Harness Fittings from the 7Th–8Th Centuries Discovered in Transylvania

HARNESS FITTINGS FROM THE 7TH–8TH CENTURIES DISCOVERED IN TRANSYLVANIA. STIRRUPS AND HORSE BITS

Călin Cosma1

Abstract: On the territory of Transylvania I have recorded 15settlements where stirrups have been discovered (Tab. 1–2). I have recorded 13 settlements where bits were discovered. In four of them the bits were found in Gepidic-Avar cemeteries (Tab. 3–4). A series of items used for the distribution of harness straps and buckles for the harness leathers were discovered in horse graves or in graves with horses from 7th–8th century Transylvania that belonged to the Avars. Fragments of iron sets and plates of various sizesfrom the metal structure of horse saddles had been deposited in the grave from Unirea 2/Veresmort and in the graves with horses from Șpălnaca. Horse saddles certainly existed in many more inhumation graves from Transylvania but have not been preserved. It should be noted that both stirrups and bits were found in most graves that contained different types of weapons or other military equipment accessories. Keywords: Transylvania, Avars, Stirrups, Horse bits Early Midle age.

Introductory clarifications The harness items dated in the th7 –8th centuries discovered in Transylvania, have not benefited so far from a repertoire and an exhaustive analysis of them in the specialized literature of Transylvania. Such research, which I developed during this scientific endeavor, is absolutely necessary in the historiography of Transylvania, which studies the early Middle Ages. The harness parts that will be analyzed are represented by: Stirrups, Bits, Harness strap distributors and buckles and Horse saddle. We took into account only those itms that were dis‑ covered in sites and archaeological complexes in Transylvania attributed to the Avar and Slavic tribes.From the Gepido-Avar cemeteries, we cataloged only the Avar graves or the horse tombs with archaeological material specific to the Avar ethnic group.

1. Stirrups The number and type of archaeological sites were stirrups have been discovered in Transylvania On the territory of Transylvania I have recorded 15settlements where stirrups have been discovered (Tab. 1–2). In four of them, the stirrups were found in Gepidic-Avar cemeteries, in the graves of horses that belonged to Avars (Bratei 3 and Noșlac), but also in graves where horses were also deposited besides the human body (Unirea 2/Veresmort and Șpălnaca, Tab. 1). In the other 11settlements, the stirrups were discovered in Avar cemeteries and graves from Transylvania (Tab. 2). The stirrups feature in human graves without horses or with just

1 Institutul de Arheologie și Istoria Artei Cluj-Napoca, Str. M. Kogălnceanu 12-14; Email: cosma2165@yahoo. com Ephemeris Napocensis, XXX, 2020, p. 181–216, https://doi.org/10.33993/ephnap.2020.30.181 182 Călin Cosma horse bones. This phenomenon must be regarded as a reflection of the current stage of research. Many graves were destroyed, so that some might have contained at least bones from the skel‑ etons of horses if not entire such skeletons (Tab. 2). Stirrups were also discovered inhuman graves with horses or horse bones (Tab. 2). A total of 47 stirrups were found in total in both types of cemeteries.

Avar graves of horses and with horses from Gepidic-Avar cemeteries

Localități Graves

Horse grave Human grave with horse Number of stirrups Grave no. Grave no. Bratei 3 27 1 66 2 78 1 274 2 278 2 Unirea 2 1 2 Noșlac 12 2 Șpălnaca 19 2 37 2 Total 4 6 16 Tab. 1. List of Gepidic-Avar cemeteries with Avar graves in which stirrups were discovered; catalogue of discoveries – 1.

Municipalities Avar cemeteries and graves

Human grave with horse Human grave Destroyed grave Number of Grave no. Grave no. stirrups Aiud 1 1 3 2 2 Aiudul de Sus 1 1 1 Bratei 2 No. ? 2 2 Câmpia Turzii 1 2 4 No. ? 2 Cicău 3 2 2 Gâmbaș 1 2 4 10 2 Geoagiu de Sus No. ? 2 2 Heria No. ? 2 2 Lopadea Nouă No. ? 2 2 Măgina 1 2 2 Stremț No. ? 2 2 Târnăveni No. ? 2 2 Teiuș 3 1 3 53 2 13 4 6 7 31 31 Tab. 2. List of Avar cemeteries with graves that contained stirrups: catalogue of discoveries – 1. Harness fittings from the 7th–8th centuries discovered in Transylvania. Stirrups and horse bits 183

Typology The typology of 7th–8th-century stirrups from Transylvania that I have performed takes into consideration two main elements. It envisages the shape of the stirrups in relation to the manner in which the loop for the saddle leathers were made. According to these elementsone can distinguish three main groups that I have labeled A, B, and C. Based on other details such as the arching of the body or the manner in which the tread was made, one notes several body shape variants among the three main groups. Group A Type A.1a Iron stirrup, globular in shape Made of a single iron bar. The eye for the saddle leathers was modeled through bending the bar in the upper part of the bow. The lower part and the tread are widened and display a relief membrane. The tread is arched. Such stirrups were discovered in Aiud, Bratei 3, Gâmbaş, Stremț, Târnăveni, Teiuş, Unirea 2/Veresmort (Map 1, catalogue of discoveries: 1.A.1a. 1–7,Pl. 1–2/1–6).

1 - Aiud 2 - Bratei 3 3 - Gâmbaş 4 - Stremț 5 - Târnăveni 6 - Teiuş 7 - Unirea 2/Veresmort

1,3-4, 6-7 5 3

0 100 200 km

Map 1 – The geographic distribution of type A.1a stirrups dated to the 7th and 8th centuries on the territory of Transylvania

Type A.1b Iron stirrup with bell-shaped body and the arms arched in the upper part The body and the eye were made of the same metal bar. The tread was straight. The items were found in Gâmbaş (Map 2, catalogue of discoveries: 1.A,1b, Pl. 2/7–8). The size of the pieces that form group A of iron stirrups from Transylvania is between 11 and 15 cm high and 10 and 14 cm width. Group B Type B.1 Iron stirrup, globular in shape. 184 Călin Cosma

1 - Gâmbaș

0 100 200 km

Map 2 – The geographic distribution of type A.1b stirrups dated to the 7th and 8th centuries on the territory of Transylvania

The eye of the stirrup is made of a separate metal bar than the bow. It is rectangular in shape. The tread is arched. The stirrup was found in Bratei 3. It has the following dimensions: (Map 3, catalogue of discoveries: 1.B.1, Pl. 3/1,).

1 - Bratei 3

0 100 200 km

Map 3 – The geographic distribution of type B.1 stirrups dated to the 7th and 8th centuries on the territory of Transylvania Harness fittings from the 7th–8th centuries discovered in Transylvania. Stirrups and horse bits 185

Type B.2 Iron stirrup, rectangular in shape, with rounded corners. The leathers eye is separated from the stirrup bow. The eye is in the shape of a horizontal rectangle. The tread is wide and straight, displaying a membrane in relief on the outside. The stirrup was found in Aiud (Map 4, catalogue of discoveries: 1.B.2, Pl. 3/2).

1- Aiud

0 100 200 km

Map 4 – The geographic distribution of type B.2 stirrups dated to the 7th and 8th centuries on the territory of Transylvania

Type 1.B.3 Bell-shaped iron stirrup. The quadrilateral eye is made of a separate piece of metal than the bow. The tread is almost straight. The item was discovered in Bratei 3 (Map 5, catalogue of discoveries: 1.B.3, Pl. 3/3).

1- Bratei 3

0 100 200 km

Map 5 – The geographic distribution of type B.3 stirrups dated to the 7th and 8th centuries on the territory of Transylvania 186 Călin Cosma

Type 1.B.4 Iron stirrup with arched arms. The tread is in-turned, pulled upwards, and arched. On the outside it displays a ridge. The eye was made of a separate piece of metal than the bow. Such items were found in Cicău and Geoagiu de Sus (Map 6, catalogue of discoveries: 1.B. 4.1–2, Pl. 3/4–7).

1 - Cicău 2 - Geoagiu de Sus

1-2

0 100 200 km

Map 6 – The geographic distribution of type B.4 stirrups dated to the 7th and 8th centuries on the territory of Transylvania

Type B.5 Rectangular iron stirrup with rounded upper corners. The eye is quadrilateral and separated from the bow. The tread is bent inwards and up- pulled. On the lower part it displays a medial ridge. Such stirrups were discovered in Aiudul de Sus, CâmpiaTurzii, Bratei 2, Heria, Lopadea Nouă, Măgina, Noșlac, Şpălnaca,Teiuş (Map 7, catalogue of discoveries: 1. B. 5. 1–9, Pl. 4–5/1–8). The size of the pieces that form group B of iron stirrups from Transylvania is between 15 and 20 cm high and 10,5 and 12,5 cm width.

1 - Aiudul de Sus, 2 - Câmpia Turzii, 3- Bratei 2, 4 - Heria, 5 - Lopadea Nouă, 6 - Măgina, 7 - Noșlac, 8 - Șpălnaca, 9 - Teiuș

1-2, 4-9 3

0 100 200 km

Map 7 – The geographic distribution of type B.5 stirrups dated to the 7th and 8th centuries on the territory of Transylvania Harness fittings from the 7th–8th centuries discovered in Transylvania. Stirrups and horse bits 187

Type C Type C.1 Bell-shaped iron stirrup, with a rounded upper part. The eye is quadrilateral and made of a separate iron bar than the bow. The tread is straight, located above the two ends of the arms.

The item was found in CâmpiaTurzii and has the dimensions of: Î = 14 cm, maxl = 11 cm, ltread= 9 cm. (Map 8, catalogue of discoveries:1.C.1, Pl. 5 /10).

1 - Câmpia Turzii

0 100 200 km

Map 8 – The geographic distribution of type C.1 stirrups dated to the 7th and 8th centuries on the territory of Transylvania

Type C.2 Iron stirrup. The item is rectangular in shape, with the arms arched in the upper part. The eye and the bow are made of the same metal bar. The tread is straight, located above the lower ends of the arms. The ends of the tread were secured in holes located on the arms. Dimensions: Î: 15 cm; l: 11.5 cm. The stirrup was found in CâmpiaTurzii The item was found in CâmpiaTurzii and has the dimensions of: Î = 15 cm; l =11.5 cm (Map 9, catalogue of discov‑ eries 1. C.2, Pl. 5/11).

