The Creation of Enemies: Investigating Conservative Environmental Polarization, 1945-1981

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

The Creation of Enemies: Investigating Conservative Environmental Polarization, 1945-1981 The Creation of Enemies: Investigating Conservative Environmental Polarization, 1945-1981 by Adam Duane Orford A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Energy and Resources in the Graduate Division of the University of California, Berkeley Committee in Charge: Professor Daniel Kammen, Co-Chair Professor Katherine O’Neill, Co-Chair Professor Alastair Iles Professor Rebecca McLennan Spring 2021 © 2021 Adam Duane Orford all rights reserved Abstract The Creation of Enemies: Investigating Conservative Environmental Polarization, 1945-1981 by Adam Duane Orford Doctor of Philosophy in Energy and Resources University of California, Berkeley Professors Daniel Kammen and Katherine O’Neill, Co-Chairs This Dissertation examines the history of the conservative relationship with environmentalism in the United States between 1945 and 1981. In response to recent calls to bring the histories of U.S. political conservatism and environmentalism into conversation with each other, it investigates postwar environmental political history through the lens of partisan and ideological polarization and generates a research agenda for the field. It then contributes three new studies in conservative environmental politics: an analysis of the environmental rhetoric of a national business magazine; the legislative history of the first law to extend the power of the federal government to fight air pollution; and a history of the conservative response to Earth Day. It concludes that conservative opposition to environmentalism in the United States has been both ideological and situational. 1 Acknowledgements My most profound gratitude… To my parents, who always encouraged me to pursue my passions; To my wife, Dax, who knows what it takes to write a dissertation (I love you); And to all of the many people I have learned from at U.C. Berkeley, including especially to the faculty with whom I taught (including my entire committee); my ERG cohorts; and the many students and administrators I met and worked with through the Graduate Assembly. i Table of Contents Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1: Studying the Relationship between Conservatives and Environmentalism ........... 5 “Histories in Conversation” – A Generative Review ............................................................................. 11 Truman years (Apr. 1945 – Jan. 1953) ................................................................................................. 13 Eisenhower years (Jan. 1953 – Jan. 1961) ............................................................................................ 23 Kennedy years (Jan. 1961 – Nov. 1963) ............................................................................................... 31 Johnson years (Nov. 1963 – Jan. 1969) ................................................................................................ 35 Nixon years (Jan. 1969 – Aug. 1974) .................................................................................................... 40 Ford years (Aug. 1974 – Jan. 1977)....................................................................................................... 49 Carter years (Jan. 1977 – Jan. 1981) ...................................................................................................... 52 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................... 55 References ..................................................................................................................................................... 56 Chapter 2: A Study of Discourse – Nation’s Business and the Environment, 1945-1981 ........ 71 Background .............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined. Data and Method ......................................................................................................................................... 75 Crisis Strategies: Silence, Distancing, and Reassessment in DDT ........................................................ 76 Personalizing Strategies: Emotional, Unreasonable, Demanding Environmentalists ....................... 78 Depersonalized Strategies: Overregulation and “Regulatory Reform” ................................................ 81 Innovation Strategy? The Case of Renewable Energy ........................................................................... 85 References ..................................................................................................................................................... 89 Chapter 3: A Study of Politics – The Clean Air Act of 1963 ..................................................... 96 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 98 I. Air Pollution in the United States in 1960 ................................................................................... 100 A. The Pace of Change ........................................................................................................................ 101 B. Relevant Ideologies, Interests, and Advocacies .......................................................................... 106 II. The Development of the Clean Air Act of 1963 ............................................................................ 121 A. 1948-1949: Donora ......................................................................................................................... 