United States Department of Agriculture Aquatic Ecosystems & Watersheds Assessment Supplemental Report Wayne National Forest
Forest Wayne National Forest Plan Service Forest Revision July 2020 Prepared By: Kelly S. Johnson, Danielle D’Amore, Jonas Epstein Nora M. Sullivan, and Natalie A. Kruse
Ohio University Wayne National Forest 1 Ohio University 13700 US Highway 33 Athens, OH 45701 Nelsonville, OH 45764
Revised for Final Release By: Lisa Kluesner
Wayne National Forest 13700 US Highway 33 Nelsonville, OH 45764
Responsible Official: Forest Supervisor Carrie Gilbert
Cover Photo: A small waterfall that is part of a larger 40-foot cascade in Fly Gorge Special Area, Marietta Unit. USDA photo by Kyle Brooks
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Table of Contents
Notable Changes between Draft & Final of this Supplemental Report ...... 1 Summary ...... 1 Overview of Wayne National Forest & Study Area ...... 4 Descriptions of Aquatic Ecosystem Types ...... 5 Primary Headwater Streams ...... 5 STRUCTURE: Headwater Streams ...... 5 COMPOSITION: Headwater Streams ...... 6 CONNECTIVITY: Headwater Streams ...... 7 MEASURES OF ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY: Headwater Streams ...... 7 Larger Streams & Rivers ...... 7 STRUCTURE: Larger Streams & Rivers ...... 7 FUNCTION: Larger Streams & Rivers ...... 10 COMPOSITION: Larger Streams & Rivers ...... 10 CONNECTIVITY: Larger Streams & Rivers ...... 11 MEASURES OF ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY: Larger Streams & Rivers ...... 11 Wetlands ...... 11 STRUCTURE: Wetlands ...... 11 FUNCTION: Wetlands ...... 12 COMPOSITION: Wetlands ...... 13 CONNECTIVITY: Wetlands ...... 13 MEASURES OF ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY: Wetlands ...... 14 Lakes, Ponds, and Reservoirs ...... 14 STRUCTURE: Lakes, Ponds, and Reservoirs ...... 14 FUNCTION: Lakes, Ponds, and Reservoirs ...... 15 COMPOSITION: Lakes, Ponds, and Reservoirs ...... 15 CONNECTIVITY: Lakes, Ponds, and Reservoirs ...... 15 MEASURES OF ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY: Lakes, Ponds, and Reservoirs ...... 16 Groundwater-Dependent Ecosystems ...... 16 STRUCTURE: Groundwater-Dependent Ecosystems ...... 16 FUNCTION: Groundwater-Dependent Ecosystems ...... 17 COMPOSITION: Groundwater-Dependent Ecosystems ...... 17 CONNECTIVITY: Groundwater-Dependent Ecosystems ...... 17 MEASURES OF ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY: Groundwater-Dependent Ecosystems ...... 17 Current Assessments of Ecological Integrity & Trends in Aquatic Ecosystems & Watersheds .... 18 Land Cover Change ...... 19 Ohio EPA Total Maximum Daily Load Assessments of Stream Quality ...... 23 Chemical & Biological (Fish & Macroinvertebrate) Assessments ...... 23 MAIS Sites within the Wayne National Forest Units ...... 30 Assessments of Wetland & Riparian Zone Quality ...... 31 Assessments of Lake, Pond, and Reservoir Quality ...... 34 Hydrological Integrity ...... 35 Precipitation ...... 38 i | Page
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Temperature, Air, and Water Records...... 38 Characterization of Existing Watershed Condition ...... 42 Watershed Condition Classification ...... 42 Alteration of National Forest Sub-Watersheds ...... 44 Drinking Water Protection ...... 46 Soil Resources ...... 47 Water Withdrawals ...... 52 HydroVIEW Maps of High & Low-Quality Sub-Watersheds, Wetlands, and Riparian Zones ...... 53 Integrity & Vulnerability of Aquatic Ecosystems to Future Change ...... 57 Integrity Statements for Ecosystems Contained within the Aquatic Ecosystems Assessment ...... 57 Methods: ...... 57 Land Cover Change ...... 57 Streams ...... 58 Primary Headwater Streams ...... 59 Larger Streams & Rivers ...... 59 Wetlands ...... 60 Ponds, Lakes, and Reservoirs ...... 61 Groundwater-dependent Ecosystems ...... 61 Information Gaps ...... 61 More Surveys & Mapping To Locate Highest Quality Aquatic Resources ...... 62 Sentinel Streams & Wetlands (Including Vernal Pools) For Long Term Monitoring ...... 62 Better Monitoring & Proactive Approaches to Prevent Establishment of Invasive Species ...... 62 Catchment Level Assessment of Aquatic Resources ...... 63 Acknowledgements ...... 63 References ...... 65 Appendix A. Aquatic Invasive Taxa of Concern in Southeast Ohio ...... 77 List of Figures
Figure 1. Aquatic ecosystems, habitat classes, and habitat subclasses in the Wayne National Forest proclamation boundary 2 Figure 2. Map of the 17-county study area showing Wayne National Forest’s proclamation boundary ...... 4 Figure 3. Map of TMDL sample sites showing Ohio EPA-designated causes of impairment, as well as sites designated as natural or a site worthy of preservation...... 24 Figure 4. Locations of stream sampling sites in the Athens Unit and their Ohio EPA designated use and attainment status 27 Figure 5. Locations of stream sampling sites in the Ironton Unit showing their Ohio EPA designated use and attainment status ...... 28 Figure 6. Locations of stream sampling sites in the Marietta Unit showing their Ohio EPA designated use and attainment status ...... 29 Figure 7. Locations of streams lacking adequate riparian buffer zones ...... 31 Figure 8. HydroVIEW example map of the northern Ironton Unit showing an exceptional wetland with high quality (blue) and lower quality (pink) riparian corridors ...... 32 Figure 9. Representative seasonal pattern in (a) stream discharge and (b) precipitation for the study area ...... 36 Figure 10. Natural variability in hydrograph of Sunday Creek (2003 to 2007) showing seasonal pattern of low flows in summer months, frequent peak flows in 2004, and extended low flow periods in 2005 and 2007 ...... 37 Figure 11. Increasing trends in water temperature in two Pennsylvania streams (Kaushal et al. 2010) ...... 41 Figure 12. Increasing trend in water temperature (in Kelvin) from Little Raccoon Creek USGS gaging station at Ewington, OH...... 42 ii | Page
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Figure 13. Watershed Condition Classification, Wayne National Forest ...... 43 Figure 14. EPA-designated surface water protection and groundwater wellhead protection areas with significant National Forest System sub-watershed overlap ...... 46 Figure 15. Representative block diagrams showing the dominant soil catenas for the Marietta, Athens, and Ironton Units . 48 Figure 16. Off-road, off-trail erosion hazard classes for the soil resources in the Marietta Unit of the Wayne National Forest ...... 49 Figure 17. Off-road, off-trail erosion hazard classes for soil resources in the Athens Unit of the Wayne National Forest .... 50 Figure 18. Off-road, off-trail erosion hazard classes for the soil resources in the Ironton Unit of the Wayne National Forest ...... 51 Figure 19. Map from HydroVIEW showing exceptional watersheds (green), Department of Natural Areas and Preserves (DNAP) aquatic and conservation sites (blue), and high-quality wetlands (Category III) (blue dot) within Wayne National Forest boundaries ...... 54 Figure 20. Map from HydroVIEW showing areas of acid mine drainage (AMD) impacts; AMD impacts are greatest in the Athens Unit, but some are also present in the Marietta and Ironton Units...... 55 Figure 21. Map showing areas of nutrient enrichment (coliform bacteria, sewage, low dissolved oxygen, ammonia, excess algae)...... 56 List of Tables
Table 1. Designated uses for surface waters describing potential biological diversity of streams (Ohio EPA) ...... 9 Table 2. Types of land cover change from 2006 to 2011 within the Wayne National Forest proclamation boundary (855,532 acres) ...... 21 Table 3. Summary of acreage land use changes within the Wayne National Forest proclamation boundary (855,532 acres) 22 Table 4. Types of land cover change from 2006 to 2011 within Wayne National Forest lands (244,256 acres) ...... 22 Table 5. Summary of acreage land use changes within Wayne National Forest lands (244,256 acres) ...... 23 Table 6. Number of designated streams and their attainment in the 17-county study area, proclamation boundary, and National Forest System ...... 26 Table 7. Number of designated streams by management unit and attainment status ...... 27 Table 8. Summary of the quantities of wetlands, ponds and lakes (in acres), along with acres of area categorized as >50% of the riparian zone of high quality or <50% of the riparian zone of high quality within the Wayne National Forest units ...... 33 Table 9. Acres of ponds, lakes, and reservoirs within the Wayne National Forest proclamation boundary on Wayne National Forest lands and lands of other ownership ...... 34 Table 10. Summary of historical fish, water chemistry, and physical data for the three lakes within the 17-county study area managed by Ohio Department of Natural Resources ...... 35 Table 11. Annual, seasonal, and monthly mean values and linear trend analysis for selected climate variables from 1901 through 2011 for the Central Appalachians assessment area(Butler et al. 2015) ...... 40 Table 12. Core national watershed condition indicators and attributes ...... 43 Table 13. Degree of human modification across Wayne National Forest HUC-12 sub-watersheds ...... 45 Table 14. Off-road, off-trail erosion hazard classes and acreages found within the proclamation boundary of the Wayne National Forest ...... 49 Table 15. Invasive aquatic plant species of particular concern in the Wayne National Forest area ...... 77 Table 16. Invasive fish species of particular concern in the Wayne National Forest area ...... 77 Table 17. Invasive aquatic invertebrate species of particular concern in the Wayne National Forest area...... 77
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Notable Changes between Draft & Final of this Supplemental Report A corrected tiering of the palustrine wetland classes has been applied that consistently follows the Classification of Wetlands and Deepwater Habitats of the United States (FGDC 2013). Terminology has also been corrected throughout the supplemental report to ensure ecosystem classifications were being applied appropriately. The Groundwater-Dependent Ecosystems section has been reformatted and updated to provide the same kinds of key ecosystem characteristics that were presented for the other aquatic ecosystems. The Soil Integrity subsection has been relabeled Soil Resources and has been updated to provide a more thorough discussion on the current conditions, trends, and stressors of forest soils. The potential effects of forest mesophication on water yields has been added to the Water Withdrawals section. Summary This supplemental report describes the aquatic ecosystems of the Wayne National Forest located in southeastern Ohio, an area within the Western Allegheny Plateau ecoregion. The goal is to assess the current ecological integrity and potential responsiveness to future change from both natural and anthropogenic influences. Aquatic ecosystems on the landscape are defined and connected by the following natural drivers: a) hydrological regime (flow quantity and permanence, base flow from groundwater), b) temperature and light, and c) geomorphological features (e.g., geology, stream gradient, sinuosity, stream bottom substrate). Most aquatic ecosystems exhibit high connectivity with other water bodies, groundwater sources, and terrestrial systems, although the strengths of these ecological linkages can vary across space and time.
This supplemental report describes five aquatic ecosystems—as well as habitat classes and subclasses—that occur within the Wayne National Forest proclamation boundary (figure 1):
• Primary Headwater Streams • Larger Streams • Wetlands • Lakes, Ponds, and Reservoirs • Groundwater-dependent Ecosystems These ecosystems are based on classifications used by Ohio Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s National Wetland Inventory definitions. Each aquatic ecosystem type has distinct physical and biological characteristics, but collectively they reflect a continuum of aquatic habitats: small headwater streams and groundwater-dependent ecosystems flow into larger streams and rivers that also supply wetlands, ponds, and lakes. There is strong connectivity through groundwater supply, longitudinal flow, and lateral flood pulse concepts (Vannote et al. 1981; Junk 1989). The ecosystems of larger streams, rivers, wetlands, and lakes are dependent on
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Aquatic Ecosystems & Watersheds Supplemental Report smaller streams that drain the catchment and transport water and nutrients (EPA 2015). Aquatic networks also share connectivity with terrestrial ecosystems (National Research Council 1992; USDA 2012a). Thus, alterations of terrestrial processes in the catchment have significant impacts on aquatic systems that are conveyed downstream through headwater and wadeable streams.
Figure 1. Aquatic ecosystems, habitat classes, and habitat subclasses in the Wayne National Forest proclamation boundary
Freshwater habitats provide valuable ecosystem services. The definitions of ecosystem functions and services used in this report follow those developed by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (United Nations 2005) and United Nations technical guide (2017) for freshwater ecosystem management. Larger streams and rivers are important for water movement, transportation and cycling of nutrients and pollutants, and flood control. Lakes and reservoirs are important for human water supply, recreational use, flood control, and are endpoints for impacts relating to nutrient enrichment (eutrophication) and sediment. Wetlands provide key services related to water storage, purification (filtering), nutrient cycling, and biological productivity (Sather and Smith 1984; EPA 2002). Collectively, freshwater ecosystems support high concentrations of endemic plant, fish, amphibian, reptile, and invertebrate species and are, therefore, valuable for supporting biodiversity (Collen et al. 2014). 2 | Page
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This report is divided into four sections:
• Section I describes the major types of freshwater aquatic ecosystems found within the 17-county study area that includes and surrounds the proclamation boundary of the Wayne National Forest: primary headwater streams; larger streams; wetlands; lakes, ponds, and reservoirs; and groundwater-dependent ecosystems. Descriptions include their structural, functional, and compositional characteristics, as well as their connectivity with other ecosystem types (Sect. 12.13, Ch. 10, Land Management Planning Handbook). Common measures of ecological integrity of each ecosystem type (e.g., stream reach, pond, or wetland) are also explained, with the primary focus on biological indicators that are already in use by the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency (Ohio EPA) and other agencies. Multi-metric biological indicators are integrative measures of ecosystem integrity, and those selected are already calibrated to reflect the natural range of variation and the best available reference sites (least disturbed) in the ecoregion. Relying on metrics already developed by and recognized by the Ohio EPA maximizes the use of existing data and methodology for identifying ecosystem types as well as their quality (ecological integrity). • Section II summarizes existing data on the quality of aquatic ecosystems and characterizes conditions of sub-watersheds within the Wayne, as well as historical trends in land cover, precipitation, air, and stream temperatures in the region. The data are presented at multiple spatial scales depending on the data source and relevance. For example, annual trends in temperatures are available at the regional scale, but not specifically for the Wayne National Forest or the broader 17-county study area. Land cover was analyzed at the 17-county study area to better illustrate drivers and trends outside National Forest System lands. Infrastructure, impervious surface, and soil characteristics are aggregated at the twelve-digit hydrologic code (HUC-12 sub-watershed) for consistency with the Forest Service’s Watershed Condition Framework (USDA 2012a). Some aquatic ecosystems, such as headwater streams, certain palustrine wetlands and groundwater-dependent ecosystems, within the study area are not well- mapped and data on their ecological integrity is not available. The majority of data for surface water quality comes from assessments of larger, perennial streams performed by the Ohio EPA’s statewide Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) evaluation (2000 to 2017). Locations of larger riverine and palustrine wetlands have been mapped for the study area, but assessments of their ecological integrity are limited and tend to be site-specific. Hydrological regime is one of the most defining drivers of aquatic ecosystem characteristics and functions, and perhaps one of the most sensitive to future climate change but is particularly challenging to quantify. This, and the scarcity of long-term data, makes watershed-scale assessments of the ecological integrity of aquatic resources and their adaptive capacity somewhat limited. • Section III summarizes the current status of aquatic resources relative to their vulnerability to future environmental changes. Gaps in knowledge are identified. • Section IV identified information gaps and suggestions for how data might be further extracted or analyzed to track long term changes and assess connectivity.
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Overview of Wayne National Forest & Study Area The Wayne National Forest consists of three management units (Athens, Marietta, and Ironton) distributed across southeastern Ohio (figure 2). The three units are not contiguous, but are instead separated by broad sections of lands of other ownership. Additionally, land ownership within the management unit boundaries is not continuous; private and state land holdings are interspersed within the proclamation boundary. This supplemental report summarizes the types of aquatic ecosystems and watershed resources, as well as trends in land use and climate change over the past decade, for a broader 17-county study area surrounding the three management units. The 17-county study area better captures potential drivers and stressors common to this part of the state. More specific information on areas within the proclamation area is presented when possible.
Figure 2. Map of the 17-county study area showing Wayne National Forest’s proclamation boundary
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Descriptions of Aquatic Ecosystem Types Primary Headwater Streams
STRUCTURE: Headwater Streams Headwater streams are the smallest streams, with average annual flows generally less than 2-5 cubic feet/second (see 33 CFR § 330.2). First and second order streams are usually designated as headwaters, although topographic maps (e.g., USGS 7.5 minute or 1:24,000 scale) frequently underrepresent their number and density (Hansen 2001). The Ohio EPA defines headwaters by drainage area (less than 20 mi2) and identifies primary headwater streams as those having less than 1 mi2 drainage area, maximum pool depths less than 40 cm (15.75 inches), or both features. The biological and functional characteristics of headwater streams are largely defined by the flow regimes, which may be ephemeral, intermittent, or perennial (Ohio EPA 2002; Ohio EPA 2012a).
