The representations of life outside in first-year technical

university textbooks in and their influence on students’

intercultural communicative competence in English learning

THI LAN HUONG LAM

BA, MA (University of Languages and International Studies – VNU)

Submitted to the School of Education

University of Newcastle

in fulfillment

of the requirements for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (EDUCATION)

October 2017

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STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

I hereby certify that the work embodied in the thesis is my own work, conducted under normal supervision.

The thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution and, to the best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference has been made in the text. I give consent to the final version of my thesis being made available worldwide when deposited in the University’s Digital

Repository, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1986.

Signed: Date: October 10, 2017

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This thesis would not have been accomplished without the continuous support of many significant people and organisations. I would like to gratefully acknowledge them all here.

I wish to express my deepest and sincerest thanks to my academic supervisors at the University of Newcastle - Professor James Albright and Doctor I-Fang Lee. I feel fortunate to have had their joint supervision. Words fail to express my gratitude to Professor James Albright for his invaluable guidance, continuous support and encouragement as well as critical comments and insightful suggestions on every single piece of my research.

My great thanks also go to Associate Professor Michelle Picard, Deputy Director English Language and Foundation Studies Centre, for her valuable feedback in the later stages of my PhD. In spite of her workload, she dedicated her precious time to read my chapter drafts and inspired me with her strong motivation. My great thanks also go to Ruth McHugh for proofreading my thesis.

I would like to thank the Vietnamese Governement and the University of Newcastle for providing me with a VIED-TUIT scholarship to support my doctoral study. I would like to acknowledge the Faculty of Education and Arts, School of Education at the University of Newcastle, especially its supportive staff, who provided me with the greatest facilities, professional research and learning environment during my candidature. My thanks also go to my friends and colleagues at AOB building who are always by my side on rainy or sunny days in my PhD journey. Their continuous assistance has enabled me to progress in my research.

Last but not least, my loving thanks and heartfelt gratitude go to my family, especially my husband, Quy Thanh Nguyen, and my two daughters, Ngoc Thuy Anh Nguyen and Ngoc Cam Tu Nguyen, for always being by my side and consistently encouraging me to do my best. I am also thankful to my late dad, my mum and my family members in Vietnam for trusting me and being such an excellent source of support. This thesis is dedicated to my family.

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TABLE OF CONTENT STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ...... i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... ii TABLE OF CONTENT ...... iii ABSTRACT ...... viii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...... x LIST OF TABLES ...... xi LIST OF FIGURES ...... xii LIST OF APPENDICES ...... xiv Chapter One: Introduction ...... 1 1.1. Background to the Study ...... 1 1.1.1. English in Vietnam before 1986...... 1 1.1.2. English in Vietnam from 1986 to the present...... 2 1.1.3. The increasing importance of English in ’s perception...... 3 1.1.4. The National Foreign Language Project 2008-2020 (NFLP 2020)...... 4 1.1.5. ELT textbooks in the Vietnamese context...... 5 1.2. Why Study Textbook Choice? ...... 7 1.3. The Need for Research on Cultural Representation in ELT Textbooks ...... 9 1.4. The Aim of the Research ...... 11 1.5. Research Questions ...... 12 1.6. Context of the Research ...... 13 1.6.1. Brief history of Vietnamese foreign language policy in education...... 13 The influence of Chinese feudalism ...... 13 The influence of French colonialism ...... 14 The partition period 1954-1975 with the influence of Russia and the US ...... 15 The influence of Soviet Communism after the 1975 reunification ...... 16 The Doi Moi policy and the trend of international integration ...... 17 1.6.2. The general Vietnamese education system...... 20 The organisation of Vietnamese education system ...... 20 English at primary, lower and upper secondary levels ...... 21 1.6.3. Vietnamese higher education...... 23 The role of Ministry of Education and Training and other line Ministries ...... 25 The diversification of higher ...... 27 1.6.4. EFL teaching at the tertiary level...... 29 1.7. Significance of the Research ...... 31 1.8. Organisation of the Study ...... 33 1.9. Summary of Chapter One ...... 35 Chapter Two: Literature Review ...... 37 2.1. ELT Textbooks in EFL Classrooms ...... 38 2.1.1. The role of ELT textbooks in EFL classrooms...... 38 2.1.2. ELT textbooks selection process...... 42 2.2. Representation of Everyday Life as Culture ...... 44 2.3. Representation of Culture in ELT Textbooks ...... 46 2.3.1. English as an International Language (EIL)...... 46 iii

2.3.2. Culture in EIL paradigm...... 48 2.3.3. EIL and implications for cultures in ELT textbooks...... 51 2.3.4. Approaches to examining cultural representation in textbooks...... 56 2.3.5. Theoretical framework for cultural representations in ELT textbooks in this study...... 59 2.4. The Connection between the Representation of Culture in ELT Textbooks and Language Learning ...... 61 2.4.1. Cultural aspects in foreign language learning...... 61 2.4.2. Effects of cultural aspects in foreign language learning...... 64 2.4.3. Intercultural approach in foreign language education...... 66 Understanding the goal of Intercultural Language Teaching (ILT) ...... 66 Intercultural communicative competence ...... 67 The role of language teachers in ILT ...... 72 2.5. Summary ...... 75 Chapter 3: Methodology ...... 78 3.1. Overview ...... 78 3.2. Qualitative Paradigm ...... 81 3.3. Qualitative Descriptive Research ...... 82 3.4. Phase One ...... 84 3.4.1. Research sites...... 84 3.4.2. Respondents...... 86 3.4.3. Structured interviews...... 87 3.4.4. Interview Protocols...... 88 3.4.5. Conducting the Interviews...... 89 3.4.6. Data collection...... 90 3.4.7. Data analysis...... 90 3.5. Phase Two ...... 94 3.5.1. Content analysis...... 94 3.5.2. Instruments...... 96 3.5.3. Data collection...... 101 3.5.4. Data analysis...... 102 3.6. Phase Three ...... 105 3.6.1. In-depth interviews...... 106 3.6.2. Teachers...... 107 3.6.3. Students...... 108 3.6.4. Interview Protocols...... 108 3.6.5. Conducting the interviews...... 109 3.6.6. Data collection...... 110 3.6.7. Data analysis...... 110 3.7. Ensuring the Reliability of the Research ...... 114 3.8. Ethical Considerations ...... 116 3.9. Summary ...... 118 Chapter 4: Phase One Findings ...... 120 4.1. Overview ...... 120 4.2. Textbook Use in Technical Universities in Hanoi ...... 121 4.2.1. The context of textbook use...... 121 Number of English teaching hours (THN) ...... 122 Additional English teaching hours (ATH) ...... 124 Entry requirements (EnR) ...... 126 iv

English exit requirement (ExR) ...... 130 General discussions of the English teaching programs ...... 131 4.2.2. Current ELT textbook use...... 134 4.3. Textbook Choice and Evaluation ...... 138 4.3.1. Reasons for textbook choice...... 138 More common reasons for textbook choice ...... 138 Less common reasons for textbook choice ...... 146 4.3.2. Reasons for textbook change...... 148 More common reasons for textbook change ...... 149 Less common reasons for textbook change ...... 151 4.3.3. The process of textbook selection...... 152 Predictive evaluation (PE) ...... 152 Retrospective evaluation (RE) ...... 153 4.4. Summary ...... 155 Chapter 5: Phase Two Findings ...... 158 5.1. Overview ...... 158 5.2. General Description of the Textbook Corpus ...... 159 5.2.1. Cutting Edge Elementary Third Edition (CEe3)...... 160 5.2.2. New Cutting Edge Elementary (NCEe)...... 161 5.2.3. New English File Pre-Intermediate (NEFpr-i)...... 162 5.2.4. American English File Elementary (AEFpr-i)...... 163 5.2.5. New Headway Pre-Intermediate Third Edition (NHpr-i3)...... 163 5.2.6. Straightforward Elementary Second Edition (SFe2)...... 164 5.2.7. Objective KET (OKET)...... 164 5.3. Sources of Cultures in the Corpus of Seven Textbooks ...... 165 5.3.1. Representations of source culture...... 166 5.3.2. Representation of target culture and international target culture...... 170 Textbooks featuring more international target than target cultural representations ...... 171 Textbooks featuring equal target and international target cultural representations ...... 176 Textbooks featuring more target cultural representations ...... 182 5.3.3. Summary of cultural representations in the corpus of textbooks...... 184 5.4. Senses of Cultures in the Corpus of Seven Textbooks ...... 186 5.4.1. Sociological sense of culture...... 187 5.4.2. Aesthetic sense of culture...... 191 5.4.3. Semantic sense of culture...... 196 5.4.4. Pragmatic sense of culture...... 198 5.5. Summary ...... 200 Chapter Six: Phase Three Findings ...... 204 6.1. Overview ...... 204 6.2. Students’ Responses from ‘Location’ and ‘Interest’ Perspectives ...... 206 6.2.1. Students’ responses from a ‘location’ perspective...... 206 ELT textbooks ...... 206 Students’ interpretation of cultural representations in ELT textbooks ...... 212 6.2.2. Students’ responses from ‘interest’ perspective...... 220 Students’ views on the influence of cultural representations from an ‘interest’ perspective ... 221 Students’ views of cultural teaching practice from an ‘interest’ perspective ...... 225 6.3. Teachers’ Responses from ‘Cultural Experience’ Perspectives ...... 230 6.3.1. Teachers’ viewpoints on ELT textbooks...... 231 6.3.2. Cultural representations in ELT textbooks...... 240 6.3.3. Cultural teaching pedagogy...... 247 v

