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A University of Sussex PhD thesis Available online via Sussex Research Online: http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/ This thesis is protected by copyright which belongs to the author. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Please visit Sussex Research Online for more information and further details 1 Patients’ creative work and ‘expressive possibilities’1 in New Moon, Under the Dome, and The Hydra, 1844-1918 Emily Jessica Turner A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Sussex September, 2019 1 Benjamin Reiss, ‘Letters from Asylumia: The “Opal” and the Cultural Work of the Lunatic Asylum, 1851-1860’, American Literary History, 16.1 (2004), 1-28 (p.3). 2 I hereby declare that this thesis has not been and will not be, submitted in whole or in part to another University for the award of any other degree. Signature: Emily Jessica Turner Table of Contents 3 List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………....7 Summary…………………………………………………………………………............9 Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………......11 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………......13 1 - Contexts……………………………………………………………………..18 2 - Previous Scholarship………………………………………………………..23 Chapter One: ‘We are stimulated to rise higher in virtue’: institutional ideology and patient autonomy in New Moon……………………………………………………...................34 1 - Acknowledging limitations …………………………………………………40 2 - Advocating ‘refinement as wellbeing’……………………………………....49 3 - Locating emerging gaps of knowability…………………………………….62 4 - Negotiating ideology - external literary modes……………………………..73 5 - Communicating first-person experiences and ‘repressive tolerance’.............89 6 - Conclusion…………………………………………………………………96 Chapter Two: ‘House identity’ formation in Under the Dome……..…………..……...100 1 - The editorial ‘face’ of Under the Dome …………………………………..102 2 - Under the Dome as moral therapy………………………………………....115 3 - Community endeavour, curative goal…………………....………...……....119 4 - Locating a house identity in Under the Dome……………………..………126 5 - Literariness in Under the Dome’s ‘house identity’ …………………….....134 6 - ‘Conceptual linkages’: engaging with discourses of ‘madness’, heritage, and domesticity in house identity construction…………………………………...147 7 - Reflections on other patient publications as informing Under the Dome’s formation of a Bethlem identity……………………….……………………........................161 8 - Conclusion……………………………………………………………...…170 4 Chapter Three: Labor omnia vincit: The theme of ‘healing’ in The Hydra as tool of recovery………………………………………………………………………….........173 1 - The Hydrans……………………………………………………………….179 2 - The Hydra as dual-method tool of healing…………....….......……………185 3 - Themes of conflict………………………………………………………....195 4 - Themes of healing…………………………………....…………………....200 5 - Challenging the ‘compromised goal’…………………...………………....226 6 - Political illness, public platform…………………………………………...235 7 - Conclusion………………………………………………………………....239 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….....245 1 - Thesis findings…………………………………………………………….249 2 - Future research…………………………………………………………….257 Bibliography………..………………………………………………………………....263 Appendices Appendix A - Chronology of patient publications and extended literature review………………………………………………………………………....288 Appendix B - Full versions of articles from New Moon, Under the Dome, and The Hydra……………………………………………………………….…............311 ● New Moon ○ 1.1 ■ ‘Prospectus’……………....…………………...……....311 ■ ‘Dearest Doctor’………………………………………313 ○ 1.3 ■ ‘The Picture Asylum!’……...………………………....316 ○ 1.10 5 ■ ‘Another Confession - Are the Insane Always in Error?’………………………………………………....318 ● Under the Dome ○ 1.1 ■ ‘The New Arm Chair’ …..…………………………....322 ○ 1.3 ■ ‘A True Incident - The Good Old Times’......................323 ● The Hydra ○ 1.1 ■ ‘Waiting’………………………………………………325 ○ 1.2 ■ ‘Lines on Watts' Picture of "Hope"’..............................326 ○ 1.4 ■ ‘Thoughts on the Human Body/The Incarnate Word’...327 ■ ‘The Patchwork Quilt’.............................................…..331 ○ 1.5 ■ ‘One of My Little Troubles’………………………………………………333 ○ 1.6 ■ ‘A Shattered Hope’……………………………………………….…335 ○ 1.7 ■ ‘The Counter Attack - A Story Full of Morals’.............336 ○ 2.1 6 ■ ‘Ballades of France No. 2. Any Private to Any Private.’………..……………………………………....339 ○ 2.3 ■ ‘Sonnet’……………………………………….………341 ○ 2.8 ■ ‘Stared At’...……………………………….