind against an influx of land speculators, merchants, and prospectors my people,” which you state “…that to enhance from the eastern half of the United States, who began the prosperity and preserve the tranquility of this 11 shaping boomtown economies. After Britain defeated State, Asiatic immigration must be checked.” “… in the Opium War, many Chinese citizens [Y]ou have degraded the Negro, because of your experienced land foreclosures, increased taxes, peasant holding him in involuntary servitude,” from which rebellions, overpopulation, and high joblessness, “…amongst this class you would endeavor to inspiring thousands of desperate men to flee to the place us.” “…And we beg to remark, that so far as United States, where a chance at prosperity awaited the history of our race in California goes, it stamps 12 them in the California goldmines. with the test of truth the fact that we are not the Demand for cheap labor urged ship owner degraded race you would make us. We came here Cornelius Koopmanschap to import thousands of Chinese amongst you as mechanics and traders.20 men to work in the California gold mines, railway, and farming industries. By 1849, 8,000 to 10,000 prospectors Rising hostility against Chinese laborers over jobs staked mining claims, and roughly one-fourth of the prompted white miners to petition Sacramento, resulting 85,000 men who worked in the goldmines migrated from with the State of California Legislative Committee noting foreign countries.13 Unlike the Chinese merchant class that “[t]he concentration, within our State limits, of vast who settled in San Francisco prior to 1848, the 20,000 numbers of the Asiatic races...dissimilar to ourselves Chinese who entered California by 1852 came from the [sic] in customs, language, and education… [are merely] poverty stricken provinces of Donggnan, Xiangshan, servile contract laborers,” whose refusal to become Siyi, and Sangic.14 U.S. citizens devalues American working-class ethics.21 The first of many biased laws came on April In 1855, the California legislature passed a law that 13, 1850, when the California State Legislature enacted denied naturalized citizenship to all incoming Chinese the 1850 Foreign Miners Tax, which imposed stiff $20 migrants, for which historian Yucheng Qin stated that monthly fees to keep Mexican and Chinese laborers from “…some white miners even expressed interest in wiping competing with white miners.15 The State of California out all the Chinese.”22 Evidence arguably proves that assumed that taxing these foreign miners would avert Gilded Age politicians used this race-baiting tactic to future conflicts, yet whites continued to accuse the undermine the rising economic mobility of this Asiatic Mexicans and Chinese of stealing their gold. The group. vigilantism and that arose from job competition Anglo continued to escalate forced many Chinese to forfeit their mining claims to in the 1860’s after goldmine owners threatened to whites.16 Acuña stated “[t]hat the Gold Rush was also replace white miners with Chinese laborers, after union why California led the nation in mob violence during delegates refused to use dynamite to quarry rocks. Under the 1850s, and according to scholars set the template for enormous pressure, union bosses hesitantly agreed to use today’s violence against immigrants.”17 the lethal explosives, and take salary cuts as well, which As a result of violence and hundreds of conflicted with white standard labor laws. Shoe, cigar, thousands of tax dollars paid to California legislators, and clothing manufacturers also threatened to replace many Chinese migrant laborers decided to leave the white workers with Chinese, if union bosses failed to goldmines and relocate to San Francisco, where they conform to their labor rules, resulting with working class could legally vote and attend public schools. Many Americans demanding that the State of California set of these displaced Chinese migrants, nevertheless, limit on Chinese immigration.23 opened restaurants, produce markets, laundry houses, Railroad executive defended and thriving import-export businesses, where they sold the Chinese laborers by attesting that they were “very shrimp, oysters, dried vegetables, noodles, rice, tea, and trusty” and “intelligent” people who had an inherent “… sugar to their countrymen and white patrons residing in aptitude and capacity for hard work;” yet, his statement the district.18 could not prevent California Governor and In 1852 California Governor John McDougal Senator Phillip Roach from forming an alliance with described the Chinese as “one of the worthy of our white miners during the 1860’s.24 In an effort to avoid newly adopted citizens,” which clarified how American ongoing criticism, a majority of California’s 49,310 politicians, at first, viewed the Chinese.19 However, Chinese residents entered low paying jobs in the when John Bigler was elected governor later that year, he manufacturing, agriculture, construction, and Central made derisive comments against both Chinese migrants Pacific Railroad industries.25