6.4. Similarities and Differences in Teachers and Students’ Perceptions of Cultural Representations and the Influence of these Representations on Students’ Development of Intercultural Communicative Competence ...... 259 6.4.1. Teachers and students’ perceptions of cultural representations in ELT textbooks...... 259 6.4.2. Teachers and students’ perceptions of cultural influence in intercultural communicative competence...... 262 6.5. Summary ...... 265 Chapter Seven: Discussion and Conclusion ...... 267 7.1. Overview ...... 267 7.2. Addressing the Research Questions ...... 269 7.2.1. The corpus of current textbooks at ten technical universities in Hanoi...... 269 General descriptions of these technical universities’ EFL teaching programs ...... 269 Current ELT textbooks at ten participating universities ...... 271 7.2.2. The process of and the reasons for textbook choice...... 271 Subjective process of textbook selection ...... 272 Reasons for textbook choices ...... 272 Reasons for textbook changes ...... 274 7.2.3. Sources of cultures represented in these textbooks...... 275 7.2.4. Types of cultures represented in these textbooks...... 278 7.2.5. Teachers and students’ perceptions of the influence of life outside Vietnam on ICC...... 279 7.3. Discussion of Findings ...... 283 7.3.1. Issues arising from the current provisions of technical university EFL programs and the course objectives toward students’ intercultural communicative competence. 284 7.3.2. Issues arising from the representations of life outside Vietnam and the development of students’ ICC...... 286 The dominance of target and international target cultures ...... 286 The underrepresentation of source culture (Vietnamese culture) ...... 287 Unfamiliar cultural representations without culture-based activities ...... 289 The dominance of life outside Vietnam representations in sociological and aesthetic senses . 291 The underrepresentation of life outside Vietnam in semantic and pragmatic senses ...... 292 7.3.3. Issues arising from students’ interest in learning English and their ICC development...... 293 7.3.4. Issues arising from Vietnamese technical university EFL teachers’ practices and the development of students’ ICC...... 294 Teachers’ hesitation in engaging with cultural representations ...... 294 Teachers’ focus on linguistic elements rather than cultural elements ...... 295 Teachers focusing on linguistic skills rather than intercultural skills ...... 296 7.4. Recommendations to Improve Vietnamese Technical University Students’ Intercultural Communicative Competence ...... 297 7.4.1 Recommendations for course provisions...... 299 Entry requirement ...... 299 Exit requirement ...... 300 Teaching time allocation ...... 302 Class size ...... 303 Textbook selection ...... 303 7.4.2. Recommendations for teaching cultural representation...... 304 Sources of culture ...... 305 Senses of culture ...... 307 7.4.3. Recommendations for culture-based pedagogical practices...... 309 vi

7.4.4. Recommendations for students’ intercultural learning...... 312 7.4.5. Recommendations for teachers’ intercultural teaching...... 315 7.5. Practical Implications ...... 316 7.5.1. Recommendations for textbooks designers...... 317 7.5.2. Recommendations for English language education administrators...... 318 7.5.3. Recommendations for EFL teachers...... 320 7.5.4. Recommendations for students...... 321 7.6. Limitations ...... 322 7.7. Suggestions for Further Research ...... 324 7.8. Final Reflection: Lessons Learnt and Experiences Drawn by the Researcher .... 325 REFERENCES ...... 326 APPENDICES ...... 349

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ABSTRACT English Language Teaching (ELT) textbooks are an indispensable component in language classrooms to transport cultural elements, societal values, and attitudes as well as language knowledge, to support the process of foreign language acquisition (Rajabi & Ketabi, 2012). Designed for the purpose of international use, these commercial ELT textbooks expose learners to foreign perspectives embedded in cultural representations. In many Asian countries where English is spoken as a foreign language, ELT textbooks are the predominant source of language and culture that learners are exposed to. In Vietnamese non-major universities, commercial ELT textbooks are sometimes the only source of language input, which to some extent, offer undeniable and remarkable advantages in providing the context of lessons and classroom practice (Nguyen, 2011).

Important as they may be, little is known about ELT textbook choice, and foreign cultural representations in these ELT textbooks in Vietnamese tertiary education. This study examines the current textbook use in ten technical universities in Hanoi, which are the representatives of non-major universities in Vietnam. This study not only focuses on the representations of culture as life outside Vietnam in these ELT textbooks but also investigates how these cultural differences influence students’ development of intercultural communicative competence in language learning.

The study was conducted in three phases: phase one (administrator interviews and textbook collection), phase two (textbook analysis) and phase three (teachers and students’ interviews). In phase one, structured interviews with Heads/Vice Heads of Language Faculties identified a corpus of similar and different current ELT textbooks and the context in which these textbooks were used. Phase two focused on the cultural representations of life outside Vietnam in these textbooks, applying a sources of culture model (Cortazzi & Jin, 1999), and senses of culture framework (Adaskou et al., 1990). The findings demonstrate a predominance of foreign cultural representations, with strong focus on British-American and European cultures, and an underrepresentation of the source culture (Vietnamese culture in this context) and many different international cultures. Phase two also discovered a similar pattern to these textbooks emphasising the sociological and aesthetic sense of culture, with less emphasis on the semantic and pragmatic senses. In viii

phase three, semi-structured interviews with teachers and students were conducted to explore how students and teachers perceived and responded to these representations in their learning and teaching activities. The data analysis in this phase observed a strong agreement of teachers and students on the patterns of cultural representations in these textbooks. This phase also identified multiple teachers and students’ views of the influence of cultural representations on students’ intercultural communicative competence and their cultural teaching pedagogies.

The research has revealed four key issues: The issues arising from the current provisions of technical university English Foreign Language (EFL) programs and the course objectives toward students’ intercultural communicative competence (ICC); the issues arising from the representations of life outside Vietnam embedded in Vietnamese technical university textbooks and the development of students’ ICC; the issues arising from Vietnamese technical university students’ learning interests and their development of ICC; and the issues arising from Vietnamese technical university EFL teachers’ cultural teaching practices and the development of students’ ICC. From the four discussions, I propose recommendations to improve technical university students’ ICC. These recommendations include the course provisions, the cultural content and culture-based activities that may be applied to technical university contexts to develop students’ understanding of cultural differences and their ICC.

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ELT English Language Teaching

ICC Intercultural Communicative Competence

EFL English Foreign Language

MoET Ministry of Education and Training

NFLP2020 National Foreign Language Project 2020

CEFR Common European Framework Reference

CLT Communciative Language Teaching

EIL English as an International Language

ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations

WTO World Trade Organisatoin

AFTA ASEAN Free Trade Area

MARD Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development

RMIT Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology

ESL English as a Second Language

ILT Intercultural Language Teaching

STEM Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics

TOEIC Test of English for International Communication

PET Preliminary English Test

KET Key English Test

MoNRE Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1. Research design

Table 3.2. Ten participating technical universities in Hanoi

Table 3.3. Research participants for phase one interviews

Table 3.4. A-priory codes for the first phase

Table 3.5. Inductive codes

Table 3.6. Potential themes and supporting codes in phase one

Table 3.7. Analysed textbooks at ten participating universities and their lables

Table 3.8. A-priory coding device for content analysis

Table 3.9. Participating teachers and students in phase three

Table 3.10. Key terms in data analysis

Table 3.11. Procedures to ensure reliability of the research

Table 4.1. English teaching programs at technical universities in Hanoi

Table 4.2. Current English textbooks at ten participating universities

Table 5.1. Core findings of phase two

Table 5.2. General descriptions of the textbook corpus

Table 5.3. The use of aesthetic sense topics in the seven textbooks

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1. The education system in Vietnam Figure 1.2. Organisation of government management system Figure 1.3. Diagram of the line-management education system in Vietnam Figure 2.1. Kachru’s three circles of English Figure 2.2. Three categories of culture Figure 2.3. Intercultural competence elements Figure 2.4. Point of articulation between culture and language Figure 2.5. A pathway for developing intercultural competence Figure 3.1. Illustration of this research phases Figure 3.2. New Headway Pre-Intermediate Third Edition representing target culture Figure 3.3. New Headway Pre-Intermediate Third Edition representing international target culture Figure 3.4. An example of aesthetic sense representation Figure 3.5. An example of sociological sense representation Figure 3.6. An example of semantic sense representation Figure 3.7. An example of pragmatic sense representation Figure 3.8. An example of textbook manual coding Figure 3.9. Thematic analysis phases based on Brawn and Clarke (2006) Figure 3.10. An example of Nvivo assisted coding Figure 4.1. Illustration of phase one findings Figure 5.1. Sources of culture in the corpus of seven textbooks Figure 5.2. Vietnamese cultural representations of each textbook Figure 5.3. Example of Vietnamese cultural representation in CEe3 Figure 5.4. Target and international target cultural respresentations in the corpus Figure 5.5. The dominance of international target culture in CEe3, NCE and OKET Figure 5.6. Example of international target cultural representation in CEe3 Figure 5.7. Example of target and international target cultural representation in CEe3(1) Figure 5.8. Example of target and international target cultural representation in CEe3(2) Figure 5.9. Example of target cultural representation in OKET (1)

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Figure 5.10. Example of target cultural representation in OKET (2) Figure 5.11. Approximately equal representations of target and international target culture in NEFpr-I, AEFpr-I and NHpr-i Figure 5.12. Changes in names of places in the same text in NEFpr-i and AEFpr-i Figure 5.13. Representations of international target culture in NEFpr-i and AEFpr-i Figure 5.14. Representations of target and international target culture in NEFpr-i Figure 5.15. Representatives of continents other than Europe and America Figure 5.16. Representations of Africa in NHpr-i3 Figure 5.17. Cultural representations of life outside Vietnam in SFe2 Figure 5.18. Target cultural representations in SFe2 Figure 5.19. Representation of life outside Vietnam in four senses of culture Figure 5.20. Frequent occurrence of names of people Figure 5.21. Frequent occurrence of names of places Figure 5.22. Conversations amongs friends Figure 5.23. The quiz of “Fifty years of rock” Figure 5.24. Aesthetic sense representation providing context for skill practice Figure 5.25. Presentation of life outside Vietnam in pragmatic sense of culture Figure 6.1. Organisation of Chapter Six Figure 7.1. Recommendations to improve students’ ICC at Vietnamese technical universities Figure 7.2. Expanding learners’ understanding of culture components Figure 7.3. Different stages of intercultural learning.

