CRITICAL PEDAGOGY, CRITICAL RACE THEORY, AND ANTIRACIST EDUCATION Implications for Multicultural Education

Christine E. Sleeter Dolores Delgado Bernal California State University, Monterey Bay University of Utah

Multicultural education grew out of social protest move- administrators are White and bring a worldview that tac- ments of the 1960s, particularly challenges to racism in itly condones existing race and class relations. For exam- education. Banks (Chapter 1, this volume) traces the ple, Sleeter (1992) studied a group of teachers who had roots of nlulticultural education to the ethnic studies volunteered to participate in a staff development project movement of the 1960s, which is itself a legacy of earlier in multicultural education. Of 26 who discussed what ethnic studies pioneers such as Carter G. Woodson and multicultural education meant to them by the second year WE.B. DuRois. During the 1960s, in the context of social of the project, 7 White teachers saw it as irrelevant to activism addressing a range of manifestations of racism, their work and 6 White teachers saw its main purpose as comniunity groups, students, and ethnic studies scholars helping students learn to get along with each other. Eight pressed for the inclusion of ethnic content in the cur- teachers (1 African American and the rest White ESL or riculum in order to bring intellectual counternarratives to special education teachers) saw multicultural education the dominant Eurocentric narratives. Multicultural edu- as building students' self-esteem in response to exclusion cation thus began as a scholarly and activist movement to of some students' experience in school and the wider soci- transform schools and their contexts. Over time, as more ety. Five (2 African American and 3 White) had more and more people have taken up and used multicultural complex conceptions, but only one of these directly con- education, it has come to have an ever wider array of nected multicultural education with social activism. In meanings. In the process, ironically (given its historical short, almost all of these educators filtered their under- roots), a good deal of what occurs within the arena of standing of multicultural education through conceptual multicultural education today does not address power discourses of individualism and psychology and took for relations critically, particularly racism. This chapter will granted as neutral the existing structures and processes review some of today's critical discourses for their impli- of school and its relationship to communities. cations for multicultural education. Our intent is not to ALthe same time that multicultural education has move multicultural education away from its core con- been acquiring a range of meanings, many theorists and ceptual moorings, but rather to anchor the field more educators (inside and outside multicultural education) firmly in those moorings. who are concerned about racism, oppression, and how Many contemporary renderings of multicultural edu- to build democracy in historically racist and hierarchical cation examine difference without connecting it to power rrlulticultural societies have advanced perspectives that or a critical analysis of racism. This is probably because explicitly address social justice. To distinguish these per- the great majority of classroom teachers and school spectives from nonc~lticalorientations toward multicultural Critical Pedagogy, Critical Race Theory, and Antiracist Education 24 1 education, some have begun using the tern1 critical multi- synthesis of this analysis; in the process it suggests the cult~lralism(e.g., Kanpol & McLaren, 1995; May, 1999a; need to expand the dialogue among critical pedagogy, crit- Obidah, 2000). ical race theory, antiracist education, and multicultural Some conceptions of critical multiculturalism fore- education. ground racism. On the basis of an analysis of teacher edu- cation student responses to a discussion of race, Berlak Ia-~.."s(.j~**~~~~. I."S_-I4 X I l .--vj__n) A 1 . - 5 =I +v r- , and Moyenda (2001) argued that liberal conceptions of CRITICAL PEDAGOGY AND multiculturalism support "white privilege by rendering MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION institutional racism invisible," leading to the belief that -.,n-P-l.-*V-wL * L, '.,LIZI._*I I * .--J-.-T --.-*,=a. ir--m% r;r r. injustices will disappear if people simply learn to get Critical pedagogy can be defined as "an entry point in the along (p. 94). They stated that "central to critical multi- contradictory nature of schooling, a chance to force it culturalism is naming and actively challenging racism and toward creating conditions for a new public sphere" other forms of injustice, not simply recognizing and cel- (Giroux, 1983, p. 116). According to Giroux (1992), crit- ebrating differences and reducing prejudice" (p. 92). ical pedagogy should "explore how pedagogy functions McCarthy (1995) argued that various models of multi- as a cultural practice to produce rather than merely trans- cultural education rest far too heavily on attitude change mit knowledge within the asymmetrical relations of power as a means of social transformation and take for granted that structure teacher-student relations" (p. 98). Theorists essentialized racial identities, failing to situate racial of critical pedagogy view schools as "contradictory social inequality within global relations. Critical multicultural- sites" (Giroux, 1983, p. 115) in which class relations are ism "links the microdynamics of the school curriculum not simply reproduced but also contested through the to larger issues of social relations outside the school" (p. actions students and educators construct every day. As 43). Similarly, in an effort to join antiracism with multi- such, youth could learn collectively to construct a new cultural education, May (1999a) stated that critical mul- democratic public sphere. Critical pedagogy, then, offers ticulturalism "incorporates postmodern conceptions and a language of both "analysis and hope" (McLaren, 1991, analyses of culture and identity, while holding onto the p. 30). Gay (1995) described many conceptual parallels possibility of an emancipatory politics" (pp. 7-8). between multicultural education and critical pedagogy Other conceptions link multiculturalism with critical and advocated an active coalition between the fields. pedagogy (Kanpol & McLaren, 1995; Kincheloe & Stein- Critical pedagogy can be traced to at least two berg, 1997). Kanpol and McLaren used the term critical genealogical roots: (a) critical theory and the Frankfurt multiculturalism to emphasize that "justice is not evenly School and (b) the work of Paulo Freire and Latin Amer- distributed and cannot be so without a radical and pro- ican liberation movements. The Frankfurt School, which found change in social structures and in terms of a devel- began in Germany prior to World War 11, connected a opment of historical agency and a praxis of possibility" Marxist analysis of class structure with psychological the- (p. 13). Obidah (2000) described herself as a critical mul- ories of the unconscious to understand how oppressive ticulturalist because the tools of both critical pedagogy class relations are produced and reproduced. The cultur- and multicultural education have helped her link a alist paradigm of the Frankfurt School emphasized dynamic conception of culture, identity, and lived expe- human agency, focusing on the lived experiences of peo- rience with an analysis of power structures and pedagogy. ple and how consciousness is formed within class strug- This chapter explores the implications of critical tra- gles. The structuralist paradigm analyzed how oppressive ditions for multicultural education in order to connect it political and economic structures are reproduced, but it more firmly to its transformative roots and to encourage tended to ignore or deny personal agency (Giroux, 1983). dialogue across contemporary critical traditions. We real- The rise of Nazism in Germany caused many members of ized that in order to keep the chapter manageable, we the Frankfurt School to flee to the United States, where could focus on only three traditions. We selected critical theorists in many disciplines took up critical theory Crit- pedagogy, critical race theory, and antiracist education. ical theorists do not necessarily practice or write about The chapter therefore omits groundbrealung work in mul- critical pedagogy. In the 1980s, theorists such as Henry ticultural feminism (e.g., Collins, 1990), critical cultural Giroux and Peter McLaren applied critical theory's ana- studies (e.g., Hall, 1993), and disability studies (e.g., Lin- lytical tools to pedagogy, creating a "pedagogy of critical ton, 1998), which also have implications for multicultural theory" (Pruyn, 1994, p. 38). According to Giroux education. Each section that follows provides a brief (1983), critical pedagogy seeks to "bridge the agency- genealogy, implications, and limitations for each of the structural dualism" of the Frankfurt School by viewing three bodies of literature as they relate to multicultural youth culture as a site of cultural production, social strug- education. The final section of the chapter sketches out a gle, and social transformation (p. 139). 242 Knowledge Construction and Critical Studies