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The economic depression in 1873 intensified The depression arrived in San Francisco in racial tensions, however, the Chinese merchants 1875, when white business owners began accusing continued to enlarge their import-export trading Chinese merchants of lowering wages and controlling businesses in San Francisco, such as Macondrary & commerce. Complete havoc erupted in the city, in which Company, who generated $500,000 to $600,000 in 250 Chinese migrants were stoned by hostile whites yearly profits.26 Marine Losses Adjustor Cornelius B.S. on San Francisco’s Front Street Wharf.35 Many fearful Gibbs stated before the U.S. Joint Special Committee to Chinese continued to flee the mining camps and seek Investigate Chinese Immigration: “As men of integrity, I refuge in San Francisco, where the Chinese Merchants have never met a more honorable, high minded, correct Association (Six Chinese Companies-Huiguan), provided and truthful set of men than the Chinese merchants of food and lodging for them.36 San Francisco’s gilded our city,” yet the gilded tide of American bigotry would city finally exposed its white racist undertones, with eventually set upon the shores of in whites attacking both Chinese migrants and merchants. 1875.27 Senator James Gillespie stated: “As soon as the Chinese As the Gold Rush was coming to a close, shall discover that they have a safe and firm footing violent attacks against Chinese migrants erupted within in California, they will flock here in such vast number the mining camps, where, in one particular incident, and swamp the white race, because their numbers are a mob of white vigilantes robbed $30,000 in gold inexhaustible and their country over peopled by at least dust from Chinese miners.28 With support from both 10,000,000.”37 Governor Bixley and Senator Roach, white working In 1876, anti-Chinese immigration activists took class Americans began to use race as a pretext to the ‘Chinese problem’ before a California State Senate arbitrarily attack Chinese migrant laborers. Politicians Hearing, when a white shoe manufacturer testified that in California also drew national attention from both “[f]or businessmen to employ Chinese is simply putting Republican and Democratic parties, who uniformly nails in their coffins, because they gain the experience, avowed to limit Chinese immigration.29 Anti-Chinese then go off into their own businesses and compete activism, therefore, united Americans from all economic against us.”38 California legislators seemingly listened to levels, resultant from Gilded Age politicians using the these petitions in order to rouse the American people, support from national newspapers to fabricate negative judicial system, and U.S. Government into joining their images of Chinese, such as a New York Star article that anti-Chinese immigration movement. depicted Chinese migrants as “unnatural and filthy,” and The havoc on the streets of San Francisco the Cincinnati Gazette depicting them “as a dependent, reached the U.S. eastern seaboard, in which a New York ignorant, animal machine.”30 Herald article related the Chinese migrant class “…to the This urged President to beastliness, the filth, squalor, leprosy, venereal disease, accuse politicians of instigating a national anti-Chinese the lawlessness, perjury and violence” that “…is eating campaign to win votes, in a letter that read: “The clamor into the moral of the country.”39 U.S. Supreme Court of an alien race in a single state ––taken up by politicians Justice John Marshall Harlan’s also asserted that the for their own ends—was sufficient to change the policy Chinese were “a race so different from our own that we of a nation and to commit the United States to a race do not permit those belonging to it to become citizens at variance with our professed theories of of the United States”40 Evidence suggests that California government,” which inherently defiled a Bill of Rights politicians Bixley, Roach, and Gillespie were racists, who statement that “all men are created equal.”31 Despite urged both the white working class and judicial system Coolidge’s opposing statement, a majority of politicians into forming a national Chinese exclusion campaign. and white Americans during this Gilded Age of industrial Gilded Age politicians stirred a successful development condoned Chinese exclusion. national anti-Chinese campaign that included white A congressman stated, in order “[t]o protect our Americans from all social sectors, which set the path laboring classes…the gate…must be closed,” whereupon toward Chinese exclusion. It was Republican Senator Chinese exclusion became the platform for Gilded Age James G. Blain who rallied national support against politicians to indorse.32 National unrest over Chinese Chinese, when he told Congress that [w]e have this day migrants urged the U.S. Congress to enact the Page to choose…whether our legislation shall be in the interest Act in 1875, which became the first immigration law of the American free laborer or for the servile laborer from to restrict entry to Chinese people.33 This federal policy China.”41 The New York Tribune also printed a comment also denied immigration to the physically disabled, by Blaine, who proclaimed that Chinese immigration “… prostitutes, communists, mentally ill, and other Asiatic cannot come to us without plenteously sowing the seeds groups, in which Section 1 denied admission to “any of moral and physical disease, destitution, and death.”42 subject of China, Japan, or any Oriental country”…. The Six Chinese Companies were comprised who may perhaps enter the U.S. for “lewd and immoral of established Chinese American businessmen, who purposes; and if there be such contract or agreement, provided funeral, medical, employment, and legal and said consul-general or consul shall not deliver the representation to its members, in addition to offering required permit or certificate” to be allowed entry into economic and social services to migrants.43 The Six the United States.34 72 University of Hawai‘i at Hilo HOHONU 2016 Vol. 14