• Ephemeral – Ephemeral streams may be dry much of the year and only wet during rain events. They support limited aquatic biodiversity but are important for surface transport of water, soil, nutrients, and organic matter from terrestrial to aquatic ecosystems. The Ohio EPA categorizes these, along with some intermittent streams, as Class I headwater streams (Ohio EPA 2002; Ohio EPA 2012a). • Intermittent – Intermittent streams support warmwater fauna, such as crayfish, salamanders, and macroinvertebrates, even when surface flow is irregular. These streams are largely fishless, and provide important breeding habitat for some salamanders and other amphibians. They are usually defined as Class II headwater streams by Ohio EPA’s methodology for primary headwater habitat evaluation (Ohio EPA 2002; Ohio EPA 2012a). • Perennial – Perennial streams remain wet year-round. There are two categories: ♦ Warmwater Habitat – Warmwater habitats support the most typical assemblages of high quality fish and macroinvertebrate communities found in the region (Class II headwater streams). ♦ Coldwater Habitat – Coldwater habitats support more unique cold-water taxa (Class III headwater streams) that cannot survive in warmer waters. These streams have constant base flow and colder water temperatures from the groundwater flow they receive. Coldwater habitats tend to be less common and more spatially isolated across the ecoregion as well as within the 17-county study area containing National Forest System lands (Ohio EPA 2002; Ohio EPA 2012a). The key functions of headwater streams are to collect water from the catchment and transport it downstream to other waterbodies. Small streams absorb the stream power and inertia of storm events while interfacing closely with surface runoff from terrestrial ecosystems. Many functional characteristics of flowing water ecosystems (streams and rivers) are like those of lakes, ponds, and wetlands because all these ecosystems support aquatic diversity and are involved in the larger water cycle (i.e., groundwater, surface water, atmosphere). However, due to the longitudinal and cumulative connectivity of flowing waters, streams and rivers provide additional functions (ecosystem services)
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Aquatic Ecosystems & Watersheds Supplemental Report related to hydraulic connectivity and transport of energy or materials (e.g., nutrients, organic matter, sediment, biological propagules) to downstream aquatic habitats (e.g., wetlands, lakes, and ponds) (Yochum 2015).
Smaller streams are particularly sensitive to alterations of the hydrological regime, because the amount of water and seasonal patterns of “wettedness” strongly influence the aquatic biota in the small stream as well as downstream (Poff et al. 1997). For this reason, they are among the more groundwater- dependent ecosystems in the Wayne. Even during low flow or drought conditions, subsurface flow (hyporheic) and hydrological connectivity are important for aquatic life (Bencala 1993). Alterations of the hydrologic regime can result from modifications of stream flow (dams or culverts), water withdrawals, climate-related changes in air temperature and precipitation events, and altered land cover. Conversions of forest to agricultural, mining, or urbanized land create impervious or highly compacted surfaces that frequently produce shorter storm flows of greater magnitude, as well as lower flows that are more frequent and have a longer duration (National Research Council 1992; Allan 2004).
Other key functions of headwater streams relate to the transport of nutrients, sediment, acid neutralizing properties, and biological propagules to downstream habitats. Smaller streams are key points of entry for organic matter and nutrients from the landscape. The feeding activity of macroinvertebrates enhances decomposition and carbon and nutrient cycling (e.g., leaf litter breakdown, nitrate and phosphate uptake). Terrestrial leaf fall is critical for the biodiversity and trophic structure of headwater streams (Wallace et al. 1999). In small, shaded streams, more than half of the energy entering the ecosystem is from terrestrial carbon (leaf litter) inputs (Wallace et al. 1999). Even modest reductions in forest cover (e.g., from 96% to 82%) in the catchment (not just the riparian border) weaken the linkages between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems (England and Rosemond 2004).
The importance of stream and river biofilms for nutrient cycling and uptake has been more widely recognized in recent years; wetlands and small streams are as important to nitrate retention as larger waterbodies (Mulholland et al. 2008). Many aspects of the aquatic nutrient and carbon cycles require biological components (e.g., microbes, plants, and macroinvertebrate biodiversity) characteristic of streams with high water quality and intact physical habitat (Mulholland et al. 2008).
Headwater streams—especially those designated as coldwater habitat or those that supply water to downstream coldwater habitat—often depend on groundwater for a greater percentage of their baseflow. In the Wayne National Forest, these colder headwater streams create unique habitat conditions that support species such as the redside dace (Clinostomus elongates), a Regional Forester sensitive species that is associated with high quality headwater streams. COMPOSITION: Headwater Streams Headwater streams are often too small to support fish populations, and as a result, crayfish and salamanders are abundant. The colder temperatures in headwater streams with groundwater base flow support unique coldwater species not found in more common warmwater habitats or in larger or surface-fed streams (Ohio EPA 2002). Coldwater habitats are widely recognized as high-priority freshwater resources for conservation nationwide.
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CONNECTIVITY: Headwater Streams Headwater streams are closely associated with the terrestrial ecosystems they flow through; for example, the Rolling Bottomlands Mixed Hardwood Forest: Small Stream Riparian Forest (see Terrestrial Ecosystems Supplemental Report). Forest cover provides shade and substantial exchange of water, soil, nutrients, organic matter, and aquatic and terrestrial biomass between the ecosystems. Headwater streams are important links between groundwater and surface water. Drainage pattern and stream density affect the strength of aquatic-terrestrial linkages as well as connectivity for biodiversity. Headwater streams are important reservoirs for coldwater aquatic macroinvertebrates, crayfish, and amphibians. MEASURES OF ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY: Headwater Streams The ecological integrity of headwater streams is typically based on physical measures of channel, flow regime, and the presence of specific macroinvertebrates and salamanders. Unaltered precipitation and climate variables, a high percent forest cover, low soil disturbance, and low road densities are associated with high quality headwater streams.
In Ohio, the Headwater Habitat Evaluation Index and Headwater Macroinvertebrate Field Evaluation Index are used to categorize streams as Class I, II, or III (Ohio EPA 2012a). Class I streams support the lowest biodiversity due to their ephemeral characteristics. Class III streams have the highest quality due to perennial flow and presence of breeding salamander populations and a diversity of macroinvertebrates, including coldwater taxa. The ranges of variability for the Headwater Habitat Evaluation Index and the Headwater Macroinvertebrate Field Evaluation Index are established by a statewide set of reference (least impacted) sites and the indices are calibrated accordingly (Ohio EPA 2012a).
Occasionally, functional measures of ecosystem integrity—such as leaf litter breakdown, whole stream metabolism, or nutrient transformation (Ferreira et al. 2015; Zeglin 2015; Mineau et al. 2016; Newcomer Johnson et al. 2016)—are used to assess headwater stream integrity. However, there is very little existing headwater stream assessment data in any form for the 17-county study area outside of a few student theses (e.g., Russell 2018). Larger Streams & Rivers
STRUCTURE: Larger Streams & Rivers It is important to consider the size and drainage area of larger streams and rivers when describing their biota and key ecosystem processes, because large rivers have different properties compared to shallower streams. The Ohio EPA (2002) recognizes two categories of stream based on size and uses different methods for sampling and assessing them.
Groundwater discharge typically makes up some proportion of the baseflow of perennial streams. Streams that are heavily dependent on groundwater typically maintain more consistent water levels during dry periods and remain cooler during the summer. Generally speaking, streams in the Wayne National Forest have a relatively low dependence on groundwater, with groundwater estimated to constitute 21% to 34% of total streamflow in streams across the national forest (Thompson 2018).
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However, in some areas in the Wayne, groundwater may play a larger role in sustaining the ecosystem. For example, other more local estimates have calculated groundwater percentages up to 55% in parts of the Wayne (Thompson 2018). Wadeable streams have pool depths greater than 15.5 inches, year-round flow, and drainage areas greater than 20 mi2. They usually can be safely waded. The majority of wadeable streams are categorized as warmwater habitat, and their potential to support biodiversity is indicated by their designated beneficial use of exceptional warmwater habitat (EWH), warmwater habitat (WWH), modified warmwater habitat, limited warmwater habitat, or limited resource water. The chemical and biological criteria needed to meet designated uses are determined by the Ohio EPA and are based on fish and macroinvertebrate assemblages. Coldwater habitat streams are characterized by high quality physical habitat and cold, constant water temperatures that support unique native coldwater fish and macroinvertebrates. Although coldwater habitats are not common across the state, 19 coldwater habitat (CWH) sites have been identified in assessed areas of the proclamation boundary in the Marietta and Ironton Units. Larger rivers, or “boatable waters,” are usually larger than 5th order, too large to safely wade, and must be accessed by boat. Rivers are typically over 100 miles in length and have drainage basins greater than 700 mi2. They may have a well-developed floodplain with associated wetlands. Most are designated as warmwater habitat with beneficial use categories that include exceptional warmwater habitat, modified warmwater habitat, limited warmwater habitat, or limited resource water (as designated by the Ohio EPA).
Table 1 lists the designated uses set by the Ohio EPA for surface waters describing potential biological diversity of streams.
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Table 1. Designated uses for surface waters describing potential biological diversity of streams (Ohio EPA) Aquatic Life Protection Criteria / IBI Headwaters 2 3 4 Use Designations Designation Description / Wading1 MIWB Wading ICI MAIS Coldwater Habitat Intended for waters which support assemblages of cold water organisms and/or those which are N/A N/A N/A N/A (CWH) stocked with salmonids with the intent of providing a put-and-take fishery on a year round basis which is further sanctioned by the Ohio DNR, Division of Wildlife; this use should not be confused with the seasonal salmonid habitat (SSH) use which applies to the Lake Erie tributaries which support periodic “runs” of salmonids during the spring, summer, or fall. No specific biological criteria have been developed for the CWH use although the WWH biocriteria are viewed as attainable for CWH designated streams. Exceptional Warmwater The most biologically productive environment. These waters support “unusual and exceptional” 50 9.4 46 N/A Habitat (EWH) assemblages of aquatic organisms, which are characterized by a high diversity of species, particularly those that are highly intolerant or rare, threatened, endangered, or special status. This use designation represents a protection goal for water resource management efforts dealing with Ohio’s best water resources. Warmwater Habitat Defines the “typical” warm water assemblage of aquatic organisms of Ohio streams. It is the 44 8.4 36 ≥ 12 (WWH) principal restoration target for the majority of water resource management efforts in Ohio Streams with extensive and irretrievable physical habitat modifications, for which the biological criteria for warm water habitat are not attainable. The activities contributing to the modified warm Modified Warmwater water habitat designation have been sanctioned and permitted by state or federal law. The Habitat Mine Affected 24 5.5 30 N/A representative assemblages are generally composed of species that are tolerant to low (MWH-MA) dissolved oxygen, silt, nutrient enrichment, and poor habitat quality. The category applies to dammed or channelized rivers, and can also be applied to streams affected by AMD. Waters that were temporarily designated in the 1978 water quality standards as not meeting specific warmwater habitat criteria. Criteria for the support of this use designation are the same as the criteria for the support of the use designation warmwater habitat. However, individual criteria are varied on a case-by-case basis and supersede the criteria for warmwater habitat Limited Resource where applicable. Any exceptions from warmwater habitat criteria apply only to specific criteria <24 <5.5 <30 N/A Warmwater (LRW) during specified time periods or flow conditions. The adjusted criteria and conditions for specified stream segments are denoted as comments in rules 3745-1-08 to 3745-1-30 of the Administrative Code. Stream segments currently designated limited warmwater habitats will undergo use attainability analyses and will be re-designated other aquatic life habitats. No additional stream segments will be designated limited warmwater habitats. 1 Index of Biological Integrity (IBI) is a synthesis of biological information numerically depicting associations between human influence and biological attributes. It is a composite score compiled to evaluate benthic macroinvertebrate information (pollution intolerance of taxa, taxonomic composition, population attributes). Metrics weigh the relative structure or functionality of fish communities. Scores between 0 and 50 indicates degree of “naturalness,” with 50 being ideal. Full attainment of Designated Aquatic Use is contingent upon these scores. 2 Modified Index of Well-Being (MIwb) incorporates four fish community measures: number of individuals, biomass, and Shannon Diversity indices based on numbers and weight of fish. Scores are generated for wadeable streams, with scores > 7.9 associated with good quality and in attainment based on designated aquatic use. 3 Invertebrate Community Index (ICI) is similar to IBI and measures the health of the macroinvertebrate community, where sampled sites are compared to undisturbed sites with similar features. Each of the ten metrics used can receive scores of 0, 2, 4, or 6 depending on comparison to undisturbed sites, with a maximum aggregate score of 60. 4 Macroinvertebrate Aggregate Index for Streams (MAIS) relies on macroinvertebrate identification, with scores generated based on diversity and abundance of different groups. MAIS has also been correlated as a strong indicator for acid mine drainage. Scores range from 0 to18.
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FUNCTION: Larger Streams & Rivers Larger streams and rivers perform many of the same functions as smaller streams, such as providing hydrological flow, supplying water to downstream water bodies (including lakes, ponds, and wetlands), and transporting nutrients, sediment, and energy. Connections to terrestrial ecosystem processes occur from upstream processes or lateral exchange via riparian corridors and riverine wetland interfaces, especially during flood events. The role of larger rivers in biogeochemical cycling and transport of nitrogen, phosphorus, organic carbon, and other minerals is well-recognized (Creed et al. 2015). Particulate organic matter (e.g., leaves, twigs) from upstream is converted into microbial, algal, macroinvertebrate, and fish biomass. Nitrogen and phosphorus from surface flow are retained as biomass in stream food webs. Many of these cycles are regulated by biological components of streams (microbes, plants, and macroinvertebrates) that depend on good water quality and intact physical habitat to perform their functional roles. Larger streams and rivers support greater species diversity of fish and mussels than smaller streams. COMPOSITION: Larger Streams & Rivers In a global context, freshwater habitats are uncommon compared to terrestrial or marine habitats, yet they support a disproportionately rich diversity of plant and animal species per area. While freshwater habitats make up only 0.3% of the Earth’s surface, aquatic plants and animals make up 7.4% of known species (Collen et al. 2014). As such, protecting freshwater habitats from further degradation is key to protecting aquatic biodiversity. Amphibians, freshwater bivalves, and aquatic turtles are three of the most imperiled groups of organisms, and they all depend on freshwater habitats (IUCN 2018). Ohio’s streams and rivers support numerous regionally endemic species (e.g., crayfish, mussels, coldwater invertebrates, amphibians) as well as introduced recreational species (fish for anglers). Over 170 species of fish are found in the waterways across the state of Ohio. Freshwater resources also support other plants and wildlife, such as mammals and birds.
Species at Risk More than 80 species of mussels are found in the state of Ohio (Watters et al. 2009), and 45 mussel species of concern (including three that are federally endangered) occur in southeastern Ohio and potentially in the Wayne National Forest (ODNR 2018). Exact locations are not published to limit potential poaching of fragile populations. Numerous stream- and river-dwelling vertebrates have become rare or extirpated over the past century due to hydrologic alteration (e.g., dams, drainage, water withdrawals), channelization, sedimentation, and pollution (Collen et al. 2014). Twenty-one species of stream and river-dwelling fish in southeastern Ohio are of special concern, threatened, or endangered, as well as three salamander species and one snake species (ODNR 2018).
Non-Native Invasive Species Several Asian carp species have been found within the 17-county study area, including grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella), common carp (Cyprinus carpio), bighead carp (Hypophthalmichthys nobilis) and silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix). Invasive plants such as Eurasian watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum L.), waterthyme (Hydrilla verticillata (L. f.) Royle), and common reed (Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud.) flourish in stream and pond habitats, outcompeting native wetland vegetation or clogging waterways (Ailstock et al. 2001; Gabriel et al. 2018). These species are
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Aquatic Ecosystems & Watersheds Supplemental Report hardy and easy to transport, making them a practical threat to the Wayne National Forest waters in future years. Appendix A contains a list of aquatic invasive taxa of concern in southeast Ohio. CONNECTIVITY: Larger Streams & Rivers Larger streams and rivers provide important links between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems (water, soil, nutrient, organic matter, aquatic, and terrestrial biomass exchange), not only through longitudinal transport, but also through flood pulses (lateral exchange of materials with a flood plain), and consumer-producer relationships (e.g., predator-prey, herbivore-plant). These terrestrial communities include the Rolling Bottomlands Mixed Hardwood Forest: Large Stream Floodplain and Riparian Forest (see Terrestrial Ecosystems Supplemental Report).