A second genealogical root of critical pedagogy is the also critique them. McCarthy (1998) noted that too often work of Freire (1970, 1973, 1976) and Latin American "culture, identity, and community are narrowly read as liberation movements. Freire began writing while in exile the final property of particular groups based on ethnic ori- in Chile. He had promoted popular literacy in Brazil, con- gins" (p. 148); for example, teachers commonly conflate necting the act of reading with the development of criti- ethnicity and culture, seeing them as synonymous. cal consciousness. Freire argued throughout his life that Within this conception of culture, "multiculturalism is oppressed people need to develop a critical consciousness generally about Otherness" in a way that makes White- that will enable them to denounce dehumanizing social ness and racial struggle invisible and takes for granted structures and announce social transformation. In the boundaries of race, ethnicity, and power (Giroux, 1992, process of teaching literacy to adults, he created culture p. 117). Whose conceptions of culture tend to predomi- circles in which students took up topics of concern to nate, and what gets left out of those conceptions? For them, discussed and debated in order to clarify and example, hybrid cultural identities defy fixed and essen- develop their thinking, and developed strategies for tialized definitions of culture (e.g., see Darder, 1995; action. Freire did not call these culture circles "schools" McCarthy, 1998). Dominant cultures can be examined because of the passivity traditionally associated with with much greater depth when contextualized within school learning. A fundamental task in culture circles was relations of colonialism and power than when they are to distinguish between what humans have created and decontextualized (McLaren & Mayo, 1999). Popular cul- what nature created, in order to examine what role ture as a form of collective meaning making also "counts" humans can play in bringing about change. Freire's con- as culture (Giroux & Simon, 1989; Livingstone, 1987; nection between critical education and political work for Shor, 1980). liberation took up questions similar to those being asked Power is yet another concept within multicultural edu- by critical theorists. cation that critical pedagogy helps to examine (Kinche- loe & Steinberg, 1997). Giroux (1985) pointed out that some progressive and multicultural education discourses Potential Implications of Critical Pedagogyfor "quietly ignore the complexity and sweat of social Multic~~lturalEducation change" and reduce power and domination to misunder- Critical pedagogy has four main implications for multi- standings that can be corrected by providing accurate cultural education: (a) conceptual tools for critical reflex- information (p. 31). Challenging power relations is cen- ivity; (b) an analysis of class, corporate power, and tral to critical pedagogy (Freire, 1970). which is based on globalization; (c) an analysis of empowering pedagogical an analysis of structural as well as cultural power. It is the practices within the classroom; and (d) a deeper analysis centrality of interrogating how power works and how of language and literacy than one finds generally in the power relations can be challenged that led McLaren multicultural education literature. (2000) to focus on revolution rather than reform. Multi- Critical pedagogy as a theoretical space develops sev- cultural education in its inception challenged power rela- eral concepts that relate to multicultural education, tions, particularly racism, and for some multicultural anlong them voice, culture, power, culture, and ideology. educators power remains a central concept. However, In so doing, it offers tools for critical reflexivity on those power is often displaced by more comfortable concepts concepts. Voice is grounded in Freire's notion of dialogi- such as tolerance. Critical pedagogy offers an important cal communication, which rejects both the authoritarian critique of that displacement and continues to ask the imposition of knowledge and also the idea that everyone's question, Comfortable for whom? beliefs are equal. To Freire (1998), the development of ldeology is a concept that is central to critical pedagogy democratic life requires critical engagement with ideas but used surprisingly little in multicultural education. through dialogue. Dialogue demands engagement; it Ideology refers to "the formation of the consciousness of occurs neither when some parties opt out silently nor the individuals" in a society, particularly their conscious- when those with the most power simply impose their ness about how the society works (Apple, 1979, p. 2). views. Voice is rooted in experience that is examined for Within multicultural education, curriculum is often dis- its interests, principles, values, and historical remem- cussed in terms of bias, a concept that does not necessar- brances (Darder, 1995; Giroux, 1988; hooks, 1994). The ily lead to an analysis of power and consciousness. concepts of voice and dialogue act as tools for uncover- Similarly, examining teachers in terms of attitudes focuses ing whose ideas are represented and whose ideas have on individual psychology rather than collective power. been submerged, marginalized, or left out entirely. Ideology offers a much more powerful conceptual tool, Critical pedagogy offers tools for examining the concept connecting meanings with structures of power on the one of culture. Simplistic conceptions of culture are common in hand and with individuals on the other. Ideology as a tool nlulticultural education, although many n~ulticulturalists of analysis "helps to locate the structuring principles and Critical Pedagogy, Critical Race Theory, and Antiracist Education 243 ideas that mediate between the dominant society and the concepts should be developed as connected structures of everyday experiences of teachers and students" (Giroux, oppression, lenses of analysis, and sites of struggle. 1983, p. 161). It helps us examine who produces what A third potential implication of critical pedagogy for kinds of ideologies, why some ideologies prevail, and multicultural education is its examination of how power whose interests they serve (see Apple, 2000). Ideology plays out in the classroom, and its connection of peda- can also serve as a reflexive tool of critique when multi- gogical processes with empowerment. In this regard, crit- cultural education itself is conceived as a field of dis- ical pedagogy and feminist pedagogy share similar course. Lei (2001), for example, examined the ideology concerns (hooks, 1994; Lather, 1991). Multicultural edu- of multicultural education as it was used in specific con- cation as a field has extensively examined school knowl- texts in order to question whose interests those concep- edge and developed insights for transformative curricula, tions served, what issues they foreground, and whose usually discussing pedagogy mainly in relationship to interests and points of view were displaced. strategies that support high achievement for all students A second potential implication of critical pedagogy is (e.g., Banks, 1999; Bennett, 1998). Critical pedagogy its analysis of social class, class power, corporate power, complements this work by conceptualizing students as and global corporate control. Although multicultural edu- creators of knowledge and by connecting student-gener- cation grew primarily out of racial and ethnic struggle, ated knowledge with student empowerment. Freire critical pedagogy grew primarily out of class struggle. In (1970) explicitly rejected a "banking" form of pedagogy the United States, connections between race and class "in which students are the depositories and the teacher is tend to be undertheorized partially because of the myth the depositor" (p. 531, viewing it as an instrument of con- that the United States is a "classless" society, which leads trol over the masses. Instead, he viewed empowering ped- to a general refusal to examine class relations critically Yet agogy as a dialogical process in which the teacher acts as the forms and persistence of racism can be understood a partner with students, helping them examine the world more clearly when racism is connected historically with critically, using a problem-posing process that begins with capitalism (Marable, 2000; Roediger, 1991; Sleeter, 2001). their own experience and historical location. Freire (1973) specifically located his work in a history of Several critical pedagogy theorists have written about colonialism and class struggle: "It was upon this vast lack the use of this form of pedagogy in their own classrooms. of democratic experience, characterized by feudal men- Most of these discussions focus on adult students (e.g., tality and sustained by a colonial economic and social Ada, 1988; Curtis & Rasool, 1997; Mayo, 1999; Shor, structure, that we attempted to inaugurate a formal 1980, 1992; R. I. Simon, 1992; Sleeter, 1995; Solorzano, democracy" (p. 28). 