Chinese Companies became the next target of hostile immigration standards, resulting with the National whites, in which they were accused of slaveholding Origins Act in 1924, which banned U.S. citizenship Chinese laborers and trafficking prostitutes, which upset and restricted immigration to all Asiatic groups, as the Chinese business community. The Six Chinese well as Eastern and Southern Europeans.50 Only two Companies, therefore, forwarded two leaflets to the U.S. percent of people from each nation gained entry into Congress, asserting that they “never brought or caused the U.S., which lowered yearly quotas from 358,000 to to be brought one of their countrymen to this land under 164,000.51 or by any servile or contract labor,” but rather, “…they In an effort to rebuild East Asian relations helped their destitute colleagues return to China and with China, the U.S. Congress, nevertheless, repealed Hong Kong on steam ships and planned to keep the the Chinese Exclusion Act by a narrow margin of 42- number of Chinamen here at a minimum figure….”44 40.52 Signed into law by Franklin Delano Roosevelt on Historian Andrew Gyory stated that Blaine “…single- December 17, 1943, the Chinese Exclusion Act was handedly made racist attacks on Chinese immigrants finally nullified; however, Chinese immigration was still an honorable act. His racist words in 1879 elevated the limited to only two percent per year.53 The repeal was issue nationally from the streets of San Francisco to the actually a conscious move by the U.S. to align with China Senate of the United States.”45 during its war with Japan, in which. Congressman Walter Bipartisanship loyalty during this Gilded Age H. Hudd stated that if the Chinese were not limited to a era, in essence, preserved America’s legacy of bigotry, hundred and five immigration quota, Congress would whereupon discrimination against people of African, have disputed the repeal.54 This annulment helped the Mexican, and Chinese ancestry was commonly practiced. United States strengthen its East Asian policy objectives Historian Erika Lee stated that “[c]losing America’s gates with China.55 Roosevelt boldly stated: ‘ to various alien invasions’ was additionally instrumental It is with particular pride and pleasure that I in articulating a definition of American national identity have today signed the bill repealing the Chinese from which Americans learned to define American-ness exclusion acts…An unfortunate barrier between 46 [].” allies has been removed. The war effort in the Similar to methods used by the of Far East can now be carried on with a greater New England and prior U.S. presidents to decimate vigor and a larger understanding of our common both Native American and African peoples, Gilded Age purpose.56 politicians rallied public support to socioeconomically disempower Chinese people—regardless if they were Although the United States Government born in the U.S. Although the gold bust, , repealed the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, Chinese job competition, and , provided an impetus to pass Americans continued to be discriminated against by a the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act, Gilded Age politicians majority of white Americans. Social equality for Chinese are liable for creating an anti-Chinese smoking mirror to Americans came, to an extent, during the Civil Rights conceal the truth from the American public. The Panic Movement, when the Immigration Act of 1965 replaced of 1873, for instance, actually began when the United the 1924 National Origins Act. This new policy granted States Government failed to regulate the oversupply open immigration quotas and U.S. citizenship to Chinese of cotton, resulting with the bankruptcy of New York Americans and other Asiatic groups,57 as well as help financial banker Jay Cooke and Company, high interstate initiate a new profound tolerance toward Americans of taxes, foreclosures, falling farm prices, wage cuts, and color. high unemployment.47 As a result, Congress’s passage of House California became a hotbed for violence, where Resolution 683 on June 18, 2012, expressed regret for its mobs of white vigilantes entered the city of San Francisco aggression against during exclusion. and mining encampments to lynch, rob, and torch the However, the California Senate presented Joint Resolution homes of the Chinese migrant laborers. Historians Judy No. 23 to Congress on August 28, 2014, petitioning Yung, Gordon Chang, and Him Lai stated that “[t]heir them to formally apologize to Chinese Americans, as goal to drive the Chinese out of all areas of profitable stipulated in Joint Resolution No. 23: employment and ultimately out of the country was WHEREAS, It is important that the United States finally realized with the help of opportunistic politicians Congress make a formal and sincere apology for who pressured Congress to pass the Chinese Exclusion the enactment of the discriminatory laws that Act,” upon President Chester A. Arthur’s signature on adversely affected Chinese Americans, so that May 6, 1882.48 democracy, justice, and equality for all of its Known as the “triumph of ” by some citizens can be achieved, and to strengthen the historians, the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 is noted in the United States that contributes to for being the first immigration policy that denied entry to the country’s economic, cultural, technological, a particular ethnic group--under the notion that they “… academic, and political growth; now, therefore, endangered the good order of certain localities [white be it. Resolved by the Senate and the Assembly of Americans].”49 The Chinese Exclusion Act set future the State of California, jointly, That the Legislature