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1. Common European Framework of Reference Appendix 2. Test scores equivalency table Appendix 3. Faculty interview protocol Appendix 4. Teacher interview protocol Appendix 5. Student interview protocol Appendix 6. Unit 5 – Cutting Edge Elementary Third Edition Appendix 7. Checklists of content analysis Appendix 8. Worksheet grid – Sources of culture & Senses of culture Appendix 9. Examples of changes in AEFpr-I and NEFpr-i Appendix 10. Notification of Expedited Approval for Ethics Appendix 11. Information statement for rectors Appendix 12. Consent form for teachers

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Chapter One: Introduction

1.1. Background to the Study English is a global language and an important means of international business transactions and trade exchange among people from different national, cultural, ethnic and linguistic backgrounds. English is the mother tongue and official language in the Inner Circle countries such as , the UK and the US. It is not the native tongue but an official language at an institutional level in the Outer Circle countries such as , the Philippines and India. In the Expanding Circle countries such as , Japan or Vietnam, English is spoken as a foreign language (Kachru, 1992). In addition to the immense contribution of the dominance of English to Inner Circle and Outer Circle countries (Hu & McKay, 2012; Phillipson, 1996; Schneider, 2011), the increasing number of people speaking English in the Expanding Circle increases its significance, making English truly a lingua franca (Dinh, 2014; Hu & McKay, 2012; S. McKay & Bokhorst-Heng, 2008). In an era of international integration, having a workforce fluent in English is a basis for social and economic development. English language education, without exception, receives great attention in Vietnam (V. V. Hoang, 2011; H. T. Le, 2012).

1.1.1. English in Vietnam before 1986. It is not officially recorded when English was first introduced into Vietnam (V. V. Hoang, 2011). The English language was taught during the period of French colonial rule, although it was not as prevalent as the French language. English foreign language (EFL) teaching at that time was not well documented. From reviewing the content of English textbooks by French authors of the colonial period, such as L’anglais Vivant: Classe de sixieme, L’anglais Vivant Classes de troisieme, it can be inferred that the grammar-translation method was prevailingly used at the time (V. V. Hoang, 2011).

Later, from 1954 to 1975, with the partitioning of the country, the situation of EFL teaching and learning was different in each region according to their political direction. In , English was the official foreign language due to the dominant influence of the US alliance. In contrast, in , only some EFL classes were taught in big towns

1 and cities, with the goals confined only “to get to know the USA and to fight against the US invasion on the diplomatic front” (V. V. Hoang, 2011, p. 8).

After 1975, the two were unified and the country was reconstructed with support from Russia and Eastern Bloc countries. This period saw the decline of EFL education at secondary and tertiary levels across the whole country (V. V. Hoang, 2011). Every year, only a small number of Vietnamese teachers and interpreters were sent to English speaking countries, such as Britain, Australia or New Zealand, for graduate studies in EFL teaching (Do, 1996).

1.1.2. English in Vietnam from 1986 to the present. December 1986 was an important turning point for the country. Vietnam initiated an overall economic reform named Doi Moi, opening up the country to the outside world (Dang, Nguyen, & Le, 2013) (see section 1.6.1, pages 17-19). In line with this broad policy shift, English became the first and the main foreign language to be taught in Vietnam. Vietnamese educational reforms have introduced EFL teaching across primary to tertiary curricula (T. M. H. Nguyen, 2011a). The rapid growth and expansion of English has been due to the growth of international businesses and trades in the new market economy, and the increasing number of foreign tourists coming to Vietnam. As English has become an international language, Vietnamese EFL learners have desired to use English as a medium of international communication (Ho, 2011). English has been taught in schools, in universities and in booming evening language centres across the country. About fifteen years ago, English language centres experienced fast development and expansion when people of all ages attended English evening classes after daytime work or study.

Since the introduction of English into the national teaching curriculum, the quality of English teaching and learning at primary, secondary and tertiary levels has been “problematic for recent governments of Vietnam” (Wright, 2002, p. 225). The grammar- translation method in which “teacher and textbooks are seen as authoritative sources of knowledge” prevailed for a long time in English Language Teaching (ELT) (Jin & Cortazzi, 1998, p.102). The focus of English teaching on grammar and vocabulary positions language as an object of study rather than an effective means of communication (Maley, 1998). This traditional memory-based English teaching approach is “usually devoid of

2 contextual meaning and takes precedence over meaningful communication” (Maley, 1998, p.105). In this context, the importance of teaching culture is not emphasised (Yen, 2000).

There were other reasons for the difficult EFL learning and teaching situation in Vietnam. Vietnam belongs to the Expanding Circle of countries where English is a foreign language (Kachru, 1992). In such an EFL environment, learners have few opportunities to use English outside the classroom. Besides that, limited English class hours, large class sizes and teachers’ poor language proficiency and inappropriate teaching methods all contribute to the learners’ difficulty with speaking and listening abilities (Gonen & Saglam, 2012; Hoang, 2013; Phan, 2004). After four years of learning English in lower secondary school, and three more years in upper secondary school, students’ language proficiency is “limited within some basic tasks such as introducing oneself or describing some simple objects in the house” (H. T. Le, 2012, p. 2). Vietnamese learners “failed to use even common and simple sayings to communicate” (Khuong, 2015, p. 68). They may be very fluent in grammar and lexical items but show less confidence in communicating with foreigners (Nguyễn, 2003). They learnt to know about the language, not to use it in communication.

In spite of considerable efforts made by Vietnamese Government and the Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) during the last few decades, English education in Vietnam has failed to meet policy makers’ and learners’ expectations (Mai & Iwashita, 2012). With rushed development, and without major changes and improvement in the curricula, methodology and teaching materials, English education in Vietnam has not fulfilled the main objectives of the national curriculum. The quality of EFL teaching and learning, in general, has been inadequate to meet that necessary for the socio-economic development of the country (V. V. Hoang, 2011; H. T. Le, 2012).

1.1.3. The increasing importance of English in Vietnamese people’s perception. Vietnamese people demonstrate their increasing recognition of the importance of English in everyday communication. Although the EFL teaching and learning situation in Vietnam is not fully satisfactory, Vietnamese people express a growing appreciation for the important status of English and support the Government’s foreign language policy. In the context of economic and cultural integration, the Vietnamese Government and their people understand that they need reforms to improve the quality of English teaching and learning. By so doing

3 Vietnam can participate in international networks and profit fully from foreign investment (Wright, 2002). Unless employees acquire the English language needed for their work, investing companies may recruit staff from abroad and therefore diminish Vietnam’s employment and investment opportunities.

The Ministry of Education and Training (MoET), as the implementing agency of the government, recognises the need to review English pedagogy (Wright, 2002). The traditional teaching approach which emphasises the accuracy of written language and takes little account of the acquisition of fluency in spoken language is now no longer considered appropriate (Bianco, 1994). MoET is determined to “develop English language skills on a long-term strategic basis” (To, 2010, p. 106). Given the important role of English and the urgent need for communicative competence in language learning, the Vietnamese government and MoET have made efforts to develop solutions to improve the quality of English teaching and learning. For example, they have organised a series of international and national conferences and seminars about English language education (H. T. Le, 2012). These efforts have also been acknowledged and reconfirmed through the decisions and decrees regarding foreign language policy issued by the government and MoET (Fry, 2009; George, 2010).

1.1.4. The National Foreign Language Project 2008-2020 (NFLP 2020). The Prime Minister issued Decision 1400-QD-TTg for the improvement of foreign language teaching and learning in the national educational system for 2008-2020. In conjunction with this decree, MoET launched a project entitled, Reforming and Improving the Effectiveness of Teaching and Using English in Vietnam’s National Education System, 2008-2020 (T. M. H. Nguyen, 2011b; To, 2010; H. T. Le, 2012; D. M. Le, 2012). This project’s goal is a critical and comprehensive change in English teaching and learning across the whole education system. Its specific goal is to implement a ten-year program, which introduces English as a compulsory subject from Grade 3 at primary level all the way up to tertiary education. Another main goal focuses on foreign language programs for vocational and undergraduate education, especially for non-English major students. The project has implications for the essential factors in language learning: teacher and professional development, curriculum and pedagogy revision, and textbook choice (Dang et

4 al., 2013; To, 2010; D. M. Le, 2012). Within this broad foreign language reform across the national education system, one of the significant changes is the mapping of English learners’ outcomes against the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) benchmark (D. M. Le, 2012). As the entity in charge of the project’s implementation, MoET has issued the Common Framework of Levels of Foreign Language Proficiency, based on the CEFR: Learning, Teaching and Assessment (NFLP, 2020) (Appendix 1). In MoET’s framework, there are six levels of English Proficiency similar to those of CEFR. Using these six levels, the national language curriculum will be designed accordingly (H. T. Le, 2012). By 2020, Vietnamese high school, college and university graduates are expected to achieve level B1, which means they are “able to use English to communicate confidently and be able to study and work in a multi-lingual and multi-cultural environment; thus, better enabling young Vietnamese people to contribute to the industrialisation and modernisation of the country” (To, 2010, p. 106). The NFLP 2020 demonstrates the government’s strong determination to improve English education in Vietnam.

1.1.5. ELT textbooks in the Vietnamese context. When the NFLP 2020 determined that textbook innovation was one of this strategic plan's priorities as part of a comprehensive change in English language teaching across the whole educational system, it emphasised the important role of ELT textbooks in English education in Vietnam. ELT textbooks are often considered a major source of language knowledge and instructional tool in language classrooms (Dinh, 2014; H. T. Le, 2012). As in many countries worldwide, textbooks represent the teaching syllabus for language teachers (V. V. Hoang, 2011). ELT textbooks support the process of English teaching and learning, and bridge the gap between the output requirements of the language course and the actual practice of language learners. The importance of ELT textbooks is thus justified as a significant aspect within the process of language education, which contributes to the transformation of society (Weninger & Kiss, 2013).