1 - Câmpia Turzii

0 100 200 km

Map 9 – The geographic distribution of type C.2 stirrups dated to the 7th and 8th centuries on the territory of Transylvania 188 Călin Cosma

Analogies Stirrups type B.1–2 in Transylvania are considered among the most representative arti‑ facts of this kind that the Avars brought with them to the Carpathian Basin and used until the middle of the 7th century.2 Globular stirrups with the eye for the leathers made of the same bar through the bending of the upper part, type A.1–2, were also used during the same period. The latter are artifacts encountered in the Carpathian Basin throughout the entire 7th century.3The archaeological features from the Carpathian Basin where stirrups types A.1–2 and B.2 are asso‑ ciated are dated to sometime right after the beginning of the 7th century.4Stirrups like the one included in type B.2 are also encountered in the Balkans, where they are called “Byzantine stirrups”.5 They feature in contexts dated as late as the th9 century.6 The stirrups with arched body, rectangular or square, with the tread up-pulled, con‑ cave on the inside or straight, and the eye for the leathers made independently from the bow (typeB.4–5, C.1–2 in Transylvania) were introduced in the Carpathian Basin in the end of the Middle Avar Period.The earliest stirrups used until the end of the Middle Avar Period are those typeB.47.Types B.5 and C.1–2 were employed in the end of the 7th century and especially during the 8th century both in the Carpathian Basin8 and on the territory of Poland.9 Artifacts of that type, approximately identical in shape, are also attested during the first half of the 9th century.10

The position and number of stirrups in the graves In the great majority of the graves stirrups were discovered in pairs. In horse graves or graves with horses in Transylvania, stirrups were discovered on the left and on the right side of the horses’ abdomens (graves 66, 274, and 278 in Bratei 3; grave 3 in Cicău; grave 12 inNoșlac; graves 19 and 37 in Șpălnaca; the grave in Unirea 2/Veresmort). There are also graves that only contained a single stirrup (Aiudul de Sus; Bratei 3: horse graves nos. 27 and 108; Teiuș: grave no. 3). The absence of the second stirrup in the graves can be due, on the one hand, to the subsequent looting or destruction of the funerary features. On the other hand, the singularity of a stirrup in a funerary feature can also lead to the item’s inter‑ pretation asfunerary offering (possibly the case of the item in grave 3 fromTeiușorBratei 3).One should note, in the case of the two graves from Bratei 3 where the stirrups were discovered on the left side of the horse’s skeleton, the possibility that the rider mounted from the left side of the saddle.11 As I have mentioned in the beginning of this chapter, a number of funerary features in Transylvania are stray finds, thus lacking data regarding the presence of the entire horse skeleton or of horse bones. In such cases it is possible that the stirrups were deposited by the feet of the human skeleton (Aiud, Aiudul de Sus, Bratei 2, CâmpiaTurzii, Geoagiu de Sus, Heria, Măgina,

2 ČILINSKÁ 1966, 190, Tip. I; BÁLINT 1989, 155, Abb. 65/8–9; CURTA 2008, 304; VÖRÖS 2015, 207– 208, Abb. 51/1–11. 3 ČILINSKÁ 1966, 190, Tip. II; CURTA 2008, 305; VÖRÖS 2015, 207–208, Abb. 51/12–13. 4 ČILINSKÁ 1966, 190, Tip. II; CURTA 2008, 305. 5 IVANIŠEVIĆ /BUGARSKI 2012, 138, Fig. 7/3. 6 IVANIŠEVIĆ /BUGARSKI 2012, 138, Fig. 3. 7 BÁLINT 1989, 160, Abb. 71/9. 8 See for example: ČILINSKÁ 1966, 190–191, Tip. IV; KISS 1977, M. 184, p. 56, 59, Pl. XXII/13; GARAM 1987, 75, 85, 88;TRUGLY 1987, 289; BÁLINT 1989, 163, Abb. 74/1; GARAM 1995, 358, Abb. 215, 6/565, 7/1146; JUHÁSZ 1995, M. L, p. 35–36, 66, pl. XV/2; KISS 1996, 243, Abb. 139; KISS 2001, Teil II; COSMA 2018, 75–110. 9 ZOLL-ADAMIKOWA 1992, 310, Abb. 3/e-f; POLESKI 1997, 19, fig. 3/14. 10 RUTTKAY 1976, type I, variant 2, 353–336, fig. 74/I/2. 11 KISS 1963, 158; GARAM 1995, 358. Harness fittings from the 7th–8th centuries discovered in Transylvania. Stirrups and horse bits 189 and Stremț). In the Avar Khaganate from the Carpathian Basin there are numerous graves where only horse harness elements or several bones from the skeleton of the horse and harness items were deposited at the end of the deceased’s legs.12

2. Horse bits The number and type of archaeological sites were horse bits were discovered. Geographic distribution of the sites In Transylvania I have recorded 13 settlements where bits were discovered. In four of them the bits were found in Gepidic-Avar cemeteries (Tab. 3). The number of Avar graves with bits differs from one cemetery to another. In Bratei,three bits were discovered in seven graves, in Șpălnacain two graves, while inNoșlacandUnirea 2/Veresmortin one grave each. All originate from the graves of horses that belonged to Avars or from human graves with horses (Tab. 3).

Avar graves of horses and with horses from Gepidic-Avar cemeteries Municipalities Graves Horse grave Human grave with horse Grave no. Grave no. Number of bits

Bratei 3 27 1 66 1 83 104 1 108/3 1 7 274 1 278 1 1 Unirea 2 1 1 1 Noșlac 12 1 1 Șpălnaca 19 1 1 37 1 1 Total 4 8 3 11 11 Tab. 3. List of Gepidic-Avar cemeteries with Avar graves in which bits were discovered; catalogue of discoveries – 2.

Iron bits were discovered in seven Avar cemeteries. The stirrups were discovered both in graves where the deceased were buried with horses or only with bones from the skeletons of horses, on the one hand, and in human graves without horse bones, on the other hand (Tab 4). Like in the case of stirrups, the statistical approachof the number of archaeological sites and the number of discovered bits reflects the current stage of research. These details are pre‑ sented in tables 3–4. Bits were also discovered in the settlement from Sfântu Gheorghe, dwellings nos. 1and 2 (catalogue of discoveries: 2.1.4). A silver-plated iron psalium belongs to a bit discovered in the settlement of Medișoru Mare, in pit-house no. 2 (catalogue of discoveries: 3).

12 See for example: ČILINSKÁ 1966, 190–191, Tip. IV; KISS 1977, M. 184, p. 56, 59, pl. XXII/13; GARAM 1987, 75, 85, 88; TRUGLY 1987, 289; BÁLINT 1989, 163, Abb. 74/1; GARAM 1995, 358, Abb. 215, 6/565, 7/1146; JUHÁSZ 1995, M. L, p. 35–36, 66, Pl. XV/2; KISS 1996, 243, Abb. 139; KISS 2001, Teil II; COSMA 2018, 75–110. 190 Călin Cosma

Municipalities Avar cemeteries and graves

Human grave with horse Human grave Destroyed grave Number of Grave no. Grave no. stirrups Aiud 1 1 3 2 1 3 1 Bratei 2 No. ? 1 1 Câmpia Turzii 1 1 1 Cicău 3 1 1 Gâmbaș 1 1 2 10 1 Stremț No. ? 1 1 Teiuș 3 1 2 53 1 7 3 7 1 11 11 Tab. 4. List of Avar cemeteries with graves that contained bits: catalogue of discoveries 2.

Typology Three main bit types can be identified in Transylvania, based on a series of details regarding their shape and the way the outer ends of the bars forming the mouthpiece ended. Type 1 Mobile iron bit with the bars ending in round or oval loops formed by the bending of the ends. One or two rings had been inserted in the lateral loops and functioned as reins dis‑ tributors. Such bits were discovered in Aiud, Bratei 3, Gâmbaş, Sfântu Gheorghe, Stremţ (Map 10, catalogue of discoveries: 2.1.1–5, Pl. 6/1–11).

1 - Aiud, 2 - Bratei 3, 3 - Gâmbaș, 4 - Sfântu Gheorghe, 5 - Stremț

1,3,5

0 100 200 km

Map 10 – The geographic distribution of type 1 horse bits dated to the 7th and 8th centuries on the territory of Transylvania

Type 2. 1 Mobile iron bit. The outer ends of the two bars are wide and provided with two holes through which Harness fittings from the 7th–8th centuries discovered in Transylvania. Stirrups and horse bits 191 straight psalia have been inserted. The psalia have in the middle one wide pierced rod each. One ring has been preserved in each of the outer holes of the two ends of the bit. Items of this type were found inBratei 3, CâmpiaTurzii,Cicău, Noșlac,Teiuş, Unirea 2/Veresmort (Map 11, cata‑ logue 2. 2.1.1–6, Pl. 7/2–4,7–9).

1 - Bratei 3, 2 - Câmpia Turzii, 3 - Cicău, 4 - Noșlac, 6 - Teiuș, 7 - Unirea 2/Veresmaort

2-7 1

0 100 200 km

Map 11 – The geographic distribution of type 2.1 horse bits dated to the 7th and 8th centuries on the territory of Transylvania

Type 2. 2 Mobile iron bit. The outer ends of the two bars are wide and provided with two holes. The inner holes contain S-shaped psalia. In the middle the psalia have one wide and pierced rod each. One ring has been preserved inside each of the outer holes of the two ends of the bit. Such items were discovered in Bratei 2, Şpălnaca (Map 12, catalogue of discoveries: III. 2. 2.1–2, Pl. 7/1, 5–6).

1 - Bratei 2, 2 - Șpălnaca

0 100 200 km

Map 12 – The geographic distribution of type 2.2 horse bits dated to the 7th and 8th centuries on the territory of Transylvania 192 Călin Cosma

Type 3 Mobile bit. The two bars of the mouthpiece are funnel-shaped, made of two metal plates. Both are rectangular and equal in length. They have been bent in the shape of funnels, thus hollow on the inside. The outer ends of the bars, larger in diameter than the inner ends, were cut and bent inwards forming hook-shaped loops meant to support the psalia. On the inside the bars also end in interlocking hook-shaped elements. Through this joint the body of the bit has wide outer ends and a narrow middle. The artifact was discovered in the settlement ofSfântu Gheorghe (Map 13, catalogue of discoveries: 2. 3, Pl. 7/10).

1 - Sfântu Gheorghe

0 100 200 km

Map 13 – The geographic distribution of type 3 horse bits dated to the 7th and 8th centuries on the territory of Transylvania

Analogies Transylvanian type 1bits have analogies in the Avar environment from the Carpathian Basin,13 in the Slavic environment from the central and eastern parts of Europe,14 as well as in the southern European area.15 In the territories closeto Transylvania, type 1 bits were mainly used during the second half of the 6th century and in the first half of the th7 century. Transylvanian type 2.1 bits, those with side bars/straight psalia feature in Avar cem‑ eteries from the Carpathian Basin during the second half of the 7th century and continued to be in use during the 8th century.16 Bits with S-shape curved psalia of type 2.2 from Transylvania feature in the Avar envi‑ ronment from the Carpathian Basin in the end of the 7th century.17

13 ČILINSKÁ 1966, 192; GARAM 1995, 354, 358, Abb. 214/1–3; VÖRÖȘ 2015, 198–201, 204–205, Abb. 199. 14 KAZANSKI 1999, 202–203, Fig. 3/6–12. 15 BAVANT 2012, 143–286. 16 ČILINSKÁ 1966, 192–193; GARAM 1995, 354, 358, Abb. 214/5 17 ČILINSKÁ 1966, 193; GARAM 1995, 354, 358, Abb. 214/6. Harness fittings from the 7th–8th centuries discovered in Transylvania. Stirrups and horse bits 193

Bit type 3, the one with funnel-shaped mouthpiece bars discovered in Sfântu Gheorghe, has analogies in the cemetery from DevínskaNováVesand inSăcuieni.18 All three items date to the 7th century, more precisely during the second half of the 7th century, with a possible exten‑ sion during the first two decades of the th8 century.19 Two bone psalia were discovered in Bratei 3, grave 27(catalogue III. 4. 2, Pl. 23/13).The items have analogies in the Early Avar environment from the Carpathian Basin.20

The position and number of bits in graves No more than one iron bit was found in one grave. Certain data regarding the position of the bits inside the graves are only available in several cases. In Bratei 3 the bits were discov‑ ered in the mouths of the horses or on the left or right side of the horses’ skulls. In Gâmbaș, Cicău, and Șpălnaca, the bits were discovered in the mouths of the horses. The bit from Sfântu Gheorghe was discovered in the fill of dwelling no. 1. The psalium from Medișorul Mare was discovered in the fill of dwelling no. 2. No data recording the exact position of the artifacts in the graves are available for the other bits in the list of discoveries.