………....342 7 List of Figures Figure 1: The front cover of New Moon, Vol. 1 No. 1. Picture: Wellcome Library….........51 Figure 2: Layout of articles in New Moon, Vol. 1 No. 2. Picture: Wellcome Library…….74 Figure 3: Opening page of Under the Dome, Vol. 1, No. 1. Picture: my own……............105 Figure 4: Henry Francis Harding, in Under the Dome, Vol. 5.No. 19. Picture: my own…108 Figure 5: Kentish Scribbler’s ‘Sketch showing the Bethlem Royal Hospital as a bird cage’ (c. 1870–8). Picture: Bethlem Museum of the Mind, sourced from Sarah Chaney,’’No “Sane” Person Would Have Any Idea’: Patients’ Involvement in Late Nineteenth-century British Asylum Psychiatry’, Medical History, 60.1 (2016), 37-53 (p. 39).………....…………....112 Figure 6: French poetry next to a report on a hospital outing. Under the Dome, Vol. 5 No. 19. Picture: my own.………....………....………....………....………....……….....................141 Figure 7: New domestic spaces at Bethlem. Picture: sourced from Anon, Bethlem Museum of the Mind (2015) <https://museumofthemind.org.uk/blog/life-in-a-victorian-asylum-1> [accessed 12 June 2018].………....………....………....………....………....………....………....……….153 Figure 8: Under the Dome’s cover. Picture: sourced from Jane Hamlett, Bethlem Museum of the Mind (2015). <https://museumofthemind.org.uk/blog/billiards-at-bethlem-2. [accessed 13 February 2018].………..………....………....………....………....………....………....…...162 Figure 9: “The Cure for Nerves”, The Hydra, Vol. 1 No. 2. Picture: digitised archive…....177 Figure 10: Cover of The Hydra, Vol. 1. No. 1. Picture: digitised archive………................184 Figure 11: Illustrations and copy in Notes and News, The Hydra , Vol. 2 No. 1. Picture: digitised archive.………....………....………....………....………....……….....…………………….204 Figure 12: Notes and News, The Hydra, Vol. 2 No. 1. Picture: digitised archive…............208 Figure 13: ‘An Anglers Dream at Bowhill’, The Hydra Vol. 1 No. 4. Picture: digitised archive.………....………....………....………....………....………....………....………..…210 Figure 14: ‘Shell Shock!’, The Hydra, Vol. 2 No. 2. Picture: digitised archive……...........212 8 Figure 15: Henry Fuseli’s The Nightmare (1781).………....………....………....….…214 Figure 16: George Frederic Watts’s Hope (1886).………....………....………....….…219 Figure 17: The front cover of the New Series of The Hydra, Vol. 2 No. 9. Picture: digitised archive.………....………....………....………....………....………....……...................223 Figure 18: ‘Water-Fowl’, The Hydra, Vol. 2 No.3. Picture: digitised archive.….. …..245 Figure 19: William Hogarth’s A Rake’s Progress - ‘In The Madhouse’ (1732)...........252 Figure 20: The front cover of Excelsior, Vol. 14 No. 56. Picture: digitised archive….295 Figure 21: The front cover of St. Ann’s, Christmas, 1896. Picture: my own……….....301 Figure 22: The front cover of The Passing Hour, Vol. 14 No. 1. Picture: my own…..303 9 Summary This thesis examines ‘patient publications’ produced at various points in the period between 1844 and 1918 within three particular mental health hospitals in England and Scotland, in order to explore how creative expression was used by staff and patients in treatment and recovery. My analysis, based upon a body of new archival research, is structured around a collection of case studies: New Moon, the journal produced by the patients at Crichton Royal Hospital at Dumfries from 1844 until 1937; Under the Dome, the patient and staff magazine of London’s Bethlem Royal Hospital published from 1892 to 1920; and The Hydra, created by patients at the Edinburgh institution, Craiglockhart War Hospital between 1917 and 1918. By focusing on select numbers of these magazines - the first twelve issues of New Moon, the 1892 to 1903 numbers of Under the Dome, and the full catalogue of the short-lived The Hydra - in chronological order, the thesis analyses the limited runs of these magazines as diverse literary and historical objects, and explores the ways in which the titles demonstrate the development of the patient publication form. Following archival work on a range of patient publications in the period 1837 to 1995, these three publications were selected for analysis owing to their demonstration of the diversity and development of the patient publication form. The analysis of these three publications - as distinct but thematically related literary objects, and as representational of the wider chronology of the form - provides an inquiry into both the individual journals and their roles within the ‘asylum journal’ format, and also into the format itself. The thesis aims to open up discussion of ways in which patient publications demonstrate newfound emphasis in sanatoria on creative expression in mental health care during this period. The study demonstrates ways in which individual hospital’s ‘asylum journals’, as complex products and reflections of their institutions, and the different expressions