In Vietnam, adherence to ELT textbooks at secondary levels has a long history. Since English was introduced across the national curriculum, public primary and secondary schools across the country have been “compelled by law to use the set of textbooks prescribed by MoET” (VDFL, 2005, cited in T. T. V. V. Hoang, 2011, p. 1). Experts in

5 subject area work along with educational administrators to write the curriculum framework that determines the scope and content of these textbooks. This requirement assumes a ‘one- size-fits-all’ approach. Teachers of the same grade all over the country use the same textbooks with the same time schedule for each subject (Vietnam MoET, 2002-2010). Under this policy, the national ELT textbooks, and the locally designed three-year set of English textbooks for senior secondary and the seven-year set of English textbooks for both junior and senior secondary schools, are the backbone of English teaching and learning in schools in Vietnam (H. T. Le, 2012).

There is a different requirement for ELT textbooks at a tertiary level. Universities and colleges have more freedom to choose ELT textbooks for their students. Language major universities may design their own language teaching materials, which are suitable for their students’ language levels and learning purposes. Non-language-major universities very often rely on commercial course books produced by international publishing houses (D. T. Nguyen, 2007). Some popular ELT textbooks are: New Headway, New English File or American English File.

Textbooks are said to be “a major instructional tool of language teaching” and “a key way of transmitting cultural knowledge” (D. T. Nguyen, 2007, p. 3). In other words, global textbooks are a product of culture because textbook writers consciously or unconsciously disseminate the values of their own English-speaking countries in what they compose (Alptekin, 1993). In Vietnam, where English is spoken as a foreign language, students’ exposure to English and its cultures is derived mainly from ELT textbooks (Dinh, 2014). As ELT textbooks are the primary resource of English education, and teachers depend heavily on textbooks in class, ELT textbooks are the main source of cultural knowledge in English teaching and learning in Vietnamese classrooms.

Designed for the purpose of international use, global ELT textbooks introduce learners to target cultural perspectives embedded in their language input. Textbooks written by native speakers of English tend to assume that Vietnamese learners can understand the cultural bias of the English language, while those by Vietnamese writers tend to incorrectly interpret the cultural context of English expressions and texts (Tran, 1990). Those factors influence language learning. In Vietnamese university language classrooms, learners are

6 bewildered by culture-related representations in textbooks (Nguyễn, 2003). Due to lack of cultural awareness, learners may misunderstand or misinterpret the meanings or the values of other cultures. This connects to my personal experience as a language teacher, one of the factors that initiated my determination to conduct this research.

1.2. Why Study Textbook Choice? As a significant ambassador of another culture, ELT textbooks provide learners with linguistic knowledge which reflects a particular way of looking at the world and demonstrates both socio-cultural practices and an understanding of a society (Tahir Yaqoob & Zubair, 2012). However, “the culture-bound nature of ELT materials can present serious dilemmas in the language classroom” (Nault, 2006, p. 322). Learners may be motivated to understand more about the culture represented in the new language because understanding different cultural values enables them to become more globally mobile. It is also possible that these cultural values may be largely irrelevant, uninteresting or even confusing for learners (McKay, 2003a). Images and concepts that appear natural or harmless to the average Western reader (alcohol or pre-marital relationships) may be viewed as intrusive or demeaning by people from other backgrounds (Muslim people, for example) (Nault, 2006). Differences in cultures, if not explained, may prevent learners from realising the underlying meanings of cultural representations in textbooks and communicating successfully with others (D. M. Le, 2012). For example, while walking under a ladder is considered bad luck or a horseshoe is good luck in English speaking cultures, these two concepts have no special meaning in Vietnamese culture.

As an English foreign language teacher at a technical university, I have experienced various situations relating to learners’ difficulties in coping with cultural representations in ELT textbooks. In foreign language learning, in order to use language properly, learners need to know not only linguistic resources to express what they want to say, but also the rules of using different speech acts. These rules provide information regarding when and for what purpose it is appropriate to use that speech act, and which expressions would be appropriate in a particular situation (M. T. T. Nguyen, 2011). Textbooks, however, provide insufficient information necessary to communicate this proper use of language. The fear of not knowing how to react promptly in the target language can make learners come to a standstill. For

7 example, in the book New Headway Pre-Intermediate Third Edition, the context going on a safari usually challenges my students (Soars, 2007, p. 71). They have no ideas what safari means and what they should prepare if going on a safari; consequently, they are unable to complete the assigned tasks relating to the concept. Such cultural representations are not rare in ELT textbooks. They have an influence on English teaching and learning in language classrooms. My concern about how to improve the effectiveness of cultural teaching and learning in English language instruction was one of the motivations for me to undertake this research.

Another motivation driving this research came from my recognition of the unfavourable conditions for EFL teaching and learning at technical universities. The first common characteristic among these universities is the students’ low level of foreign language exposure. Students entering these universities take the National Entrance Exams in Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry. In order to have better results in those subjects, students pay less attention to English learning. Despite years of learning English at secondary schools, students’ English proficiency is generally low, and there are also notable levels of variation (Nguyen, 2008). Secondly, a majority of students at these universities come from rural areas where they have limited access to English learning (D. M. Le, 2012). Another shared feature is the inferior status of English as a subject in an already overcrowded curriculum. EFL education at these universities usually receives limited contact hours. As a cost-cutting measure, classes are large, usually from 40 to 50 students. Exams mainly focus on grammar, reading and writing skills (Hoang, 2013). More importantly, the available textbooks and materials “are not appropriately selected and effectively utilised in teaching and learning” (Nguyen, 2008, p. 48). Finally, monotonous teaching by overworked educators and rote learning methods do not serve communicative objectives but instead target linguistic assessments (Nguyen, 2008). With these constraints, EFL learners frequently have difficulties with cultural representations in ELT textbooks, and this influences their intercultural competence in English learning. Being both a language teacher and ‘an insider’ researcher provided me with better insights into this context of EFL instruction in technical universities and strengthened my intention to conduct this research.

8 1.3. The Need for Research on Cultural Representation in ELT Textbooks Although the grammar-translation method has prevailed for a long time in ELT and the focus of EFL teaching has been on reading and grammar, new perspectives in ELT such as Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) have been introduced in Vietnam (Lewis & McCook, 2002). The Vietnamese government and its people realise the importance of learning a language for communicative purposes in everyday communication, as opposed to just doing exercises in books or to pass written tests. Communicative and social competence in language teaching is now emphasised:

To learn a foreign language in order to use it for communicative purposes, as is now the declared aim of the Vietnamese education authorities, the learner needs to develop not only linguistic competence but also communicative and social competence in the language (Kam, 2002, p. 13).

The CLT approach puts a greater emphasis on cultural content. English is no longer viewed as isolated and decontextualised but interwoven with culture from sociocultural perspectives (Yen, 2000). As stated by language scholars, language and culture are inextricably tied together, or they are inseparable to some degree (Alptekin, 1993; Duff & Uchida, 1997). teachers have started to introduce the sociolinguistic features of the new language to their learners. "These teachers have realised the importance of developing the learners' social competence in using a language" (Tran, 1990, p. 190). In addition to enabling language learners to communicate successfully in different contexts, cultural competence also helps learners perceive communication patterns, as well as expectations and interpretations of others. Together with the four widely accepted skills in language teaching, culture teaching is now considered the fifth important dimension in English education (Lewis & McCook, 2002).

With the spread of English as a lingua franca, English has become a globalised means of international communication. It is expected “to transcend all communal and cultural boundaries” (Dinh, 2014, p. 144). The awareness of other varieties and knowledge of multiple cultures are stressed, putting aside the traditional emphasis on the native speaker’s cultural content (Dinh, 2014). In that spirit, it is essential to examine current global ELT

9 textbooks to see how they present cultures at different levels and how they influence intercultural communication and promote cultural diversity.

Due to the importance of ELT textbooks in English education and the worldwide adoption of the CLT approach, ample research has been done on cultural representations in English language textbooks (Asgari, 2011; Çakir, 2010; Dahmardeh, Timcheh Memar, & Timcheh Memar, 2014; García, 2005; Hermawan & Lia, 2012; Kirkgöz & Agçam, 2011; Kiss & Weninger, 2013; Matsuda, 2002; Rajabi & Ketabi, 2012; Shah, Ahmed, & Mahmood, 2014; Shin, Eslami, & Chen, 2011; Song, 2013; Tahir Yaqoob & Zubair, 2012; Tajeddin & Teimournezhad, 2014; Yuen, 2011; Zarei & Khalessi, 2011). These studies shed light on how cultural elements are embedded in ELT textbooks in different ways; at the same time, they highlight the drawbacks of global ELT textbooks used in local contexts, which is discussed later in the literature review. However, these studies are restricted to mainly investigating the depth of cultural representations in ELT textbooks, and do not go deep into how these embedded cultural elements influence learners’ intercultural communicative competence in English learning.

In Vietnam, the importance of ELT textbooks has long been emphasised. They have been considered a primary source for both teachers and learners of English (Dinh, 2014). However, the review undertaken for this research identified an absence of research studies on ELT textbooks in Vietnam. Little has been published about cultural representations in these textbooks. Less is known about how teachers and students respond to these representations. As such, the present research has focused on examining cultural representations embedded in the current commercial ELT textbooks at technical universities in Hanoi, and explored the influence of these cultural representations on learners’ intercultural communicative competence. This research is a starting point to fill in the gap in the literature. The analysis of current technical universities’ textbooks describes foreign cultural values represented in language textbooks, which contain representations of life outside Vietnam. Based on this analysis, the research has explored the responses of teachers and students in transmitting and receiving typical cultural representations in these textbooks. Through this research, textbook writers and curriculum designers will have insights into intercultural perspectives to enhance the design and the choice of textbooks (Dinh, 2014). Language teachers may improve their strategies to help learners acquire both

10 target language competence and intercultural competence. In turn, language learners may raise their cultural awareness in language learning, that is, “to maintain a positive attitude toward their own heritage, yet at the same time pay more respect to other cultures” (Yen, 2000, p. 7).