4. Harness strap distributors and buckles A series of items used for the distribution of harness straps and buckles for the harness leathers were discovered in horse graves or in graves with horses from 7th–8th century Transylvania that belonged to the Avars. The most representative such items were discovered in the horse graves from the cem‑ etery in Bratei 3 (catalogue 4, Pl. 8). I must note that in Transylvania round or propeller-shaped strap distributors were only discovered in Bratei 3 (Pl. 8/1–4). Specialists believe that items such as those in Bratei 3 were among the items that the Avars adopted from the Gepids and that were used during the Early Avar Period.21 The buckles employed for the harness leathers are items present in the majority of the graves of horses or with horses from the Carpathian Basin but also from other areas of Europe or Asia. On plate 8/5–12 I have included a number of such items that were used for certain for harness leathers. They were discovered in the horse graves from Bratei 3.

5. Horse saddle Fragments of iron sets and plates of various sizesfrom the metal structure of horse saddles had been deposited in the grave from Unirea 2/Veresmort (catalogue 5.2) and in the graves with horses from Șpălnaca(catalogue 5.1). Horse saddles certainly existed in many more inhumation graves from Transylvania but have not been preserved. The discovered stirrups are evidence of this. The existence and use of the stirrups is directly connected to the existence of horse saddles to which they were attached with straps and buckles.22 The Avar graves from the Carpathian Basin contain a number of metal sets that were part of the horse saddles employed by the Avar warriors.23

18 COSMA 2014, 563–565, Fig. 2–3. 19 COSMA 2014, 565–566, 569–570. 20 GARAM 1995, 354, 358, Abb. 214/4; VÖRÖS 2015, 199–200, Abb. 46. 21 BÂRZU 2010, 130. 22 For technical issued regarding horse saddles, see for example: LÁZLÓ 1955, 352–285; JOTOV 2004, 133, Fig. 77 23 See for example: KOVRIG/KOREK 1960, 281; VÖRÖS 2015, 206–207. 194 Călin Cosma

Chronology The analogies presented for each type of artifact analyzed in the previous chapters indi‑ cate the fact that all types of harness items have analogies in the Avar environment from the Carpathian Basin during different chronological stages of the th7 –8th centuries. For the dating of the artifacts from Transylvania to narrower intervals during the 7th–8th centuries I have taken into consideration not only the specific analogies, but also the associa‑ tion of the items with other objects discovered in the same archaeological features. The pieces of jewelry or the dress accessories discovered in graves together with weapons, elements of military equipment, or harness items in Transylvania provide a narrower dating of the archaeological features in which the artifacts were discovered. The chronological identification of the features that contained weapons, elements of military equipment, and harness items also took into con‑ sideration the dating of the archaeological sites where they were found. The first Avar horizon in Transylvania, with graves that contained weapons, elements of military equipment, and harness items dates between 630 and 670.24 The graves of and with horses from Bratei 3 and Unirea 2 attributed to the Avars, as well as those from the Avar cemeteries in Aiud, Stremț, and Târnăveni belong to this chronological interval. Globular or bell-shaped stirrups that form groups A and B. 1–3 from Transylvania are specific to this period (Tab. 5–6). The second chronological horizon in Transylvania extends between 650/670 and 720.25 To this interval one can include the Avar graves from the Gepidic-Avar cemeteries in Noșlac and Șpălnaca, as well as the Avar cemeteries and graves in Aiudul de Sus, Cicău, Gâmbaș, Geoagiu de Sus, Heria, Măgina, Sâncrai and Teiuș (Tab. 5–6). Stirrups of type A.1 were still used in Transylvania between 650/670 and 710/720. Still, one should mention that new types of stirrups, types B.4–5 in Transylvania, were also discovered in the cemeteries and graves of Transylvania from the period under discussion. Type B.4 stir‑ rups are earlier. Also, new types of horse bits, namely those included in type 2.1–2.2 bits from Transylvania, were also discovered in the cemeteries dated to 650–670/710–720 (Tab. 5–6). During the 8th century (720–800), the third chronological stage in the history of the Transylvanian Plateau during the Early Middle Ages, the harness items encountered are on the one hand stirrups type B.5 and on the other hand new types of stirrups included in types C.1–2 in Transylvania. The bits used by the Avar warriors during the th8 century are those present during the second half of the 7th century and in the beginning of the 8th century (650/670 – 710/720), namely types 2.1–2of bits from Transylvania (Tab. 5–6).

Chronology 630–670 650/670–710/720 720–800 Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type A.1a B.1 B.2 B.3 A.1b B.4 B.5 B.5 C.1 C.2 Cemetery chronology

630–670 Aiud ● ● Bratei 3 ● ● ● Stremț ●

24 COSMA 2019, 48–52. 25 COSMA 2019, 48–52. Harness fittings from the 7th–8th centuries discovered in Transylvania. Stirrups and horse bits 195

Târnăveni ● Unirea 2 ● Aiudul ● de Sus 650/670– 710/720 Cicău ● Gâmbaș ● Geoagiu de Sus Heria ● Măgina ● Șpălnaca ● Teiuș ● ● 720–800 Lopadea ● Nouă Bratei 2 ● Câmpia ● ● ● Turzii Tab. 5. The chronology of the stirrups from the 7th–8th Centuries discovered in Transylvania

Tip piesă Type 1 Type 2.1 Type 2.2 Type 3 Cemetery chronology

630–670 Aiud ● Bratei 3 ● Stremț ● Unirea 2 ● 650/670–710/720 Cicău ● Gâmbaș ● Noșlac ● Șpălnaca ● Teiuș ● ● Sfântu Gheorghe ● 720–800 Bratei 2 ● Câmpia Turzii ● Tab. 6. The chronology of the bits from the th7 –8th Centuries discovered in Transylvania

* * * 196 Călin Cosma

At the end of this study, it should be noted that both stirrups and bits were found in most graves that contained different types of weapons or other military equipment accessories. The stirrups and bits were some of the main pieces that were part of the military equipment of the Avar warriors in Transylvania from the 7th–8th Centuries, they were the ones that increased the efficiency of stringing the horse and facilitating the handling of spears, blades, of swords or axes in battle.

Catalogue of discoveries Horse tack items 1. Stirrups Group A Type 1a. 1. Aiud (Alba County)/Şcoala de viticultură 1. Iron stirrup, globular in shape (Pl. 1/1). Made of a single iron bar. The eye for the saddle leathers was modeled through bending the bar in the upper part of the bow. The lower part and the tread are widened and display a relief membrane. The tread is arched. Dimensions: Î= 13.7 cm; l = 10.5 cm. A. Burial cem‑ etery/Grave 1. B. Dating: 630–670. C. Bibliography: HOREDT 1958, 91, Fig. 10/11. D. Aiud History Museum, inv. no. 5348. 2. Iron stirrup, globular in shape (Pl. 1/2). Made of a single iron bar. The eye for the saddle leathers was modeled through bending the bar in the upper part of the bow. The lower part and the tread are wid‑ ened and display a relief membrane. The tread is arched. Dimensions: Î = 12.2 cm; l = 10 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 2. B. Dating: 630–670. C. Bibliography: HOREDT 1958, 91–92, Fig. 10/9. D. Aiud History Museum, inv. no. 5354. 3. Fragmentary iron stirrup, globular in shape (Pl.1/3). Only the lower part of the stirrup has been pre‑ served. The tread and the lower part of the arms are wide and display a relief membrane on the outside. It was very likely identical to the other stirrup discovered in the same grave. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 2. B. Dating: 630 – 670. C. Bibliography: HOREDT 1958, 92, Fig. 10/12. D. Aiud History Museum, inv. no. 5355, 5355a. 2. Bratei (Sibiu County)/Cemetery no. 3 1. Iron stirrup, bell-shaped, with the eye made of the same metal bar as the bow. It was discovered on the left side of the skeleton. A. Cemetery/Grave 27/Horse grave. B. Dating: 630 – 670. C. Bibliography: BÂRZU 2010, 179, Abb. 100. D. ?. 2. Bell-shaped iron stirrup (Pl. 1/6). It was discovered under the horse bones in the western part of the grave. The rectangular eye was made of a separate piece of metal. The tread is slightly arched. Dimensions: Î = 14 cm; l = 11.5cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 66/Horse grave. B. Dating: 630 – 670. C. Bibliography: Bârzu 2010, 190, Taf. 13/G66.2. D. ?. 3. Globular iron stirrup (Pl. 1/4). It was discovered near the horse bones. The eye was made of the same bar as the bow. Straight tread. Dimensions: Î = 14.8 cm; l = 14.5 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 78/Horse grave. A. Dating: 630–670. C. Bibliography: BÂRZU 2010, 192, Abb. 126, Taf. 58/G78.6. D. ?. 4. Fragment of a globular iron stirrup (Pl. 1/7). It was discovered near the horse from the northern part of the grave. The upper part of the stirrup is missing, but the eyewas probably made of the same metal bar as the bow. Slightly arched tread. Dimensions: Îpreserved = 11 cm; l = 12 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 108.2/Tripe horse grave. B. Dating: 630–670. C. Bibliography: BÂRZU 2010, 192, Abb. 143, Taf. 19/ G108.1. D. ?. 5. Iron stirrup, bell-shaped, fragmentarily preserved (Pl. 1/5). It was discovered on the right side of the horse skeleton. The rectangular eye was made of the same metal bar. The tread is arched. Dimensions: Î = 14 cm; l = 13 cm. A. Dating: 630–670. B. Burial cemetery/Grave 274/Horse grave. C. Bibliography: BÂRZU 2010, 262, Abb. 284, Taf. 46/G.274/7b. D. ?. 6. Iron stirrup, globular in shape (Pl. 1/8). It was discovered on the left side of the horse skeleton. The eye was made of the same metal bar as the bow. The tread is arched. Dimensions: Î = 15 cm; l = 13 cm. A. Dating: 630 – 670. B. Burial cemetery/Grave 278/Horse grave. C. Bibliography: BÂRZU 2010, 264–265, Abb. 288, Taf. 48/G. 278/7. D. ?. Harness fittings from the 7th–8th centuries discovered in Transylvania. Stirrups and horse bits 197