1989), although a few focus on the K-12 level (Bigelow, Connections between racism and global capitalism 1990; Goldstein, 1995; Peterson, 1991). In all of these dis- lend urgency to the significance of class. Over the past cussions, pedagogy starts with students' lived experience two decades, a small corporate elite has extended global and involves students in analysis of that experience. Stu- control markedly and consolidated means for wealth dents are treated as active agents of knowledge creation, accumulation. At the same time, however, even critical and classrooms as democratic public spheres. Class mate- pedagogues have retreated from concern with class and rials are used as tools for expanding students' analyses, capitalism. McLaren (1998) argued that the "growing rather than as content that is simply deposited into the diasporic movements of immigrants in search of employ- students. This view of pedagogy complements multicul- ment across national boundaries" has led to an increased tural education well. discourse around ethnicity, but domesticated ways of A fourth potential implication of critical pedagogy for thinking about it have displaced critiques of capitalist multicultural education is its analysis of language and lit- expansion. Given the rampant and unchecked expansion eracy, which connects to concerns of bilingual educators. of global capitalism, critical pedagogy and multicultural Multicultural education and bilingual education have education need to "address themselves to the adaptive emerged as distinct fields, with some overlap. For exam- persistence of capitalism and to issues of capitalist impe- ple, an ERIC search in June 2001 yielded 5,117 journal rialism and its specific manifestations of accumulative articles with multicultural education as a keyword and capacities through conquest" (1998). Multicultural edu- 3,216 journal articles with bilingual education as a key- cation could benefit from a trenchant analysis of capitalist word, but only 431 articles with both multicultural edu- expansion and global capitalism. Increased poverty racial cation and bilingual education. Language and culture are strife, incarceration of youth of color, movements of part of each other; the fields need bridging, and critical people around the globe, and corporate-driven school pedagogy is one bridge. reforms can be understood more clearly when class is part Drawing from his experience teaching literacy to of the analysis. That is not to imply that class should be adults, Freire distinguished between technical and criti- given primacy over race or gender, but rather that these cal approaches to literacy. A technical approach focuses 244 Knowledge Construction and Critical Studies

on language as a subject distinct from the world of stu- lesson plans, since critical pedagogy directly opens up dents, or "words emptied of the reality they are meant to very difficult and painful issues in the classroom represent" (Freire, 1973, p. 37). Critical literacy begins (Ellsworth, 1989; Obidah, 2000). We have worked with with words within students' experience and then situates many teachers who, even when they are drawn to ideas them historically, helping students learn to question their of critical pedagogy, end up dismissing it because they do world, with language serving as a tool of critical analysis. not know what to do with it in their classrooms. Particu- Language, then, is a key tool in development of con- larly given the back-to-basics tmn of the past several sciousness and voice. Macedo and Bartolome (1999) chal- years, critical pedagogy suggests a very different paradigm lenged the notion that multicultural education can take from that institutionalized in most schools. There is a place in English only, noting that "one cannot celebrate need for practical guidance that does not, in the process, different cultural values through the very dominant lan- sacrifice conceptual grounding. guage that devalues, in many ways, the cultural experi- Second, most of the literature in critical pedagogy does ences of different cultural groups," and that "language is not directly address race, ethnicity, or gender, and as such the only means through which one comes to conscious- it has a White bias. Since much of it grows from a class ness" (p. 34). Identity, values, experiences, interpreta- analysis, with some exceptions it foregrounds social class. tions, and ideologies are encoded linguistically; one Critical pedagogy may well appeal to radical White edu- knows the world and oneself through language. Because cators who see class as the main axis of oppression, but consciousness is shaped through language, language can doing so can marginalize race and have the effect of ele- serve as a means of control as well as a means of libera- vating the power of largely White radical theorists over tion (Giroux & McLaren, 1992; Macedo, 1994). theorists of color, even if this is not intended. Further, These ideas resonate with many second language White theorists taking on race and racism does not teachers and bilingual educators who are conscious of resolve the problem of Whites having the power to define oppression. For example, on the basis of his work as an how race and racism are theorized. In a discussion of Chi- ESL (English as a Second Language) teacher to adult cando border pedagogy, Elenes (1997) argued that peo- farmworkers, Graman (1988) explained that when lan- ple of color must articulate theory for themselves. guage was treated as a subject abstracted from everyday However helpful writings of White critical pedagogues life, students lost interest. Drawing language from life and might be, White writers still produce silences and then examining students' problems and dreams politically assumptions that arise from lived experiences. She writes: in the context of second language instruction engaged them in learning and helped them use education to act on Much of the problematic of this discussion over differences is that their own behalf. In short, critical pedagogy can enrich until recently only those who were marked as different were con- analysis of language within multicultural education. sidered in the theorization of difference. If differences are going to be constituted in nonessentialist ways, it is necessary to mark, deconstruct, and decenter whiteness and privilege. (p. 371) Limitations of Critical Pedagogy and Its Implications for Multicultural Education Elenes found much value in critical pedagogy writings, Critical pedagogy has two major limitations that need to but at the same time she pointed out that the privilege of be acknowledged. First, although it developed through White theorists needs to be examined critically. practice in Latin America, within the United States it has Grande (2000) took this argument further, pointing been developed mainly at a theoretical level, often leav- out ideas and assumptions that are central to critical ped- ing practitioners unclear about what to do. Its theoretical agogy that clash with indigenous perspectives. Critical writings tend to be conceptually dense, which many prac- pedagogues question essentialized identities and value titioners find difficult to understand, although one can border crossing, while the history of border crossing and find literature that shows what critical pedagogy "looks blending cultures has meant "Whitestream America . . . like" in practice (e.g., Bromley, 1989; Pruyn, 1994, 1999; appropriating Native lands, culture, spiritual practices, Students for Cultural and Linguistic Democracy, 1996; history and literature" (p. 481). Further, the "seemingly Wink, 1997). In this, a strength and limitation of critical liberatory constructs of fluidity, mobility, and transgres- pedagogy are joined. Critical pedagogues argue that the sion" are part of "the fundamental lexicon of Western ideology of the teacher is of central importance; critical imperialism" (p. 483). Thus, although the insights of crit- pedagogy cannot be reduced to method or technique. At ical pedagogy and their implications for multicultural the same time, teachers need guidance when translating education are valuable, one also needs to be concerned ideological clarity into practice; radical teachers can still with how the power to name the issues affects both which teach in very traditional ways (Pruyn, 1999). This trans- issues get addressed and whose interests are served in the lation needs to go far beyond learning steps or seeing process. Critical Pedagogy, Critical Race Theory, and Antiracist Education 245

Cl,-* _:..>;"-iC .*if. .,_ :- .i.r-li-*x--- I&?l.-II-m,i- .db-- Y\"L~-:-.li~.,"~>ri . .:-..a 7 .-- _I_As.?*2;. . revolution in the humanities and from p~~t~~lon~alismand CRITICAL RACE THEORY AND poststructuralism (Roithmayr, 1999). Indeed, CRT has MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION expanded to include complementary branches such as m.x..*.=..>=--- .="-Derrick Bell (1995) laid the conceptual background for much of the and Alan Freeman, who were frustrated with the slow applied CRT work done shortly thereafter. Today a grow- pace of racial reform within the liberal civil rights tradi- ing body of scholarship in education uses CRT as a tion in the United States. They were joined by other legal framework to examine a variety of educational issues at scholars, students, and activists who felt that the advances both the K-12 and the postsecondary levels (e.g., Aguirre, of the civil rights movement had been stalled and in fact 2000; Gonzalez, 1998; Ladson-Billings, 1998, 1999, 2000; were being rolled back (Delgado & Stefancic, 2000). Lynn, 1999; Parker, Deyhle, & Villenas 1999; Solorzano, During the 1980s, CRT continued to emerge as a 1997, 1998; Solorzano & Delgado Bernal, 2001; response to critical legal studies (CLS). CLS originated with Solorzano & Villalpando, 1998; Solorzano & Yosso, 2000, a predominantly White male group of leftist law professors 2001; Tate, 1997; Villenas & Deyhle, 1999). Special jour- who challenged the traditional legal scholarship that cre- nal issues on CRT in education have also appeared (Inter- ates, supports, and legitimates social power in U.S. society nationalJoumal of Qualitative Stud~esin Education, 1998; (Matsuda et al., 1993). As Wing (1997) pointed out, "Peo- Qualitative Inquiry, 2002; Equity and Excellence in Educa- ple of color, white women, and others were attracted by tion, 2002). CLS because it challenged orthodox ideas about the invio- lability and objectivity of laws that oppressed minorities and white women for centuries" (p. 2). However, some of Potential Implications