1.4. The Aim of the Research This study began with a premise that culture is an inseparable component in the process of EFL teaching and learning. On the basis of previous literature, it assumed that ELT textbooks are the main source of cultural influences, as well as language knowledge, in Vietnamese ELT classrooms. From this basis, this research attempted to understand the interrelationship between what and how foreign cultures are represented, between the question of what learners know or do not know about these cultures, and their ability to negotiate meaning across languages and cultures during their learning process. This research has also attempted to understand what and how language teachers have done to assist their students in perceiving these cultural representations in order to develop their intercultural communicative competence.

This research aimed at examining the cultural content of current English textbooks at different layers using visuals and texts in the textbooks, as well as exploring the implications of these cultural representations in the in light of English as an international language (EIL). From this analysis, the research identified the conditions needed for teaching English cultural competence. While textbooks are a widely recognised and powerful resource, textbooks writers consciously or unconsciously convey cultural content to learners. Learning the English language inevitably involves culturally bound and socially bound aspects of language learning (Yen, 2000). EFL teachers and learners must be aware of these cultural representations and address them properly. it is important for curriculum designers to choose appropriate textbooks. It is vital for EFL teachers to improve learners’ intercultural communicative competence. And it is significant for EFL learners to raise their own cultural awareness. While textbooks have the important function of providing language and cultural knowledge, EFL teachers as mediators should assist students in acquiring intercultural perspectives to achieve “true communicative competence” (Yen, 2000, p. 9). This may be possible by “allowing students to make use of

11 their native cultural potential in order to develop their own intercultural strategies in response to their specific experience” (Buttjes & Byram, 1991, p. 6). By perceiving intercultural perspectives, learners develop positive attitudes toward their own cultures. At the same time, they pay more respect to other cultures, facilitating the learning of the language. In the end, learners are prepared to be “both global and local speakers of English and to feel at home in both international and national cultures” (Kramsch & Sullivan, 1996, p. 211). This research may, to some extent, help to solve the problems that the Vietnamese government and MoET have identified and meet the demand of Vietnamese learners to learn English for international communication.

1.5. Research Questions This study focused on exploring the issues of cultural perspectives in textbooks and the responses of language teachers and students to these cultural representations. From the findings, this research attempted to find out what conditions are needed to improve students’ intercultural competence in language learning. The core question of this project is: How may representations of life outside Vietnam in 1st year technical university English textbooks in Hanoi influence students’ intercultural communicative competence in learning English?

To answer the research question, sub-questions for the study are identified as:

1. What English Language Teaching textbooks are used by non-major 1st year Vietnamese university students? 2. Why and how are these ELT textbooks chosen? 3. To what extent is life outside Vietnam represented in these ELT textbooks? 4. How is life outside Vietnam represented in ELT textbooks? 5. According to teachers and students, how do representations of life outside Vietnam in these textbooks influence students’ intercultural communicative competence in learning English?

In order to have a thorough understanding of the research questions and better insights into the context of the research, readers need to be provided with information on the Vietnamese higher education system and the situation of English language education in Vietnam. The following sections discuss these contents.

12 1.6. Context of the Research

1.6.1. Brief history of Vietnamese foreign language policy in education. The long tradition of Vietnamese higher education, together with Vietnamese foreign language instruction, has been influenced by different external factors exerted by other dominant cultures (Fry, 2009; T. M. H. Nguyen & Q. T. Nguyen, 2007). Each change in Vietnamese foreign language instruction and higher education has reflected a shift in the social, economic and political policy of the country (Do, 1996; Pham & Fry, 2004). In its history, Vietnamese foreign language instruction and higher education have been strongly influenced by and shifted according to the dominance of three countries: China, and Russia (Welch, 2010). The first and most abiding influence came from China with its Confucian ideas that are still present in modern time.

The influence of Chinese feudalism As a consequence of being ruled by China for a thousand years, from 111 BC to 938 AD, “Vietnamese education was in Chinese and followed the Chinese model” (Wright, 2002, p. 226). After the country gained independence from China in the year 938, the influence of Chinese feudalism, especially its on Vietnam remained strong (T. M. H. Nguyen & Q. T. Nguyen, 2007). This influence was reflected in the importance of learning as well as respect for teachers, scholars and mentors (Fry, 2009; T. M. H. Nguyen & Q. T. Nguyen, 2007; T. K. Q. Nguyen, 2011; Welch, 2010). Mandarin continued to be an important means for Vietnamese culture to flourish. The language was found in important works of art and literature, meaning that Confucianism remained deeply rooted in Vietnamese culture (Fry, 2009). Built in 1076, the Royal College (Quoc Tu Giam) - the oldest recorded institution of higher education in Southeast Asia – demonstrates the history of Confucianism within the country (Pham & Fry, 2004; Welch, 2010; Wright, 2002). This institution originally provided “moral education and training to the sons of dignitaries” (Sloper & Lê, 1995, p. 43). Gradually, the Royal College became “the incubator for bureaucratic scholars” who would work for the state (T. K. Q. Nguyen, 2011, p. 126). Every four years, male scholars from all walks of life across the country went through a civil service examination. This examination involved several rounds, with progressively more difficult levels that reduced the number of participants. Those male scholars who won regional exams would compete in the final exam organised at the Royal College. The ruling 13 elites would be chosen from this final exam, and be assigned immediately to important positions within the state (London, 2011). Mandarin was used as the official language in formal education, including in these exams (Bianco, 1994; Pham, 1993). After a millennium of Chinese imperial rule, Mandarin was used in daily life as a means of communication and for economic transactions with the Chinese feudal system from the North (Wright, 2002).

In the 13th century, scholars developed Nom letters or “southern script” – a Vietnamese writing system largely based on Chinese characters (London, 2011, p. 8; Pham & Fry, 2004). These two writing systems were used simultaneously. Mandarin was used as the written language for law and government, while Nom script was used as the written form for Vietnamese culture. For spoken exchange, Vietnamese people used mutually comprehensible dialects (Nguyen Nhu Phong, 1995, cited in Wright, 2002). It was not until the 17th century that the Nom writing system was fully developed. However, Chinese characters continued to be used by elite bureaucrats. During this time, Vietnamese people, with the help of a French missionary, developed a “relatively simple Romanised Vietnamese script” known as Quoc Ngu (Wright, 2002). Due to its accessibility to ordinary Vietnamese, the Quoc Ngu simplified writing system was soon officially adopted throughout the country (Pham & Fry, 2004, p. 202). The Chinese writing system was therefore used in Vietnam for seventeen centuries, making Chinese cultural influence the most abiding in Vietnamese history (Welch, 2010).

The influence of French colonialism In 1858, the French colonial regime assumed rule in Vietnam. “The elitist modern educational system which privileged the French language” replaced the educational system influenced by Chinese feudal Confucianism (Pham & Fry, 2004, p. 203). The French educational system was designed to train a small number of Vietnamese to become functionaries in their colonial system. The higher education sector was small (Kelly, 2000; Pham & Fry, 2004; Wright, 2002). From 1919 to 1942, several faculties, which specialised in Natural Sciences, Medicine and Agriculture, were established, which later constituted the first Southeast Asian university in the modern sense: The University of Indochina (Pham & Fry, 2004; Welch, 2010; Wright, 2002). The University also served students coming from

14 and , as French colonies in the Indochina peninsula. As a tool of colonialism, this institution of higher education did not enjoy a real academic environment or institutional autonomy. The students did not have access to the world’s sources of scientific knowledge or technological innovations, but were trained in basic skills that were essential to the purposes of French colonialism (T. K. Q. Nguyen, 2011). Although French was made the official language, this period was still characterised by “a mixed education system with French schools, Franco-Vietnamese schools and Confucian feudalist schools and classes existing side by side” (Pham, 1991, p. 6). The official examinations for the whole educational system were administered in French by French authorities. French was required in order to “gain access to social mobility” (Do, 1996, p. 32). This demonstrated the strong links among foreign language, power and the cultural status of Vietnamese society during that time.

The , during the period 1945-1954, witnessed a number of important turning points. In August 1945, the Revolution gave birth to the young Vietnam Democratic Republic. Higher education in this period was paltry despite the formation of several colleges in revolutionary areas in the North. These colleges offered essential fields of study such as Pharmacy, Medicine or Pedagogy (Fry, 2009). With the return of the French to the country after a short interval, Vietnamese higher education remained in disarray. There were only centres for higher-level teacher training in Thanh Hoa and Medicine and Pharmacy in Viet Bac (Sloper & Lê, 1995).

The partition period 1954-1975 with the influence of Russia and the US The historical milestone of the Dien Bien Phu victory in 1954 put an end to French neo- colonialism in the Indochina peninsula, bringing the use of French as an official language of Vietnamese education to an end (T. K. Q. Nguyen, 2011). In accordance with the 1954 Geneva Treaty, Vietnam was separated into two regions under the patronage of the two military blocs. These two Vietnams followed different political orientations in line with their alliances. There were two different systems of higher education, each of which was “politically allied with a world superpower” (V. V. Hoang, 2011, p. 8). North Vietnam received assistance from the USSR and the Eastern Bloc. Therefore, the educational system was supported by the former USSR with strong influences of the Soviet model. The Russian language became the predominant foreign language taught in the educational

15 system (Do, 1996; Pham & Fry, 2004). In South Vietnam, the US alliance promoted foreign language education “in relation to political and economic cooperation with other capitalist societies” (Do, 1996, p. 36). The US model was applied with rigorous support from American allies (Fry, 2009; T. K. Q. Nguyen, 2011). As a consequence, English became the predominant foreign language taught in secondary and higher education in South Vietnam (Wright, 2002). English gained its importance through “the availability and free supply of English textbooks and teaching equipment” (Do, 1996, p. 38), and the spread of English mass media to serve the needs of US soldiers, their allies and the local population (V. V. Hoang, 2011).

From 1954 to 1975, the country was at war, therefore most young people were expected to fight. Education was given a low priority, as all other social resources were reserved for the war. Higher education institutions had to be moved to safe areas far away in the mountains or forests. This period marked a difficult stage for the whole country in general, and a standstill in education in particular (Wright, 2002).