Larger streams and rivers provide longitudinal conduits for effects of upstream and catchment-scale land use patterns. The longitudinal and lateral transport of materials is affected by stream length, gradient, dams, and hydrological flow and flood regimes. Rivers provide important connectivity for biodiversity: dispersal, population structure, and genetic diversity of aquatic biota, especially fish, but also amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds. MEASURES OF ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY: Larger Streams & Rivers The presence of diverse biological assemblages and robust food webs are indicators of intact ecosystem processes, especially those difficult to measure (e.g., nutrient transport and transformation). Additional measures of hydrological variables, flood regime, sediment transport, and water chemistry can provide more specific information about ecosystem integrity. Higher quality streams and rivers are associated with high percent forest cover, well-developed riparian zones, low agricultural and urban use, low road density, unaltered flow (e.g., fewer dams, water withdrawals, and unaltered precipitation and base flow), unpolluted water, and connectivity with other aquatic ecosystems. Wetlands
STRUCTURE: Wetlands Most wetlands found in the Wayne National Forest are palustrine emergent, forested, or shrub-scrub wetlands as described by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife classification system (Cowardin et al. 1979; FGDC 2013). These wetland types are categorized based on their position in the landscape, hydrologic regime, and vegetation.
• Lacustrine – Lacustrine wetlands are associated with large lake basins, usually larger than 20 acres, and shallow (less than 2 m) at the edges. • Riverine – Riverine wetlands are contained within a channel and associated with flowing waters (may be subsurface). They are generally found along larger creeks or rivers. • Palustrine – Palustrine wetlands are associated with smaller basins or depressions, usually smaller than 20 acres with no wave action, and their deepest depths are less than 8.2 ft. at low water. These systems are bounded by uplands or by any other wetland system. Specific types of palustrine wetland classes found in southeast Ohio (FGDC 2013; DOI 2018) include:
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♦ Emergent Wetland – In this class, emergent plants (i.e., erect, rooted, herbaceous hydrophytic plants, excluding mosses and lichens) are the tallest life form with at least 30 percent areal coverage. The vegetation is present for most of the growing season in most years. Perennial plants typically dominate. This class includes marshes, wet meadows, and vernal pools. ♦ Scrub-Shrub Wetland – In this class, woody plants less than 6m tall are the dominant life form and provide at least 30 percent areal coverage. The “shrub” life form may include true shrubs, young specimens of tree species that have not yet reached 20 feet in height, and woody plants (including tree species) that are stunted because of adverse environmental conditions. ♦ Forested Wetland – In this class, trees are the dominant life form with at least 30 percent areal coverage. Trees are defined as woody plants at least 20 feet in height. They are structurally and compositionally complex, typically possessing an overstory of trees, an understory of young trees or shrubs, and an herbaceous layer. Wetlands can be groundwater-dependent, but they do not always receive groundwater discharge. Many of the larger wetlands in the Wayne National Forest were artificially constructed and there is little evidence to suggest that they are heavily dependent on groundwater. Natural riverine wetlands can have strong connectivity with groundwater in floodplain areas. However, comprehensive knowledge regarding the extent to which wetland habitat in the Wayne National Forest relies on groundwater discharge is lacking. FUNCTION: Wetlands Wetlands are important interfaces between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, generally have high biodiversity, and provide many ecosystem functions (Mitsch and Gosselink 2000; EPA 2002). Riverine wetlands help maintain hydrologic flow by storing water, recharging aquifers, and absorbing stream power and inertia after storm events. They preserve water quality by retaining sediment and transforming chemical contaminants. Riverine wetlands are key areas for the biogeochemical cycling of nitrogen, phosphorus, organic carbon, and other minerals—processes which significantly affect quality of downstream river ecosystems (EPA 2015). Many of these cycles are regulated by biological components (e.g., microbes, plants, and macroinvertebrates) that require specific hydrological regimes, good water quality, and intact physical habitat. Consequently, strategic preservation or management of riparian zones can also preserve functional processes and improve water quality for humans and wildlife (Naiman and DeCamps 1997; Sweeney and Newbold 2014).
Palustrine wetlands are smaller and more isolated than lacustrine wetlands, but are still important habitats. They store floodwater, recharge groundwater, and process nutrients. They have strong links with forest cover, which provides shade, woody debris, and ample organic matter. Collectively, the high biological productivity and biodiversity of palustrine wetlands and their importance as breeding habitat for fish, amphibians, birds (notably waterfowl), and aquatic invertebrates (Gara and Micacchion 2010) makes even small areas valuable as refugia or corridors for dispersal for amphibians and macroinvertebrates. Consequently, conservation of even small areas of these habitats is valuable, and their spatial distribution on the landscape is important because they not only provide a variety of ecosystem services but are important for biological resilience in response to climate change.
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COMPOSITION: Wetlands
Species at Risk Wetland habitats in southeastern Ohio contain at least 60 habitat-specific species. Riverine wetlands provide habitats for several sensitive salamander species, including the four-toed salamander (Hemidactylium scutatum) and the midland mud salamander (Pseudotriton montanus diastictus) (ODNR 2018). Lacustrine wetlands are used by many species of fish and invertebrates as breeding grounds. Palustrine wetlands are critical breeding habitats for sensitive amphibians including wood frogs (Rana sylvatica), Jefferson salamanders (Ambystoma jeffersonianum), spotted salamanders (A. maculatum), marbled salamanders (A. opacum), and red-spotted newts (Notophthalmus viridescens). Fairy shrimp (Anostraca spp.) are obligate species in ephemeral, fishless pools. Sensitive plants include Tuckerman’s sedge (Carex tuckermanii Dewey), false hop sedge (C. lupuliformis Sartwell ex Dewey), and drooping sedge (C. prasina Wahlenb.), as well as royal fern (Osmunda regalis L.) and crested woodfern (Dryopteris cristata (L.) A. Gray) (Andreas et al 2004; Mack 2007).
Non-Native Invasive Species The western mosquitofish (Gambusia affins) and the eastern banded killifish (Fundulus diaphanus) have been reported in Ohio ponds, lakes, wetlands, and other slow-moving waters (Gabriel et al. 2018). These fish do not tolerate freezing well, but can persist during relatively warm winters.
Other species reported in slow waters or wetlands in southeastern Ohio include mystery snails (Bellamya spp.), red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkia), rusty crayfish (Faxonius rusticus), virile crayfish (F. virilis), and zebra mussels (Dressena polymorpha) (Gabriel et al. 2018). Rusty crayfish and zebra mussels have both been identified within the 17-county study area. Although they are not currently as harmful as they are in other areas (such as the Great Lakes region), increasing temperatures (due to climate change, evaporation rates, or water withdrawals) could make the habitat more amenable to these invasive species in the future. Additionally, it should be noted that invasive crayfish can be transported by off-road vehicles (Banha et al. 2014), not just fishermen or other aquatic recreationists.
Narrowleaf cattails (Typha augustifolia L.) and its hybrids, reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea L.), and purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria L.) have been reported in the 17-county study area. All these species prefer to grow in wetlands (or wet roadside ditches) and typically outcompete native flora on wetland borders. CONNECTIVITY: Wetlands A recent U.S. Environmental Protection Agency review and synthesis of scientific literature on connectivity of streams and wetlands (EPA 2015) emphasized the importance of wetlands as buffers for biological and physical processes occurring in streams, rivers, and lakes, as well as corridors for wildlife. Connectivity of wetlands is strongly dependent on seasonal variation in hydrologic flow— both surface and subsurface—as well as the size and proximity of other wetlands or waterbodies. Contributions of individual streams and wetlands to connectivity are also cumulative across watersheds, so connectivity is most appropriately viewed at the watershed scale and larger.
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Riverine wetlands and some palustrine wetlands are connected by frequent flood events as well as groundwater exchange in the floodplain, and usually have stronger connectivity with downstream waters than non-connected wetlands. They improve water quality through the sequestration or transformation of excess nutrients, pollutants, and sediments. Lateral exchanges of water, nutrients, sediment, and biological propagules during flood events are critical for river ecosystem function. These exchanges also provide connectivity with lowland forest communities.
Non-floodplain palustrine wetlands, such as vernal pools, are usually not directly connected to other waterbodies because they are rain fed. However, during periods of high rainfall, they can exchange floodwater from other pools, wetlands, or intermittent streams, which then connects them to other waterbodies. Consequently, these wetlands also usually have stronger connectivity with downstream waters than with other isolated waters, although their spatial distribution is important. Gara and Micacchion (2010) developed a GIS tool for predicting vernal pool habitat, and it is likely that hundreds of vernal pool wetlands of various sizes and quality occur within the 17-county study area. MEASURES OF ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY: Wetlands High quality wetlands are associated with unaltered hydroperiod, water that is free of excess nutrients or pollutants, and the absence of non-native plant species. Abundant biomass and high biological diversity of plants, fish, amphibians, and macroinvertebrates are associated with key wetland functions such as nutrient capture and transformations. Total wetland area is important for the capacity of water retention, flood control, and connectivity.
In Ohio, wetland quality is assessed by several protocols that are based on hydroperiod, vegetation, and aquatic biota (mostly amphibians and macroinvertebrates). The two most common are the:
• Ohio Rapid Assessment Method (ORAM) (Mack 2001a) – A level 2 rapid bioassessment of a wetland’s ecological condition (buffer integrity, surrounding land use intensity, plant community quality, hydrology and substrate, and habitat). • Vegetation Index of Biotic Integrity (VIBI) (Mack 2007) – A level 3, more detailed assessment of the plant community that includes measures of diversity, biomass, etc. This index provides more information about the “quality” of wetlands and distinguishes between Class I, Class II, and Class III (highest quality) wetlands. Other indices include the vegetation index of biotic integrity “floristic quality” (VIBI-FQ) (Gara 2013), the vegetation multi-metric index (VMMI) developed by the EPA for the nationwide survey of wetlands (EPA 2016), and the amphibian index of biotic integrity for wetlands (AmphIBI) (Micacchion 2002, 2004). Lakes, Ponds, and Reservoirs
STRUCTURE: Lakes, Ponds, and Reservoirs Lakes are defined as large inland basins filled with water that are fed and drained by streams or rivers. Ponds are smaller and usually shallower than lakes. Lakes are usually deep enough that light does not penetrate all the way to the bottom (an aphotic zone) and exhibit seasonal stratification. Reservoirs are 14 | Page
Aquatic Ecosystems & Watersheds Supplemental Report human-made impoundments created by building a dam or otherwise altering a stream or river to fill a basin. Most “lakes” in the 17-county study area are actually reservoirs with dams that control the amount of water that flows out of the reservoir. Structural characteristics of lakes, ponds, and reservoirs that are of functional importance include: placement within the catchment, area, volume, depth, seasonal stratification, temperatures, water chemistry, and turbidity. FUNCTION: Lakes, Ponds, and Reservoirs Key functions of lakes, ponds, and reservoirs relate to water retention and storage, and habitat for fish, wildlife, and other organisms that require deeper or larger water bodies. Like wetlands, lakes and reservoirs are important sinks for nitrate and phosphate inputs from land surfaces and are key sites for conversion of nutrients into algal and fish biomass. The biodiversity and trophic structure of lakes strongly influence how effectively phosphorus is converted into fish biomass rather than algae that increase risk of harmful algal blooms (Schindler et al. 1993). COMPOSITION: Lakes, Ponds, and Reservoirs Fish species composition in Ohio ponds and reservoirs is dominated by active stocking efforts by agencies and private landowners. Smaller privately owned ponds are stocked with channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus), crappie (Pomoxis spp.), minnows (Cyprinidae genera), and largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides). Larger lakes within the Wayne National Forest boundaries are actively stocked and managed for recreational fishing by the ODNR Division of Wildlife.
Non-Native Invasive Species Lakes, ponds, and reservoirs are habitats where various species of invasive fish such as “Asian carp” could become established if waterbodies are large enough. Mosquitofish, eastern banded killifish, and goldfish (Carassius auratus) can also become established (Gabriel et al. 2018). These have not been reported to date within the 17-county study area. Mystery snails (Bellamya spp.) prefer shallow lakes and ponds and have been reported in Washington County (Gabriel et al. 2018).
Plants of concern include Eurasian watermilfoil, waterthyme, and curly pondweed (Potamogeton crispus L.). The latter has been reported in Athens County (Gabriel et al. 2018). Common reed occurs in parts of the Wayne National Forest and is easily moved by vehicles, foot-traffic, and other methods (Gabriel et al. 2018).
Harmful algal blooms caused by cyanobacteria (Microcystis spp.) occur with some regularity in the shallow, fertile reservoirs in Ohio (Ohio EPA 2013; Ohio EPA 2016a) and negatively impact recreational activities. Warmer temperatures and increased nutrient inputs have been linked to increased frequency of harmful algal blooms (Ohio EPA 2013; Ohio EPA 2016a). CONNECTIVITY: Lakes, Ponds, and Reservoirs Ponds and reservoirs provide important links between terrestrial and downstream aquatic ecosystems, especially as destinations for water, carbon, sediment, and nutrients, and as sources for downstream flow. Significant aquatic and terrestrial biomass exchanges occur via consumer-producer interactions (e.g., predator-prey, herbivore-plant) and recreational fishing and fish stocking programs.
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Larger reservoirs can be important links with atmospheric processes—for example, through carbon sink and source interactions—as well as evaporation. Large reservoirs can also influence local temperatures through lake effects on nearby microhabitats and through discharge of colder water from outlets. Reservoirs and ponds are key collection points or influence points for upstream- and catchment-scale land use effects on water quality for human use (municipal, agricultural, industrial, energy development, and recreational). They provide important connectivity for biodiversity: dispersal, population structure, and genetic diversity of aquatic biota, especially lake specialists (large fish, but also amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds). However, impoundments can negatively impact connectivity by trapping water and sediments and interrupting the flow of particulate nutrients downstream. Removal of water for human use usually alters export base flows more than peak flows (EPA 2015). MEASURES OF ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY: Lakes, Ponds, and Reservoirs Most lakes in Ohio are shallow and fertile (verging on eutrophic) (Fulmer and Cooke 1990). Lake quality is commonly assessed using the trophic status index. This index is a lake management tool that assesses trophic status (oligo-, meso-, eutrophic, hypertrophic) and risk of algal blooms based on Secchi depth (Carlson 1977). Direct measures of total phosphorous, total nitrogen, and chlorophyll along with clarity (Secchi depth), and characteristics of the trophic food webs such as biomass of desirable fishes are also used as indicators of ecological integrity in lakes, ponds, and reservoirs. Groundwater-Dependent Ecosystems
STRUCTURE: Groundwater-Dependent Ecosystems Many of the aquatic ecosystems within the Wayne National Forest can be considered groundwater- dependent ecosystems, or at least groundwater connected systems, where groundwater intersects with the land surface and provides water that maintains the hydrological regime that supports plant and animal communities.
The summary of existing information on the Wayne National Forest’s aquatic ecosystems indicates that several ecosystem types—particularly springs and seeps that feed smaller to mid-sized coldwater intermittent and perennials streams, wetlands, and riverine floodplain—can be considered groundwater-dependent ecosystems. These are localized points at which at which groundwater is discharged to the surface. They are often found on side slopes, but also can be encountered in valley bottoms (Thompson 2018). There are a few known springs in the Wayne National Forest as well as the intermittent presence of seeps, which produce a lower volume of water. These aquatic systems contribute to the habitat complexity and species diversity of the Wayne. For example, the mud salamander (Pseudotriton montanus), a Regional Forester sensitive species, is associated with springs and seeps.