of Critical Race Theoryfor these scholars also felt that CIS excluded the perspectives Multicultural Education of people of color and that the CLS movement was inat- Critical race theory has at least three important implica- tentive to racism's role in both the U.S. legal system and tions for multicultural education: (a) it theorizes about U.S. society As a result, legal scholars of color began artic- race while also addressing the intersectionality of racism, ulating a theory of race and racism that "allows us to bet- classism, sexism, and other forms of oppression; (b) it ter understand how racial power can be produced even challenges Eurocentric epistemologies and dominant ide- from within a liberal discourse that is relatively ologies such as meritocracy, objectivity, and neutrality; autonomous from organized vectors of racial power" and (c) it uses counterstorytelling as a methodological (Crenshaw, Gotanda, Peller, & Thomas, 1995, p. xxv). and pedagogical tool. Just as CRT builds on the insights and weaknesses of Although multicultural education emerged as a chal- CLS, it also draws on the work of ethnic studies and U.S. lenge to racism in schools, its writings tend to focus on third-world feminism. Some would argue that the geneal- classroom practices without necessarily contextualizing ogy of CRT goes back as far as W.E.B. DuBois, Sojourner classrooms within an analysis of racism. Teacher training Truth, Frederick Douglass, Cesar Chavez, and the Black in multicultural education often takes the fornz of offering Power and Chicano movements of the 1960s and 1970s solutions to problems connected to race and ethnicity (Delgado & Stefancic, 2001). Most recently, critical race without digging very deeply into the nature of the prob- theory has borrowed much from the postmodern cultural lem. CRT in education is similar to antiracist education 246 Knowledge Construction and Critical Studies

(discussed in the next section) because it is a social jus- Recently, the branch of CRT called Latinalo criti tice paradigm that seeks to combat racism as part of a theory (LatCrit) has added layers ofkomplexity larger goal of ending all forms of subordination. Educa- concept of intersectionality by analyzing Latindo i -,,lo- tion scholars using CRT theorize about "raced" education ties and positionalities in relation to race, class, and gen- in ways found too infrequently in multicultural educa- der, as well as language (Romany, 19961, immigration tion. As Ladson-Billings and Tate (1995) pointed out, (Garcia, 1995; Johnson, 1996-97), culture (Montoya, there is a need to do this because race remains untheo- 1994, 1997), religodspirituality (Iglesias & Valdes, 1998; rized as a topic of scholarly inquiry in education. Sanchez, 1998), and sexuality (Iglesias .& Valdes, 1998). Although scholars have examined race as a tool for under- For example, Villalpando (2003) used a CRT and LatCrit standing social inequities, "the intellectual salience of this framework to examine how Chicando college students theorizing has not been systematically employed in the draw from their language, religion/spirituality, and culture analysis of educational inequality" (p. 50). CRT scholars as tools in their struggle for success in higher education. believe that race as an analytical tool, rather than a bio- He uses a counterstory methodology and an intersectional logical or socially constructed category used to compare analysis to highlight cultural practices and beliefs of the and contrast social conditions, can deepen the analysis of peer group that function as empowering and nourishing educational barriers for people of color, as well as illumi- cultural resources for Chicana/o students. One of the nate how they resist and overcome these barriers. more important cultural practices is how the peer group One example of using race as an analytical tool is found adopts roles and characteristics of a student's family of within what Ladson-Billings and Tate (1995) called the origin. In other words, Chicando peers often offer sup- "property issue." Critical race legal scholars introduced the port, understanding, or admonishment similar to what property issue by examining the historical construction of they receive at home. c his cultural practic-e helped Chi- Wuteness as the most valued type of property and how the cando students cope with the marginalization they expe- concept of individual rights has been linked to property rienced via racist structures, practices, and discourses in rights in the United States since the writing of the U.S. higher education. Constitution (Bell, 1987, Harris, 1993). Ladson-Billings and These types of analyses could contribute to multicul- Tate demonstrated that property relates to education in tural education by interrogating the racialized context explicit and implicit ways. One obvious example is how of teaching, and connecting race with multiple forms of property owners largely reap the highest educational ben- oppression. Multicultural research conducted within a efits: those with the best property are entitled to the best CRT framework might offer a way to understand and schools. They write, "Recurring discussions about property analyze the multiple identities and knowledges of tax relief indicate that more affluent communities (which people of color without essentializing their various have hgher property values, hence higher tax assessments) experiences. resent paylng for a public school system whose clientele is A second potential contribution of CRT is the way that largely non-white and poor" (p. 53). An implicit way in it challenges Eurocentric epistemology and questions which property relates to education is the way in which dominant discursive notions of meritocracy, objectivity, curriculum represents a form of "intellectual property" that knowledge, and individualism. The concept of episte- is interconnected to race. The quality and quantity of the mology is more than just a "way of knowing" and can be curriculum varies with the "property values" of the school defined as a "system of knowing" that is linked to world- so that intellectual property is directly connected to "real" views that are based on the conditions under which peo- property in the form of course offerings, classroom ple live and learn (Ladson-Billings, 2000). Ladson-Billings resources, science labs, technology, and certified and pre- argues that "there are well-developed systems of knowl- pared teachers (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995). edge, or epistemologies, that stand in contrast to the dom- In addition to using race as an analytical tool, critical inant Euro-American epistemology" (p. 258). Critical race race theorists challenge the separate discourses on race, theorists ground their research in these systems of knowl- class, and gender and focus on the intersectionality of edge and "integrate their experiential knowledge, drawn subordination (Solorzano & Yosso, 2002). Crenshaw from a shared history as 'other' with their ongoing strug- (1993) saw intersectionality as a concept that links vari- gles to transform" (Barnes, 1990, pp. 1864-1865). ous forms of oppression (racism, classism, sexism) with For example, in his study of socially active African their political consequences (e.g., global capitalism, grow- American teachers, Lynn (1999) drew from African-cen- ing poverty, large numbers of incarcerated youth of color). tered epistemological paradigms and critical race theory The property issue is an example of how the intersection to theorize about a critical race pedagogy that is in part of race and class interests offers a more complete under- based on a system of knowledge that counters the dom- standing of the current inequities in schools and districts inant Euro-American epistemology. He defined critical in which the majority of students are poor and of color. race pedagogy as "an analysis of racial, ethnic, and Critical Pedagogy, Critical Race Theory, and Antiracist Education 247 gender subordination in education that relies mostly on analysis and scholarship. CRT work in storytelling the perceptions, experiences, and counterhegemonic provides a rich way of conceptualizing multicultural cur- practices of educators of color" (p. 615). On the basis of riculum. Because critical race scholars view experiential the reflections of African American educators, he argued knowledge as a strength, they draw explicitly on the lived that critical race pedagogues are concerned with a num- experiences of people of color by including such methods ber of issues: the endemic nature of racism in the United as storytelling, family history, biographies, parables, testi- States; the importance of cultural identity; the necessary monios, cuentos, consejos, chronicles, and narratives. Sto- interaction of race, class, and gender; and the practice rytelling has a rich legacy and continuing tradition in of liberatory pedagogy. Practicing a liberatory pedagogy African American, Chicando, Asian American, and Amer- was in some ways similar to the Freirean notion of ican Indian communities. Indeed, Delgado (1995) critical pedagogy that encourages inquiry, dialogue, and asserted that many of the "early tellers of tales used sto- participation in the classroom. However, Lynn demon- ries to test and challenge reality, to construct a counter- strated two key differences between a critical pedagogy reality, to hearten and support each other and to probe, and a critical race pedagogy: the daily struggle against mock, displace, jar, or reconstruct the dominant tale or racist discursive practices provided African American narrative" (p. xviii). teachers with a unique