The influence of Soviet Communism after the 1975 reunification After the country’s reunification in 1975, the Soviet Union maintained and strengthened its position as an important political, economic and educational ally of Vietnam. The flow of aid, material and advisors from the Eastern Bloc to Vietnam continued to increase (Wright, 2002). The two systems of education in North and South Vietnam were unified in alignment with the Soviet model in the North, which emphasised applied sciences and specialised knowledge. During this time, there were around 70 higher education institutions in the whole country, and all of these were public (Fry, 2009; Welch, 2010). Influenced by the centrally planned economy of the government, the higher education system in Vietnam was also strongly centralised. On behalf of the State, 13 ministries were partially responsible for all public-sector institutions of higher education (See section 1.6.3, pages 25-26). Russian language became a requirement of the national teaching curriculum approved by the Ministry of Education and Training (MoET). Thousands of language students and teachers were sent to The Soviet Union to study Russian (Do, 1996; V. V. Hoang, 2011). The Russian language spread widely across the country:

16 The Soviet presence in Vietnam is ubiquitous…. Bookstalls in the cities are filled with Russian language works that are inexpensive because they are heavily subsidised…. Soviet films are common fare at movie theatres throughout the country, and Soviet science and education films are used widely in the schools. Television has perhaps the greatest impact in introducing the Vietnamese to the USSR (Pike, 1987, pp. 214-217).

Having a political mission, the Russian language not only continued to maintain its importance in education and in the workplace in the North, but the language was also widely introduced into the South. Teachers of Russian from Language Departments in the North were sent to universities and colleges in the South. The higher education enrolments in English in the South witnessed a dramatic decrease during this period (V. V. Hoang, 2011). However, because English was deeply-rooted among different social classes in the South, the language was not dropped totally from the curriculum (Do, 1996). English continued to be taught in some classes in urban areas where there was a shortage of teachers of Russian.

The Doi Moi policy and the trend of international integration The year 1986 witnessed a comprehensive political and economic reform Vietnam with the launch of an open-door policy named Doi Moi (Doi means renovation, Moi means renewal). This was pursuant to the Resolution of the 6th Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam (George, 2010; Hayden & Thiep, 2007; V. V. Hoang, 2011; H. T. Le, 2012; T. K. Q. Nguyen, 2011; T. T. V. V. Hoang, 2011; Dao & Hayden, 2010; Wright, 2002). This reform referred to “the country’s policy of opening up to the outside world, mostly in terms of foreign investment and the global market” (To, 2010, p. 100). The adoption of the Doi Moi policy moved the country from bilateral to multilateral relationships across politics and the economy (D. Nguyen & Sloper, 1995; Tien, 2012; Wright, 2002). After this important landmark, Vietnam became a member of the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1997, and then joined the World Trade Organisation (WTO) ten years later. Vietnam changed significantly, moving from a centrally planned economy to a multi-sector commodity-based one operated by market mechanisms under state control. The implementation of the policy encouraged more foreign investment into the country and

17 strengthened the trend of internationalisation (D. Nguyen & Sloper, 1995). After years of isolation and economic stagnation, the country now showed the world its openness and willingness to integrate with international economic, political and cultural development. Instead of restricting its relations to socialist countries only, Vietnam decided to expand them to many countries, regardless of different political systems (Tien, 2012). “After ten years of liberalisation, Vietnam had developed trade relations with more than 100 countries and direct investment from more than 50 countries” (Wright, 2002, p. 239). A considerable number of English-speaking visitors came to Vietnam as tourists and business people. The country adopted a market-oriented economy, which was “a farewell to the subjective, obsolete conservatism of the past” (Do, 1996, p. 45).

In response to these changes in socioeconomic policy, the Vietnamese higher education system also adopted important reforms. Central to these reforms was higher education being transformed to “satisfy the increasingly diverse demands of various sectors of the new economy, and to prepare competent human resources for the nation’s industrialisation, modernisation and global integration” (T. K. Q. Nguyen, 2011, p. 129). The higher education system increased with a greater number and various types of institutions (See section 1.6.3, pages 27-29). Private-sector higher institutions were encouraged to establish through new Decrees and Regulations (Kelly, 2000). Thang Long University, the first non- government higher institution, was established on a trial basis in 1988. Following Thang Long University, other private institutions were quickly opened, with Semi-Public Open University, the second private institution. These private higher institutions expanded rapidly to meet the demand for people to be trained and qualified for the employment market (George, 2010). In spite of these rapid changes, the Soviet legacy model of higher education continues to be fully reflected in the Vietnamese higher education system (Hayden & Thiep, 2007). The State has official control over the performance of all higher education institutions, even for the non-public sector. This governmental authority is implemented through various ministries, some of which have responsibilities across the system, and some others have line-management responsibilities for different universities and colleges (Hayden & Thiep, 2010; Kelly, 2000; Welch, 2010) (See section 1.6.3, pages 25-27).

18 In line with the country’s political, social and economic reform, English emerged as the major foreign language across the whole education system. English was introduced across teaching curricula and became one of the requirements for government bureaucrats (Do, 1996; V. V. Hoang, 2011). It turned out to be the most common means of communication in the workplace, with foreign partners from capitalist societies increasing the influx of capital investment into the country (Do, 1996; T. M. H. Nguyen & Q. T. Nguyen, 2007). In response to social demand, English language education underwent significant growth during the early 1990s with private language centres mushrooming everywhere (Do, 1996; T. M. H. Nguyen & Q. T. Nguyen, 2007; Pham & Fry, 2004). Of all junior secondary schools, 99,1% taught English, and English also became one of the five compulsory subjects in the national final exams (T. M. H. Nguyen & Q. T. Nguyen, 2007). The Doi Moi policy in 1986 was probably the most important milestone that brought dramatic changes in the history of education in general and in foreign language education in particular.

A brief overview of important milestones throughout the history of Vietnamese education has confirmed the influence of external factors from dominating countries, particularly on foreign language instruction. Foreign language instruction has been “a barometer of social change in Vietnam” and has had an important role to play in the economic, political and cultural development of the country (Wright, 2002, p. 243). Being a small country with rich natural resources, Vietnam underwent nearly continuous control by different external invasions, long-lasting wars and separation. In regard to higher education and foreign language policy, the general tendency is to “conform to Vietnamese attitudes toward nations associated with those languages” (Gayle, 1994, p.1, cited in Do, 1996, p. 33). From Chinese feudalism to French colonialism, from Soviet Union socialism to American capitalism, each period of higher education and foreign language instruction not only reflected the economic and political policies of Vietnam, but also profoundly changed the cultural landscape of the whole country.

19 1.6.2. The general Vietnamese education system.

The organisation of Vietnamese education system As can be seen in figure 1.1, the Vietnamese education system comprises education establishments from crèche to postgraduate level, which are all placed under unified state management (To, 2010; Kelly, 2000).

Figure 1.1. The education system in Vietnam

(Source: Decision 1981/ QD-TTg)

Before 2015, the admission requirement for colleges and universities was a two-part process administered by MoET. Students needed to pass the Secondary School Leaving Examination before being eligible for the National Entrance Examination (Kelly, 2000); MoET centrally administers this exam and the selection process is highly competitive. A student’s admission into a university or a college is based on his/her exam performance, which may be taken in different subjects, depending on the field of study that students wish

20 to pursue and the universities offering that subject. For example, students who wish to study engineering or architecture would take entrance exams in Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry, while those who want to study foreign affairs or foreign trades would undertake Mathematics, Literature and English (Kelly, 2000). From 2015 to the present, MoET has changed their policy into having one examination named National School Leaving Examination. This examination serves two purposes: To qualify students from secondary schools and to select them into universities. However, at the time of this study, the student participants in this research were those who undertook the two exams, as they entered the university before 2015.

To get admission to a M.A course, which lasts for two years, a candidate should first have a relevant university degree. The duration for a doctoral degree is 3 to 4 years or more.

English at primary, lower and upper secondary levels From the late 1980s, English was introduced nationally as a compulsory subject in the educational system. During this period, two locally designed sets of textbooks were used at lower and upper secondary schools: the 3-year set for upper secondary level and the 7-year set for both lower and upper secondary levels, each of which follows different orientations (H. T. Le, 2012). The two sets of English textbooks were being used in parallel; but the final upper secondary exam was based on knowledge required in the 3-year set (V. V. Hoang, 2011). The level of proficiency required by the 3-year set was lower than that required by the 7-year set.

Although one of the most important objectives in every language curriculum is to develop practical communication skills, there appears to be a significant gap between rhetoric and practice in Vietnam. From the two grammar-based sets of textbooks being used, it can be inferred that the focus of EFL teaching and learning is about grammar and vocabulary and reading, and do not currently concentrate on the development of communicative skills (Nguyen, 2008). In classrooms, teachers occasionally put into practice the desired communicative language teaching (V. V. Hoang, 2011). Traditional teaching methods are maintained with a view that learning grammar in a systematic set of rules can enable learners to use English proficiently. In each unit within the books, grammar and reading comprehension sections seem to dominate, while listening and oral skill practices are barely

21 recognised (T. M. H. Nguyen & Q. T. Nguyen, 2007; V. V. Hoang, 2011). This type of teaching and learning is maintained by both teachers and students in order to pass end-of- term exams or the National Entrance Exam, which focuses on checking language knowledge rather than language skills (V. V. Hoang, 2011, p. 16). As a result, many students can hardly use English in everyday communication (Nguyen, 2008; Nunan, 2003). For 7-year program students, although they are expected to reach an upper-intermediate level at the end of the course, their English proficiency is generally somewhere between elementary and lower intermediate. Students from rural or disadvantaged areas who study the 3-year program have worse results. It becomes clear that these textbooks shape the way of teaching and prevent learners from using English as a means of communication.