122 B. 1949-1958: Early Debate on the Federal Role ............................................................................ 124 C. 1958-1960: the Flemming Proposal .............................................................................................. 131 D. 1961: the AMA Proposals.............................................................................................................. 133 E. 1962: Washington Happens ........................................................................................................... 140 F. 1963: Calling the Question ............................................................................................................. 148 Conclusion – The Balance of Power Shifts .......................................................................................... 156 References .................................................................................................................................................. 159 Chapter 4: A Study of Commentary – The Conservative Reaction to Earth Day ................. 175 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 177 The Ecology Kick ..................................................................................................................................... 179 Incendiary Tactics ..................................................................................................................................... 185 Good Liberals ............................................................................................................................................ 192 The Reflecting Pool .................................................................................................................................. 203 References .................................................................................................................................................. 210 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 214 ii Introduction This Dissertation examines the relationship between conservatives and environmentalism in the United States between the end of World War II and the beginning of the Reagan Presidency. It tracks and attempts to shed new light on the development of what became, by the end of the study period, a largely adversarial relationship.1 For the purposes of this Dissertation, the term “environmentalism” is understood as a political philosophy marked by a desire to reduce the impacts of industrialization on the natural world and to improve human and non-human environmental quality;2 the term “conservatism” is understood as a political philosophy marked by a desire to reduce the influence of government on society and individuals while preserving some prevailing social order;3 and the idea of a “relationship” between conservatism and environmentalism is conceptualized as consisting mostly of what conservatives thought, said, or did about environmental ideas and proposals during the study period. 1 On polarization of opinions on environmental issues by partisan affiliation from 1965 to the present: R. E. Dunlap, Aaron M. McCright, and Jerrod H. Yarosh, “The Political Divide on Climate Change: Partisan Polarization Widens in the U.S.,” Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development 58, no. 5 (September 2, 2016): 4–23; Aaron M. McCright and Riley E. Dunlap, “The Politicization of Climate Change and Polarization in the American Public’s Views of Global Warming, 2001–2010,” The Sociological Quarterly 52, no. 2 (2011): 155–94; R. E. Dunlap and Aaron M. McCright, “A Widening Gap: Republican and Democratic
Recommended publications
  • Monica Prasad Northwestern University Department of Sociology
    SPRING 2016 NEW YORK UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF LAW COLLOQUIUM ON TAX POLICY AND PUBLIC FINANCE “The Popular Origins of Neoliberalism in the Reagan Tax Cut of 1981” Monica Prasad Northwestern University Department of Sociology May 3, 2016 Vanderbilt-208 Time: 4:00-5:50 pm Number 14 SCHEDULE FOR 2016 NYU TAX POLICY COLLOQUIUM (All sessions meet on Tuesdays from 4-5:50 pm in Vanderbilt 208, NYU Law School) 1. January 19 – Eric Talley, Columbia Law School. “Corporate Inversions and the unbundling of Regulatory Competition.” 2. January 26 – Michael Simkovic, Seton Hall Law School. “The Knowledge Tax.” 3. February 2 – Lucy Martin, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Department of Political Science. “The Structure of American Income Tax Policy Preferences.” 4. February 9 – Donald Marron, Urban Institute. “Should Governments Tax Unhealthy Foods and Drinks?" 5. February 23 – Reuven S. Avi-Yonah, University of Michigan Law School. “Evaluating BEPS” 6. March 1 – Kevin Markle, University of Iowa Business School. “The Effect of Financial Constraints on Income Shifting by U.S. Multinationals.” 7. March 8 – Theodore P. Seto, Loyola Law School, Los Angeles. “Preference-Shifting and the Non-Falsifiability of Optimal Tax Theory.” 8. March 22 – James Kwak, University of Connecticut School of Law. “Reducing Inequality With a Retrospective Tax on Capital.” 9. March 29 – Miranda Stewart, The Australian National University. “Transnational Tax Law: Fiction or Reality, Future or Now?” 10. April 5 – Richard Prisinzano, U.S. Treasury Department, and Danny Yagan, University of California at Berkeley Economics Department, et al. “Business In The United States: Who Owns It And How Much Tax Do They Pay?” 11.