position from which to build Counterstorytelling is a methodological tool that their curricula, and there was a strong emphasis on allows one to tell the story of those experiences that are developing and maintaining a sense of cultural identity not often told (i.e., by those on the margins of society) by teaching children about Africa and African American and to analyze and challenge the stories of those in power cultural experiences. (Delgado, 1989). The stories people of color tell often By grounding itself in systems of knowledge that counter the majoritarian or stock story that is a natural counter a dominant Eurocentric epistemology, critical part of the dominant discourse. Building on the work of race theory in education offers a tool for dismantling pre- Delgado (1989), some education scholars argue that these vailing notions of fairness, meritocracy, colorblindness, counterstories serve multiple methodological and peda- and neutrality (Parker, Deyhle, & Villenas, 1999). Raced gogical functions such as building community among and gendered epistemologies allow CRT scholars to those at the margins of society, putting a human and deconstruct master narratives and illustrate the way in familiar face on educational theory and practice, and chal- which discursive and cultural sites "may be a form of lenging perceived wisdom about the schooling of students colonialism, a way of imparting white, Westernized con- of color (Solorzano & Delgado Bernal, 2001; Solorzano ceptions of enlightened thinking" (Roithmayr, 1999, p. & Yosso, 200 1). 5). For example, Gutierrez (2000) examined Walt Dis- One way that education scholars are attempting to put ney's ideological shift from conservatism (1930s-1970s) a "human and familiar face to educational theory and to present-day liberal multiculturalism, particularly within practice" is through the development of composite char- its Spanish-speaking market. He argued that the discur- acters that are based on inlerviews, focus groups, and sive notions promoted by Disney continue to be based on biographical narratives in the humanities and social sci- dominant Eurocentric ideologies that maintain a form of ence literature. This work builds on the scholarship of cultural hegemony. He offered critical race theory as one Bell (1985, 1987), who tells stories of society's treatment of several ways to examine the master narratives (capital- of race through his protagonist and alter ego, Geneva ist, racist, and heterosexist ideals) exposed specifically to Crenshaw; and Delgado (1995, 1999), who addresses Latindo children and believed Disney movies provide race, class, and gender issues through Rodrigo Crenshaw, "numerous opportunities for children and adults to the half-brother of Geneva. The web of composite char- engage in critical discussions regarding power, domina- acters that have recently appeared in educational journals tion, and repression" (p. 31). These types of critical dis- and chapters represent very real life experiences and are cussions that challenge the insidious nature of a created to illuminate the educational system's role in Eurocentric epistemological perspective and dismantle racial, gender, and class oppression, as well as the myriad master narratives can and should take place more fre- responses by people of color (Delgado Bernal, 1999; quently in multicultural classrooms. As this example Solorzano & Delgado Bemal, 2001; Solorzano and Villal- shows, by engaging teachers and students in a critical pando, 1998; Solorzano & Yosso, 2000, 2001; Villal- analysis of epistemologies that underlie curriculum and pando, 2003). In addition, these composite characters other school processes, critical race theory offers tools allow students and educators of color to relate to or that dig deeply into issues and problems that concern empathize with the experiences described in the coun- multicultural education. terstories, through which they can better understand that A third (and potentially the greatest) contribution of they are not alone in their position. Solorzano (1998) CRT is its justification and use of storytelling in legal writes: 248 Knowledge ConstructioIn and Critical Studies

In that space or moment when one connects with these experi- on a unidimensional characteristic, such as race, ethnic- ences, these stories can be the catalyst for one's own coming to ity, or gender. Critics argue that an essentialist notion of voice, of not feeling alone, and knowing that someone has gone identity is simplistic and does not allow for the myriad before them, had similar experiences, and succeeded. (p. 131) experiences that shape who we are and what we know. Crenshaw and colleagues write, "To be sure, some of the Counterstorytelling can serve as a pedagogical tool by foundational essays of CRT could be vulnerable to such a allowing multicultural educators to better understand and critique, particularly when read apart from the context appreciate the unique experiences and responses of stu- and conditions of their production" (Crenshaw et al., dents of color through a deliberate, conscious, and open 1995, p. xxv). However, what many critics do not under- type of listening. In other words, an important compo- stand is that despite the name critical race theory, most nent of using counterstories includes not simply telling critical race scholars argue against an analysis based solely nonmajoritarian stories but also learning how to listen on race or some other unitary essentialized defining char- and hear the messages in them (Delgado Bernal, 2002). acteristic. For example, Hanis (2000) points to the inher- Legal scholar Robert Williams (1997) believes that coun- ent problem of race and gender essentialism in terstorytelling and critical race practice are "mostly about fragmenting people's identities and experiences: learning to listen to other people's stories and then find- ing ways to make those stories matter in the legal system" In this essay I use the term "gender essentialism" to describe the (p. 765). Likewise, learning to listen to counterstories and notion that there is a monolithic "women's experience" that can be then making those stories matter in the educational sys- described independently of other facets of experience like race, tem is an important pedagogical practice for teachers and class, and sexual orientation. A corollary to gender essentialism is students. "racial essentialismn-the belief that there is a monolithic "black Indeed, Gay (1995) asserted that the foundation of experience" or "Chicano experience." The effect of gender and racial essentialism (and all other essentialisms, for the list of cate- multicultural curriculum should be counterstories, but gories could be infinite) is to reduce the lives of people who expe- much of what ends up passing for multicultural curricu- rience multiple forms of oppression to addition problems: "racism lum is the dominant story with "Others" incorporated + sexism = straight black women's experience," or "racism + sex- into it. Yosso (2002) proposed a critical race curriculum ism + homophobia = black lesbian experience." (p. 263) that is based on counterstories, thereby providing "stu- dents with an oppositional language to challenge the Certainly, "critical legal scholarship of race (and gender deficit societal discourses with which they are daily bom- or sexual orientation) in recent times has interrogated and barded" (p. 15). Rather than adding on the experiences helped debunk various essentialisms and power hierar- of Others or pushing students toward "discovering" a chies based on race . . .and other constructs" (Valdes, monolithic people of color, her understanding of a criti- 1996, p. 3). With increased transnational labor and com- cal race curriculum "explores and utilizes shared and munication, many critical race scholars argue to move individual experiences of race, class, gender, immigration beyond essentialist notions of identity and of what counts status, language, and sexuality in education" (p. 16). As as knowledge. Although race is forefronted in CRT, it is such, a multicultural curriculum that grounds itself in the viewed as a fluid and dynamic concept and as one of the counterstorytelling of critical race theory has the poten- many components that are woven together to form one's tial to move a watered-down multicultural curriculum positionality in a shifting set of social relationships. away from simply celebrating difference and reducing There are numerous critiques of critical race scholars' prejudice, to a "critical race curriculum" that actively use of stories and narratives in legal scholarship (e.g., see names and challenges racism and other forms of injustice. Farber & Sheny, 1993, 1997; Posner, 1997). Many criti- cal race scholars have responded in more detail than we can offer within the scope of this chapter. The critiques Limitations of Critical Race Theory and Its Implications are grounded in a debate over alternative ways of know- for Mtllticultural Education ing and understanding, subjectivity versus objectivity, and Critical race theory has received numerous critiques different conceptions of truth. Briefly stated, critics believe within legal studies, but few within education. We will that CRT theorists address two of these critiques: the essentialist critique and the personal stories and narratives critique. We will also relentlessly replace traditional scholarship with personal stories, address the problems associated with being a relatively which hardly represent common experiences. The proliferation of stories makes it impossible for others to debate. . . . An infatuation new area of study in education. with narrative infects and distorts [their] attempts at analysis. Within legal studies, some critics of CRT argue that it Instead of scientifically investigating whether rewarding individuals is an essentialist paradigm based on race. In general, according to merit has any objective basis, [they] insist on telling essentialism is rooted in an identity politics that is based stories about their personal struggles. (T. W. Simon, 1999, p. 3) Critical Pedagogy, CriticaI Race Theory, and Antiracist Education 249