• Springs – Hydrologic feature where groundwater discharges at the earth’s surface. Springs are defined by flowing water at the point of discharge. At the point of emergence, the physical geomorphic setting allows some springs to support large arrays of aquatic, wetland, and terrestrial species and assemblages (Springer and Stevens 2008). • Seeps – Hydrologic feature where water slowly discharges forming a wet area at the surface. 16 | Page
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FUNCTION: Groundwater-Dependent Ecosystems Groundwater-dependent fauna (including humans) rely on groundwater as a source of drinking water. Groundwater, as river baseflow or discharge to springs, is an important source of water for many areas. Microfauna in groundwater help to clean up contaminants and play an important role in maintaining the health of surface waters. Many species depend on habitats maintained by groundwater discharge, adding to the ecological diversity of a region and serve as indicators of the overall biological health of a system. Some sites, such as springs, may have cultural significance, especially for American Indians. COMPOSITION: Groundwater-Dependent Ecosystems Groundwater-dependent ecosystems are generally small features on the landscape, but they can support unique biodiversity due to relatively stable water temperature and chemistry. These restricted environmental conditions can result in endemic biotic communities. For example, some potential wildlife species of conservation concern that depend on groundwater-dependent ecosystems within the study area include the four-toed salamander (Hemidactylium scutatum) and the mud salamander (Pseudotriton montanus). Skunk cabbage (Symplocarpus foetidus (L.) Salisb. ex W.P.C. Barton) can be a dominant and indicative plant species in seeps, such as in Minnow Hollow Special Interest Area. CONNECTIVITY: Groundwater-Dependent Ecosystems Groundwater-dependent ecosystems serve an integral role in sustaining landscapes and ecological integrity. Their role of water inflow helps to maintain water levels, temperature, and chemistry, of which many species of plants and wildlife rely. This underground-to-aboveground connection helps to sustain aquatic, wetland, and terrestrial ecosystems. However, the hydrogeology and the interrelationship between groundwater and surface water have been irreversibly altered by mining, especially sub-surface coal mining in many places in the Wayne (Thompson 2018). This adds complexity to the task of assessing groundwater-dependent ecosystems, and it means that in some cases, groundwater discharge that would otherwise contribute to a groundwater-dependent ecosystem is actually a source of acid mine drainage and other pollutants that impair the system. The Majestic Mine Portal in the Athens Unit of the Wayne is one of the more well-known examples of acid groundwater discharge caused by mining, but there are many other examples across the Wayne that impact all of the aquatic ecosystem types described in this report. MEASURES OF ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY: Groundwater-Dependent Ecosystems The Forest Service has published groundwater-dependent ecosystems inventory field guides that could be used to help identify these features at a more site-specific level (USDA 2012b). There are three levels of inventory and monitoring:
• Level I inventories are conducted to provide basic identification and characterization of groundwater-dependent ecosystems within a landscape, and location and extent are spatially referenced. • Level II inventories describe major attributes in more detail, including hydrogeologic setting, soils, aquatic habitat, aquatic and wetland flora and fauna, and site-affecting disturbances. This information can serve as the foundation for designing a long-term monitoring plan, assessing
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project and activity effects and identification of design measures, or to determine ecological significance of the groundwater-dependent ecosystem and associated resources. • Level III inventories or monitoring compile highly quantitative information that describes highly specific site characteristics or spatial and temporal variation in physiochemical characteristics. They are used for more focused data needs or for monitoring of groundwater-dependent ecosystems in association with administration of projects and activities and are, therefore, highly site specific. There is no general field guide for performing them as each inventory or monitoring effort is specifically tailored to the unique requirements of that project or activity. Accurate and consistent information regarding groundwater-dependent ecosystems and their condition is critical to making decisions about and implementing activities. A focus to collect this data would better help inform planning and management efforts in the Wayne. Accurate and consistent information regarding groundwater-dependent ecosystems and their condition is critical to making decisions about and implementing activities. A focus to collect this data would better help inform planning and management efforts in the Wayne. Current Assessments of Ecological Integrity & Trends in Aquatic Ecosystems & Watersheds This section summarizes information on the quantity and quality of aquatic resources within the Wayne National Forest boundaries and surrounding areas. Understanding the range of quality and spatial distribution of aquatic habitats is an important first step for management, especially if a goal is to maximize resiliency to future environmental change (e.g., climate, non-native invasive species, or altered land use) by preserving areas rich in biodiversity and ensuring adequate connectivity of these areas across the landscape. Because aquatic resources are intimately linked with land use and other properties of the catchment, they are often best managed in the context of the entire watershed. However, the specific metrics that indicate integrity of each aquatic resource are unique to that ecosystem. For example, the metrics used to indicate high quality headwater streams differ from those used to assess larger streams or wetlands. More data is available for some ecosystems than others, so these datasets are emphasized in this supplemental report. This section contains the following information:
• Estimates of changes in land cover from 2006 to 2011; • Ecological integrity of streams (based on biological attainment scores determined by Ohio EPA Total Maximum Daily Loading assessments conducted 2000 to 2017); • Locations of exceptional warmwater and coldwater stream habitats, as well as high quality Class 3 wetlands; • Locations of streams and wetlands surrounded by high and low-quality riparian zones; • Total area of lakes, ponds, and reservoirs (in acres2); • Frequency and type of fish surveys, temperature, and water chemistry data collected at Lake Vesuvius, Timber Ridge Lake, and Burr Oak Lake.
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This section also summarizes regionally relevant frameworks for quantifying hydrological flows needed to support aquatic health across the continuum of aquatic habitats and monitoring stream temperatures. Examples of local stream gage discharge data (2003 to 2007) showing seasonal and interannual patterns are presented, as well as regional documentation of rising stream temperatures in southeast Ohio and Pennsylvania. However, analyses of natural patterns of variation in flow and temperature were not undertaken. Determining their effects on aquatic biota is a complex undertaking and not well understood for this ecoregion.
Finally, this section characterizes the extent and condition of Wayne National Forest HUC-12 sub- watersheds based off the biophysical metrics described below. This information can be compared with the current Watershed Condition Classification data to help evaluate whether currently-designated priority watersheds are sufficient or need to be revisited.1 The identification of priority watersheds is ultimately dependent on Agency watershed priorities developed at regional scales, the importance of water and watershed resources relative to the greater study area, the urgency of management action to address conditions and threats, other economic considerations, and alignment with the priorities of other land management agencies, Tribes, community and collaborative efforts, conservation organizations, and public desires (USDA 2012a). Land Cover Change Understanding current trends in land use in the 17 counties around the Wayne National Forest proclamation boundary, within the boundary, and more specifically on National Forest System lands is valuable for anticipating future change. In this analysis, the percentage of land cover change from 2006 to 2011 was calculated in ArcPRO from data retrieved from the Multi-Resource Land Characteristics Consortium National Land Cover Database (Homer et al. 2015). The total acreage of land falling within the Wayne National Forest proclamation boundary was calculated to be 855,532 acres; however only 244,256 acres is part of the National Forest System.
Overall, land cover did not change appreciably during the study period. The greatest changes in land within the proclamation boundary during 2006 to 2011 included a modest loss of forest (3084 acres of deciduous and evergreen converted to barren ground, grassland, or herbaceous) and gain of forest (568 acres of barren land, grassland, and pasture converted to mostly evergreen but also some deciduous), resulting in a net loss of 2516 acres (table 2). This is 0.30% (less than 1%) of the area within the
1 Currently the two priority watersheds on the Wayne National Forest are Kitchen Run-Monday Creek and Wingett Run- Little Muskingum River watersheds. Watershed restoration action plans are developed for each priority watershed, and upon complete implementation of all projects detailed in its watershed restoration action plan, the watershed is deemed to be in a protected, maintained, or improved status, and a new cycle begins with the selection of two new priority watersheds. In the Athens Unit, there is an existing partnership between the Ohio Department of Natural Resources, Rural Action, Ohio University, and the Wayne National Forest working on addressing legacy mining impacts and improving water quality. This existing relationship is currently poised for follow-up watershed enhancement activities, and thus the Kitchen Run-Monday Creek sub-watershed was selected for its high potential for improvement. The Wingett Run-Little Muskingum River sub- watershed is in relatively better condition among those in the Marietta Unit, although some enhancement and restoration could further improve its quality. The Little Muskingum River is prized by the communities surrounding it for its recreational opportunities, and there are partnership prospects with some of the local organizations. It was selected as priority both to protect its current quality status and also for its potential for improvement. 19 | Page
Aquatic Ecosystems & Watersheds Supplemental Report proclamation boundary. The largest single category of change was the conversion of over 1000 acres of forest to grassland; still a modest fraction (0.12%) of the proclamation area.
Much of the change during 2006 to 2011 also occurred on privately owned land within the proclamation boundary (table 2, table 3, table 4, and table 5). In National Forest System land (244,256 acres), forest loss was much less (326 acres) and matched by a nearly equivalent gain (213 acres) in evergreen and deciduous forest. Although the exact location and spatial configuration of the altered land cover was not determined in this analysis, loss of forest cover in catchments can have significant negative impacts on streams, wetlands (including vernal pools), and ponds or reservoirs. Loss of forest cover can exacerbate stressors such as altered hydrological regime, rates of soil erosion, surface sediment and nutrient inputs, and water temperatures, with cumulative effects that may affect catchment-wide management strategies and outcomes. At least during the 2006 to 2011 study period, the amount of forest cover within the proclamation boundary remained largely unchanged.
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Table 2. Types of land cover change from 2006 to 2011 within the Wayne National Forest proclamation boundary (855,532 acres) Forest Gain - Forest Loss - Non‐Forest Change - Class in 2001 to Acres Class in 2006 to Class in Acres Class in 2006 to Class in Acres Class in 2011 2011 2011 Pasture/Hay to 30 Deciduous Forest to 545 Barren Land to Pasture/Hay 54 Deciduous Forest Barren Land Cultivated Crops to 10 Deciduous Forest to 27 Cultivated Crops to Open 44 Deciduous Forest Cultivated Crops Water Grassland/Herbaceous 53 Deciduous Forest to 162 Cultivated Crops to 24 to Deciduous Forest Developed, Low Intensity Shrub/Scrub Deciduous Forest Gain 93 Deciduous Forest to 186 Developed, Low Intensity to 24 Developed, Medium Developed, Medium Intensity Intensity Grassland/Herbaceous 186 Deciduous Forest to 103 Developed, Open Space to 33 to Evergreen Forest Developed, Open Space Developed, Low Intensity Pasture/Hay to 60 Deciduous Forest to 1039 Developed, Open Space to 99 Evergreen Forest Grassland/Herbaceous Developed, Medium Intensity Barren Land to 20 Deciduous Forest to Open 36 Grassland/Herbaceous to 55 Evergreen Forest Water Barren Land Cultivated Crops to 21 Deciduous Forest to 174 Grassland/Herbaceous to 25 Evergreen Forest Pasture/Hay Pasture/Hay Deciduous Forest to 172 Deciduous Forest to 126 Grassland/Herbaceous to 10 Evergreen Forest Shrub/Scrub Shrub/Scrub Shrub/Scrub to 16 Evergreen Forest to 29 Pasture/Hay to Barren Land 16 Evergreen Forest Barren Land Evergreen Forest Gain 475 Evergreen Forest to 22 Pasture/Hay to Cultivated 10 Cultivated Crops Crops - - Evergreen Forest to 274 Pasture/Hay to Developed, 14 Grassland/Herbaceous Low Intensity - - Evergreen Forest to 49 Pasture/Hay to Developed, 18 Pasture/Hay Open Space - - Evergreen Forest to 312 Pasture/Hay to Emergent 11 Shrub/Scrub Herbaceous Wetlands - - - - Pasture/Hay to Open Water 11 - - - - Pasture/Hay to Shrub/Scrub 20 - - - - Shrub/Scrub to 27 Grassland/Herbaceous - - - - Shrub/Scrub to Barren Land 36 Total Forest Gain 568 Total Forest Loss 3084 Total Non-Forest Change 531
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Table 3. Summary of acreage land use changes within the Wayne National Forest proclamation boundary (855,532 acres) Forest vs Developed Changes Acres Total Acres Forest loss to Developed Uses 451 Total Increase in Developed Uses 483 - - Largest Acreages of Change 2006 to 2011 - Deciduous Forest to Grassland/Herbaceous 1039 Deciduous Forest to Barren Land 545 Evergreen Forest to Shrub/Scrub 312 Evergreen Forest to Grassland/Herbaceous 274 Grassland/Herbaceous to Evergreen Forest 186 Deciduous Forest to Developed, Medium Intensity 186
Table 4. Types of land cover change from 2006 to 2011 within Wayne National Forest lands (244,256 acres) Forest Gain - Forest Loss - Non‐Forest Change - Class in 2001 to Class in Acres Class in 2006 to Class in 2011 Acres Class in 2006 to Class in Acres 2011 2011 Deciduous Forest to 12 Deciduous Forest to 53 Developed, Medium 21 Evergreen Forest Developed, Open Space Intensity to Developed, Medium Intensity Grassland/Herbaceous to 8 Deciduous Forest to 69 Barren Land to Barren 61 Deciduous Forest Developed, Low Intensity Land Grassland/Herbaceous to 161 Deciduous Forest to 84 Barren Land to 19 Evergreen Forest Developed, Medium Intensity Pasture/Hay Pasture/Hay to Evergreen 32 Deciduous Forest to Barren 35 - - Forest Land - - Deciduous Forest to 37 - - Grassland/Herbaceous - - Deciduous Forest to 17 - - Pasture/Hay - - Evergreen Forest to Barren 5 - - Land - - Evergreen Forest to 6 - - Shrub/Scrub - - Evergreen Forest to Cultivated 20 - - Crops Total 213 Total 326 Total 102
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Table 5. Summary of acreage land use changes within Wayne National Forest lands (244,256 acres) Forest vs Developed Changes Acres Total Acres Forest loss to Developed Uses 205 Total Increase in Developed Uses 227 - - Largest Acreages of Change 2001‐2011 - Grassland/Herbaceous to Evergreen Forest 161 Deciduous Forest to Developed, Medium Intensity 84 Deciduous Forest to Developed, Low Intensity 69 Barren Land to Barren Land 61 Deciduous Forest to Developed, Open Space 53 Ohio EPA Total Maximum Daily Load Assessments of Stream Quality
Chemical & Biological (Fish & Macroinvertebrate) Assessments Most existing data on stream and river integrity in the 17-county study area comes from biological (fish and macroinvertebrate communities) and chemical assessments performed by the Ohio EPA and other State agencies (Ohio EPA 2015). There is very little available data on the quality of headwater streams, which are more dynamic and difficult to assess. For larger streams and rivers, biotic indices are widely recognized as reliable indicators of ecological integrity (Barbour et al. 1999). Healthy fish and macroinvertebrate communities are good indicators that water is of high quality and other ecosystem processes related to hydrological flow, nutrient transport, and transformation are intact. Biotic index scores from Ohio EPA monitored sites are calibrated to reference or least impacted streams in the ecoregion and are easily interpreted in the context of the natural range of variation seen in the ecoregion. Some watersheds in the 17-county study area have been assessed as part of the Ohio EPA’s Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) Program, which determines chemical and biological integrity of catchments at the HUC-12 level. In other watersheds, fish and macroinvertebrate data are available but the more comprehensive TMDL evaluations have not been completed.
Additional biological monitoring of streams in selected watersheds in the Athens and Marietta Units has been performed using the less stringent Credible Data Level 2 Macroinvertebrate Aggregate Index for Streams (MAIS). These assessments have been performed annually in the Raccoon, Sunday, Monday, and Leading Creek drainage areas to monitor recovery from acid mine impairment (Bowman and Johnson 2015). Much of this data is available to the public at a regional database of water quality maintained by the Voinovich School of Leadership and Public Affairs at Ohio University. However, the current report focuses on metrics from the Ohio EPA biological assessments because they are more widely available for the study area.
The Ohio EPA TMDL process documents and monitors watershed health around the state through a 12- step assessment, modeling, monitoring, and management process (Ohio EPA 2017). The TMDL process has been completed for much of the Wayne and surrounding areas, but notably not the Ironton Unit (figure 3). As part of the TMDL process, the Ohio EPA assesses quality of streams with use designations of coldwater habitat (CWH), exceptional warmwater habitat (EWH), warmwater habitat 23 | Page
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(WWH), modified warmwater habitat (MWH), and limited resource water (LRW) (see table 1). A site is categorized as full attainment if both fish and macroinvertebrate scores meet biocriteria or partial attainment if only one of the two assemblages meets the criteria for that use designation. Because the criteria for CWH is based on the presence of coldwater taxa, a high-quality stream may earn both CWH and EWH designations (figure 4, figure 5, and figure 6).
The map in figure 3 indicates the locations of existing TMDL sites within the proclamation boundary of the Wayne National Forest. During a TMDL assessment, sites are identified by their key impairment or as natural or sites in need of preservation, in a semi-qualitative way. While data about the quality of aquatic resources is relatively uneven within the proclamation boundary, figure 3 identifies key sources of impairment of streams and rivers as well as locations of high quality water resources, indicated as natural sites or sites deserving preservation. The most commonly identified TMDL sources of impairment associated with acid mine drainage (e.g., acidity, total suspended solids), sediment, and sewage discharge (e.g., coliform bacteria). Several clusters of sites worthy of preservation are identified north of the Athens Unit and northeast and within the Marietta Unit.
Figure 3. Map of TMDL sample sites showing Ohio EPA-designated causes of impairment, as well as sites designated as natural or a site worthy of preservation Note: There have been no TMDL assessments (performed at the HUC-12 level) for the Ironton Unit or for large areas between administrative units. The size of a dot does not indicate quantity or intensity.
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Causes of impairment at aquatic life use sites (Ohio EPA) have been summarized at the HUC-12 level. In the Athens Unit, Sunday and Monday Creek watersheds are most impaired by a legacy of surface mining that includes highly acidic surface water with elevated specific conductivity from sulfur, iron, and other metals. At Brushy Fork in the southwestern portion of the Athens Unit, coal mining has affected streamside vegetation cover, reflecting the generally higher degree of land cover changes in this area.