7. Iron stirrup, globular in shape (Pl. 1/9). It was discovered on the right side of the horse skeleton. The eye was made of the same metal bar as the bow. The tread is arched. Dimensions: Î = 15 cm; l = 13 cm. A. Dating: 630 – 670. B. Burial cemetery/Grave 278/Horse grave. C. Bibliography: BÂRZU 2010, 264–265, Abb. 288, Taf. 48/G. 278/7. D. ?. 3. Gâmbaş (Alba County)/TheOld Reformed Cemetery 1. Bell-shaped iron stirrup (Pl. 1/10). Found on the left side of the skeleton. The bow and loop were made of a single metal bar. The eye was made by bending the bar in its upper part. The tread widens sig‑ nificantly and its outer side displays a medial ridge. Dimensions: Î = 13.3 cm, l = 11.6 cm. A. Burial cem‑ etery/Grave 10. B. Dating: 650/670–710/720. C. Bibliography: BODROGI 1913, 22–24; HOREDT 1958, 99, Fig. 14/17; COSMA 2017, 59, Pl. 19/1. D. National Museum of Transylvanian History in Cluj-Napoca, inv. no. 8752. 2. Bell-shaped iron stirrup (Pl. 1/11). Found on the right side of the skeleton. The bow and eye were made of a single metal bar. The eye was made by bending the bar in its upper part. The tread widens significantly and its outer side displays a medial ridge. Dimensions: Î = 14 cm, l = 12 cm, treadl = 4 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 10. B. Dating: 650/670–710/720. C. Bibliography: BODROGI 1913, 22–24; HOREDT 1958, 99, Fig. 14/18; COSMA 2017, 59, Pl. 19/2. D. National Museum of Transylvanian History in Cluj-Napoca, inv. no. 8750a. 4. Stremţ (Stremţ municipality, Alba County)/in the settlement’s vineyards 1. Globular iron stirrup (Pl. 2/1). The eye is made of the same metal bar as the bow. The tread is wide and displays a medial ridge on the outside. A small fragment of the bow is missing. Î = 14 cm, l = 11.8 cm. A. Stray find/ Destroyed Burial grave/possibly a cemetery. B. Dating: 630–670. C. Bibliography: BODROGI 1913, 25; HOREDT 1958, 103, Fig. 19/2; POPA 1961, 225, Fig. 3/b. D. National Museum of the Union in Alba Iulia, inv. no. F. 579 2. Globular iron stirrup (Pl. 2/2). The eye is made of the same metal bar as the bow. The tread is wide and displays a medial ridge on the outside. Î = 14.5 cm, l = 12 cm. A. Stray find/ Destroyed Burial grave/ possibly a cemetery. B. Dating: 630–670. C. Bibliography: BODROGI 1913, 25; HOREDT 1958, 103, Fig. 19/3; POPA 1961, 225, Fig. 3/a. D. National Museum of the Union in Alba Iulia, inv. no. F. 582 5.Târnăveni (Mureş County)/in the village territory 1. Globular iron stirrup (Pl. 2/3). It is made of single iron bar that is rhombic in cross-section. The eye was made by bending the bar into a loop that was closed in the upper part by joining the two ends of the bar. The tread is arched and on the outer surface it displays a medial ridge. Dimensions: L = 13.7 cm; l = 11.5 cm. A. Stray find/destroyed Burial grave. B. Dating: 630 – 670. C. Bibliography: ARCHÉRT 1914, 153–154; HOREDT 1968, 117, nr. I. 24. Fig. 2.1. D. Hungarian National Museum in Budapest, new inv. no. 62.30.1/old inv. no.FN. 20.1913,1. 2. Globular iron stirrup (Pl. 2/4). It is made of a single iron bar that is rhombic in cross-section. The eye was made by bending the bar into a loop that was closed in the upper part by joining the two ends of the bar. The tread is arched and on the outer surface it displays a ridge. Dimensions:L = 13.8 cm; l = 11.3 cm. A. Stray find/Destroyed Burial grave. B. Dating: 7th century. C. Bibliography: ARCHÉRT 1914, 153–154; HOREDT 1968, 117, nr. I. 24. Fig. 2.2. D. Hungarian National Museum in Budapest, new inv. no.62.30.2/old inv. no. FN. 20.1913, 2. 6. Teiuş (Alba County)/Cetăţuie 1. Iron stirrup (Pl. 1/12). Globular in shape, with the eye made of the same iron bar. Î = 14.3 cm; l = 11.7 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 3. B. Dating: 650/670–710/720. C. Bibliography: HOREDT 1958, 104, Fig. 17/9. D. National Museum of Transylvanian History in Cluj-Napoca 7. Unirea 2/Veresmort (Alba County)/Traian St. 827 1. Iron stirrup (Pl. 2/5). Found in the lower area of the human skeleton’s legs. Made of a circular bar that forms, through an oval loop, the eye for the leathers attaching it to the saddle. Wide tread, arched outwards, with a medial ridge. Dimensions: L = 15.3 cm, l = 12.2 cm. A. Burial grave. B. Dating: 630 – 670. C. Bibliography: RUSTOIU/CIUTĂ 2015, 111, Pl. 4/2. D. National Museum of the Union in Alba Iulia. 2. Iron stirrup (Pl. 2/6). Found in the lower area of the human skeleton’s legs. Made of a circular bar that forms, through an oval loop, the eye for the leathers attaching it to the saddle. Wide tread, arched outwards, with a medial ridge. Dimensions: L = 15 cm, ltread = 12.2 cm. A. Burial grave. B. Dating: 630 198 Călin Cosma

– 670. C. Bibliography: RUSTOIU/CIUTĂ 2015, 111, pl. 4/3. D. National Museum of the Union in Alba Iulia. Type 1b. 1. Gâmbaş (Alba County)/TheOld Reformed Cemetery 1. Iron stirrup, with bell-shaped body, arms arched in the upper part and straight tread (Pl. 2/7). Its body and eye were made of the same metal bar. Î= 16.5 cm; l = 14 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 1. B. Dating: 650/670–710/720. C. Bibliography: Bodrogi 1913, 22–24, 1b/2 ábra; HOREDT 1958, 96, fig 9a/2; COSMA 2017, 56, 16/1. D. Aiud History Museum, inv. no. 5158. 2. Iron stirrup, with bell-shaped body, arms arched in the upper part and straight tread(Pl. 19/8). Its body and eye were made of the same metal bar. Î= 18 cm; l = 14 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 1. B. Dating: 650/670–710/720. C. Bibliography: BODROGI 1913, 22–24, 1b/2 ábra; HOREDT 1958, 96, fig 9a/2; COSMA 2017, 56, 16/2. D. Aiud History Museum, inv. no. 5159. Group B Type B. 1. 1. Bratei (Sibiu County)/Cemetery no. 3 Iron stirrup, globular in shape (Pl. 3/1). It was discovered on the left side of the horse skeleton. The eye of the stirrup is made of a separate metal bar than the bow. It is rectangular in shape. The tread is arched. Dimensions: Î = 17 cm; l = 13.5 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 274. B. Dating: 630–670. C. Bibliography: BÂRZU 2010, 262, Abb. 284, Taf. 46/G. 274/7a. D. ?. Type B. 2. 1. Aiud (Alba County)/Şcoala de viticultură Oval-shaped iron stirrup (Pl. 3/2). The leathers eye is separated from the stirrup bow. The eyeis in the shape of a vertical rectangle. The fretwork hole of the eye is in the shape of a horizontal rectangle. The tread is wide and slightly arched, displaying a membrane in relief on the outside. Dimensions: Î = 15.8 cm; l = 11.3 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 1. B. Dating: 630–670. C. Bibliography: HOREDT 1958, 91, Fig. 10/10. D. Aiud History Museum, inv. no. 5349. Type B. 3. 1.Bratei (Sibiu County)/Cemetery no. 3 Bell-shaped iron stirrup(Pl. 3/3). It was discovered under the horse bones from the western part of the grave. The quadrilateral eye is made of a separate piece of metal than the bow. The tread is very slightly arched. Dimensions: Î = 14 cm; l = 11.5cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 66/Horse grave. B. Dating: 630 – 670. C. Bibliography: BÂRZU 2010, 190, Taf. 13/G66.2. D. ?. Group B. 4. 1. Cicău (Alba County)/Săliște 1. Iron stirrup (Pl. 3/4). Found on the left side of the skeleton. The stirruphas arched arms. The tread is in- turned, pulled upwards, and arched. On the outside it displays a ridge. The eye, made of a separate piece of metal than the bow, is rectangular and has a hole in the shape of a horizontal rectangle. Dimensions: Î = 18.6 cm; l = 11.4 cm; Eye size= 3.4x3.3 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 3. B. Dating: 650/670–710/720. C. Bibliography: WINKLER/TAKACS/PĂIUȘ 1977, 270, Fig. 4/4, Pl. I/4. D. National Museum of Transylvanian History in Cluj-Napoca, inv. no. V. 32 380–32874. 2. Iron stirrup (Pl. 3/5). Found on the right side of the horse skeleton. The stirrup has arched arms. The tread is in-turned, pulled upwards, and arched. The eye, made of a separate piece of metal than the bow, is rectangular and has a hole in the shape of a horizontal rectangle. Dimensions: Î = 19 cm; l = 12.1 cm; Eye size = 3.5x3.2 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 3. B. Dating: 650/670–710–720. C. Bibliography: WINKLER/TAKACS/PĂIUȘ 1977, 270, Fig. 4/5, Pl. I/5. D National Museum of Transylvanian History in Cluj-Napoca, inv. no. V. 32 380–32874. 2. Geoagiu de Sus (Alba County)/Obreji 1. Iron stirrup with arched arms (Pl. 3/6). The eye is quadrilateral and separated from the bow. The tread is bent inwards and pulled upwards. The lower side displays a medial ridge. L = 18.6cm, l = 11.3cm. A. Stray find/Funerary find/Burial cemetery. B. Dating: 650/670–720/720. C. Bibliography: Rustoiu/ Dărămuş 2005, 483, Fig. 1/2; COSMA ET ALII 2013, 66, Fig. 39/1. D. National Museum of the Union in Alba Iulia. 2. Iron stirrup with arched arms (Pl. 3/7). The eye is quadrilateral and separated from the bow. The tread Harness fittings from the 7th–8th centuries discovered in Transylvania. Stirrups and horse bits 199 is bent inwards and pulled upwards. The lower side displays a medial ridge. The inner side of the tread is worn. L = 18.7cm, l = 11.7cm. A. Stray find/Funerary find/Destroyed Burial cemetery. B. Dating: 650/670–720/720. C. Bibliography: RUSTOIU/DĂRĂMUŞ 2005, 483, Fig. 1/1; COSMA ET ALII 2013, 65–66, Fig. 39/2. D. National Museum of the Union in Alba Iulia. Type B. 5. 1. Aiudul de Sus (Alba County)/in the settlement’s territory Fragmentary iron stirrup. The corners of the tread are bent and raised on the inside. The outer side of the tread and the outer sides of the arms display a ridge that becomes narrower towards the upper part. A. Dating: 650/670–710/720. B. Stray find/Funerary find/ Destroyed Burial cemetery. C. Bibliography: HOREDT 1958, 93, Fig. 17/4. D. Aiud History Museum, inv. no. 5428, 5428a. 2. Bratei (Sibiu County)/Cemetery no. 2 1. Iron stirrup, rectangular in shape, with the upper part rounded (Pl. 4/1). The eye is separated from the bow and is in the shape of a vertical rectangle. The fretwork eye is in the shape of a horizontal rectangle. The lower corners are pulled to the inside of the stirrup forming a wide concave tread with a membrane in relief on the outer side. The lower part of the arms is decorated in openwork with two circles and two triangles. Îmaximum = 15 cm; l = 10.6 cm. A. Biritual cemetery/Avar grave with horse. B. Dating: 720–800. C. Bibliography: ZAHARIA 1977, 62, Fig. 29/10b. D. Brukenthal National Museum in Sibiu, inv. no.A 9199. 2. Iron stirrup, rectangular in shape, with the upper part rounded (Pl. 4/2). The eye is separated from the bow and has the shape of a vertical rectangle. The fretwork eye is in the shape of a horizontal rectangle. The lower corners are pulled to the inside of the stirrup forming a wide concave tread with a membrane in relief on the outer side. Î = 16 cm; l = 11 cm. A. Biritual cemetery/Avar grave with horse. B. Dating: 720–800. C. Bibliography: ZAHARIA 1977, 62, Fig. 29/10–10a. D. Brukenthal National Museum Sibiu, inv. no. A. 9199. 3. Câmpia Turzii (Cluj County)/Dr. Miklós Betegh’s plot Iron stirrup (Pl. 5/9). It is rectangular in shape, with a rounded upper part. The eye is quadrilateral, separated from the bow. The tread is bent inwards and pulled upwards, displaying a medial ridge on thelower side. Dimensions: Î: 18 cm; l: 11 cm. A. Dating: 710/720–800. B. Burial cemetery/Grave (the item was found in a grave that also contained horse bones). C. Bibliography: HOREDT 1958, 94, Fig. 11/3; TÉGLÁS 2005, vol. I, 38, 49/9 ábra, vol. II 987–988, 26–28 ábra; COSMA ET ALII 2013, 34, Fig. 19/6. D. Hungarian National Museum in Budapest. 4. Heria (Alba County)/in the settlement’s territory 1. Iron stirrup, rectangular in shape, with the upper part rounded (Pl. 4/3). The eye is separated from the bow, in the shape of a vertical rectangle. The fretwork hole is in the shape of a horizontal rectangle. The lower corners are pulled inwards forming a wide, almost straight tread, with a membrane in relief on the outer side. Dimensions: Î = 18.8 cm; l= 11 cm. A. Stray find/Funerary find/Destroyed Burial cemetery. B. Dating: 650/670–720. C. Bibliography: the item was initially dated to the Old Hungarian Period: ROSKA 1914, 165; ROSKA 1927, 264; ROSKA 1944, 97–101, Abb. 1/1; subsequently HOREDT 1958, 100–101, Fig. 18/6 correctly dated the artifact to the Avar Period. D. National Museum of Transylvanian History in Cluj-Napoca, inv. no. I. 1515. 2. Iron stirrup, rectangular in shape, with the upper part rounded (Pl. 4/4). The eye is separated from the bow, in the shape of a vertical rectangle. The fretwork hole is in the shape of a horizontal rectangle. The lower corners are pulled inwards forming a wide, almost straight tread, with a membrane in relief on the outer side. Dimensions: Î = 19 cm; l= 11 cm. A. Stray find/Funerary find/Destroyed Burial cemetery. B. Dating: 650/670–720. C. Bibliography: the item was initially dated to the Old Hungarian Period: Roska 1914, 165; ROSKA 1927, 264; ROSKA 1944, 97–101, Abb. 1/2; subsequently HOREDT 1958, 100–101, Fig. 18/7 correctly dated the artifact to the Avar Period. D. National Museum of Transylvanian History in Cluj-Napoca, inv. no. I. 1516. 5. Lopadea Nouă (Alba County)/Árok-Şanţuri 1. Iron stirrup, rectangular in shape, with the upper part rounded (Pl. 4/7). The eye is broken but one can note it was separated from the bow. The lower corners are pulled inwards forming a wide, almost straight tread, with a membrane in relief on the outer side. Îmaximum preserved= 15 cm Îprobablemaximum = 19 cm; l 200 Călin Cosma