Farber and Sherry (1993) argued against the pedagogical Ladson-Billings (1998) warns that CRT in education may and methodological use of stories in legal scholarship, continue to generate scholarly papers and debate, but she stating that "storytellers need to take greater steps to doubts that it will ever penetrate the classrooms and daily ensure that their stories are accurate and typical, to artic- experiences of students of color. If it does, she worries ulate the legal relevance of the stories, and to include an that it may become a very different innovation, similar to analytic dimension in their work" (p. 809). They also the transmutation of multicultural education theory. She argued that just because counterstories draw explicitly on points out that many scholars such as James A. Banks, the lived experiences of people of color does not prove Carl Grant, and Geneva Gay began a "scholarly path the existence of a new perspective based on "a voice of designed to change schools as institutions so that students color." They, in fact, disagreed that people of color write might be prepared to reconstruct the society" (p. 22). Yet in a different voice or offer a new perspective that differs in its current practice multicultural education is often from traditional scholarship. superficial and based on holidays and food. In order to Interestingly, most critics do not acknowledge that remain true to its principles of social justice and advocacy, Eurocentrism has become the dominant mind-set that critical race scholars will need to be attentive to the pos- directly affects the mainstream stories told about race. sibility of the transmutation of CRT into depoliticized dis- Because Eurocentrism and White privilege appear to be courses and practices in schools. the norm, many people continue to believe that education in the United States is a meritocratic, unbiased, and fair ---m*.fl-k-x- ~*&*+a.w*=wPw~#~.-+ +--a.az 7 a-w-'' .5s-- %, -add%- process. Delgado (1993) points out that "majoritarians tell ANTIRACIST EDUCATION stories too. But the ones they tell-about merit, causation, -I .-rald-*--w.mz* ---b?=-Pr ra.sxxm- mr n*r- rr fils r=;=rr.-i*r blame, responsibility, and social justice--do not seem to Antiracist education emerged largely in opposition to them like stories at all, but the truth (p. 666). At the same multicultural education, particularly in Britain (Brandt, time, critics argue that critical race scholars' stories, nar- 1986), where it challenged "the apolitical and folksy ori- ratives, and autobiographies are unreliable sources of truth entation of multicultural education" (Bonnett & Car- (Posner, 1997). At issue is the question of what counts as rington, 1996). Contexts in which multicultural and truth and who gets to decide. Also at issue is the matter of antiracist education emerged have differed across national how to generalize. Counterstories derive generalization borders, so national debates have differed (Bonnett & through their resonance with lived experiences of Camngton; May, 1999a); but debates have been vigorous, oppressed peoples, rather than through parametric statis- particularly in Canada and Britain (Modgil, Verma, tics, but some empirical researchers do not see this as a Mallick, & Modgil, 1986). In both Britain and Canada valid way of making claims that generalize. during the late 1970s and 1980s, multicultural education Finally, critical race theory is a relatively new area of was codified into national policy and school programs, study in education with a limited amount of literature drawing "its inspiration and rationale from white middle- using it as an analytical framework, and with few specific class professional understandings of how the educational connections to multicultural education. Although educa- system might best respond to the perceived 'needs' and tion scholars are reshaping and extending critical race the- 'interests' of black students and their parents" (Troyna, ory in ways very different from what legal scholars are 1987, p. 308). Its critics saw multicultural education as a doing, they need more time to study and understand the way for White educators to "manage" the "problems" legal literature from which it emerges (Ladson-Billings, brought about by ethnic minority students (e.g., James, 1998; Roithmayr, 1999). Most education scholars who use 2001; Troyna, 1987). Antiracist education grew, mainly in CRT make a sharp distinction between CRT and multicul- urban areas, out of community activism addressing racism tural education on the basis of the popular manifestations in various dimensions of public life (Steiner-Khamsi, of multicultural education that pay little attention to racism 1990). Antiracist education "can be defined as an action- and its intersections with other forms of subordination. oriented strategy for institutional, systemic change to With a few exceptions (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995; Lad- address racism and the interlocking systems of social son-Billings, 1999), education theorists have not offered oppression" (Dei, 1996, p. 25). direct implications of CRT for multicultural education. The In Britain, antiracist education was severely attacked future of critical race theory in education and in multicul- by the New Right in the late 1980s. After 1988, national tural education depends on the efforts of educators to educational policy was "deracialized," in that references explore its possible connections to racism in schools and to race and ethnicity were replaced by references to communities of color (Parker, 1998; Tate, 1997). authority and national identity. Antiracist education was As a relatively new area of study, CRT may face a prob- also criticized by its allies, who argued that it had mar- lem that multicultural education has experienced: trans- ginalized culture and overly essentialized racial categories mutation into a depoliticized discourse in schools. (Gillborn, 1995). Antiracism as a movement declined in 250 Knowledge Construction and Critical Studies

Britain and subsequently reemerged by making connec- assumed normality and superiority of European and tions with critical versions of multicultural education Euro-American cultures, and the assumption that society (Bonnett & Canington, 1996; May, 1994; Gillbom, 1995). is already structured fairly. In Canada, Australia, and elsewhere, distinctions between Troyna's critique (1987) of four assumptions of multi- antiracism and multicultural education were less sharply cultural education in Britain is relevant to the discussion drawn (May, 1999a). Antiracist education in Canada, for here. First, "Britain is a multicultural society" (p. 313); example, made connections with critical pedagogy and the same can be said of Canada, the United States, and African-centered pedagogy (Dei, 1993, 1996). most other countries. Troyna argued that this assumption In the United States, multicultural education initially correctly describes what is, but not what should happen grew out of the Black struggle in the context of the civil as a result. Beginning with the premise of diversity rather rights movement, rather than out of national policy than justice and solidarity leads to addressing only diver- debates. Therefore it did not prompt an activist counter- sity and not necessarily just-ice. Second, "the cuniculum discourse until, over time, it had taken on watered-down should reflect that substantive fact [of multiculturalism]," and apolitical meanings. For some, multicultural educa- and third, "learning about other cultures will benefit all tion and antiracism are or should be interchangeable (see students" (p. 313). Troyna did not dispute the desirabil- Nieto, 1992; Peny & Fraser, 1993; Sleeter & Grant, 1998; ity of making the curriculum multicultural but ques- Thompson, 1997). Others, however, do not ground mul- tioned whether learning about "other cultures" is actually ticultural education in an analysis of structural racism, a corrective for racism. For members of oppressed groups, but rather in interpersonal prejudice, cultural difference, this proposition suggests that learning about diverse and cross-cultural misunderstandings. For example, Tiedt lifestyles enhances their life chances, which is fallacious. and Tiedt (1999) emphasize individual uniqueness, unity Assuming that White students will adopt antiracist behav- with diversity, and community building; the word racism ior simply by learning about lifestyles of others is also does not appear in their book. questionable, and "increased knowledge of other groups There have been a number of efforts to bring antiracist might in fact enhance feelings of 'differentness"' (p. 313). education and multicultural education together (e.g., May, Flecha (1999) agreed, pointing out that neo-Nazis also 1999a). However, because multicultural education often "use the concept of difference to support their programs takes forms that avoid racism, and because, like critical of hate" (p. 152). Also, adding into the cuniculum other race theory, antiracism foregrounds race as a site of strug- cultures does not necessarily lead to a critical examina- gle, it has significant