    [Show full text]
  • Myth, Metatext, Continuity and Cataclysm in Dc Comics’ Crisis on Infinite Earths
    WORLDS WILL LIVE, WORLDS WILL DIE: MYTH, METATEXT, CONTINUITY AND CATACLYSM IN DC COMICS’ CRISIS ON INFINITE EARTHS Adam C. Murdough A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS August 2006 Committee: Angela Nelson, Advisor Marilyn Motz Jeremy Wallach ii ABSTRACT Angela Nelson, Advisor In 1985-86, DC Comics launched an extensive campaign to revamp and revise its most important superhero characters for a new era. In many cases, this involved streamlining, retouching, or completely overhauling the characters’ fictional back-stories, while similarly renovating the shared fictional context in which their adventures take place, “the DC Universe.” To accomplish this act of revisionist history, DC resorted to a text-based performative gesture, Crisis on Infinite Earths. This thesis analyzes the impact of this singular text and the phenomena it inspired on the comic-book industry and the DC Comics fan community. The first chapter explains the nature and importance of the convention of “continuity” (i.e., intertextual diegetic storytelling, unfolding progressively over time) in superhero comics, identifying superhero fans’ attachment to continuity as a source of reading pleasure and cultural expressivity as the key factor informing the creation of the Crisis on Infinite Earths text. The second chapter consists of an eschatological reading of the text itself, in which it is argued that Crisis on Infinite Earths combines self-reflexive metafiction with the ideologically inflected symbolic language of apocalypse myth to provide DC Comics fans with a textual "rite of transition," to win their acceptance for DC’s mid-1980s project of self- rehistoricization and renewal.
    [Show full text]
  • LABQR-Mmgmemt REPOEHIG and DISCLOSURE ACT of 1959
    Labor-management reporting and disclosure act of 1959; a case study in the legislative process Item Type text; Thesis-Reproduction (electronic) Authors Rusk, James Jarrett, 1934- Publisher The University of Arizona. Rights Copyright © is held by the author. Digital access to this material is made possible by the University Libraries, University of Arizona. Further transmission, reproduction or presentation (such as public display or performance) of protected items is prohibited except with permission of the author. Download date 08/10/2021 04:56:19 Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/318874 LABQR-mMGMEMT REPOEHIG AND DISCLOSURE ACT OF 1959 A CASE STUDY II THE LEGISLATEFfi PROCESS James Jarrett Rusk A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the ' Dl^ARTEElT OF GOVERlEilT ' In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements . For the Degree of . MASTER OF ARTS . In the Graduate College THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZOM 1961 STATEMENT BY AUTHOR This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment of re­ quirements for an advanced degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in The University Library to be made available to bor­ rowers under rules of the Library. Brief quotations from this thesis are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or part may be granted by the head of the major department or the Dean of the Graduate College when in their judgment the proposed use of the material is in the interests of scholarship. In all other instances, however, permis­ sion must be obtained from the author.
    [Show full text]
  • 5847. Hon. Bruce Alger
    1957 CONGRESSIONAL RECORD - HOUSE 5847. By Mr. RIVERS: By Mr. SCOTT of Pennsylvania: By Mr. CARNAHAN: H. R. 6952. A bill to authorize the transfer H.J. Res. 311. Joi;nt resolution establish­ H. R. 6963. A bill for the relief of Mr::;. Elba of naval vessels to friendly foreign countries; ing a United States Academy of Foreign Serv­ Haverstick Cash; to the Committee on the to the Committee on Armed Services. ice; to the Committee on Foreign Affairs. Judiciary. By Mr. SILER: By Mr. FASCELL: H. R. 6953. A bill to amend the Internal H. R. 6964. A bill for the relief of Maria Revenue Code of 1954 to impose an import MEMORIALS Zaharis; to the Committee on the Judici­ tax on natural gas; to the Committee on Under clause 4 of rule XXII, memorials ary. Ways and Means. By Mr. LATHAM: By Mr. SCOTT of Pennsylvania: were presented and referred as follows: H. R. 6965. A bill for the relief of Carmen H . R. 6954. A bill to authorize the United By Mr. ALBERT: Memorial of the State Cruz-Sexton; to the Committee on the Judi­ States Court of Claims by its rules to create Legislature of Oklahoma relative to the de­ ciary. and to prescribe the functions and duties of velopment of the coal industry; to the Com­ By Mr. O'HARA of Illinois: trial and appellate divisions; to the Commit­ mittee on \Vays and Means. H. R. 6966. A bill for the relief of Mrs. Avis tee on the Judiciary. By Mr. PRICE: Memorial of the 70th Gen­ M.