In Sand Fork and Storms Creek sub-watersheds in the Ironton Unit, sediment and silt are the primary causes of impairment, caused by unrestricted cattle access in the former and impoundments in the latter. Pine Creek sub-watersheds also suffer from high concentrations of aluminum and manganese from acid mine drainage. In Black Fork, hydrologic flow modification was identified as the most severe impairment. Hydrologic modification in Black Fork is primarily due to obstruction of non- Forest Service managed aquatic organism passages and an impoundment at Jackson Lake State Park.
Though the Marietta Unit contains the highest quality and most biologically diverse watersheds, there is also evidence of significant human modification of some stream reaches. Most notable is excess nutrient discharge and sedimentation in the southwestern parts of the Unit along Duck Creek and Eightmile Creek.
In an effort to quantify the proportions of streams that are excellent (meeting criteria for coldwater habitat or excellent warmwater habitat), high quality (meeting criteria for warmwater habitat), or poor quality (limited use), the most current designated use data was downloaded from Ohio EPA’s Integrated Water Quality and Assessment Report Web application. Analysis of the spatial distribution of sites in ArcPRO yielded a count of sites of each designated use type in the 17-county study area, and within the Wayne’s proclamation boundary and National Forest System lands.
Overall, stream quality in the study area is high despite the region’s history of natural resource extraction. In the 17-county study area that contains the Wayne National Forest, 45.5% (752) of the 1,652 aquatic ecology assessments performed over a time period primarily from 2000 to 2017 were in full attainment of warmwater habitat criteria, and 21.0% (347 sites) were attaining excellent warmwater or coldwater habitat, or both (EWH/CWH) use designations (table 6). Within the proclamation boundary, the percentage of streams categorized as excellent warmwater, coldwater habitat or both was even higher: 34% (84) of the 244 sites surveyed, and the percentage of streams attaining WWH status was 37%. Thus, 71% of streams within the proclamation boundary are attaining WWH or higher status. Only 70 sample sites were located in Wayne National Forest lands, so trends in the data are less reliable, but 18.6% of those sites also met criteria for EWH/CWH or both (table 6) Thus, the Wayne National Forest and surrounding counties contain valuable areas of high stream quality within the state of Ohio. About 75% of these high quality stream sites are in the Marietta Unit, 19% in the Ironton Unit, and only 6% in the Athens Unit, which suffers from a stronger legacy of acid mine drainage from past coal mining operations (table 7).
Locations of streams that meet criteria for coldwater habitat, excellent warmwater habitat, warmwater habitat, and limited use are mapped below for the Athens, Ironton, and Marietta Units (figure 4, figure 5, and figure 6). It should be noted that although the Ohio EPA TMDL process reported no coldwater habitat and not many excellent warmwater habitat streams (N = 5) in the Athens Unit, there are reliable anecdotal reports of high quality streams from local conservationists and researchers in the area that 25 | Page
Aquatic Ecosystems & Watersheds Supplemental Report may in fact be meeting these criteria. Locating high quality stream sites in the Athens and Ironton Units in addition to those reported through the TMDL process would be valuable for conservation and management of these aquatic resources. They could possibly serve as sentinel sites for long-term monitoring of flow, water temperature, chemistry, and biodiversity.
Table 6. Number of designated streams and their attainment in the 17-county study area, proclamation boundary, and National Forest System Area Attainment CWH EWH EWH/CWH WWH MWH LRW 17-County Study Area Full 85 214 48 752 27 40 17-County Study Area Non 1 3 0 153 10 53 17-County Study Area Partial 4 36 4 219 3 0 Proclamation Boundary Full 19 46 19 90 1 11 Proclamation Boundary Non 0 0 0 34 2 5 Proclamation Boundary Partial 0 0 0 17 0 0 National Forest System Full 4 4 5 9 22 0 National Forest System Non 0 0 0 10 10 0 National Forest System Partial 0 0 0 3 3 0
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Table 7. Number of designated streams by management unit and attainment status Wayne Unit Attainment CWH EWH EWH/CWH WWH MWH LRW Athens Unit Full 0 5 0 21 11 1 Athens Unit Non 0 0 0 27 5 1 Athens Unit Partial 0 0 0 10 0 0 Athens Unit Total 0 5 0 58 16 2 Ironton Unit Full 3 13 0 53 0 0 Ironton Unit Non 0 0 0 7 0 0 Ironton Unit Partial 0 0 0 7 0 0 Ironton Unit Total 3 13 0 67 0 0 Marietta Unit Full 16 28 19 16 0 0 Marietta Unit Non 0 0 0 0 0 0 Marietta Unit Partial 0 0 0 0 0 0 Marietta Unit Total 16 28 19 16 0 0
Figure 4. Locations of stream sampling sites in the Athens Unit and their Ohio EPA designated use and attainment status Note: Full attainment status refers to sites where both fish and macroinvertebrate biotic index scores meet designated use criteria. A site has a status of partial attainment if one assemblage meets, but the other does not. Non-attainment sites have fish and macroinvertebrate communities that do not meet targets.
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Figure 5. Locations of stream sampling sites in the Ironton Unit showing their Ohio EPA designated use and attainment status Note: Full Attainment status refers to sites where both fish and macroinvertebrate biotic index scores meet designated use criteria. A site has a status of partial attainment if one assemblage meets, but the other does not. Non-attainment sites have fish and macroinvertebrate communities that do not meet targets.
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Figure 6. Locations of stream sampling sites in the Marietta Unit showing their Ohio EPA designated use and attainment status Note: Full attainment status refers to sites where both fish and macroinvertebrate biotic index scores meet designated use criteria. A site has a status of partial attainment if one assemblage meets, but the other does not. Non-attainment sites have fish and macroinvertebrate communities that do not meet targets.
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Three sub-watersheds (Rich Fork and Wolfpen Run of the Little Muskingum, and Straight Fork of the Little Muskingum) all scored in the upper 75th percentile of number of coldwater habitat or excellent warmwater habitat sites in full attainment and average IBI (index of biotic integrity) and QHEI. Conversely, eight sub-watersheds are in the lower 25th percentile across the three units: four in Athens, two in Marietta, and two in Ironton. HydroView summaries (described in more detail below) indicate that there are exceptional watersheds along the Little Muskingum River (Straight Fork and Clear Fork sub-watersheds), as well as Archers Fork in the Marietta Unit.
Ohio EPA conducted a biological and water quality study of the Lower Muskingum River tributaries between 2012 and 2014. One hundred and six sampling locations located in Morgan, Muskingum, Noble, and Washington Counties were evaluated for aquatic life and recreational use potential. Of the 96 sites assessed for aquatic life use, 81 sites (84.4%) were fully meeting their assigned or recommended aquatic life use, 11 sites (11.5%) were in partial attainment, and 4 sites (4.1%) were in non-attainment (Ohio EPA 2016b). The Meigs Creek watershed improved from a marginally good fish community to a very good-exceptional community from 1989 to 2013. Pollution intolerant species bluebreast darter (Etheostoma camurum) and slenderhead darter (Percina phoxocephala) were collected for the first time in the Meigs Creek watershed.
Other watersheds such as Olive Green Creek and West Branch Wolf Creek have maintained historically good to exceptional fish communities based on historical sampling from 1984. Since 1999 to 2000 sampling, the fish community in South Branch Wolf Creek has improved from generally not meeting warmwater habitat bio-criteria to generally meeting warmwater habitat. Small streams that flow directly into Muskingum River such as Oilspring Run and Indian Run failed to meet the warmwater habitat fish bio-criterion. The fish communities in these two small streams were dominated by tolerant and pioneer species because of pollution and low flow.
Fish community trend data is also available for southeast Ohio River tributary watersheds in Jackson, Scioto, and Lawrence Counties. The trend is not as positive for these watersheds as it was for the Muskingum River watershed. Trend data covers a time period of 1990 to 2011, but only accounts for 12 of 49 fish sites sampled in 2010 and 2011. Comparisons of the recently sampled sites reflect both positive and negative IBI trends over the 22-year sampling period. Three streams (Munn Run, Storms Creek, and Ice Creek) scored identical IBIs, while four streams (Little Scioto River, Rocky Fork, Sawmill Run, Pine Creek) displayed limited variability in IBI score, and Kimble Creek at RM 0.6 improved greatly between 1996 (IBI = 12, 0 fish species) and 2010 (IBI = 34, 12 fish species, 247 individuals). Although the fish community in Kimble Creek greatly improved, it is still not attaining warmwater habitat expectations mainly because of the persistence of acid mine drainage impacts, despite watershed improvements (Ohio EPA 2012b). MAIS Sites within the Wayne National Forest Units Several watersheds within the Wayne National Forest that are impaired by legacy acid mine drainage have undergone extensive remediation over the past decade. Water chemistry and biological data has been collected during surveys and annual monitoring efforts by university, Ohio Department of Natural Resources, and community-based watershed group partnerships. Within the Wayne National Forest proclamation boundary, this data is limited to sites in the Monday, Sunday, and Raccoon Creek watersheds and are not shown in detail in this supplemental report.
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Assessments of Wetland & Riparian Zone Quality The presence of well-developed riparian zones around streams and wetlands is important for maintaining high ecological integrity and connectivity of aquatic ecosystems. To get a better picture of the current extent and quality of riparian habitat, HydroVIEW was used to identify areas of streams and rivers lacking at least 50 feet of woody riparian buffer within the Wayne National Forest and the 17- county study area. This layer was compared with data downloaded from the National Wetland Inventory Mapper (DOI 2018) to identify wetlands and waterbodies surrounded by low quality riparian zone (less than 50 percent 50-foot woody riparian buffer), then acreages were calculated from the resulting layers. A comparison of the spatial distribution and density of streams with high versus low quality riparian buffer within the Athens, Marietta, and Ironton Unit proclamation boundaries shows that the Ironton Unit has noticeably more streams with poor riparian zones than the other two units (figure 7). In all three units, a large majority of streams with inadequate buffers exist on privately owned land (table 8). HydroVIEW can also be used to quantify the quality of riparian buffer zones at a more refined scale; for example, around individual wetlands (figure 8).
Figure 7. Locations of streams lacking adequate riparian buffer zones Note: The riparian buffer zone was calculated as 50 feet to either side of the stream. If 50% or more of the zone was barren (e.g., no grasses, scrub, or trees), then the riparian zone was considered an inadequate buffer.
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Figure 8. HydroVIEW example map of the northern Ironton Unit showing an exceptional wetland with high quality (blue) and lower quality (pink) riparian corridors
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Table 8. Summary of the quantities of wetlands, ponds and lakes (in acres), along with acres of area categorized as >50% of the riparian zone of high quality or <50% of the riparian zone of high quality within the Wayne National Forest units Forest Wetland Wetland Wetland Wetland Pond Pond Pond Pond Lake Lake Lake Lake unit <50% Acres >50% Acres <50% Acres >50% Acres <50% Acres >50% Acres Athens 284 261.9 1,054 2,345.9 454 292.8 1,778 1,166.9 1 29.5 4 753.0 Marietta 75 131.9 226 432.9 215 142.6 444 261.1 3 41.4 0 0 Ironton 443 443.1 779 2,616.4 499 158.4 2,047 937.2 1 24.6 3 227.0 Total 802 836.9 2,059 5,395.2 1,168 593.8 4,269 2,365.2 5 95.5 7 980.0
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Assessments of Lake, Pond, and Reservoir Quality The Wayne National Forest contains numerous, small, constructed ponds and several boatable lakes, the largest of which are: Burr Oak Lake, Lake Vesuvius, Timber Ridge Lake, and Pumpkintown Lake (also known as Kenton Lake). Table 9 summarizes the acreages of ponds, lakes, and reservoirs on Wayne National Forest land and lands of other ownership.
Table 9. Acres of ponds, lakes, and reservoirs within the Wayne National Forest proclamation boundary on Wayne National Forest lands and lands of other ownership Lake and pond area (acres) within On Wayne Proclamation On lands of National Forest Units Largest lakes Boundaries other ownership land Athens Burr Oak Lake 1,554 1,213 341 Marietta N/A 186 176 10 Ironton Lake Vesuvius, Timber Ridge 949 393 556 Lake, Pumpkintown/Kenton Note: Data from NHD water features.
Nutrient enrichment, sedimentation, and non-native invasive species are common problems in Ohio ponds and reservoirs. Renwick and Anderek (2005) described rates of sedimentation in Ohio reservoirs and related them to lake hydraulic flushing rates (the average number of times per year reservoir volume is completely exchanged). These rates can be calculated using watershed area by reservoir volume and a statewide average rate of runoff of 0.3 m/year, as there was not available data specifically for lakes within the 17-county study area.
The four largest lakes are managed by the Ohio Department of Natural Resources primarily for recreational use and are surveyed periodically (every 3 to 7 years) for black bass, sunfish, sander (walleye), and catfish using electrofishing, trap, and gill nets. Gizzard shad (Dorosoma cepedianum) surveys are conducted using hydroacoustics and trawls. During surveys, temperature and dissolved oxygen profiles, Secchi depths, and water chemistry (specific conductivity, total suspended sediments, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, and chlorophyll a) are recorded. At the time of this supplemental report, specific measures related to ecological integrity of the lakes were not available. However, the Ohio Department of Natural Resources does have some historical and long-term datasets on specific recreational fish populations and physical or chemical parameters for Lake Vesuvius, Timber Ridge Lake, and Burr Oak Lake (table 10). Hale et al. (2008) examined fish productivity in 16 Ohio reservoirs and reported that 84% of the variability in fish biomass was explained by watershed area, trophic state, reservoir area and volume; watershed area plus trophic state explained 77% of this variability. Burr Oak Lake was one of the study lakes.
There is little information on the biological integrity of smaller ponds within the 17-county study area. Many are constructed lakes on private property.
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Table 10. Summary of historical fish, water chemistry, and physical data for the three lakes within the 17- county study area managed by Ohio Department of Natural Resources Waterbody Types of surveys Years of surveys Lake Vesuvius Standardized black bass surveys 2007 and 2014 - Standardized sunfish surveys 2007 and 2014 - Lower Trophic survey 2013 and 2015 Timber Ridge Standardized black bass surveys 2007 and 2014 - Non-standardized black bass survey 1997 - Standardized sunfish surveys 2007 and 2014 - Lower Trophic survey 2006, 2012, 2017 Burr Oak Standardized black bass surveys 2003 through 2018 - Non-standardized bass black surveys 1997, 1998, 2012-2015 - Standardized sunfish surveys 2003-2009, 2011, 2013 - Standardized crappie surveys 2003-2018 - Non-standardized crappie surveys 1988, 1998-2001 - Standardized channel catfish surveys 2015-2018 - Non-standardized sander surveys 1992, 2001-2004 - Standardized combined sander, morone, 2004-2005 catfish - Non-standardized gizzard shad surveys 1998-2000, 2004-2016 - Lower trophic sampling - Non-standardized zooplankton/Chaoborus 2016 and 2017 sampling - Lower trophic sampling 2011-2018 (monthly April- October) - Hobo Temps at 1, 3, 5 and 7 meters April through October 2006- 2018 Hydrological Integrity Hydrological regime is the key driver of the structure and function of aquatic and riparian ecosystems. Most regimes are defined by magnitude and duration of seasonal flows and associated transport of nutrients, organic material, and biotic propagules. However, identification of historical trends with the aim of detecting change and predicting future responses is challenging despite the large body of literature on the importance of natural flow and effects of altered flow (dams, roads, as well as climate) on instream habitat as well as aquatic biota (Poff et al. 1997; Bunn and Arthington 2002; Poff et al. 2010).
Much of the recent literature and regulatory attention—especially relative to future climate change—is focused on larger dammed rivers, and involves regional frameworks such as Ecological Limits of Hydrologic Alteration (Poff et al. 2010). The Ecological Limits of Hydrologic Alteration and similar frameworks establish minimum low flows or flow thresholds for triggering management decisions and have been widely adopted by regulatory agencies for larger river basins. They take years to develop and are mostly applicable to larger wadeable and boatable streams. There is an increasing number of studies of minimum flow requirements for small streams (Stubbington et al. 2009; Stubbington et al.
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2011; Datry et al. 2012; Stubbington et al. 2014) and wetlands (Yu et al. 2015; Hamer et al. 2016; Gleason et al. 2018), but none specific to the 17-county study area.
The most readily accessible data for monitoring hydrological regime in watersheds comes from U.S. Geological Survey gaging stations. The typical annual discharge pattern seen in larger streams and rivers in southeastern Ohio involves higher flows during winter and spring, and lowest discharge during the summer (figure 9). Hourly, daily, weekly, and monthly streamflow data, as well as basin characteristics (at 1:288,895 scale), can be downloaded in raw form, or manipulated with online tools, at the U.S. Geological Survey StreamStats (Ries 2017; DOI 2017). This resource is good for streams and rivers, but poor for wetlands, ponds, and reservoirs. Additional regional flow databases, methodology, and pitfalls are described in detail by Yochum (2018).