implications for multicultural tion of the dominant culture. The problem here is not education. learning about others, but rather doing so within a con- ceptual framework that does not question relationships between dominant and subordinate groups. Fourth, "cul- Potential Implications of Antiracist Education for tural relativism is a desirable and tenable position" (p. Multicultural Education 3 13). This assump tion leads to "anything goes" rather Antiracist education has five main implications for multi- than dialogue across groups about how to work through cultural education. It (a) directs attention specifically to differences. In addition, the entire formulation following challenging racism in education; (b) addresses racist this line of reasoning assumes the state and its institutions school structures such as tracking, which are often not to be culturally neutral. addressed in multicultural education; (c) situates culture Antiracist education, in contrast, focuses on "the racist within power relations; (d) connects school with commu- underpinnings and operation of white dominated insti- nity; and (e) problematizes Whiteness. As noted earlier, tutions . . . rather than ethnic minority cultures and some multicultural educators also address these issues. lifestyles" (Troyna, 1987, p. 310). In so doing, it directs Antiracist education challenges systemic racism. attention to White supremacy, and to needs articulated by Despite the work of many of its leading theorists, multi- communities who are oppressed on the basis of race (Dei, cultural education is often enacted in schools by adding 1996; Thompson, 1997). Antiracist education begins not in contributions, advocating "let's all get along," or pro- with a description of changing demographics, which sug- moting individual upward mobility within hierarchical gests a new problem stemming from immigration, but structures rather than critiquing the structures themselves with an analysis of historic and contemporary imperial- (Kailin, 1998-99). Too often it takes the form of telling ism and racism (Blumer & Tatum, 1999; Brandt, 1986; "white children about the lifestyles and cultural achieve- Derman-Sparks & Phillips, 1997; Walker, 1989). It exam- ments of ethnic minorities" (Short & Carrington, 1996). ines how a racist system is maintained, roles of individu- The term itself-multicultural-suggests starting with the als in maintaining it, and how racism can be challenged idea of "many cultures." For Whites, this idea can fit both collectively and individually. Antiracist teaching within the taken-for-grantedness of White dominance, the entails helping students identify manifestations of racism, Critical Pedagogy, Critical Race Theory, and Antiracist Education 25 1 learn how racism works, and learn to interrupt it. although some multicultural educators also do this, many Antiracism gives tools not only to talk about racism but do not. Part of the issue involves how one views race, also to do something about it (James, 2001; Lee, Menkart, power sharing, and professionalism. If one views teach- & Okazawa-Rey, 1998). ing as "a series of technical decisions made by experts A second implication of antiracist education is that it who have a claim to authority" (Sleeter & Montecinos, questions various ways in which schools structure 1999, p. 116), then professionally trained educators unequal access to education (Brandt, 1986;James, 1995; should not share authority with parents. However, "for Lee, 1985; Perry & Fraser, 1993). Racist structures and oppressed groups, framing teaching as a series of techni- processes can include institutionalizing better instruction cal decisions made by experts constitutes cultural inva- for White children than for children of color; using track- sion-the dominant society renders as illegitimate ing, special education, and gifted programs to differenti- systems of meaning and reality originating in oppressed ate instruction along racial lines; using racially biased tests communities" (p. 117). Antiracism directs attention and other assessment processes; employing mainly White toward relationships between historically oppressed professionals; and so forth. In other words, antiracism cri- communities and professionals who are complicit in per- tiques the supposed neutrality of institutions such as petuating racism. Antiracist educators argue that trans- schools; this does not necessarily happen in some ver- formation initiatives need to come at least in part from sions of multicultural education (May, 1999b). communities that are usually excluded from decision For example, the anthology Rethinking Schools: An making, particularly communities of color (Dei, 1996; Agendafor Change (Levine, Lowe, Peterson, & Tenorio, Lee, 1985). One reason antiracist education makes sense 1995) included a section critiquing tracking. The section to First Nations people in Canada is that it advocates examined race and class biases in tracking systems, class stronger community control of education for their own and race biases in standardized testing, biases in access to children (Young, 1995). algebra, and teaching in untracked secondary-level class- A fifth implication of antiracist education is that it rooms. Similarly, Lee (1985) examined racism in aca- problematizes Whiteness and White dominance (Stanley, demic expectations, career counseling, assessment, and 1998). Whiteness tends to be normalized in traditional placement. Although numerous multicultural educators discourse, and very often in multicultural education as also address racism in the structure and operations of well (Dei, 1996; Lee, 1995). White ethnic identities might schools, many do not. For example, Davidman and be named, but Whiteness is not. When teachers teach Davidman (1994) directed their book toward prospective what they believe are universals, they draw from Euro- teachers, offering mainly suggestions for how to integrate pean and Euro-American culture and experience. Multi- ethnic content into lesson plans. The book simply did not cultural becomes, then, the Other, implicitly exoticized address patterns of racism institutionalized in schools. and still deficient. By shifting the gaze, antiracism names A third implication of antiracist education is that it sit- and critiques dominance (Stanley, 1998). Teaching about uates culture within relations of power (Dei, 1996). As racism, however, can place White students in the position mentioned earlier, multicultural education enacted in of being the named oppressor, thus alienating them from schools often assumes culture to be fixed and bounded, dialogue and engagement (Gillborn, 1995). This presents groups to be relatively homogeneous, and culture to be a pedagogical dilemma for antiracist educators who separate from its material and relational contexts. embrace a student-cen tered pedagogy (Thompson, 2002). Antiracist educators point out that the experience of sub- A goal of antiracist education is to help students make sig- jugation itself acts on the cultures of both those who are nificant political shifts in their thinking around racism subjugated and those who dominate (May, 1999b). Peo- and privilege, and this "sits uneasily with the aims of stu- ple take up and adapt cultural forms in response to expe- dent-centered education, which is meant to be open- riences; rap music, for example, is a form of popular Black ended and emergent" (p. 443). To understand and address youth culture that often speaks to racial subjugation (Rat- the pedagogical tension, Thompson highlighted antiracist tansi, 1999). Further, global movements of peoples pro- pedagogies articulated to Whiteness theorizing. Her work duce complex cultural identities that cannot be reduced and that of other critical White theorists is beginning to to essentialist portrayals. Antiracist education is similar offer alternative conceptions of Whiteness that take to critical pedagogy in conceptualizing culture within a account of White responsibility for maintaining or chal- nexus of power relations, overlapping histories, and com- lenging racism (see, for example, Curry, 2000; Daniels, plex identities (Dei, 1996). 1997; Roediger, 1994; Scheurich, 2002; Segrest, 1994). A fourth implication of antiracist education is that it Although we do not have space to review that literature situates schooling in the broader community viewing par- here, it is important to note that antiracism helps to locate ents and community members as necessary parts of the White people within multicultural education, and to cri- education process (Perry & Fraser, 1993). Again, tique depoliticized White identities. 252 Knowledge Construction and Critical Studies

Linzitatiolu of Antiracist Education and Its Intplications addressing anything except racism. For example, the for Multicultural Education focus on racism to the exclusion of other forms of oppres- sion has alienated many White working-class youth who Antiracist education has three limitations. First, the term find it difficult to develop a sense of solidarity with itself, with its oppositional stance toward multicultural oppressed people when the only identity they see for education, suggests a binary with two opposing agendas, themselves is as the oppressor (Bonnett & Carrington, each of which supposedly has an internally consistent 1996). At the same time, in Canada antiracist educators body of ideas and practices. This assumed binary has been have been making connections with multiple forms of problematic on a number of fronts. Banks (1984) pointed oppression (e.g., Dei, 1999;James, 2001; Ng, Staton, & out that "the critics [of multicultural education] have Scane, 1995) and offer ways of framing antiracism that chosen some of the worst practices that are masquerad- address multiple oppressions without losing focus on ing as multicultural education and defined these practices racism, similar to the work of critical race theorists. as ~nulticulturaleducation" (p. 60). In fact, a fair amount of literature in antiracist education and multicultural edu- _I__ - _--%a%_