    [Show full text]
  • Table of Contents
    Table of Contents The Opening Salvo 21 What Are Negotiations? 21 Why Are Negotiations Important? 25 When Do Negotiations Take Place? 26 Are Negotiations Limited to the Purview of Rocket Scientists? 30 Should Negotiators Always Seek to Vanquish Opponents? 31 Costs and Risks of Negotiations 36 Some Negotiators are Duplicitous 45 Risks of Borrowing Money from Partners and Customers 47 Avoiding Negotiations 63 You Are Always Negotiating 63 Fundamental Tensions in Negotiations 67 Negotiations Are Pervasive and Eternal 74 LEVERAGE IN NEGOTIATIONS 79 The Importance of Leverage in Negotiations 80 Creating Negotiating Leverage 85 Plan Your Exit at the Beginning 85 Importance of Choosing Partners Wisely 87 Gaining Leverage Through Third Parties 89 Business Models Are a Factor in Successful Negotiations 93 The Anatomy of Argumentation 97 Lincolnian Argumentation 98 The Power of Process 101 Harmonizing the Negotiating Process 103 Voting Architecture 105 Selected Negotiating Process Issues 107 Preemptively Setting the Framework for Resolving Disputes 108 Auctions Versus Direct Negotiations 113 Benefits of Auctions Over Direct Negotiations 113 Benefits of Direct Negotiations Over Auctions 115 The Strategic Negotiator I 1 Sequencing Negotiations 118 Sequencing Contentious Issues 118 Negotiating Downrange 129 Hold-Up Tactics 132 PREPARING FOR NEGOTIATIONS 143 Conducting Due Diligence on Individuals 148 Conducting Due Diligence on Institutions 152 Conducting Due Diligence on Individuals Within Institutions 154 Elicitation Strategies 157 Heimlich Maneuvers
    [Show full text]
  • Oral History Interview – 5/25/1982 Administrative Information
    Jack Valenti Oral History Interview – 5/25/1982 Administrative Information Creator: Jack Valenti Interviewer: Sheldon M. Stern Date of Interview: May 25, 1982 Length: 15 pp. Biographical Note Valenti was the Special Assistant to President Lyndon Johnson (1963-1966), Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of the Motion Picture Association of America (1966-2004). This interview focuses on Lyndon Johnson’s relationships with John and Robert F. Kennedy, his role as vice president, President Kennedy’s trip to Texas, and the plane ride following the assassination, among other issues. Access Restrictions No restrictions. Usage Restrictions Copyright of these materials have passed to the United States Government upon the death of the interviewee. Users of these materials are advised to determine the copyright status of any document from which they wish to publish. Copyright The copyright law of the United States (Title 17, United States Code) governs the making of photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted material. Under certain conditions specified in the law, libraries and archives are authorized to furnish a photocopy or other reproduction. One of these specified conditions is that the photocopy or reproduction is not to be “used for any purpose other than private study, scholarship, or research.” If a user makes a request for, or later uses, a photocopy or reproduction for purposes in excesses of “fair use,” that user may be liable for copyright infringement. This institution reserves the right to refuse to accept a copying order if, in its judgment, fulfillment of the order would involve violation of copyright law. The copyright law extends its protection to unpublished works from the moment of creation in a tangible form.
    [Show full text]
  • Living in the Environment
    Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy 16 Amory Lovins and the C O R E C A S E S TUDY Rocky Mountain Institute In 1984, energy analyst Amory B. Lovins completed construction an energy future that is based on cutting energy waste to the of a large, solar-heated, solar-powered, superinsulated, partially bone and getting at least half of our energy from a variety earth-sheltered home and office in Snowmass, Colorado (USA) of low- or no-carbon renewable-energy resources. In addition, (Figure 16-1), an area with extremely cold winters. The building he has walked his talk by designing, building, and living in his serves as headquarters for the Rocky Mountain Institute (RMI)—a office and home shown in Figure 16-1. nonprofit, non-partisan, group of scientists and analysts who In 2008, Lovins was honored as one of America’s Best do research and consulting on energy, resource efficiency, and Leaders by U.S. News Media Group and the Harvard Kennedy renewable energy alternatives as well as on finding ways to work School. In this chapter, we will examine the exciting and toward a more just, prosperous, and life-sustaining world. challenging energy future that he envisioned over three This office–home has no conventional heating system. decades ago. Instead, it makes use of energy from the sun, heavy roof insulation, thick stone walls, energy- efficient windows, and a waste-heat recovery system. Solar energy provides 99% of GOOD its hot water, 95% of its daytime light- NEWS ing, and 90% of its household electricity. The building’s heating bill in this very cold climate is less than $50 a year.