= 10.5 cm. A. Destroyed Burial cemetery /Destroyed grave. B. Dating: 710/720–800. C. Bibliography: BODROGI 1913, 25–27; HOREDT 1958, 101, Fig. 18/2. D. Aiud History Museum, inv. no. 4961. 2. Fragment from a stirrup, probably of the same type as the item described above (Pl. 4/8). Only the bent tread and the lower part of the bow have been preserved. A. Destroyed Burial cemetery/Destroyed grave. B. Dating: 710/720–800. C. Bibliography: BODROGI 1913, 25–27; HOREDT 1958, 101, Fig. 18/1. D. Aiud History Museum, inv. no. 4963. 6. Măgina (city of Aiud, Alba County)/Sas Cornel’s courtyard 1. Fragmentarily preserved iron stirrup (Pl. 4/5). It is rectangular in shape, with a rounded upper part. The eye is separated from the bow, in the shape of a vertical rectangle. The hole is in the shape of a hori‑ zontal rectangle. The tread is pulled towards the inside of the stirrup. It is wide, concave, with a relief membrane on the outer side. Dimensions: Î = 17 cm; l = 11 cm. A. Burial grave. B. Dating: 650/670– 710/720. C. Bibliography: CIUGUDEANU 1974, 457–459, Fig. 1/2. D. National Museum of the Union in Alba Iulia, inv. no. F. 8670 – F. 8671. 2. Iron stirrup (Pl. 4/6). It is rectangular in shape, with rounded upper corners. The eye is separated from the bow and is in the shape of a vertical rectangle. The hole is in the shape of a horizontal rectangle. The tread is pulled towards the inside of the stirrup. It is wide, concave, with a relief membrane on the outer side. Dimensions: Î = 17.7 cm; l = 11.7cm. A. Burial grave. B. Dating: 650/670–710/720. C. Bibliography: CIUGUDEANU 1974, 457–459, Fig. 1/3. D. National Museum of the Union in Alba Iulia, inv. no. F. 8669. 7. Noșlac (Alba County)/Hărăstășan’s garden 1. Fragmentarily preserved iron stirrup (Pl. 5/1). The bow is rectangular, with a rounded upper part. The eye has been fragmentarily preserved, but was separated from the bow. The eye was very likely rectangular or square. The tread is pulled towards the inside of the stirrup. It is wide, concave, with a relief membrane on the outer side. Dimensions: Î = 17.7 cm; l = 11.7cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave no. 12/Horse grave. B. Dating: 650/670–710/720. C. Bibliography: RUSU 1962, 274; RUSU 1964, 37; DOBOS, 2015, 71–72, Fig. 7/2. Cosma 2017, 65, Pl. 26/7. D. Aiud History Museum 6367. 2. Fragmentarily preserved iron stirrup (Pl. 5/2). The bow of the stirrup is rectangular, with a rounded upper part. The eye has been fragmentarily preserved, but was separated from the bow. It was very likely rectangular or square. The tread is located above the terminals of the arms and is wide and straight. Dimensions: Î = 18 cm; l = 12 cm. A. Cemetery/Grave no. 12/Horse grave. B. Dating: 650/670–710/720. C. Bibliography: RUSU 1962, 274, Fig. 4/9; RUSU 1964, 37, Fig. 3/9; COSMA 2017, 65, Pl. 26/5. D. National Museum of Transylvanian History in Cluj-Napoca, inv. no. F. 8669. 8. Şpălnaca (Alba County)/Şugud 1. Iron stirrup (Pl. 5/3). It was discovered on the right side of the horse’s abdomen. It is rectangular in shape, with the upper part rounded. The eye is separated from the bow and has the shape of a vertical rectangle. The hole is in the shape of a horizontal rectangle. The tread is pulled towards the inside of the stirrup, is wide, and displays a relief membrane on the outer side. Î = 20 cm; l = 12.5 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 19/Man buried with a horse. B. Dating650/670–710/720. C. Bibliography: PROTASE ET ALII 2000, 104, nr. 143; COSMA 2017, 76–77. D. National Museum of the Union in Alba Iulia, inv. no. F. 10236 2. Iron stirrup (Pl. 5/4). It was discovered on the left side of the horse’s abdomen. It is rectangular in shape, with rounded upper corners. The eye is separated from the bow and has the shape of a vertical rectangle. The hole has the shape of a horizontal rectangle. The tread is pulled towards the inside of the stirrup, is wide, and displays a relief membrane on the outer side. Î = 20 cm; l = 12.5 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 19/Man buried with a horse. B. Dating650/670–720. C. Bibliography: PROTASE ET ALII 2000, 104, nr. 143; COSMA 2017, 76–77. D. National Museum of the Union in Alba Iulia, inv. no. F. 10237. 3. Iron stirrup (Pl. 5/5). It was discovered on the left side of the horse’s abdomen. It is rectangular in shape, with rounded upper corners. The tread is wide, bent inwards, and pulled upwards. The outer side of the tread displays a ridge that was probably meant to increase its strength. The loop, fragmentarily preserved, is separated from the upper part of the bow and is square in shape. Dimensions: Î = 17.5 cm, l = 12.5 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 37/Woman buried with a horse. B. Dating 650/670–710/720. C. Harness fittings from the 7th–8th centuries discovered in Transylvania. Stirrups and horse bits 201