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requests Congress to adopt resolutions of apology Notes to the Chinese American community for the 1 enactment of the Chinese exclusion laws…58 “The Chinese Exclusion Act, 1882,” Our Documents. com, Last modifed, 1989. http://www.

Chinese exclusion denotes a tragic story in U. S. ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?fash=true&doc=4 history, in which Chinese people were falsely accused of 2 Ibid. taking jobs from whites, monopolizing commerce, and refusing to assimilate. In truth, Chinese people during 3 Godfrey Hodgson, Myth of American Exceptionalism this era actually contributed to the America economy; (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), 1 yet, they were disliked, robbed, beaten, and lynched by 4 Ibid, 12. mobs of white workers. Job competition, decline in gold production, and the panic of 1873, indeed, helped stir 5 Alvin M. Josephy Jr., Now That the Buffalo’s Gone: racist views against Chinese; yet, politicians are mainly A Study of Today’s American Indians (Oklahoma: to blame for enacting the 1882 Chinese Exclusion act— University of Press, 1989), 61. via the use of racist speeches, newspapers, petitioning 6 John O’Sullivan, Manifest Destiny (Civics on Line, Congress, and Anglo American. 1839). http://www.civics-online.org In closing, Chinese migrants arrived during the most turbulent period in U.S. history, when Manifest 7 Chris J. Magoc, and Expansion in Destiny outlined a course of Anglo Saxon expansion, American History: A Social, Political, and Cultural Encyclopedia and Document Collection and David and the sent an influx of bankers, Bernstein (ABC-CLIO: Santa Barbara, 2015), 607. businessmen, speculators, and fortune seekers into the western frontier. Although there were politicians who 8 Russell Thornton, “Cherokee Population Loses During opposed Chinese exclusion, an overwhelming majority the Trail of Tears: A New Perspective and a New of Gilded Age legislators, such as Blaine, Bixley, Roach, Estimate,” Ethnohistory 58, no 4 (Autumn 1984): 289, accessed February 18, 2016, http://www.jstor. and Gillespie, are clearly responsible for pushing org/stable/482714 Congress into enacting the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act. These politicians used a xenophobic platform, similar 9 Rodolfo Acuña, Occupied America: The History of to Puritan exceptionalism ideals, to falsely blame the Chicanos (: Pearson, 2015) 51. Chinese for the nation’s economic woes. The Chinese 10 Ibid, 53. who entered the U. S. during the nineteenth century wanted an equal chance to succeed; yet, they soon 11 John Soennichsen, The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 learned that only Anglo Saxons were granted this (Santa Barbara: Greenwood, 2011), 7-8. privilege. The United States can no longer mask the 12 bigotry beneath its nation’s gilded freedom, because Judy Jung, Chang H. Gordon, and Lai H. Mark, Chinese American Voices: From the Gold Rush to many foreign nations now know about the atrocities the Present (Los Angeles: University of California imposed upon Americans of color. Historian Godfrey Press, 2006), 1-2. Hodgson best described the fate of American prejudice, by stating: 13 John Soennichsen, The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 (Santa Barbara: Greenwood, 2011), 8. The point at which the principles of American democracy are reduced to mere boasting and 14 Ibid, 8. , justified by a cynical “realism,” is 15 the point at which the practice