    [Show full text]
  • An Integrated Hydrogen Vision for California
    An Integrated Hydrogen Vision for California White Paper/Guidance Document Prepared with Support from the Steven and Michele Kirsch Foundation July 9, 2004 Lead Authors: Dr. Timothy Lipman Energy and Resources Group Inst. of Transportation Studies University of California – Berkeley and Davis Prof. Daniel Kammen Energy and Resources Group Goldman School of Public Policy University of California - Berkeley Assoc. Prof. Joan Ogden Environmental Science and Policy Inst. of Transportation Studies University of California - Davis Prof. Daniel Sperling Civil and Environmental Engineering Environmental Science and Policy Inst. of Transportation Studies University of California - Davis Additional Authors: Anthony Eggert, Institute of Transportation Studies, UC Davis Prof. Peter Lehman, Schatz Energy Research Center, Humboldt State University Dr. Susan Shaheen, Institute of Transportation Studies, UC Berkeley and UC Davis Dr. David Shearer, California Environmental Associates i This page left intentionally blank i An Integrated Hydrogen Vision for California Acknowledgments This project was funded by the Steven and Michele Kirsch Foundation with additional support from the UC Davis Hydrogen Pathways Program and the Energy Foundation. We are appreciative of the Kirsch Foundation’s timely support for this project. We thank (in alphabetical order) Mary Jean Burer, Dr. Charles Chamberlain, Gustavo Collantes, Rachel Finson, Roland Hwang, Jim Lee, Dr. Amory Lovins, Jason Mark, and Stefan Unnasch, and Jonathan Weinert for their insights and assistance as we conducted this project. We thank Hon. Mark DeSaulnier for his support and assistance, and more generally for championing clean air and mobility solutions for California. We further would like to specially acknowledge and thank Dr. Geoffrey Ballard for his visionary leadership in the field of hydrogen and fuel cells, and for his commitment to graduate education and thoughtful debate in this fascinating field.
    [Show full text]
  • From Logic to Rhetoric: a Contextualized Pedagogy for Fallacies
    Current Issue From the Editors Weblog Editorial Board Editorial Policy Submissions Archives Accessibility Search Composition Forum 32, Fall 2015 From Logic to Rhetoric: A Contextualized Pedagogy for Fallacies Anne-Marie Womack Abstract: This article reenvisions fallacies for composition classrooms by situating them within rhetorical practices. Fallacies are not formal errors in logic but rather persuasive failures in rhetoric. I argue fallacies are directly linked to successful rhetorical strategies and pose the visual organizer of the Venn diagram to demonstrate that claims can achieve both success and failure based on audience and context. For example, strong analogy overlaps false analogy and useful appeal to pathos overlaps manipulative emotional appeal. To advance this argument, I examine recent changes in fallacies theory, critique a-rhetorical textbook approaches, contextualize fallacies within the history and theory of rhetoric, and describe a methodology for rhetorically reclaiming these terms. Today, fallacy instruction in the teaching of written argument largely follows two paths: teachers elevate fallacies as almost mathematical formulas for errors or exclude them because they don’t fit into rhetorical curriculum. Both responses place fallacies outside the realm of rhetorical inquiry. Fallacies, though, are not as clear-cut as the current practice of spotting them might suggest. Instead, they rely on the rhetorical situation. Just as it is an argument to create a fallacy, it is an argument to name a fallacy. This article describes an approach in which students must justify naming claims as successful strategies and/or fallacies, a process that demands writing about contexts and audiences rather than simply linking terms to obviously weak statements.