Due to the influence of EIL and the increasing trend of using English as a means of international communication, EFL teaching and learning in Vietnam has recently tended towards the view that learners are the centre of teaching and teachers are the facilitators of the learning process (Mai & Iwashita, 2012). With this teaching philosophy, the two sets of local textbooks, which had been used at lower and upper secondary schools during the last two decades, turned out to be inadequate. In 2001, the Vietnamese government issued the Decree No 14/2001 TC-TTg with the aim of modernising the Vietnamese General Education Curriculum (V. V. Hoang, 2011). In the implementation of the Government’s Decree, MoET was deemed responsible for designing a new curriculum and writing new textbooks for all school subjects. As for English, in the school year 2003-2004, MoET introduced a new English curriculum into primary schools as a response to the perceived need for a more systematic English education at primary level. The curriculum emphasised the development of four language skills, with listening and speaking skills highlighted. By the end of the course, students were expected to have basic English communicative skills, which would enable them to communicate in English at school, at home and in familiar social situations. It was hoped that students would also have a primary understanding of the country, the people and the culture of some English-speaking countries, and that this would build positive attitudes toward the English language and develop better understanding of their own culture (T. M. H. Nguyen, 2011b). In order to achieve these aims, pupils in primary schools were required to have two 40-minute hours of English every week (Decision No. 50/2003 QD-BGD&DT, dated October 2003) (Ministry of

22 Education and Training (MoET), 2003). According to some commentaries, in only a 3-year period with a limited number of English hours, these aims seemed to be too ambitious, if not impossible (Moon, 2009, cited in T. M. H. Nguyen, 2011b). Perhaps MoET recognised the difficulties in implementing this initiative, as in 2008 it launched a wide-ranging new plan for education in Vietnam.

The NFLP 2008-2020 reinforced the need for a systematic English education at primary level. It implemented two programs from primary to secondary schools: the 7-year program and the 10-year program (T. M. H. Nguyen, 2011b; V. V. Hoang, 2011; H. T. Le, 2012). English was a compulsory subject at primary, lower and upper secondary schools with three hours a week. The NFLP 2008-2020 demonstrated the ongoing effort of Vietnamese government in developing students’ communicative competence in English learning. With this new teaching curriculum and textbooks, students at the end of upper secondary level are required to be able:

To use English as a means of communication at a certain level of proficiency in four macro skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing, and to be able to read materials at the same level of their textbook, using a dictionary

To have mastered Basic English phonetics and grammar, to have acquired the minimum of around 2500 vocabulary items of English

To attain a certain level of understanding of English and American cultures, to become aware of cross-cultural differences in order to be better overall communicators, to better inform the world of Vietnamese people, their history and culture, and to take pride in Vietnam, its language and culture (MoET, 2008).

At the time I conducted this study, the NFLP 2020 was half way through its projected operation. It may take some years in the future before the results of the project are valuated comprehensively.

1.6.3. Vietnamese higher education. The Vietnamese government and MoET consider education, especially higher education, one of its strategic priorities in building and developing the nation (D. M. Le, 2012, p. 101). Tertiary education is the “major means of meeting human resource needs” (Gill, 2004, p. 139), providing high quality human resources in line with socioeconomic development and

23 the industrialisation and modernisation of the country. Only two decades after Doi Moi, the number of higher institutions increased significantly from only about 100 to 376 in 2009. Recently from 2009 to 2011, this number reached over 400 (D. M. Le, 2012).

Figure 1. 2: Organisation of government management system

(DOPI: Department of Planning and Investment; DARD: Department of Agriculture and Rural Development; DOE: Department of Environment; DOF: Department of Fisheries)

(Source: www.idrc.ca)

24 Despite this rapid increase in institution numbers and remarkable changes in educational policy, the management system of these higher institutions strongly reflects the Soviet legacy. Government authority is implemented through ministries, some of which have power across the whole system, and others which have line-management over different higher institutions (Hayden & Thiep, 2010) (see figure 1.2 and figure 1.3). This management system might be an obstacle for any significant changes in their teaching curriculum within a long period of time.

The role of Ministry of Education and Training and other line Ministries The Ministry of Education and Training has the most “extensive system-wide responsibilities” for education in Vietnam (Hayden & Thiep, 2007, p. 19; Kelly, 2000; Dao & Hayden, 2010). In the past, this included the important responsibility of allocating enrolment quotas for each higher education institution. These enrolment quotas were applied to both overall student registration into institutions, and the number of students within each study program. Howerver, each university now has the authority to determine its quota using a set of criteria issued by MoET.

MoET controls the maximum level of tuition fees that a higher education institution may charge. The department plays a main role in preparing, administering and reporting for the National University Entrance Examination. MoET is also responsible for approving curriculum frameworks for all study programs across the higher education system. These frameworks specify objectives for each study program, knowledge requirements, curriculum components and time allocation for theory, practice and internship experience. Another important mission of MoET is responsibility for approving the appointment of Rectors within higher education institutions, by which managerial authority is decentralised (Hayden & Thiep, 2010; Kelly, 2000; Dao & Hayden, 2010).

Although MoET plays a pre-eminent role, 13 other ministries and government agencies share control over all public sector higher education institutions (Kelly, 2000). Except for two National Universities in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, which report directly to the Cabinet, and some key regional universities in different geographical areas reporting to the State through local governments, all public-sector universities report to the State through their ministries. This State administration is a strong evidence of the continued influence of

25 the Soviet era. Universities were placed under the management of the ministry responsible for that sector. These higher institutions with narrow specialisation were expected to train the labour force which was required by that sector (George, 2010). For example, Hanoi Medical University was placed under the authority of the Ministry of Health, which determined the teaching curriculum as well the employment of graduates.

Figure 1.3. Diagram of the line-management education system in Vietnam

(Source: www.fao.org)

This centralised planning was thought “to reduce the cost and streamline the process of training and labor allocation” (George, 2010, p. 33). This lasted until the early 1990s, when there was an attempt to bring all public-sector universities and colleges under the administration of MoET. However, the attempt was strongly resisted by all parties concerned because of the benefits and privileges they receive from line-management (Dao

26 & Hayden, 2010). The revolution was successful only in some respects. Public sector higher education institutions remain under the direct administration of 13 ministries. Currently, these public-sector universities are subject to line-management, which report their performance to both MoET and their managing ministries (Hayden & Thiep, 2007, 2010) (See figure 1.3). It is possible that this management structure may potentially slow changes or innovations within teaching and learning.

An evident sign of change in Vietnam’s higher education after Doi Moi is the emergence and expansion of private universities and colleges (George, 2010; T. K. Q. Nguyen, 2011). The globalisation and the market economy has brought along with it a great demand for educated knowledge workers, and especially the demand for human resources who are well equipped with technology and other professional skills. In order to satisfy this demand, the government has established a flexible educational policy to mobilise diverse sources of investment for education. This policy gave birth to private higher education institutions, turning Vietnamese higher education into a mixed system of both public and private sectors. The country’s integration into the international economy through the joining of ASEAN and AFTA (ASEAN Free Trade Area) in 1997 and WTO in 2007 called for wider acceptance of privatisation. Two particular examples of private higher institutions are the establishment of Thang Long university in 1988 in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh Open University in 1990 in Ho Chi Minh City (George, 2010). Diversification of institution types has now become a major element in the Vietnamese higher education reform, both in terms of funding and the types of higher education offered to people (Fry, 2009).

The diversification of higher education in Vietnam As mentioned in the preceding part, several years after the Doi Moi policy was introduced, Vietnamese higher education changed significantly in terms of diversity and quantity. These changes were driven by rapid changes in Vietnamese society and to satisfy the increasing demands of population. Higher education institutions increased in type and number. There are now seven different types of universities and colleges in Vietnam.

The first type of higher education institution is a specialised university focusing on a single area of study. These universities are often under the co-control of line ministries and MoET. For example, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD) and

27 MoET jointly run the University of Agriculture; the University of Civil Engineering is under the control of both the Ministry of Civil Engineering and MoET; the University of Communications and Transport has to report to both the Ministry of Communication and Transport and MoET. There are approximately 13 ministries responsible for various universities. This model of higher education is a legacy of the 30-year period of Soviet influence on Vietnam after the Second World War, and this still exists up to the present time (Hayden & Thiep, 2007; Kelly, 2000).

The second type of higher education institution is the multidisciplinary university that offers a wide range of academic programs. These key universities operate at national and regional levels. Some leading Vietnamese universities are the two Vietnam National University in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, the University of Da Nang, Can Tho University, and Thai Nguyen University. They undertake important missions from the government in educating the intellectual labour force for the development of the country. The two national universities, Vietnam National University, Hanoi and Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City report directly to the Prime Minister. The three regional universities are the University of Danang, Hue University and Thai Nguyen University. These national and regional key universities enjoy a greater academic and financial autonomy and more privileges in terms of expenditure and travel than other public-sector universities. Although they have more freedom in making decisions with their budget or with the teaching curriculum frameworks, in practice, they generally conform to the national curriculum frameworks provided by MoET (Kelly, 2000).

The third type of institution is an Open University. These semi-public universities are owned by the State and run by a public authority. These institutions “enjoy financial autonomy”, and are “responsible for all receipts and expenses” (Tran, K. & Nguyen, H. C., 2012, p. 230). Most of their revenue comes from students’ tuition fees. Hanoi Open University, Ho Chi Minh Open University and Ton Duc Thang University are three typical examples of this type.

The fourth type is a private university that does not receive financial aid from the government. However, these universities report to the State through their governing boards, which are “elected or appointed by the shareholders responsible for the establishment of the

28 institutions” (Hayden & Thiep, 2010, p. 20). These higher education institutions focus on popular fields of study, generally fields that do not require expensive investment for equipment such as laboratories. They make a profit based on the number of students enrolled each year. They are developing fast due to the growing demand of high school graduates seeking university qualifications (Kelly, 2000). However, they have to comply with the admission quotas and the national curriculum frameworks provide by MoET, as well as a ceiling level set on tuition fees by the government.

The last three types include public and private junior colleges and international universities run by foreign universities or institutions. Public junior colleges receive funding from the government. These colleges offer 2 or 3-year vocational teaching programs in such popular fields as teacher training, nursing, accountancy, etc. A large number of these colleges are also under the authority of the 13 line ministries. Private junior colleges offer similar vocational teaching programs as the public junior colleges, but they differ in not receiving government funding. International universities such as RMIT (Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology) have a campus in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam (Fry, 2009; Kelly, 2000; Tran, K. & Nguyen, H. C., 2012). At the time of this research, Harvard-affiliated Fulbright University in Ho Chi Minh City was established in after the official visit of President Obama in 2016.