Although historical and current hydrological data are available, the process of identifying key metrics for detecting change for hydrologic regimes is complex. Challenges include how to define reference hydraulic conditions, how to develop accurate rainfall-runoff models, and how to interpret biotic responses that may be seasonally variable (Knight et al. 2014). Flow characteristics of stream and river systems are extremely dynamic and the sheer number of potentially informative variables of magnitude, minimum-maximum, rates of change, and variability of flow that can predict biological or ecosystem functional responses presents unique challenges. For a recent review of assumptions and challenges, see Poff et al. (2017).
Figure 9. Representative seasonal pattern in (a) stream discharge and (b) precipitation for the study area Note: The low discharge occurs in summer in spite of regular precipitation events due to evapotranspiration. Data is for 2013 from Athens County, Ohio, daily weather records from U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Discharge data is from U.S. Geological Survey gage station 03158200 at Doanville, Ohio, for 2013. From M. Thrush, unpublished data.
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A recent doctoral dissertation at Ohio University (Thrush-Hood 2019) included an analysis of drought, wet years, and storm events on the persistence of macroinvertebrate communities in Sunday, Monday, and Raccoon Creek watersheds in southeast Ohio. The findings suggest that acid mine drainage chemical stressors are most concentrated at summer low flows (figure 10), but drought years do not further impair macroinvertebrate communities. However, macroinvertebrate diversity and abundance are enhanced in wet years (identified by the Palmer drought index). Overall, macroinvertebrates exhibited substantial resilience during hydrological extremes; however, the extent to which these findings can be generalized is not yet clear.
Figure 10. Natural variability in hydrograph of Sunday Creek (2003 to 2007) showing seasonal pattern of low flows in summer months, frequent peak flows in 2004, and extended low flow periods in 2005 and 2007 Source: Thrush-Hood (2019).
Other potentially relevant studies of hydrological regime and ecosystem function for southeastern Ohio include Ecological Limits of Hydrologic Alteration models developed for the Potomac River Basin (Buchanan et al. 2013), upper Tennessee River in North Carolina (McManamay et al. 2013), as well as models for the Cumberland Plateau of Tennessee and Kentucky (Knight et al. 2014; Cartwright et al. 2017).
A particularly informative resource is the 2013 Nature Conservancy report by dePhilip and Moberg (2013), which contains flow recommendations for the upper Ohio River Basin in western Pennsylvania. Recommendations are based on high flows, seasonal flows, and low flows based on monthly exceedances, 2-, 5-, and 20-year flood events, the magnitudes and frequencies of flow pulses in different seasons and other stream flow measures. Their recommendations, shown below, describe what they determined to be acceptable deviation from “reference” values derived from data from 1960 to 2008 at 45 U.S. Geological Survey gaging stations. These recommendations provide guidance on the definition of an acceptable range of variance for flow regimes and flood frequencies for streams and rivers of different sizes. Changes in flow or flood regimes beyond these limits would be expected to threaten the ecological integrity of these stream and river ecosystems.
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High flows - For all streams and rivers
• Maintain magnitude and frequency of 20-yr (large) floods • Maintain magnitude and frequency of 5-yr (small) floods • Maintain magnitude and frequency of 1 to 2-yr high flow (full bank) events • Limit the change to the monthly Q10 to less than 10% • Maintain the long-term frequency of high pulse events during summer and fall Seasonal flows - For all streams and rivers
• Maintain the long-term monthly median between the 45th and 55th percentiles • Limit change to “typical monthly range” to less than 20% Low flows - For all streams and rivers with drainage areas greater than 50 square miles
• Limit change to “monthly low flow range” to less than 10% • Maintain the long-term monthly Q95 For headwater streams with drainage areas less than 50 square miles
• Maintain the long-term “monthly low flow range” • Maintain the long-term monthly Q95 Precipitation Historical precipitation and air temperatures for the region were recently compiled in the Central Appalachian Forest Ecosystem Vulnerability Assessment and Synthesis using Climate Wizard and PRISM (see table 11). Linear trend analyses indicate a precipitation increase of 1.7 inches and minimum temperature increase of 1.1o F from 1901 through 2011. Historical information, coupled with well-informed climate models and local expertise of researchers and managers, can provide important insights about the potential effects of a changing climate on aquatic ecosystems and future watershed conditions (Butler et al. 2015). Temperature, Air, and Water Records In freshwater ecosystems, water temperature is a “master controller” of physical, chemical, and biological processes. Most climate change models predict increases in mean, minimum, and maximum temperatures that can alter behavior, physiology, energy needs, and other aspects of the life histories of aquatic organisms, as well as key ecosystem processes related to chemical transformations of nutrients and contaminants.
Many of these effects have already been documented in various regions (Nelson and Palmer 2007; Rieman et al. 2007; Hannah et al. 2008; Kaushal et al. 2010; Wenger et al. 2011). Even modest increases in summertime water temperatures can cause dissolved oxygen content to fall below critical levels and harm biota (Morrill et al. 2005). Durance and Ormerod (2007) tracked changes in air and water temperatures in upland streams in Great Britain and their models of future thermal projections 38 | Page
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(+1, +2, +3° C) suggested that spring macroinvertebrate abundances might decline by 21% for every 1°C rise in temperature. Core species would persist, but scarce taxa (5% to 12%) are at risk of local extirpation.
Much of the current literature on effects of temperature changes on aquatic biota are from coldwater streams that support salmonid fisheries, which are not present in the Wayne National Forest. However, similar biological effects on coldwater fish and macroinvertebrates can be expected to occur. Examples include the demonstration that at 23° C salmonids will not migrate, seven days at 28° C is lethal, and other temperatures strongly affect spawning and development (Webb et al. 2008). In one case, warmer temperatures increased hybridization between an endemic threatened species (west slope cutthroat trout [Oncorhynchus clarki lewisi]) and non-native rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) (Muhlfeld et al. 2014). This is an example of how subtle changes in water temperature can more dramatically affect genetic diversity of natural populations in unexpected ways. Flebbe et al. (2006) has documented current threats to native fish in the southern Appalachians from rising stream temperatures.
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Table 11. Annual, seasonal, and monthly mean values and linear trend analysis for selected climate variables from 1901 through 2011 for the Central Appalachians assessment area(Butler et al. 2015) Mean Precip TMean Mean TMin TMin Mean TMax Month or Precip Change Precip P- Tmean Change TMean TMin Change P- TMax Change TMax P- Season (inch) (inch) value* (°F) (°F) P-value* (°F) (°F) value* (°F) (°F) value* Jan. 3.3 -0.7 0.14 29.7 -2.4 0.24 20.4 -1.6 0.41 39.1 -3.1 0.14 Feb. 2.8 -0.1 0.70 31.4 1.7 0.38 21.2 2.0 0.33 41.5 1.4 0.48 March 3.8 -0.4 0.40 40.3 -0.1 0.94 29.1 -0.3 0.79 51.5 0.1 0.95 April 3.7 0.2 0.51 50.5 2.4 0.00 38.0 1.6 0.02 62.9 3.2 0.00 May 4.1 0.9 0.05 60.0 0.0 0.96 47.4 0.6 0.42 72.7 -0.7 0.48 June 4.2 -0.4 0.38 68.2 0.5 0.50 56.0 1.4 0.07 80.3 -0.4 0.68 July 4.5 0.3 0.33 71.9 0.0 0.97 60.1 1.3 0.06 83.7 -1.2 0.10 Aug. 3.9 -0.2 0.47 70.5 1.2 0.03 58.8 2.1 0.00 82.3 0.3 0.64 Sept. 3.2 0.9 0.04 64.3 -0.6 0.51 52.0 0.9 0.40 76.6 -2.1 0.03 Oct. 2.8 0.3 0.48 53.2 -0.8 0.42 40.7 0.4 0.73 65.7 -2.0 0.07 Nov. 3.0 1.2 0.01 42.2 2.3 0.01 31.6 2.8 0.00 52.8 1.8 0.08 Dec. 3.2 -0.1 0.70 32.6 1.5 0.25 23.6 1.7 0.19 41.6 1.2 0.37 Winter 3.1 -1.0 0.14 31.2 0.3 0.81 21.7 0.7 0.58 40.7 -0.1 0.91 Spring 3.9 0.7 0.29 50.3 0.8 0.19 38.2 0.6 0.24 62.4 0.9 0.20 Summer 4.2 -0.3 0.64 70.2 0.6 0.22 58.3 1.6 0.00 82.1 -0.4 0.46 Autumn 3.0 2.3 0.00 53.2 0.3 0.57 41.4 1.4 0.04 65.0 -0.7 0.27 Annual 42.4 1.7 0.26 51.2 0.5 0.29 39.9 1.1 0.03 62.6 -0.1 0.87 Note: *P-values represent the probability of observing that trend by chance. P-values in boldface indicated a less than 10-percent probability that the trend was due to chance. TMean = mean temperature, TMin = minimum temperature, TMax = maximum temperature.
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Current approaches for modeling water temperatures usually involve correlation with air temperatures, which are more readily available from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and local weather stations. Air temperature data for Athens is recorded every hour from the Ohio University Scalia Lab weather station in Athens, Ohio. Archived weather data with daily average air temperatures are available from 1949 to present from the Scalia Lab.
Throughout the seasons, streams generally increase in temperature 0.6 to 0.8° C for every 1° C increase in air temperature (Morrill et al. 2005). Non-linear regressions of daily or weekly water temperatures against air temperatures have been used successfully to assess stream sensitivity to thermal change (Morill et al. 2005; Kelleher et al. 2011; Mayer 2012). Models for specific ecoregions or study areas can usually be validated with 1 to 3 years of simultaneous monitoring of water and air temperature data (Nelson and Palmer 2007; Wenger et al. 2011). Suitable datasets are relatively common for lakes and large rivers but are rare for smaller headwater or wadeable streams (Luce et al. 2014) and wetlands. The thermal sensitivity of waterbodies to changes in air temperature is influenced by a variety of factors, including source of water, discharge, and shade. Colder, smaller streams that are fed by groundwater are less sensitive to air temperature fluctuations than warmwater streams (Kelleher et al. 2011). There is contradicting literature about the importance of shade, but it generally is accepted that streamside vegetation significantly impacts stream temperature (Johnson 2004; Clark et al. 2008).
Studies relevant to southeastern Ohio include a 40-year analysis showing rising temperatures in two Pennsylvanian rivers (figure 11, from Kaushal et al. 2010). Messinger and Hughes’ (2000) NAWQUA reported on 30-year trends in precipitation, air and water temperatures in the Kanawha River, West Virginia, and Gu et al. (2015) proposed a model of air- water temperatures from the southern Appalachians. Underwood et al. (2014) recently documented rising river temperatures in Raccoon Creek, Meigs County, from gaging station data (figure 12).
Figure 11. Increasing trends in water temperature in two Pennsylvania streams (Kaushal et al. 2010)
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Figure 12. Increasing trend in water temperature (in Kelvin) from Little Raccoon Creek USGS gaging station at Ewington, OH Note: Increasing trend in temperature is statistically significant. From Underwood et al. (2014). Characterization of Existing Watershed Condition All characterizations of current watersheds are based off delineations at the twelve-digit Hydrologic Unit Code (HUC-12) sub-watershed level. Watershed Condition Classification The Watershed Condition Framework is a comprehensive methodology used by the Forest Service to establish a nationally consistent approach to identifying and assessing watershed condition, using a set of twelve indicators which are proxies that reflect underlying ecological, hydrological, and geomorphic functions and processes (table 12). The approach is designed to foster ecosystem-based evaluations and target programs of work in watersheds that have been identified for restoration.
Each sub-indicator is rated as “Good,” “Fair,” or “Poor,” and a score is averaged for each indicator.2 In each case, integrity is evaluated in the context of the natural disturbance regime, geo-climatic setting, and other important factors that characterize watershed function relative to natural wildland conditions (Karr and Chu 1999; Lackey 2001). Based on different combinations of twelve categories of indicators, HUC-12 sub-watersheds in National Forest System lands are scored as either green (functioning properly), yellow (functioning at risk), or red (functioning is impaired). Watersheds that are functioning properly have minimal undesirable human impact on their natural, physical, or biological processes,
2 Rangeland vegetation was not considered by the Wayne National Forest because there are not any pasturelands in the national forest with the capacity to provide forage for livestock. 42 | Page
Aquatic Ecosystems & Watersheds Supplemental Report while maintaining resilience and ability to recover following large disturbances or land management activities (Yount and Niemi 1990). Watersheds with “Impaired” functioning have some identified physical, hydrological, or biological threshold that has been exceeded.
Table 12. Core national watershed condition indicators and attributes Terrestrial Physical Terrestrial Biological Aquatic Physical (30%) Aquatic Physical (30%) (30%) (10%) Water Quality – Impaired Aquatic Biota – Life Form Roads & Trails – Open Fire Regime – Fire Condition Waters (303d Listed) or Presence; Native Species; Road Density; Road Class or Wildlife Effects Other Problems Exotic and/or Invasive Maintenance; Proximity to Species Water; Mass Wasting Water Quantity – Flow Riparian/Wetland Soils – Productivity; Forest Cover – Loss of Characteristics Condition – Vegetation Erosion; Contamination Cover Condition Aquatic Habitat – Rangeland Vegetation – Fragmentation; Large - - Vegetation Condition Woody Debris; Channel Shape and Function Terrestrial Invasive Species - - - – Extent and Rate of Spread
Forest Health – Insects and - - - Disease; Ozone
Figure 13. Watershed Condition Classification, Wayne National Forest 43 | Page
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Of the 41 sub-watersheds of the Wayne National Forest with over 6% National Forest System lands, none have been identified or moved to a functioning properly condition class (figure 13). However, this does not mean there are not high quality waterbodies within those watersheds. The Watershed Condition Classification Index has stringent criteria for earning a score of “Good.” Watersheds earn a “Poor” score if greater than 10% of the waterbodies are impaired, a “Fair” if less than 10% are impaired, and a “Good” only if no waterbodies in the sub-watershed are listed as impaired. As a result, if even one or two stream reaches are impaired, the entire sub-watershed is scored as functioning at- risk (blue).
Currently, the two priority watersheds in the Wayne National Forest are Kitchen Run-Monday Creek and Wingett Run-Little Muskingum River sub-watersheds. Priority watersheds (two per cycle) are chosen to help focus resources towards either protecting and maintaining or improving their conditions. Watershed restoration action plans are developed for each chosen priority watershed, and upon the complete implementation of all projects detailed in its plan, the watershed is deemed to be in a protected and maintained or improved status, and a new cycle begins with the selection of two new priority watersheds.
In the Athens Unit of the Wayne, there is an existing long-term partnership between the Ohio Department of Natural Resources, Rural Action, Ohio University, and the Wayne National Forest working on addressing legacy mining impacts and improving water quality. This existing infrastructure is currently ready for follow-up watershed restoration and enhancement activities, and so the Kitchen Run-Monday Creek sub-watershed was selected for its high potential for improvement.
The Wingett Run-Little Muskingum River sub-watershed represents one of the sub-watersheds currently in better condition in the Marietta Unit but could use some restoration and enhancement activities to further improve its quality. The Little Muskingum River is prized by surrounding communities for its recreational and economic opportunities, and there are several partnership prospects with some of the local organizations. It was thus selected as a priority sub-watershed to both protect its current higher quality status and also for its potential for improvement.
Twenty-two of the 41 watersheds (54%) have National Forest System lands of less than 25%, making meaningful improvements in watershed condition challenging at scale. Alteration of National Forest Sub-Watersheds The Wayne National Forest has a total of 6,784.42 miles of road and utility corridors (only 326.6 miles, or 4.8%, of which are managed by the Forest Service) (USDA 2018). Impervious surface is applied as a proxy for watershed health, as forested cover has been shown to provide a critical role in filtering nutrient runoff, as well as intercepting sediment and excess water through transpiration and soil uptake before these elements reach bodies of water (Ozment et al. 2013). Current research suggests that aquatic ecosystems become very seriously impacted from sedimentation when watershed impervious cover exceeds 10% (Schueler 2003).
HUC-12 spatial analysis was used to identify the upper quartile of sub-watersheds with the highest road densities (greater than 0.01325 miles/acre) and the upper half of sub-watersheds with the highest Wayne National Forest road density (greater than 0.000575 miles/acre). Six of the ten watersheds with the highest overall road densities are located in the central watersheds of the Athens Unit. Of the five 44 | Page
Aquatic Ecosystems & Watersheds Supplemental Report sub-watersheds with high proportions of both overall and Forest Service-managed road density, four were located in the Athens Unit (Kitchen Run-Monday Creek, Lost Run-Monday Creek, Snow Fork and Dorr Run-Hocking River) and one was identified in the Ironton Unit (Storms Creek). Aquatic monitoring of Storms Creek showed higher than average silt and sediment—most likely from impervious surfaces—and channel alteration from impoundments.