    [Show full text]
  • Relationality and Masculinity in Superhero Narratives Kevin Lee Chiat Bachelor of Arts (Communication Studies) with Second Class Honours
    i Being a Superhero is Amazing, Everyone Should Try It: Relationality and Masculinity in Superhero Narratives Kevin Lee Chiat Bachelor of Arts (Communication Studies) with Second Class Honours This thesis is presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of The University of Western Australia School of Humanities 2021 ii THESIS DECLARATION I, Kevin Chiat, certify that: This thesis has been substantially accomplished during enrolment in this degree. This thesis does not contain material which has been submitted for the award of any other degree or diploma in my name, in any university or other tertiary institution. In the future, no part of this thesis will be used in a submission in my name, for any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution without the prior approval of The University of Western Australia and where applicable, any partner institution responsible for the joint-award of this degree. This thesis does not contain any material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference has been made in the text. This thesis does not violate or infringe any copyright, trademark, patent, or other rights whatsoever of any person. This thesis does not contain work that I have published, nor work under review for publication. Signature Date: 17/12/2020 ii iii ABSTRACT Since the development of the superhero genre in the late 1930s it has been a contentious area of cultural discourse, particularly concerning its depictions of gender politics. A major critique of the genre is that it simply represents an adolescent male power fantasy; and presents a world view that valorises masculinist individualism.
    [Show full text]
  • The University of Missouri Agriculture During the Reagan Years A
    The University of Missouri Agriculture During the Reagan Years A Dissertation Submitted to The Faculty of the Department of History In Candidacy For The Degree of Doctor of Philosophy By Jay Ward Columbia, Missouri May 2015 Copyright 2015 by Jay Woodward Ward All rights reserved. The undersigned, appointed by the Dean of the Graduate School, have examined the dissertation entitled Agriculture During the Reagan Years Presented by Jay Woodward Ward In Candidacy for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy And hereby certify that, in their opinion, it is worthy of acceptance. ______________________________________________________________________ Dr. Robert Collins ______________________________________________________________________ Dr. Mark Carroll ______________________________________________________________________ Dr. John Frymire _______________________________________________________________________ Dr. Catherine Rymph _______________________________________________________________________ Dr. Patrick Westhoff Dedication To Rose, Kelly, Brian, Janelle, Mickey, Lauren, Payton, Addison, Evelynne, and Gibson— the center of my world. Acknowledgements I owe undying gratitude to my advisor, Professor Robert M. Collins, who is a renowned scholar and an award-winning teacher, and without whose patient guidance I could not have completed this remarkable journey. I also want to thank my committee, Professor Mark Carroll, Professor John Frymire, Professor Catherine Rymph, and Professor Patrick Westhoff, all of whom lent me their considerable expertise and wisdom, but more importantly to me, they treated this very non-traditional student with extraordinary kindness. And my gratitude to my sister, Deborah Haseltine, my computer expert, who always was able to lead me out of the morasses into which I stumbled almost every time I sat down at the computer. ii Contents Acknowledgements ii List of Tables iv Introduction 1 Chapter 1. The Second Agricultural Revolution 20 Chapter 2.
    [Show full text]
  • In the Decade Immediately Following the Second World War, Many Of
    ‘A Central Issue of Our Time’: Academic Freedom in Postwar American Thought A thesis presented to the faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences of Ohio University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Arts Julian Tzara Nemeth August 2007 2 This thesis titled ‘A Central Issue of Our Time’: Academic Freedom in Postwar American Thought by JULIAN TZARA NEMETH has been approved for the Department of History and the College of Arts and Sciences by Kevin Mattson Professor of History Benjamin M. Ogles Dean, College of Arts and Sciences 3 Abstract NEMETH, JULIAN TZARA., M.A, August 2007, History ‘A Central Issue of Our Time’: Academic Freedom in Postwar American Thought (108 pp.) Director of Thesis: Kevin Mattson In the early years of the Cold War, more than one hundred American academics lost their jobs because university administrators suspected them of Communist Party membership. How did intellectuals respond to this crisis? Referring to contemporary books, articles, organizational statements, and correspondence, I argue that disputes over academic freedom helped shatter a tenuous liberal consensus, unite conservatives, and challenge defenses of professorial liberty among academia’s largest professional organization, the American Association of University Professors. Specifically, I show how Sidney Hook and Arthur Schlesinger Jr.’s dispute over academic freedom was representative of larger quarrels among liberals over McCarthyism. Conversely, I demonstrate that conservatives such as William Buckley Jr. and Russell Kirk overcame serious differences on academic freedom to present a united front against liberalism, in and outside of the academy. Finally, I show the difficulty an organization such as the AAUP encounters when defending professional values in a democratic society.
    [Show full text]