Bibliography: PROTASE ET ALII 2000, 104, nr. 143; COSMA 2017, 77–79. D. National Museum of the Union in Alba Iulia, inv. no. F. 10258. 4. Fragmentarily preserved iron stirrup (Pl. 5/6). It was discovered on the left side of the horse’s abdomen, is rectangular in shape, and was an arched upper side. The tread is wide, bent inwards, and pulled upwards, displaying a ridge on the outer side that was probably meant to increase its strength. The loop, fragmentarily preserved, is separated from the upper part of the bow and is square in shape. Dimensions: Î = 17.5 cm, l = 12.5 cm. A. Burial cemetery /Grave 37/Woman buried with a horse. B. Dating 650/670– 710/720. C. Bibliography: PROTASE ET ALII 2000, 104, nr. 143; COSMA 2017, 77–79. D. National Museum of the Union in Alba Iulia, inv. no.F. 10259. 9. Teiuş (Alba County)/Cetăţuie 1. Iron stirrup, rectangular in shape, with rounded upper sides (Pl. 5/7). The eye is separated from the bow and has the shape of a vertical rectangle. The fretwork hole is in the shape of a horizontal rectangle. The lower corners of the stirrup are pulled towards the inside forming a wide concave tread with a mem‑ brane in relief on the outside. Dimensions: Î = 16 cm; l = 11 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 53. B. Dating: 650/670–710/720. C. Bibliography: COSMA 2017, 87. D. National Museum of Transylvanian History in Cluj-Napoca, inv. no. V. 34 464. 2. Iron stirrup, rectangular in shape, with rounded upper sides (Pl. 5/8). The eye is separated from the bow and has the shape of a vertical rectangle. The fretwork hole is in the shape of a horizontal rectangle. The lower corners of the stirrup are pulled towards the inside forming a wide concave tread with a mem‑ brane in relief on the outside. Dimensions: Î = 16 cm; l = 11 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 53. B. Dating: 650/670–710/720. C. Bibliography: COSMA 2017, 87. D. National Museum of Transylvanian History in Cluj-Napoca, inv. no. V. 34 465. Type C Type C. 1. Câmpia Turzii (Cluj County)/Dr. Miklós Betegh’s plot Iron stirrup (Pl. 5/10). The item is rectangular in shape, with a rounded upper part. The eye is quadri‑ lateral and separated from the bow. The tread is strait, located above the lower ends of the arms, set in holes created on the arms. Dimensions: Î: 15 cm; l: 11.5 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 1. B. Dating: 710/720–800. C. TÉGLÁS 2005, vol. I, 38, 49/8 ábra, vol. II 987–988, 26–28 ábra; COSMA ET ALII 2013, 34, Fig. 19/7. D.Hungarian National Museum in Budapest. Type C. 2. Câmpia Turzii (Cluj County)/Dr. Miklós Betegh’s plot Iron stirrup (Pl. 5/11). The item is rectangular in shape, with rounded upper sides. The eye is made of the same metal bar through the technique of strangulation, forming a loop in the upper side, to which the saddle leather was attached. The tread is straight, located above the ends of the arms. The ends of the tread were secured in holes on the arms. Dimensions: Î: 15 cm; l: 11.5 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave (the item was found in a grave that also contained horse bones). B. Dating: 710/720–800. C. TÉGLÁS 2005, vol. I, 38, 49/8 ábra, vol. II 987–988, 26–28 ábra; Cosma et alii 2013, 34, Fig. 19/5. D. Hungarian National Museum in Budapest.

2. Iron bits Type 1 1. Aiud (Alba County)/Şcoala de viticultură 1. Iron bit with the mouth piece consisting of two bars (Pl. 6/2). The joint consists of the bar ends bent to form hooks. The outer ends of the bars are turned to form loops that contain two large-diameter rings each. Only one of the loops also preserves a smaller ring inside. Dimensions: Lof the two bars= 20 cm; Dof the large rings = 8.2 cm; Dof the small ring = 4.8 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 1. B. Dating. 630–670. C. Bibliography: HOREDT 1958, 91. D. Aiud History Museum, inv. no. 5347. 2. Iron bit with the mouth piece consisting of two bars (Pl. 6/1). The joint consists of the bar ends bent to form hooks. The outer ends of the bars are turned to form loops that contain two large-diameter rings and two small-diameter rings each. Dimensions: Lof the two bars = 21 cm; Dof the large rings = 7.5 cm; Dof the small rings = 4 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 2. B. Dating: 630 – 670. C. Bibliography: HOREDT 1958, 91. D. Aiud History Museum, inv. no. 5353, 5353a. 202 Călin Cosma

3. Fragment from the psalium of an iron bit (Pl. 6/14). In the middle of its length, the bar displays a rectangular slot. Dimensions: Lpreserved = 4.5 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 3. B. Dating. 630–670. C. Bibliography: Previously unpublished. D. Aiud History Museum, inv. no. 5358. 2. Bratei (Sibiu County)/Cemetery no. 3 1. Iron bit with the mouth piece consisting of two bars. Two bone psaliahave been preserved in the side holes of the two bars (Pl. 6/13). The psalia display holes in the middle. Dimensions of the psalia: L = 16 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 27/Horse grave. B. Dating: 630–670. C. Bibliography: BÂRZU 2010, 179, Abb. 100, Taf. 7/G 27/2. D. ? 2. Iron bit with the mouth piece consisting of two bars (Pl. 6/3). It was discovered under the horse bones in the western part of the grave. The joint consists of interlocking hooks. The outer ends have rings.

Dimensions: Lof the two bars = 24 cm; Drings = 3 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 66/Horse grave. B. Dating: 630–670. C. Bibliography: BÂRZU 2010, 190, Taf. 13/G 66/1. D. ? 3. Iron bit with the mouth piece consisting of two bars (Pl. 6/7). It was discovered under the horse bones in the eastern side of the grave. The inner ends interlock through hooks. One of the outer ends has a ring, the other has two 8-shaped rings. Dimensions: Lof the two bars = 22 cm; Drings = 2.8 cm. A. Burial cem‑ etery/Grave 83/Horse grave. B. Dating: 630–670. C. Bibliography: BÂRZU 2010, 194, Abb. 129; Taf. 16/G.83/3, 58/G.83/3. D. ? 4. Iron psalium (Pl. 6/12). It was discovered in the horse’s mouth. In the middle the psalium is wide and displays two rectangular holes. One of its ends is bent and forms a bulb, while the other is flattened in the shape of a spatula. Dimensions: L = 16 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 104/Horse grave. B. Dating: 630–670. C. Bibliography: BÂRZU 2010, 198, Abb. 39; Taf. 18/G104/1.D. ? 5. Iron bit with the mouth piece consisting of two bars (Pl. 6/6). It was discovered on the right side of the middle horse’s skull. The bars end in hooks, interlocking in the middle. On the outside, one ring was found inside each end hook. Dimensions: Lof the two bars = 20 cm; Drings = 5 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 108.3/Triple horse grave. B. Dating: 630–670. C.Bibliography: BÂRZU 2010, 200, Abb. 143, Taf. 19/ G108/5.D.? 6. Fragmentarily preserved iron bit with the mouth piece consisting of two bars (Pl. 6/5). It was discov‑ ered inside the horse’s mouth. The bars end in hooks, interlocking in the middle. On the outside, one ring was found inside each end hook. Dimensions: Lpreserved of bar = 12 cm; Dring = 6 cm. A. Burial cemetery/ Grave 274/Horse grave. B. Dating: 630–670. C. Bibliography: BÂRZU 2010, 262, Abb. 284, Taf. 46/ G274/1. D.? 7. Iron bit with the mouth piece consisting of two bars (Pl. 6/4). It was discovered inside the horse’s mouth. On the inside the two bars end in interlocking hooks. On the outside the bars end in rings that contain other rings. Dimensions: Lof the two bars = 22 cm; Drings = 3 cm, 2.5 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 283/Horse grave. B. Dating: 630–670. C. Bibliography: BÂRZU 2010, 266–267, Abb. 293, Taf. 50/ G283/1. D. ? 3. Gâmbaş (Alba County)/The Old Reformed Cemetery 1. Iron bit with the mouth piece consisting of two bars (Pl. 6/8). The bars are connected through inter‑ locking hook ends. On the outside the ends of the bars are bent in the shape of rings. Inside each of the two end rings one notes two circular rings, one larger and one smaller. Dimensions: Lof the two bars = 21 cm; Dlarge rings = 7.5 cm; Dsmall rings= 4 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 1. B. Dating: 650/670–710/720. C. Bibliography: Bodrogi 1913, 22–24, 4/2 ábra; HOREDT 1958, 96, Fig. 9a/6; Cosma et alii 2013, 64, Fig. 38/1. D. Aiud History Museum, inv. no. 5154. 2. Iron bit with the mouth piece consisting of two bars (Pl. 6/9). Found in the mouth of the horse skull. The bars are interlocked through hook-shaped bent ends. Their outer ends are bent to form rings. Each of the outer rings contains two other circular rings, one larger and one smaller in diameter. Dimensions:

Lof the two bars = 18.5 cm; Dlarge rings = 4.8 cm; Dsmall rings= 3.8 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 10/Grave with horse bones. B. Dating: 650/670–710/720. C. Bibliography: BODROGI 1913, 22–24; HOREDT 1958, 99, Fig. 14/8; COSMA 2017, 59. D. National Museum of Transylvanian History in Cluj-Napoca, inv. no.III, 8754. 4. Sfântu Gheorghe (Mureş County)/Pe șes Iron bit with the mouth piece consisting of two bars interconnected through hooks (Pl. 6/11). The bars are square in cross-section and end in rings. One of the end rings preserves the ring for the leathers of Harness fittings from the 7th–8th centuries discovered in Transylvania. Stirrups and horse bits 203