Overall, Kitchen Run-Monday Creek was the most altered watershed sub-watershed in terms of both overall road density as well as proportion of National Forest System roads. As 57% of the watershed is contained within National Forest System lands, there is potential for substantial improvement here.
Table 13. Degree of human modification across Wayne National Forest HUC-12 sub-watersheds Sub-watershed Mean (Percentage of HUC- Minimum (Percentage of Maximum (Percentage of Characteristic (n = 41) 12) HUC-12) HUC-12) Developed Use 20.24% 1.27% 52.92% Forest Cover 72.28% 38% 92% National Forest System 30.14% 6.2% 80.54% Road Density 1.1% 0.06% 1.6% Note: Data from Forest Service Enterprise Data Warehouse (USDA 2018) and Forests to Faucets 2012 (USDA 2012c).
Culvert inventories were used to locate and evaluate the integrity of road-stream crossings for aquatic organism passage. Undersized or impassable culverts fragment aquatic connectivity and present serious sedimentation challenges and capital costs when they fail. A total of 488 crossings were identified across the Wayne where aquatic organism passage was deemed impassable. Sub-watersheds were identified in the upper quartile for culvert density (greater than 0.001205) and the upper half for road density (greater than 0.000575).
• Out of the 488 identified impassable culverts throughout the Wayne, there was an average of 10 per sub-watershed, with a minimum of none and a maximum of 36. • Leith Run-Ohio River in the Marietta Unit and Lost Run-Monday Creek were the two sub- watersheds with the highest culvert and road densities, indicating areas where the Forest Service could have a positive response to improving road-stream crossings within the National Forest System road network. • In aggregate, five sub-watersheds (East Branch-Raccoon Creek, Lost Run-Monday Creek, Greens Run-Sunday Creek in the Athens Unit, and Leith Run-Ohio River in the Marietta Unit) were identified in the top quartile with higher relative culvert densities. Sections of streams with less than 50 feet of riparian habitat were assessed and shown in figure 7. Almost all of the HUC-12 watersheds with at least 6% Wayne National Forest land have at least some stream sections with insufficient riparian habitat. Of the watersheds presented in table 13, all but three have some streams segments with insufficient riparian habitat; however, based on the map-based analysis, streams in the Marietta Unit have more intact riparian buffers than those in the Athens and Ironton Units.
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Drinking Water Protection A spatial analysis of EPA-designated source water protection and groundwater wellhead protection areas intersecting with National Forest System sub-watersheds was performed to determine the extent to which local communities rely on the Wayne National Forest for domestic and public drinking water. A “protection area” is defined by the EPA as an area delineating the 24-hour travel time it takes for water to reach a surface water intake or a 5-year travel path to reach a groundwater well.
Figure 14. EPA-designated surface water protection and groundwater wellhead protection areas with significant National Forest System sub-watershed overlap
There are currently four sub-watersheds with at least 25% overlap with designated surface source water protection areas, with at least 10% proclamation boundary overlap—050302011005 (Patton Run-Ohio River), 050901030105 (Pond Run-Ohio River), 050901030106 (Ginat Creek), and 050901030205
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(Lick Run-Pine Creek). On those sub-watersheds, there are an identified three surface intakes and 16 groundwater intakes (figure 14).
There are five sub-watersheds that overlap at least 10% with the Wayne National Forest proclamation boundary that also have at least 10% overlap with designated groundwater protection areas— 050302040606 (Dorr Run-Hocking River), 050302040801 (Hamley Run-Hocking River), 050901010202 (West Branch Raccoon Creek), 050901010303 (Headwaters Elk Fork), and 050302041001 (Coates Run-Hocking River). On those sub-watersheds, there are no identified surface intakes and 19 groundwater intakes. Soil Resources Edaphic conditions for the Southern Unglaciated Allegheny Plateau of the Eastern Broadleaf Forest Province (Section 221E) have been analyzed and summarized by Iverson et al. (2019). The 17-county study area falls within the unglaciated plateau, roughly corresponding to the Kanawha section of the Appalachian Plateaus province (Fenneman 1928). The surface is highly dissected due to long-term erosional processes, with highest elevations in the northeast grading to lowest elevations in the southwest. In the western portion, the bedrock is comprised of cyclic beds of sandstone, siltstone, clay, shale, and coal of Pennsylvanian age and some Mississippian age. Old glacial drift deposits occur in the major river valleys with Wisconsin-age glacial outwash deposits of unconsolidated sand and gravel near the surface. In the eastern portion, horizontal layers of Pennsylvanian-age sandstone, siltstone, shale, coal, and some limestone underlie the plateau. The major river valleys have significant deposits of alluvium (USDA 2006).
Current Conditions The soil resources of the area are diverse and largely reflect the weathering of the underlying bedrock (figure 15). The dominant soil orders include alfisols, ultisols, and inceptisols with a mesic soil temperature regime, a udic soil moisture regime, and mixed mineralogy, varying from coarser (sandier) soils residing on sandstones to finer (clay-enriched) soils on shales with silt generally uniform throughout. Soils range from shallow to very deep, excessively drained to somewhat poorly drained, and skeletal to clayey textures (USDA 2006). Soil permeability follows soil texture, with higher permeability on sandier soils and lower permeability on clayey soils. Similarly, soil pH varies with substrate where higher pHs are associated with calcareous rocks and lower pHs are associated with soils derived from sandstones. Across the study area, soil pH generally increases from west to east (Iverson et al. 2019). Additionally, several series of udorthents cover swaths of the landscape and are the result of material derived from surface mining of coal. Some areas have been reclaimed, and the soils on these sites typically exhibit higher bulk densities, much lower saturated hydraulic conductivities, and low organic matter in the surface horizon compared to their unmined counterparts. Establishment of vegetation is difficult, especially for trees as the high bulk densities results in high mortality of planted individuals (Soil Survey Staff 2020).
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Figure 15. Representative block diagrams showing the dominant soil catenas for the Marietta, Athens, and Ironton Units
The major soil resource concerns are mostly related to modern anthropogenic activities across the landscape. Following European settlement of the landscape, much of the land was converted for agriculture (crops and pasture); mined for salt, clay, brick, and coal; logged for charcoal production; or impacted by roads and other development. Unlike geologic erosion, many of these human activities resulted in accelerated erosion of the soil resources to include sheet and rill erosion on pasture, land slippage, subsidence from mining, streambank erosion, and gullying (USDA 2006). Accelerated erosion potential is presented as an erosion hazard class. It is an estimate for the loss of the original surficial horizons due to management. Erosion hazard classes range from “slight” to “very severe.” Within the proclamation boundary, the dominant erosion hazard classes for soils are “moderate” (38%) and “severe” (31%) (table 14). However, the breakdown of classes varies by unit (figure 16, figure 17, and figure 18), and there are class inconsistencies across political boundaries that are likely affecting the reported acreages (most notably in the Athens Unit).
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Table 14. Off-road, off-trail erosion hazard classes and acreages found within the proclamation boundary of the Wayne National Forest Erosion Hazard Acreage Percentage within Wayne National Class Forest proclamation boundary Slight 119,775 14% Moderate 325,102 38% Severe 265,215 31% Very Severe 136,885 16% Not Rated 8,555 <1%
Figure 16. Off-road, off-trail erosion hazard classes for the soil resources in the Marietta Unit of the Wayne National Forest 49 | Page
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Figure 17. Off-road, off-trail erosion hazard classes for soil resources in the Athens Unit of the Wayne National Forest
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Figure 18. Off-road, off-trail erosion hazard classes for the soil resources in the Ironton Unit of the Wayne National Forest
Trends and Stressors Soils are often defined as foundations of ecosystems, providing or supporting multiple ecosystem services. Fully functioning soils support healthy soil biology, soil hydrology, nutrient cycling, carbon storage, soil stability and support, and filtering and buffering functions. Past and current anthropogenic activities have affected the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soils. Legacy effects of land use, as discussed previously, have altered soil structure through soil removal and compaction. The changes to soil structure have cascading effects on other aspects of soil function. Understanding these dynamic soils properties are crucial to sustainable soil management. However, they are currently little studied but present an important aspect for future growth. 51 | Page
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Acidification is a known stressor on soil resources and functions, specifically chemical and biological properties. The ability of soils to buffer acid deposition includes soil structure and composition, amount of organic matter, and base cations. The Wayne has historically experienced high levels of sulfur and nitrogen deposition that likely have impacted forest soils and associated functions (e.g., nutrient cycling, soil biology). National scale estimates report there are no exceedances of forest acidification critical loads in the Wayne. However, those findings have not been informed by local field measurements. Soils are typically slow to recover and develop a buffering capacity against acidic deposition, therefore more work is needed to assess the long-term impacts of extensive acidification on forest soils (see Air Quality Supplemental Report). Acidification and nitrogen deposition have been reported to affect plant species composition and may have implications in altering soil biology (Kluber et al. 2012; DeForest and Snell 2019).
Carbon storage is an important function of healthy forest soils. According to an analysis of forest carbon pools for the Wayne National Forest, soil carbon is the second largest carbon pool. However, the estimated amount of carbon in the soil is likely an underestimate as newer methods for measuring soil carbon are finding that the amount of carbon stored in soils generally exceeds previous modeling efforts (see Carbon Supplemental Report). Soil organic matter is an important part of the soil carbon storage equation. Reduced organic matter as a result of improper soil management reduces carbon sequestration capacities.
Impacts to soil resources from climate change are not very well understood currently but have the potential to affect soil hydrology, soil stability, and soil biology. Soil moisture patterns are predicted to change with drier soil conditions present later in the growing season as increasing temperatures could reduce soil water availability. Precipitation events are predicted to increase in frequency and severity potentially leading to more damaging soil erosion. Snowpack, which typically insulates soils, is predicted to decline resulting in a soil surface more exposed to fluctuating water temperatures. This is likely to determine further impacts on soil temperature and water infiltration capabilities. The cumulative effects of these factors on soil biology (soil microorganisms, soil mycorrhizal associations remain unanswered (Butler et al. 2015). Water Withdrawals Water withdrawals have not traditionally altered hydraulic regimes of aquatic ecosystems, although the exponential increase in unconventional oil and gas development remains a concern. Water withdrawal operations with poor control on timing could deplete minimum flows or shorten the duration of periods of inundation for wetlands, and lower levels in lakes, ponds, and reservoirs, affecting ecosystem functions like primary productivity and leaf litter processing (Poff et al. 1997). Increased water withdrawals have the potential to simplify streams and rivers by reducing flow in one or several sites, which results in the loss of branches and stream features. Simplified streams lose their ability to adapt to disturbances like floods, fires, or landslides (Penaluna et al. 2017). In addition to confirming potentially negative impacts during low-flow conditions, impacts from hydraulic fracturing could also occur under average and high-flow conditions. Studies have indicated seasonal variation in hydrologic sensitivity correlated with stream flow characteristics, with high baseflow and low baseflow streams showing the lowest sensitivity and perennial, flashy streams showing the highest sensitivity (Buchanan et al. 2015).
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Across the study area, water withdrawal projections for municipal, agricultural, and industrial use are not anticipated to cause major shortages to renewable source water supply (Warziniack 2018). Although the 2006 Wayne Forest Plan does not allow surface water withdrawal for energy development, mineral leasing on adjacent land could divert water from aquatic ecosystems also located in the national forest. Annual water withdrawals from horizontal wells in Monroe County ranged from 67.01 to 1,488.06 million gallons between 2013 and 2019, while withdrawals in Washington County ranged from 14.31 to 30.62 million gallons during the same time span (FracFocus 2019).
Water withdrawals in the study area extend beyond anthropogenic sources. Forests are also an important part of the water yield equation. Forests in the eastern United States, including the Wayne National Forest, are currently experiencing a landscape scale mesophication phenomenon (Nowacki and Abrams 2008; Palus et al. 2018). Mesophication is a positive feedback cycle whereby disruptions to the natural disturbance regimes in forests (predominantly, lack of fire) are resulting in compositional shifts in species, from oak-dominated communities to primarily mesophytic species (e.g., red maple, sugar maple, American beech). Due to certain physiological traits, mesophytic species use more water than their oak counterparts (Ford et al. 2011). While limited, recent research has found that long-term shifts in forest species composition has been found to decrease water yields by as much as 18% in a given year even after accounting for climate impacts (Caldwell et al. 2016). The implications of such landscape scale changes on water resources deserves closer attention as land managers plan for the future. HydroVIEW Maps of High & Low-Quality Sub-Watersheds, Wetlands, and Riparian Zones While the Ohio EPA fish and macroinvertebrate surveys described above provide direct assessments of ecological integrity based on individual stream sites, additional information on biological quality and sources of impairment aggregated by watershed was assembled using HydroVIEW (Hydrologically Visualize Impacted and Exceptional Watersheds). HydroVIEW is an ArcGIS online watershed planning tool funded by the Ohio EPA and maintained by the Voinovich School of Leadership and Public Affairs at Ohio University (Ohio University Voinovich School c2018). HydroVIEW combines multiple layers of water quality information from a variety of sources (i.e., Ohio EPA TMDL assessments, ODNR monitoring for mine remediation projects) to show areas of impact and high quality in surface waters and watersheds. The interactive nature of the tool enables users to zoom in and quickly add or remove layers showing locations of exceptional watersheds or wetlands (figure 19) and major sources of impairments within watersheds (figure 20 and figure 21).
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Figure 19. Map from HydroVIEW showing exceptional watersheds (green), Department of Natural Areas and Preserves (DNAP) aquatic and conservation sites (blue), and high-quality wetlands (Category III) (blue dot) within Wayne National Forest boundaries Note: Although it appears that there are no exceptional watersheds in the Athens Unit and Ironton Unit areas, the higher resolution TMDL sample site data show sites of Excellent quality within all three Wayne National Forest units. Note the string of Category III wetlands within and between the Athens and Ironton Units, which are important as refugia and corridors for wetland species. 54 | Page
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Figure 20. Map from HydroVIEW showing areas of acid mine drainage (AMD) impacts; AMD impacts are greatest in the Athens Unit, but some are also present in the Marietta and Ironton Units 55 | Page
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Figure 21. Map showing areas of nutrient enrichment (coliform bacteria, sewage, low dissolved oxygen, ammonia, excess algae)
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Integrity & Vulnerability of Aquatic Ecosystems to Future Change The Wayne National Forest has an abundance of high-quality aquatic resources, particularly in the Marietta Unit, as well as aquatic resources that remain impaired from the legacy of historical mining activities (e.g., acid mine drainage and sedimentation), high nutrient loads, and ineffective septic systems. Of the four types of aquatic ecosystems found along the hydrologic (or stream) continuum (ephemeral/intermittent headwater streams, perennial streams and rivers, wetlands, and ponds and reservoirs), the most reliable pre-existing data on quantity, quality, and spatial distribution of those resources is for large streams and rivers and riverine and larger palustrine wetlands. There is very little data for headwater streams, smaller palustrine wetlands, smaller ponds, or groundwater-dependent ecosystems, which is unfortunate because smaller waterbodies are disproportionally important for providing connectivity across the landscape, serving as refugia and stepping stones for the dispersal of aquatic biota (Biggs et al. 2017). Smaller water bodies are also arguably the most sensitive to changes in precipitation, flow, or alterations in surrounding terrestrial ecosystem processes. Integrity Statements for Ecosystems Contained within the Aquatic Ecosystems Assessment
Methods: Ecological integrity statements are largely based on:
• Aggregated measures of biological integrity derived from Ohio EPA assessments of stream and river quality. These assessments emphasize the importance of good physical habitat, clean water, and the presence of plant, fish, amphibian, and macroinvertebrate communities that have high biological diversity and balanced trophic structure as evidence of ecosystem integrity. • Analysis of changes in forest cover in the 17-county study area since 2006. • Estimates of the quantity and quality of good riparian habitat. • Climate change projections taken from the Central Appalachians Forest Ecosystem Vulnerability Assessment and Synthesis: A Report from the Central Appalachians Climate Change Response Framework Project (Butler et al. 2015). • Vulnerability statements from relevant literature and best professional judgement. • Connectivity statements are made in general terms only. Land Cover Change The most substantial changes in land cover from 2006 to 2011 within the proclamation boundary involved the conversion of forest to grassland/herbaceous cover, but most of these changes 57 | Page
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occurred on private land and were modest relative to the amount of forest (less than 1.0%). The net loss was a little over 2500 acres of forest. Loss of forest cover can exacerbate hydrological variables that are responsive to changes in precipitation and storm events predicted under various climate change scenarios, including rates of surface runoff, soil absorbance, erosion peak flow, and channel stability. Maintaining forest cover provides shade and nutrient inputs to streams that herbaceous cover does not, and is especially important for quality of headwater streams, palustrine wetlands, and smaller wadeable streams. Forested riparian zones also contribute woody debris to stream channels that can reduce erosion and sediment movement as well as provide habitat for macroinvertebrates and small fish. Streams Most of the available data on ecological integrity of aquatic resources in the Wayne National Forest is for larger wadeable, perennial streams. This reflects some practical difficulties with assessing more ephemeral headwater streams, which have a more dynamic hydrologic regime both within and between years and are therefore more difficult to monitor and categorize. Most states focus on perennial streams for monitoring surface water quality for this reason. In addition, stream biota is adapted to a seasonally variable flow regime and can disperse up and downstream during annually variable wet and dry periods. In Ohio’s perennial streams, high invertebrate community index, index of biotic integrity, and MAIS scores indicate high ecological integrity of that stream reach as well as the aggregate effects from the primary headwater streams upstream; consequently, observations of high biological integrity of perennial streams generally indicate high quality of headwater streams. Likewise, significant alterations of the integrity of headwater stream systems would be expected to alter quality of the perennial streams they flow into.