At this point, one might reasonably ask to what extent how these insights might overlap and complement each it is possible and useful to attempt to synthesize multi- other. For example, White Americans can be described as cultural education, critical pedagogy, critical race theory, being preoccupied with measuring and organizing time, and antiracist education. After considering this question, viewing time as linear, tangible, and scarce. Historically we concluded that it is more useful to expand the dia- one might trace the roots of this practice, in part, to Ger- logue between these fields. All four fields emerged as man culture (ethnic cultural transmission perspective oppositional discourses to dominant discourses about with an emphasis on agency); one can also connect this education. Each came about through specific histories to practice to industrialization and the construction of fac- address social justice from specific vantage points. As tories (institutional perspective with an emphasis on such, each illuminates some issues and strategies while structure; Alred, 1997). Current intensification of work occluding others, and each speaks to realities of some due to economic shifts has intensified the scheduling of communities more than others. Conceptually, theoretical lives (culture within social class relations structured by differences among the fields can provide overlapping but capitalism). In addition, one can view the clock as a tool still distinct lenses for viewing schooling, each revealing of racism that the monochronic dominant society uses to somewhat different issues and possibilities. Politically the regulate subordinate groups (racism perspective with an fields themselves represent overlapping but distinct emphasis on structure). Monochronic White Americans groups of people, embedded within histories of power (who tend to see individual agency and not culture or conflicts. It is helpful to think of the differences as cre- structure) judge polychronic uses of time-in which time ative tensions that are grounded in the theoretical, prac- is conceptualized as circular, overlapping, and flexible- tical, and political realities of each field. as disorganized. At an institutional level, this matters when At a theoretical level, literature in multicultural edu- organizations such as schools operate in a highly mono- cation, critical pedagogy, andracist education, and critical chronic manner, penalizing communities that construct race theory provide somewhat different insights. Let us time more flexibly (racism and culture conflict perspec- consider creative tensions around how each views the tive with an emphasis on structure). Which conception of concept of culture and how each addresses structure and culture is most helpful and how to address the relation- agency, since these concepts d~rectlyinvolve the nature of ship of structure to agency depends on one's question. oppression, social change, and shared ways of making Thompson (1997) cautioned that attempting to create sense of the world. Critical pedagogy, antiracist education, one grand narrative from the left would end up pushing and critical race theory situate culture within relations of aside too many very significant issues. Therefore, our dis- power more explicitly than does much of the muldcul- cussion of the four bodies of literature attempts to illus- tural education literature. Yet even these three do not nec- trate creative tensions and clarify what each field brings essarily agree entirely on the relationship between culture to bear on schooling, so that depending on one's question and structures of power. Even though multicultural edu- and focus, educators can benefit from the unique insights cation attends actively to ethnic culture that is transmit- of multiple frameworks. Learning to use multiple frame- ted from generation to generation, critical pedagogy works can help us avoid the dangers of one grand narra- focuses mostly on the culture of everyday life, viewing tive while examining significant issues related to schools, culture as created within historic as well as contemporary students, and their community contexts. power struggles. Antiracist education (particularly in its At a practical and political level, tensions surround the inception) and critical race theory give far more attention historic and contemporary discourse communities repre- to race and racism than to culture per se. Similarly, at a sented by each of the four fields. Each was created by and theoretical level the fields place different emphases on speaks to a group of people, and these groups do not nec- structure versus agency Multicultural education tends to essarily blend easily or readily For example, since critical emphasize, more than the other fields, individual agency pedagogy has its conceptual basis in a social class analy- and personal attitudes over power structures and institu- sis and its theorists speak to class issues, it appeals more tional practices by highlighting what teachers can do. On than the other three fields to a White leftist constituency the other hand, critical race theory and antiracist educa- Critical race theory, on the other hand, developed as an tion focus primarily on oppressive structures and racist oppositional discourse to critical theory, as scholars of practices such as tracking, school funding, school color sought to place race rather than class at the center (de)segregation, and the media. Critical pedagogy of analysis. As such, its discourse community is largely attempts to link the structure-agency dichotomy, but with scholars of color. Multicultural education speaks largely a focus on class more than on the intersections of multi- to practicing teachers, a community that is not at the ple oppressions. center of critical race theory. Each field has historic Rather than suggesting a grand theory, we find it more roots; connecting fields means addressing tensions useful to ask what insights each perspective can offer, and that are based on historic as well as contemporary power 254 Knowledge Construction and Critical Studies struggles among the people who have created them. If men as asexual but Chinese women as prostitutes, as a historically the White working class participated in the way of controlling the sexuality of White women and subjugation of African Americans, to what extent does making both White women and women of color available the historical baggage of racism accompany critical the- to White men. Attempts to connect multiple forms of ory? If K-12 teachers tend to be marginalized in the oppression and multiple diversities end up challenging process of constructing academic theory, to what extent binaries. Okihiro pointed out that "binaries resist change, would attempts to merge the fields reproduce this perhaps, because they offer coherence" (p. 125). Binaries marginalization? may work as conceptual tools, but they also impose sim- At the same time, there is a need to continue trying to plistic solutions and serve as means of controlling some connect various forms of oppression and various com- Other. Practice uninformed by a critical reanalysis of how munities struggling for justice. Over the past several one understands social relations may end up reproducing years, significant attempts have been made to connect an the status quo. analysis of racism with an analysis of sexism and class As critical traditions attempt to connect analyses of oppression; our chapter is only one additional effort. various forms of oppression, they work to dislodge Struggles to define the nature of oppression are often existing binaries while retaining a critical analysis of couched in terms of binaries: White versus people of power, struggle, oppression, and social change. This is color, men versus women, gayAesbian versus heterosex- complicated work, both theoretically and practically. ual, working-class and impoverished versus wealthy, and Since practice is often uninformed by a complex under- so forth. Binaries help to define power relations and standing of oppression, culture, and power, one might demarcate conflict and struggle; but historically binaries ask if it is truly possible to use oppositional discourses have also been used as a means of control. Oluhiro (2001) in mainstream schools. Is it likely that critical theories, provides an excellent example of using the vantage point as they interact with practice, will be altered or diluted of Asian American history to challenge the binaries of to meet the everyday practical needs of educators? East-West, Black-White, male-female, and heterosexual- It seems that although multicultural education, critical homosexual. He showed how each of these was socially pedagogy, critical race theory, and antiracist education constructed within specific historic circumstances, and emerged as oppositional discourses, there remains a how each breaks apart when viewed from an angle within strong possibility for their transmutation in practice. Asian American history. For example, 18th- and 19th- This seems to be especially true if dialogue among the century White Americans constructed images of Chinese different discourse communities is limited or restrained.

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