of American Ibid, 15. democracy, at home as well as abroad, is in mortal 16 Rodolfo Acuña, Occupied America: The History of danger. It is also the point at which the best of the Chicanos (New Jersey: Pearson, 2015), 137. exceptionalism in the American tradition has been corrupted into the worst. We can only hope that 17 Ibid, 137. mortal danger will be avoided.59 18 John Soennichsen, The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 Therefore, it is imperative that the U.S. (Santa Barbara: Greenwood, 2011), 15-16. Government make a formal apology to the Chinese 19 Yucheng, Qin, The Diplomacy of Nationalism: The American community, because this courteous gesture Six Companies and China’s Policy Toward Exclusion would take the nation one step closer toward ensuring (Honolulu: University of Press, 2009), 24-26. democracy for all Americans, regardless of one’s ethnic 20 origin, race, religion, and gender, to enjoy. Judy Jung, Chang H. Gordon, and Lai H. Mark, Chinese American Voices: From the Gold Rush to the Present (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2006), 9-10.

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21 Yucheng Qin, The Diplomacy of Nationalism: The Six 43 “Chew Heong v. United States: Chinese Exclusion Companies and China’s Policy Toward Exclusion and the Federal Courts” Federal Judicial Center, (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2009), 24-26. accessed March 29, 2016, http://www.fjc. gov/history/home.nsf/page/tu_ exclusion_bio_ 22 Ibid, 27. companies.html 23 Andrew Gyory, Closing the Gate: Race, Politics, and 44 Andrew Gyory, Closing the Gate: Race, Politics, and the Chinese Exclusion Act (Chapel Hill: University of the Chinese Exclusion Act (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 7. North Carolina Press, 1998), 69, 81.

24 Ibid, 7. 45 Ibid, 4.

25 Ibid, 7. 46 Erika Lee, At America’s Gates: Chinese Immigration during the Exclusion Era, 1882-1943 (Chapel Hill: 26 Ibid, 58-59. The University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 22.

27 Ibid, 58-59. 47 “Chinese Exclusion Act: 1882.” Our Documents.com, Last modifed 1989. http://www.ourdocuments.gov/ 28 John Soennichsen, The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 doc.php?fash=true&doc=4 (Santa Barbara: Greenwood, 2011), 16-17. 48 Ibid. 29 Ibid, 27. 49 “The Panic of 1873” (American Experience) Last 30 Andrew Gyory, Closing the Gate: Race, Politics, and modifed 2013.http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/american the Chinese Exclusion Act (Chapel Hill: University of experience/features/general-article/-panic/ North Carolina Press, 1998), 18. 50 “The National Origins Act of 1924: Immigration 31 Andrew Gyory, Closing the Gate: Race, Politics, and and Defnition,” Study.com, last modifed 2016, the Chinese Exclusion Act (Chapel Hill: University of accessed February 19, 2016, http://study.com/ North Carolina Press, 1998), 8. academy/lesson/the-national-origins-act-of-1924- immigration-defnition.html 32 Ibid, 1. 51 Ibid. 33 John Soennichsen, The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 (Santa Barbara: Greenwood, 2011), 124. 52 Xiaohua Ma, “A Democracy at War: The American Campaign to Repeal Chinese Exclusion in 1943” 34 Ibid, 124. The Japanese Journal of , no. 9 (1998):138, accessed February 15, 2016. 35 Yucheng, Qin, The Diplomacy of Nationalism: The Six Chinese Companies and China’s Policy Toward 53 Ibid, 138. Exclusion (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2009), 60. 54 Ibid, 138.