the rein. Lbars= 7.9 cm, 8 cm Grbar = 0.7 m, Dring collar= 4.5 cm. A. Settlement/Dwelling 2/1995. B. Dating: 670–750. C. Bibliography: COSMA ET ALII 2013, 100, Fig. 68/2–3. D. Institute of Archaeology and Art History in Cluj-Napoca. 5. Stremţ (municipality of Stremţ, Alba County)/in the settlement’s vineyards Iron bit with the mouth piece consisting of two bars (Pl. 6/10). The two bars display a medial ridge and are interconnected through hooks. The outer ends are wider and finish with closed hooks. Each hook preserves two rings, different in diameter. The two large rings are twisted. Dimensions: Lof the two bars = 17 cm; Dlarge rings = 6.5 cm; Dsmall rings = 3.5 cm. A. Stray find/Destroyed Burial grave/Destroyed cemetery. B. Dating: 630–670. C. Bibliography: BODROGI 1913, 25; HOREDT 1958, 103, Fig. 19/1; POPA 1961, 225–226, Fig. 3/c. D. National Museum of the Union in Alba Iulia, inv. no. Cserni 778. Type 2. 1. 1. Bratei 3 Fragmentarily preserved iron bit with the mouth piece consisting of two bars (Pl. 7/2). Discovered inside the horse’s mouth. Dimensions: Lpreserved of bar = 12 cm; Lpsalium = 17 cm; Dring = 2.5 cm. A. Burial cem‑ etery/Grave 278/Horse grave. B. Dating: 630–670. C. Bibliography: BÂRZU 2010, 264, Abb. 288; Taf. 48/278/1.D.? 2. Câmpia Turzii (Cluj County)/Dr. Miklós Betegh’s plot Iron bit with the mouth piece consisting of two bars (Pl. 7/4). The two bars are interlocked through closed hooks. On the outside they end in two 8-shaped holes: the inner ones preserve the psalia in the shape of straight bars. Two square-shaped loops are secured onto the psalia, in the middle area. The outer hole was for the rings supporting the leathers of the rein. Dimensions: ?. A. Burial cemetery/Grave. B. Dating: 710/720–810–8130. C. Bibliography: HOREDT 1958, 94, Fig. 11/1; Téglás 2005, vol. I, 31–38,vol. II, 987–988, 26–28 ábra. D. Hungarian National Museum in Budapest. 3. Cicău (Alba County)/Săliște Iron bit with the mouth piece consisting of two bars (Pl. 7/9). It was found near the horse’s mouth. The two bars forming the mouthpiece are interlocked through hook-shaped elementsbent out of their inner ends. Their outer ends are provided with holes to which the psalia are attached. One of the psalia is fragmentarily preserved. The other psalium, better preserved, consists of a rectangular plate with a rec‑ tangular slot for the rein. Dimensions: Lof the two bars = 21.9 cm; Lof the psalia = 13 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 3. B. Dating: 650/670–710/720. C. Bibliography: WINKLER/TAKACS/PĂIUȘ 1977, 270, Fig. 4/6, Pl. I/6; D. National Museum of Transylvanian History in Cluj-Napoca. 4. Noșlac (Alba County)/Grădina lui Hărăstășan Iron bit with the mouth piece consisting of two bars (Pl. 7/3). The two bars forming the mouthpiece are interlocked through closed hooks. The outer terminals are wide and display pairs of holes on each end. The psalia, in the shape of two straight bars, have been preserved attached to the inner holes. The outer holes were for the rein leathers. Dimensions: Lof the two bars = 24 cm; Dlarge ring = 2.5 cm; Dsmall ring = 1 cm. A. Cemetery/Grave 12/Horse grave. B. Dating: 7th century (650/670–710/720). C. Bibliography: DOBOS 2015, 70–71, Fig. 7/3. D. Aiud History Museum, inv. no. 6367. 5. Teiuş (Alba County)/Cetăţuie Iron bit with the mouth piece consisting of two bars (Pl. 7/7). The bars are interlocked through closed hooks. On the outside they end in two 8-shaped holes. The inner holes preserve the psalia, in the shape of straight bars. Two square loops are attached to the psalia, in their middle area. The outer hole was for the rings of the rein leathers. Dimensions: Lof the two bars = 22 cm; Lof the psalia = 10.8 cm; Drings =3 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 3. B. Dating: 650/670–710/720. C. Bibliography: HOREDT 1958, 104, Fig. 17/6. D. National Museum of Transylvanian History in Cluj-Napoca. 6. Unirea 2/Vereșmort (Alba County)/Traian St. 827 Iron bit with the mouth piece consisting of two bars (Pl. 7/8). The bars are interlocked through closed hooks. On the outside they end in two 8-shaped holes. The inner holes are larger in diameter and sup‑ ported the psalia. The outer holes supported one ring each. Another open ring is attached to one of these rings. The first ends in two iron stripes created through hammering the parallel ends and connecting them with two rivets that probably supported another horse tack leather strap. Dimensions: Lof the two bars = 21.6 cm; Drings = 3 cm, 2 cm, 3.5 cm; Lloop = 6.6 cm, lloop = 1.2 cm. A. Burial grave. B. Dating: 630–670. C. Bibliography: RUSTOIU/CIUTĂ 2015, 111, Pl. 4/1. D. National Museum of the Union in Alba Iulia. 204 Călin Cosma

Type 2. 2. 1. Bratei (Sibiu County)/Cemetery no. 2 Iron bit with the mouth piece consisting of two bars (Pl. 7/1).The outer ends of the two bars are wide and display two holes. The curved psalia are attached to the inner holes. In the middle, the psalia also display one wide and hollow rod each. A ring was preserved in each of the outer holes of the two bar ends. Dimensions: ?. A. Biritual cemetery/Burial grave/”Avar grave”, with horse bones B. Dating: 710/720– 800. C. Bibliography: ZAHARIA 1977, 62, Fig. 29/9. D. ? 2. Şpălnaca (Alba County)/Șugud 1. Iron bit with the mouth piece consisting of two bars (Pl. 7/6). It was discovered inside the horse’s mouth. The two bars are interlinked through two loops, while on the outside they end in 8-shaped ter‑ minals. The psalia are bent at the ends. The two psalia were attached to the inner holes of the two bar ends and in the center display two rectangular holes each. The outer ends are attached to leathers rings.

Dimensions: Lof the two bars = 23 cm; Lof the psalia = 15.4 cm, D = 3 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 19/Man buried with a horse. B. Dating: 650/670–710/720. C. PROTASE ET ALII 2000, 104, nr. 143; COSMA 2017, 77. D. National Museum of the Union in Alba Iulia, inv. F. 10257a. 2. Iron bit with the mouth piece consisting of two bars(Pl. 7/5). It was discovered inside the horse’s mouth. The two bars are interlinked through two loops, while on the outside they end in 8-shaped termi‑ nals. The psalia are bent at the ends. The two psalia were attached to the inner holes of the two bar ends and in the center display two rectangular holes each. The outer ends are attached to rings for the leathers.

Dimensions: Lof the two bars = 23 cm; Lof the psalia = 15.4 cm, D = 3 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 37/Woman buried with a horse. B. Dating: 650/670–710/720. C. Bibliography: Protase et alii2000, 104, nr. 143; COSMA 2017, 78. D. National Museum of the Union in Alba Iulia, inv. F. 10257. Type 3 1. Sfântu Gheorghe (Mureş County)/Pe șes Iron bit with the mouth piece consisting of two bars (Pl. 7/10). The two bars of the mouthpiece are funnel-shaped, made of two plates. Both are rectangular and equal in length. They have been bent in the shape of funnels, thus hollow on the inside. The outer ends of the bars, larger in diameter than the inner ends, were cut and bent inwards forming hook-shaped loops meant to support the psalia. On the inside the bars also end in interlocking hook-shaped elements. Through this joint the body of the bit has wide outer ends and a narrow middle. None of the elements of the two psalia have been preserved.

Dimensions: Lof the two bars = 16.3 cm; Dlarge end = 2.5 cm; Dsmall end = 0.6 cm. A. Settlement/Dwelling 1. B. Dating: 670–730. C. Bibliography: COSMA 2014, 563, Fig. 2/1a-c. D. Institute of Archaeology and Art History in Cluj-Napoca.

3. Psalia 1. Medișoru Mare (Harghita County)/Măzăriști Iron psalium made of a twisted, silvered bar. In the middle the bar is wider and displays a hole. The ends are bent in the shape of hooks. A. Settlement/Hut 2. B. Dating: 7th–8th centuries. C. Bibliography: SZÉKELY 1988, 171, Fig. 20/8. D. ?.

4. Harness strap distributors and buckles 1. Bratei (Sibiu County)/Cemetery no. 3 1. Strap distributor made of cast bronze with open work (Pl. 8/1). Circular in shape, with three circular/ oval holes. On the outside the circle has on the side three perforated rectangles. Dimensions: Circle diam‑ eter = 3cm; Circle+rectangles diameter = 4 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 78/Horse grave. B. Dating: 630–670. C. Bibliography: BÂRZU 2010, 192, Abb. 126, Taf. 15/G.78/1a. D. ?. 2. Strap distributor made of cast bronze with open work (Pl. 8/2). Circular in shape, with three circular/ oval holes. On the outside the circle has on the side three perforated rectangles. Dimensions: Circle diam‑ eter = 3 cm; Circle+rectangles diameter = 4 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 78/Horse grave. B. Dating: 630–70. C. Bibliography: BÂRZU 2010, 192, Abb. 126, Taf. 15/G.78/1b. D. ?. 3. Strap distributor made of cast bronze with open work (Pl. 8/3). Helix shaped. In the center it displays a perforated circle on which one can note three cut-out rectangles. Dimensions: Circle+rectangles diameter Harness fittings from the 7th–8th centuries discovered in Transylvania. Stirrups and horse bits 205

= 4 cm. A. Burial cemetery/Grave 175/Horse grave. B. Dating: 630–670. C. Bibliography: BÂRZU 2010, 225, Abb. 198, Taf. 30/G. 175/5, 66/G. 175. D. ?. 4. Strap distributor made of cast bronze with open work (Pl. 8/4). Circular in shape.Inside the circle one notes three larger circular holes, three smaller circular holes and a central geometric hole. Dimensions: Diameter = 5 cm. A. Dating: 630–670. B. Burial cemetery/Grave 278/Horse grave. C. Bibliography: BÂRZU 2010, 264–265, Abb. 288, Taf. 48/G. 278/3a. D. ?. 5. Harness strap buckles and rings (Pl. 8/5–12). Such fittings are present in horse graves or graves with horses such as those in the Burial cemetery of Bratei 3, graves 66, 78, 83, 104, 108, 175, 278. A. Burial cemetery. B. Dating: 630–670. C. Bibliography: BÂRZU 2010, M. 66, 78, 83, 108, 175, 278.

5. Horse saddle 1. Șpălnaca (Alba County)/Şugud In the description of the graves with horses from Șpălnaca archaeologists mention fragments of iron straps that formed the metal structure of horse saddles. B. Dating: 650/670- 710/720. C. Bibliography: Șpălnaca Excavation Site Archive, National Museum of the Union in Alba Iulia. 2. Unirea 2/Veresmort (Alba County)/Traian St. 827 Sets of fittings and iron plates of different dimensionsfrom a horse saddle. A. Grave. B. Dating: 630–670. C. Bibliography: RUSTOIU/CIUTĂ 2015, 111, Pl. 7/5–6, 8–12. D. National Museum of the Union in Alba Iulia.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BÁLINT 1989 Cs. Bálint, Die Archäologie der Steppe. Steppenvölker zwischen Volga und Donau vom 6. Bis zum 10. Jahrhundert (Hrsg. F. Daim), Wien-Köln 1989.

BAVANT 2012 B. Bavant, Mors de chevaux d’époque protobyzantin: L’exemple de Caričin Grad, S. Lazaris (Sous la Direction), Le Cheval dans le Sociétés Antiques et Médiévales. Actes des journées d’étude internațioannales organisées par l’UMR 7044 (Étude des civilisations de l’Antiquité), Strasburg 6–7 novembre 2009, Turnhout 2012, Brepols Publisher, 143–154, 278–286.

BÂRZU 2010 L. Bârzu, Ein gepidisches Denkmal aus Siebenbürgen. Das Gräberfeld 3 von Bratei (Bearbeitet von R. Harhoiu). Mit Beträgen E. Zaharia und R. Harhoiu. Archaeologia Romanica 4. Cluj-Napoca 2010.

BODROGI 1913 J. Bodrogi, Alsófehérvármegyei honfoglaláskori leletek, Az Erdélyi Múzeum-Egyesület hetedik vándorgyűlésének emlékkönyve, Kolozsvár 1913, 16–29.

ČILINSKÁ 1966 Z. Čilinská, Slawisch-Awarisches Gräberfeld in Nové Zámky, Archaeologica Slovaca – Fontes, Bratislava 1966.

CIUCUDEANU 1974 H. Ciugudeanu, Mormântul unui călreț de la Măgina, jud. Alba. Studii de Istorie Veche și Arheologie (SCIVA), 25, 3, 1974, 457–459.

COSMA ET ALII 2013 C. Cosma, A. Dobos, G.T. Rustoiu, A. Rustoiu, O. Oargă, Războinici în Transilvania din epoca avară, Cluj-Napoca 2013. 206 Călin Cosma

COSMA 2014 Funnel-shaped snaffle bits of the 7th – 8th centuries discovered in Transylvania and Slovakia. Arkhaologisches Korrespondenzblatt, 44, 2014, 4, 563–575.