Based on fish and macroinvertebrate scores aggregated from 216 Ohio EPA sites sampled between 2004 and 2017 within the Wayne National Forest proclamation boundary, most perennial streams are meeting or exceeding criteria for warmwater habitat, the State’s designation for waterways with good biological integrity. Sites that are categorized as coldwater habitat or excellent warmwater habitat represent valuable reservoirs for biodiversity and will help promote resiliency to change by serving as sources for regional species pools. Current data suggests that most of the highest quality coldwater habitat and excellent warmwater habitat sites are in the Marietta Unit, followed by the Ironton Unit. However, there are likely more high- quality sites in the Athens Unit than the compiled Ohio EPA data suggest.
Stream responses to projected climate changes for the area are difficult to predict. Wetter years may transform intermittent streams into perennial ones, which could support greater diversity and higher fish or arthropod scores. More frequent storm events, however, may increase erosion and head and bank-cutting, and result in lower habitat quality, especially downstream from road crossings and heavy use trails.
The effects of projected warmer summer air temperatures on aquatic biota are generally expected to be negative. Even modest increases in summer temperature can extirpate local populations of coldwater taxa or alter algal production. However, the vulnerability of smaller streams to changes in air temperature depends on the proportion of groundwater inputs. Without a better understanding of base flow contributions, detailed predictions are difficult. 58 | Page
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Primary Headwater Streams Data is limited but this ecosystem is categorized as having moderate-high integrity based on a variety of factors:
• High total percentage of deciduous forest cover, and low agricultural or urban impacts. • Low rate of change or loss of forest cover during 2001 to 2011 (less than 1%). • Proportion of downstream reaches within the proclamation boundary that are in full attainment of warmwater or excellent/coldwater habitat criteria (37% and 34% of sites sampled 2000 to 2017, respectively, or a total of 71% of all sites sampled between 2000 and 2017). • Legacy effects, including acid mine drainage, tend to impact wadeable streams more than small headwater streams. • Populations of coldwater taxa in small headwater streams may be at significant risk for extirpation by warming temperatures resulting from climate change, because—like high altitude species—they cannot retreat further upstream to cooler waters. • Moderate-high vulnerability to flow modification from roads, culverts, or projected climate change. Small changes in flow strongly affect persistence of biota, head-cutting, and erosion from increased storm intensity may reduce benthic habitat quality; coldwater habitats may be particularly vulnerable to warmer temperatures. • Moderate adaptive capacity due to the system’s inherent adaptation to natural disturbance and strong connectivity to downstream reaches, but threatened by an amplification of storm frequency and flood intensity, non-native invasive species in the adjacent riparian areas, and compounding anthropogenic stressors; very low adaptive capacity for coldwater taxa if those habitats warm. Larger Streams & Rivers These ecosystems have moderate-high integrity based on a variety of factors:
• High total percentage of deciduous forest cover and low agricultural or urban impacts. • Low rate of change or loss of forest cover during 2001 to 2011 (less than 1%). • Proportion of downstream reaches within the proclamation boundary that are in full attainment of warmwater or excellent/coldwater habitat criteria (37% and 34% of sites sampled 2000 to 2017, respectively, for a total of 71% of the sites). • Major sources of impairment (legacy coal mining, acid mine drainage, sedimentation) that predominate in the Athens Unit are balanced by high quality streams in Ironton and Marietta Units. • Coldwater habitats may be particularly vulnerable to climate change-driven increases in summer air temperatures, because an increase of even a few degrees of water temperatures can lower dissolved oxygen levels (Morill et al. 2005), alter the distributions of coldwater salamanders, macroinvertebrates, and fish (Rieman et al. 2007; Wenger et al.
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2011), or change the genetic integrity of species by promoting hybridization (Muhlfeld et al. 2014). • High vulnerability to reductions in riparian quality due to non-native invasive species and proportion of stream riparian zones on lands of other ownership, especially in the Ironton Unit. • Moderate-high vulnerability to flow alteration, temperature change, and sedimentation. Benefits of projected climate-related increases in flow (especially in summer) may counterbalance negative effects of erosion and sedimentation. However, rates of sedimentation are strongly affected by soil characteristics, road density, culvert, and crossing design and land cover. • Moderate-high adaptive capacity due to high species diversity, strong connectivity to other aquatic habitats, and availability of thermal and flow refugia in larger streams. However, adaptive capacity has already been reduced due to the high number of invasive species within the riparian areas as well as disconnection of the aquatic systems from the adjacent floodplain. Wetlands Due to the availability of wetland inventory and land cover databases, the areas and locations of wetlands around larger reservoirs, rivers, and streams are relatively well-documented. Based on existing data, it appears that the area of these wetlands within the proclamation boundary are not changing much (i.e., wetlands are not being lost). The locations of some of the best quality (Class III) wetlands are readily available. However, more surveys to identify additional Class III wetlands, especially smaller palustrine wetlands like vernal pools, would be helpful for future assessments of connectivity that is needed to maintain diverse plant, macroinvertebrate, and amphibian populations. Maintaining forest cover will help protect vernal habitats, which often occur in upland areas. Projected climate changes for this region (more precipitation in spring and summer) could increase the quantity and quality of smaller wetlands. Effects on larger lacustrine or riverine wetlands are more difficult to predict due to the complexity of their hydrological regimes. There are several invasive aquatic plants in the region that have significant potential to reduce wetland diversity. Although they appear not to be exerting widespread effects in the Wayne National Forest currently, this could change very rapidly and should continue to be monitored.
The wetland ecosystems within the Wayne National Forest proclamation boundary are largely unevaluated in terms of species composition, but are categorized as having moderate-high integrity based on a variety of factors:
• Presence of several large, documented exceptional-quality wetlands. • Abundance of palustrine wetlands in large areas with intact forest cover. • The number of acres of well-developed riparian zones around wetlands exceeds the number of poor (less than 50% of zone of high quality) by a ratio of 2.6 to 1.0. • No reports of extensive established or rapidly spreading non-native invasive species. 60 | Page
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• Low adaptive capacity of large floodplain and riparian systems due to restrictions and disconnections from hydrologically connected water bodies due to roads or other landscape modifications. • Moderate adaptive capacity due to high biodiversity and longitudinal connectedness with other water bodies. • High vulnerability due to projected climate alterations of hydrology resulting in more varied and extreme environmental conditions and degraded habitats from non-native invasive species. Ponds, Lakes, and Reservoirs The lakes and ponds within the Wayne proclamation boundary are generally highly managed systems, either by private landowners (constructed ponds) or the Ohio Department of Natural Resources (larger lakes). Many smaller water bodies are of unknown integrity. Larger lakes are categorized as having moderate-high integrity based on:
• Successful recreational fishing activity and absence of reports of algal blooms or non- native invasive plants.
• Lakes and reservoirs are key sites for transformations of atmospheric CO2 and airborne pollutants such as methylmercury and acidity. Atmospherically deposited mercury is converted to the biologically available form at higher rates in wetlands and seasonally inundated habitats like lake and pond edges (Scheuhammer et al. 2007). The amount of methylmercury in fish tissues correlates positively to the percent of aquatic ecosystems in watersheds as well as the amount of dissolved organic matter in the water (higher with greater percent forest cover [St. Louis et al. 1994, Gilmour et al. 1998]). Methylmercury formed in streams and lakes can accumulate in wildlife that feed on fish and have significant impacts, including reduced reproductive success (Scheuhammer et al. 2007). • Moderate integrity due to stocking and management for game fishes. • High vulnerability to future eutrophication and non-native invasive species. Groundwater-dependent Ecosystems Groundwater-dependent ecosystems within the Wayne are largely unknown and unmapped, subsequently their integrity cannot be evaluated at this time. Information Gaps Many practitioners emphasize the value of protecting the highest quality habitats (to preserve sources of biodiversity that can disperse) and protecting aspects of the landscape that promote connectivity between ecosystems, communities, and populations to facilitate dispersal and recolonization after disturbance or local extirpations (Poff et al. 2017). Maintaining these two characteristics of ecosystems is key for their ability to resist change (resistance) and to recover
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afterwards (resiliency). To this end, we [Ohio University] offer several recommendations to fill existing gaps in information or improve readiness for future challenges. More Surveys & Mapping To Locate Highest Quality Aquatic Resources Additional information on the quantity, distribution, and quality of aquatic resources—especially smaller water bodies with high value (e.g., primary headwater streams, vernal pools) within the Wayne National Forest proclamation boundary—would facilitate future assessments and success in detecting incremental change over time. Streams that meet criteria for coldwater habitat or excellent warmwater habitat should be mapped. It would be helpful to know locations of streams that may meet these criteria but have not been documented, in order to better preserve connectedness of the biota that inhabit these sites. Locating additional coldwater habitat and excellent warmwater habitat streams in the Athens Unit would be useful for conserving populations of specialized coldwater taxa found in these unique stream habitats.
High quality wetlands (e.g., Class III) should be identified and mapped. Vernal ponds should be mapped and, if possible, a subset monitored for pool width, depth, temperature, water chemistry, and biology to establish a baseline against which future change can be monitored. These habitats serve as important pathways or stepping stones for dispersal of amphibians, macroinvertebrates, and aquatic plants so their spatial distribution on the landscape is valuable for connectivity and resilience. Citizen science programs or other partnerships might be able to help with survey efforts. Sentinel Streams & Wetlands (Including Vernal Pools) For Long Term Monitoring A set of sentinel streams and wetlands for long term monitoring for changes in hydrology, sedimentation, temperature, and biology would be valuable for providing baseline data on the natural range of variation of some of the most poorly understood characteristics of aquatic ecosystems in the Wayne National Forest, especially seasonal and year-to-year variation in hydrological regime and water temperatures. These are important drivers of change, especially from climate change, but are currently not being measured or monitored. A set of long-term sites that represents a full range of quality (three or more highest quality and 6 to 8 impaired sites) of each aquatic ecosystem type would be useful. Sites could be monitored at 2 to 3 year intervals. Better Monitoring & Proactive Approaches to Prevent Establishment of Invasive Species Although the stream, wetland, and reservoir ecosystems within the Wayne National Forest are not currently facing rapid change from a particular species of non-native invasive plant or animal, there are numerous aquatic plants, diatoms, and fish that could have serious impacts if established. A more proactive plan for monitoring and excluding non-native invasive species could be beneficial.
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Catchment Level Assessment of Aquatic Resources Because aquatic ecosystems are inherently interconnected by the flow of water as well as terrestrial activity in the catchment, evaluation and management is best done at the catchment, as well as reach, level. A more integrated, catchment level system of assessing and managing aquatic resources would be useful. The USDA Forest Service Watershed Condition Classification Index, for example, includes water quality, quantity, biodiversity, and invasive species, and linkages with land use and terrestrial ecosystems. HUC-6 is widely recognized as the most appropriate scale for evaluating watershed condition and restoration (USDA 2011). The Watershed Condition Classification Index integrates twelve watershed indicators that emphasize hydraulic and soil interactions and their effects on riparian and aquatic ecosystems. Indicators are categorized broadly as “good,” “fair,” or “poor,” and are summed for an overall watershed condition value. Water quality is drawn from 303d (impaired waters) or 305b integrated reports.
Strengths of the Watershed Condition Classification framework include the comprehensive, yet complementary, nature of metrics that span physical and biotic components of watersheds, as well as the use of existing 303d and 305b integrated reports and the ease of scoring. A disadvantage is the lack of resolution within the scoring system (categories: “good,” “fair,” and “poor”) and the spatial scale at which it operates (e.g., entire watersheds may be categorized as “fair” even when they have areas of excellent stream quality in them). The latter weakness is of significance if the goal is to maximize resiliency of ecosystems to future change by preserving areas that may serve as refugia for biodiversity and maintaining connectivity that would allow dispersal after local extirpating events (Poff et al. 2017). A modified Watershed Condition Classification-like framework that allows for a wider range of condition within each category, perhaps a numerical scale rather than three categories “good,” “fair,” and “poor” could be a useful tool to adopt.
More recently, Thornbrugh et al. (2018) describe a similar Index of Watershed Integrity based on six key ecosystem functions: regulation of hydrology, water chemistry, sediment transport, temperature, habitat provision, and hydrologic connectivity. The Index of Watershed Integrity is populated with data from the EPA's StreamCat dataset (Hill et al. 2016), which includes over 400 anthropogenic and natural landscape variables at multiple spatial scales. The Index of Watershed Integrity is available through the StreamCat website and could be modified for more specific regional use. Acknowledgements We, Ohio University, thank Zachary Matthews for his assistance with mapping and data analysis, and Kimberley Miller for draft edits. The report was improved by comments and input from Nathan Schlater and Caitlyn Park (Rural Action), Charlene Hopkins (Biological Sciences, Ohio University) and Rob Wiley (Ohio University). Additional valuable input and discussion was provided by Jeremy Ash (USFS), Leslie Brandt (USFS), Kyle Brooks (USFS), Doug Chaltry (USFS), Jonas Epstein (USFS), Ryan Harris (Ohio Department of Wildlife), Danding Gan (USFS), Rick Gardner (Ohio Division of Natural Areas and Preserves), Dan Giannamore (USFS), Ted Geier (USFS), Mike Greenlee (Ohio Department of Natural Resources), Patricia 63 | Page
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Leopold (USFS), Tom Macy (Ohio Division of Forestry), Pat Mercer (USFS), Katrina Schultes (USFS), Trey Scott (USFS), Randy Swaty (The Nature Conservancy), and Troy Thompson (USFS). The Forest Service would like to thank the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service - Soil and Plant Science Division staff for their assistance with ensuring technical accuracy with regard to the use of their SSURGO data.
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Appendix A. Aquatic Invasive Taxa of Concern in Southeast Ohio Non-native invasive aquatic species of particular concern in the Wayne National Forest area.
Table 15. Invasive aquatic plant species of particular concern in the Wayne National Forest area Common name Species Counties Habitat Notes Eurasian milfoil Myriophyllum Athens, Meigs, Vinton, Any - spicatum Hocking, Morgan Phragmites Phragmites Unknown Lakes, ponds, Also known as australis rivers common reed Reed Phalaris All Wetlands, roadside - canarygrass arundinacea ditches Purple Lythrum salicaria Scioto, Meigs, Athens, Wetlands, riparian - loosestrife Washington corridors Narrow-leaved Typha augustifolia Adams, Vinton Wetlands, roadside - cattail ditches Didymo Didymosphenia Unknown Shallow streams - geminata Hydrilla Hydrilla verticillata Athens, Vinton Any - Curlyleaf Potamogeton Athens Shallow, alkaline - pondweed crispus water
Table 16. Invasive fish species of particular concern in the Wayne National Forest area Common name Species Counties Habitat Notes Bighead carp Hypopthalmichthys All Rivers, lakes Also known as nobilis Asian carp Western Gambusia affins Lucas, Scioto, Gallia, Ponds, wetlands, slow- - mosquitofish Athens, Vinton moving water Eastern Banded Fundulus diaphanus Scioto, Gallia, Meigs, Lakes, stream mouths, - Killifish Athens slow- moving water Goldfish Crassuys auratus All Ponds, slow- moving Extremely water tolerant Grass carp Ctenopharyngodon All Shallow, slow- moving Also known as idella water Asian carp Silver carp Hypophthalmichthys Adams, Gallia Rivers, ponds, streams Also known as molitrix Asian carp
Table 17. Invasive aquatic invertebrate species of particular concern in the Wayne National Forest area. Common Name Species Counties Habitat Notes Mystery Snails Bellamya spp. Washington Shallow lakes, - ponds, wetlands Rusty Crayfish Faxonius rusticus All Polluted streams Needs 46F+ Virile Crayfish Faxonius virilis Hocking Permanent water
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Common Name Species Counties Habitat Notes Zebra mussel Dressena polymorpha Adams, Scioto, Gallia, Any Needs 50F+ Meigs, Athens, Washington, Monroe
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