36 Ibid, 60. 55 Ibid, 138.

37 Ibid, 60. 56 Ma, 121.

38 Ibid, 59. 57 Ma, 139.

39 John Soennichsen, The Chinese Exclusion Act of 58 Senate Joint Resolution No 23, Chapter 134: Relative 1882 (Santa Barbara: Greenwood, 2011), 61. The to Chinese Americans in California, August 28, 2014, Zhonghua Huiguan (Chinese Six Companies) was a California Legislative Information, (California, 2014), conglomeration of businessmen from smaller district http: //leginfolegislature.ca.gov/faces /billNavClient. associations (huiguan), who provided jobs and xhtml?bill_id=201320140SJR23 social services to Chinese migrants. 59 Godfrey Hodgson, The Myth of American 40 The Supreme Court Reporter: Volume 16 (St. Paul: Exceptionalism (New Haven: Yale University Press, West Publishing Company, 1896), 1147. 2009), 190.

41 Andrew Gyory, Closing the Gate: Race, Politics, and the Chinese Exclusion Act (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 3-4.

42 Ibid, 3-4.

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Bibliography The Supreme Court Reporter. Vol 16. St. Paul: West Acuña, Rodolfo, Occupied America: The History of Publishing Company, 1896. Chicanos. New Jersey: Pearson, 2015. Thornton Russell. “Cherokee Population Loses During “Chew Heong v. United States: Chinese Exclusion the Trail of Tears: A New Perspective and a New and the Federal Courts.” Federal Judicial Estimate.” Ethnohistory 58, no 4 (1984): 289, Center. Accessed March 29, 2016. http://www. accessed February 18, 2016. http://www.jstor.org/ fjc.gov/history/home.nsf/page/tu_exclusion_bio_ stable/482714 companies.html “Chinese Exclusion Act, 1882.” Our Documents.com. Last modifed 1989.http://www.ourdocuments.gov/ doc.php?fash=true&doc=47

Gyory, Andrew. Closing the Gate. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998. Jung, Judy, Chang H. Gordon, and Lai H. Mark. Chinese American Voices: From the Gold Rush to the Present. University of California Press, 2006.

Lee, Erika. At America’s Gates: Chinese Immigration during the Exclusion Era, 1882-1943. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2003. Ma, Xiaohua. “A Democracy at War: The American Campaign to Repeal Chinese Exclusion in 1943.” The Japanese Journal of American Studies, no. 9 (1998):121. Magoc, Chris J. and David Bernstein. Imperialism and Expansion in American History: A Social, Political, and Cultural Encyclopedia and Document Collection and David Bernstein. ABC-CLIO: Santa Barbara, 2015, 607. Qin, Yucheng. The Diplomacy of Nationalism: The Six Companies and China’s Policy Toward Exclusion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2009. Railton, Ben. The Chinese Exclusion Act. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013. Senate Joint Resolution No 23, Chapter 134: Relative to Chinese Americans in California, August 28, 2014. California Legislative Information. California, 2014. http: //leginfolegislature.ca.gov/faces/billNavClient. xhtml?bill_id=201320140SJR23 Soennichsen, John. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. Santa Barbara: Greenwood, 2011. “The National Origins Act of 1924: Immigration and Defnition.” Study.com, last modifed 2016. Accessed February 19, 2016. http://study.com/ academy/lesson/the-national origins-act-of-1924- immigration-defnition.html “The Panic of 1873,” (American Experience). Last modifed 2013.http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/ americanexperience/features/general-article/grant- panic/

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