COSMA 2017 C. Cosma, Războinici avari în Transilvania / Avar warriors in Transylvania. Ethnic and cultural interferences in the 1st Millennium B.C. to the 1st Millennium A. D. 23. Cluj-Napoca 2017.

COSMA 2018 C. Cosma, Archaeological observations about the seventh-eighth-century horse graves from Transylvania. Ephemeris Napocensis, XXVIII, 2018, 75–110.

COSMA 2019 C. Cosma, The Avar Presence in Transylvania Chronology. Motivation. Territorial boundaries. inn Fl. Mărginean, I. Stanciu, L. Keve (Edt.), Inter tempora. The Chronology of the Early Medieval Period. Issues, Approaches, Results/Inter tempora. Cronologia perioadei medievale timpurii. Probleme, abordări, rezultate. Lucrările conferinței naționale Arad, 26–29 septembrie 2018, Orbis Mediaevalis II, Cluj-Napoca 2019, 47–65.

CURTA 2008 Fl. Curta, The earliest avar-age stirrups, or the “stirrup controversy” revisited, Fl. Curta, R. Kovalev (Eds.) The Other Europe in the Middle Ages. Avars, Bulgars, Khazars, and Cumans. Leiden / Boston. Brill 2008, 297–326.

DOBOS 2015 A. Dobos, Weapons and weapon depositions in the late row-grave cemeteries in Transylvania, în C. Cosma (Ed.), Warriors, weapons, and harness from the 5th–10th centuries in the Carpathian Basin. Ethnic and cultural interferences in the 1st Millennium B.C. to the 1st Millennium A. D. 22, Cluj-Napoca 2015, 57–88.

GARAM 1987 É. Garam, Pferdegräber der awarenzeitlichen gräberfeldes in Tiszafüred. Angaben der späta‑ warenzeitlichen. Pferdebestatungen. Alba Regia, XXIII, 1987, 65–123.

GARAM 1995 É. Garam, Das Awarenzeitliche Gräberfeld von Tiszafüred. Cemeteries of the avar period (567–829) in Hungary 3. Budapest 1995.

HOREDT 1958 K. Horedt, Contribuţii la istoria Transilvaniei. Sec. IV – XIII. Bucureşti 1958.

HOREDT 1968 K. Horedt, Das Awarenproblem in Rumänien. Studijné Zvesti (Nitra) 16, 1968, 103- 120.

IVANIŠEVIĆ/BUGARSKI 2012 V. Ivanišević, I. Bugarski, Les etriers byzantins: la documentation du Balkan Central. S. Lazaris (Sous la Direction), Le Cheval dans le Sociétés Antiques et Médiévales. Actes des journées d’étude internațioannales organisées par l’UMR 7044 (Étude des ulgarianons de l’Antiquité), Strasburg 6–7 novembre 2009. Turnhout 2012, Brepols Publisher, 135–277.

JUHÁSZ 1995 I. Juhász 1995, Awarenzeitchle Gräberfelder in der Gemarkung Orosháza. Monumenta Avarorum Archaeologica 1, Budapest 1995. Harness fittings from the 7th–8th centuries discovered in Transylvania. Stirrups and horse bits 207

JOTOV 2004 V. Jotov, V’or’ženieto I snarjaženieto. Ot b’lgarsnato srednovekovie (VII-XI vek). Varna 2004.

KAZANSKI 1999 M. Kazanski, L’armament slave du haut Moyen-Age (Ve-VIIe siecles). A propos de chefs ulgarian et des guerriers professionnels chez les anciens slaves. Přhled Výzkumů 39 (1995/1996). Brno 1999, 197–236.

KISS 1963 A. Kiss, Az avarkori lovas-temetkezés szkásának vizsgálata. Janus Pannonius Múzeum Évkönyvem. Pécs 1962, 153–162.

KISS 1977 A. Kiss, Avar Cemeteries in County Baranya. Cemeteries of the avar period (567–829) in Hungary 2. Budapest 1977.

KISS 1996 A. Kiss, Das awarenzeitlich gepidische Gräberfeld von Kölked-Feketekapu A, Monographien zur Frühgeschichte und Mittelarchäologie 2. Studien zur Archäologie der Awaren 5. Innsbruck 1996.

KISS 2001 Kiss A., Das awarenzeitliche Gräberfeld in Kölked-Feketekapu B, Teil I-II, Monumenta Avarorum Archaeologica, 6, Budapest 2001.

KOVRIG/KOREK 1960 I. Kovrig, J. Korek, La cimetiére de l’époquie avare de Csőka (Čoka), Acta Archaeologica Academie Scientiarum Hungaricae, XII, 1960, 1–4, 257–297.

LÁSZLÓ 1955 G. László, Études archéologiques sur l’histoire de la société des Avars. Archaeologia Hungarica (Budapest), XXXIV, 1955.

POLESKI 1997 J. Poleski, Kleinpolen im 8.–10. Jahrhundert. Bemerkungen zu den Beziehungen zwischen Kleinpolen und Böhmen, Mähren, Slowakei und Ungarn, în Central Europe in 8th–10th Centuries/ Mitteleuropa im 8.–10. Jahrhundert, Internaţional Scientific Conference, Bratislava October 2–4, 1995/Internaţionale Wissenschaftliche Konferenz 2.–4. Oktober 1995, Bratislava 1997, 15–26.

POPA 1961 Al. Popa, Materiale din perioada de trecere la feudalism în zona oraşului Alba Iulia, Studii şi Comunicări. Arheologie-Istorie-Etnografie (Apulum, Acta Musei Regionalis Apuensis) 4, 1961, 221–232.

ROSKA 1914 M. Roska Árpádkori temető Várfalván, Dolgozatok (Cluj), V, 1914, 125–187.

ROSKA 1927 M. Roska, Adatok a magyarság erdélyi honfoglalásához. Erdélyi Irodalmi Szemle IV, 2, 1927, 258–264 208 Călin Cosma

ROSKA 1944 M. Roska, A Hari (Hiria Alsó-Feher VM.), Honfoglaláskori Sírlelet. Közlemények IV, 1–2 (1944), 97–101.

RUSTOIU/DĂRĂMUȘ 2005 G. T. Rustoiu/C. Dărămuș, Piese de inventar funerar prefeudale descoperite la Geoagiu de Sus, com. Stremț, jud. Alba. C. I. Popa, G. T. Rustoiu (Eds), Omagiu Profesorului Ioan Andrițoiu. Studii și cercetări arheologice. Alba Iulia 2005, 483–490.

RUSTOIU/CIUTĂ 2015 G. T. Rustoiu, M. Ciută, An avar warrior’s grave recently discovered at Unirea-Vereşmort (Alba county). C. Cosma (Ed.), Warriors, weapons, and harness from the 5th–10th centuries in the Carpathian Basin. Ethnic and cultural interferences in the 1st Millennium B.C. to the 1st Millennium A. D. 22. Cluj-Napoca 2015, 107–127.

RUSU 1962 M. Rusu, The prefeudal cemetery of Noşlac (VIth-VIIth Centuries). Dacia N.S., VI, 1962, 269–292.

RUSU 1964 M. Rusu, Cimitirul prefeudal de la Noşlac. Probleme de Muzeografie. Cluj 1964, 32–45.

RUTTKAY 1976 A. Ruttkay, Wafen und reiterausrüstung des 9. bis zur ersten Hälfte des 14. Jahrhunderts in der Slowakei, II, Slovenská Archeologia, XXIV, 1976, 2, 245–395.

TÉGLÁS 2005, I/1–2 Bajus I. (Ed.), Téglás István jegyzetei. Régészeti feljegyzések, I/1–2, Scientia Kiadó. Kolosvár, 2005.

TRUGLY 1987 Al. Trugly, Gräberfeld aus der zeit des awarischen reiches bei der schiffswerft in Komárno. Slovenská Archeológia, XXXV–2, 1987, 251–344.

VÖRÖS 2015 I. Vörös, Pferdebebestattungen. G. Laszlo, Das awarenzeitchlie gräberfeld in Csákberény- Orondpuszta. Monumenta Avarorum Archaeologica 11, Budapest 2015, 198–208.

WINKLER/TAKACS/PĂIUŞ 1977 I. Winkler, M. Takacs, Gh. Păiuş, Necropola avară de la Cicău. Acta Musei Napocensis, XIV, 1977, 269–283.

ZAHARIA 1977 E. Zaharia, Populaţia românească în Transilvania în secolele VII-VIII. Cimitirul nr. 2 de la Bratei. Bucureşti 1977.

ZOLL-ADAMIKOWA 1992 H. Zoll-Adamikowa, Zur chronologie der awarenzeitlichen funde aus Polen. Probleme der relativen und absoluten chronologie AB Laténenzeit bis zum Frühmittelalter, Materialien des III. Internaţionales Symposium: Grundprobleme der frühgeschichtlichen Entwicklung im nördlichen Mitteldonaugebiet, Kraków- Karniowice 3.–7. Dezember 1990, Kraków 1992, 297–315. Harness fittings from the 7th–8th centuries discovered in Transylvania. Stirrups and horse bits 209

Pl. 1 – Stirrups. Type 1a: 1–3 – Aiud; 4-9 – Bratei 3; 10–11 Gâmbș; 12 – Teiuș. 210 Călin Cosma

Pl. 2 – Stirrups Type 1a: 1–2 – Stremț; 4–5 – Stremț; 3–4 – Târnăveni; 5–6 – Unirea 2. Tip 1b: 7-8 – Gâmbaș. Harness fittings from the 7th–8th centuries discovered in Transylvania. Stirrups and horse bits 211

Pl. 3 – Stirrups. Type/Tip B.1: 1 – Bratei 3. Type B.2: 2. Type B. 3: 4–5 – Cicău; 6-7 – Geoagiu de Sus. 212 Călin Cosma

Pl. 4- Stirrups. Type B.5: 1–2 – Bratei 2; 3–4 – Heria; 5–6 Măgina; 7-8 – Lopadea Nouă. Harness fittings from the 7th–8th centuries discovered in Transylvania. Stirrups and horse bits 213

Pl. 5 – Stirrups. Type B.5: 1–2 Noșlac; 3–6 – Șpălnaca; 7-8 – Teiuș; 9 – Câmpia Turzii. Type C.1: 10 – Câmpia Turzii. Type C.2: 11 – Câmpia Turzii. 214 Călin Cosma

Pl. 6 – Horse bits. Type 1: 1–2, 14 – Aiud; 3-7, 12–13; – Bratei 3; 8-9 – Gâmbaș, 10 – Stremț; 11 – Sfântu Gheorghe. Harness fittings from the 7th–8th centuries discovered in Transylvania. Stirrups and horse bits 215

Pl. 7 – Horse bits. Type 2.1: 1 – Bratei 2; 2 – Bratei; 3 – Noșlac; 4 – Câmpia Turzii; 5–6 – Șpălnaca; 7 – Teiuș; 8 – Unirea 2; 9- Cicău. Tip. 3: 9 – Sfântu Gheorghe. 216 Călin Cosma

Pl. 8 – Harness strap distributors and buckles: 1–13 – Bratei 3.