In general, there is a strong culture of centralism in decision-making in Vietnamese higher education, despite considerable education reforms since 1986. Line-management of ministries has been eliminated to increase institutional autonomy, giving them the right to be responsible for training, research human resource management and budget planning. However, this reform seems to be a slow and complicated process, which needs a longer time and great efforts from key persons as well as a significant level of capacity building to achieve their institutional autonomy (Hayden & Thiep, 2010). In this context, the changes and the diversification in education entail both challenges and opportunities for EFL teaching and learning across the country.

1.6.4. EFL teaching at the tertiary level. In tertiary education, students learn English as their major or as a subject. In the first category, where English is a discipline, students are trained to become teachers, translators

29 and/or interpreters and researchers in English linguistics or English teaching methodology. In these curricula, English is taught intensively and comprehensively (Nguyen, 2008). A great number of English hours are allocated during the 4 years of an undergraduate degree, most of which are spent on language skills and the rest on teaching methodology, linguistics, English-speaking cultures and countries. Graduates from these majors are expected to have a good command of the English language and its culture. They are able to use English effectively as a tool for their work and as a means of international communication in their personal and professional life.

In the second category, English is a compulsory subject in the whole educational system. MoET introduced a common national curriculum framework for this language, from 10 to 15 credits for undergraduate programs, five to seven credits for graduate programs, and two to three credits of self-study for doctoral programs (V. V. Hoang, 2011). This limited number of contact hours may vary within this framework. Students’ exposure to English depends on each educational specialisation, which may have a great deal or little association with this language. For example, students from engineering block universities are allocated with fewer English hours in their curriculum than students coming from economic block universities. Students from these technical universities have extremely varied starting levels in English. To enter these universities, students take the National Entrance Exam in Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry. As might be expected, they do not pay attention to English learning during their upper secondary schools but tend to focus on the required subjects for the National Entrance Exam (See section 1.6.2, pages 20-21). Their English proficiency levels may vary from beginner to lower intermediate, depending on the 3-year or 7-year program that they have taken. To save labour and lower expenses, many of these universities have to seek language programs for elementary (sometimes beginner) learners (H. T. Le, 2012, p. 2). The language knowledge and skills that students are taught at secondary and high school (if any) are therefore repeated during their undergraduate degrees.

English language education at these universities faces other constraints. The normal class is large, which sometimes may include up to 65 students (Bock, 2000); the acoustic quality is poor, with just a blackboard and a cassette; teaching content does not seem to meet the needs of students, while teaching and learning motivation is directed at success in exams,

30 not communication (Hoang, 2013). In most cases at both institutional and national levels, exams focus on only linguistic competence rather than communicative competence. From the influence of such exams, English teaching and learning continues to be grammar-based (Mai & Iwashita, 2012; Tomlinson, 2005). In this learning environment, teachers and textbooks are the only language input in the classroom. This low exposure to the target language decreases students’ learning motivation, and combined with limited contact hours in class, students’ language is less likely to improve significantly. As a country in the Expanding Circle, where English is a foreign language, opportunities to use English outside classrooms are also rare (D. M. Le, 2012). With these unfavourable conditions, the language “is still beyond the reach of a majority of students at school, especially those from the rural or disadvantaged areas” (H. T. Le, 2012, pp. 2-3). Many university graduates “are still unable to carry out even a simple conversation in English” (Hoang, 2013, p. 77). This situation remains unchanged or has made little improvement up to the present time.

In short, various factors contribute to the limitations in EFL education in Vietnam. From a broader view, English teaching and learning programs at all levels “are not properly linked one to another” because “the programs are inconsistently organised” (Nguyen, 2008, p. 45). This inconsistency of foreign language programs at all levels is a fundamental reason for the wastages and inefficacy of EFL education. Together with constraints in educational contexts, another notable reason relates to the students’ conception of English as just another subject to pass, as opposed to a potential vehicle for international communication (Nguyen, 2008). In order to achieve the goal of foreign language teaching, that is to provide learners with a communicative means of facilitating international integration, it is necessary to make strategic comprehensive reforms at the national level. In this setting, the National Foreign Language Project 2008-2020 has a strategic mission to fulfill.

1.7. Significance of the Research This research contributes to an enriched understanding of the cultural aspects in ELT textbooks, and explores how culture influences learners’ intercultural communicative competence by considering how students negotiate cultural differences in ELT textbooks. Due to higher demands within Vietnamese society, EFL instruction has experienced significant changes in recent years. The adoption of the CLT approach in English education

31 focuses on communicative competence, one important dimension in effective communication in real-life situations. Research on cultures in textbooks, therefore, becomes increasingly important.

This study was carried out at a time when EFL education in Vietnam was being hotly debated at Vietnamese educational conferences and in the public, generally. The NFLP 2020 has determined that textbook innovation is one of this strategic plan's priorities, and is part of a comprehensive reform of EFL teaching from primary to tertiary education. In language learning, cultural differences may prevent learners from making meaning of textual representations. By offering the case study of Vietnam, this research may make an important contribution to Vietnamese education. Little research has been done in Vietnam regarding cultural representations in ELT textbooks and their influence on learner’s language acquisition.

Research on the cultural representation in ELT textbooks in Vietnam, when delivered from an insider’s research perspectives, may assist Vietnamese ELT practitioners. Although Vietnamese teachers may recognise the interrelation between language and culture, they may not have the capacity to teach cultural competence and feel constrained by the conditions under which they teach. This research may help EFL teachers improve their students’ intercultural communicative competence (ICC) and identify the conditions needed for its development. Ideally, to increase learners’ chance of succeeding in both foreign language learning and foreign culture learning, a sensitive and perceptive language teacher needs to respond positively to diversity in culture, and assist learners in recognising similarities and differences in cultures, while maintaining a sense of pride in their own cultures, from which they then may develop a positive attitude toward others’ (Saville- Troike, 1978).

This study is also significant in the way it may help students be aware of the culturally bound content which occurs in their language textbooks. When learning a new language, it is necessary to raise students’ awareness of cultural issues, which makes it possible for students to acquire both linguistic competence and intercultural communicative competence (Byram, 1991). The comparison of cultures with the target language “provides learners with a basis for better understanding of persons from different backgrounds, as well as supplying

32 new insights into approaches to teaching a second language” (Valdes, 1986, p. 49). Cultural comparison and the understanding of other cultures may assist learners to recognise the values and patterns of the new culture, facilitating language learning and teaching (Yen, 2000).

Also, this research may influence future textbook writers and curriculum designers to improve the quality of the textbooks and textbook choice. Textbook writers may learn to incorporate cultural competence purposefully and effectively in their commercial ELT textbooks, making high quality ELT textbooks available for learners of the English language. Additionally, this research may assist administrators in choosing the appropriate textbooks for their students.

1.8. Organisation of the Study This study comprises seven chapters. The organisation and the summary of each chapter are presented in the following sections.

Chapter One discusses background information and the factors driving this research. It provides a historical description of Vietnamese education to contextualise the current English teaching situation in Vietnam. Chapter One presents the rationale of the research topic which emerges from my own experience as a Vietnamese teacher of English. Chapter One then presents the research questions of the study. The organisation of the Vietnamese education system is also described in order to supply readers with sufficient background information.

Chapter Two outlines a review of the literature relevant to the research questions and provides the theoretical frameworks for this study. The four key issues that guide the selection and review of the literature are presented as four major sections: (i) ELT textbooks in EFL classrooms; (ii) Representations of everyday life as culture; (iii) Representations of culture in ELT textbooks; and (iv) The connection of cultural representations in ELT textbooks and the development of ICC.

Chapter Three describes the research design and methodology. This chapter justifies the qualitative research design chosen for this study. It then provides a detailed description of the three phases of the research. The research sites, the samples and sampling strategies, participant criteria, fieldwork, data collection method, data collection instruments, and the 33 strategies used for analysing these data in each phase are described in detail in order to illustrate the strength of the research design.

Chapter Four reports and discusses the findings of the first phase. The data gathered from interviews with Heads/Vice Heads of Language Faculties of the ten participating universities are subject to thematic analysis. This chapter presents an overview of English teaching programs at technical universities in order to provide detailed contexts in which ELT textbooks are used. It also presents the reasons why these ELT textbooks are selected and the process of selection. This chapter is organised into two main sections. The first section describes the context of textbook use and a corpus of seven textbooks. The second section describes the textbook use in technical universities in Hanoi and textbook choice and evaluation.

Chapter Five discusses and analyses the findings of the second phase. The corpus of textbooks identified in Chapter Four are analysed based on the two analytical frameworks proposed by Cortazzi and Jin (1999) and Adaskou, Britten and Fashi (1990). This chapter provides a picture of cultural representations in the ELT textbooks used by Vietnamese technical universities. There are three major sections in this chapter. The first section presents a general description of the corpus of seven textbooks. The second section provides the picture of life outside Vietnam in ELT textbooks. The last section investigates how this picture of life outside Vietnam is represented in the four senses of culture.

Chapter Six discusses and analyses the findings of the third phase. Data from teacher and student interviews are subjected to thematic analysis to understand their perceptions of ELT textbooks, cultural representations in these ELT textbooks, the influence of culture on students’ development of ICC, and cultural teaching pedagogies. This chapter is divided into three main sections. The first section reports on students’ responses on these four issues. The second section reports on teachers’ responses on the same issues. The third section compares and contrasts teachers and students’ responses in order to provide an interpretation and explanation for the research questions.

Chapter Seven offers a summary and conclusion of the study. It addresses the five research questions by referring to the findings of each phase. It then outlines the four key findings of this study, based on which recommendations for technical university students to develop

34 ICC are proposed. This chapter then presents practical implications for textbook designers, language teachers, administrators and students in the process of developing students’ ICC. The final section acknowledges the limitations of the study, based on which suggestions for further study are made. My personal reflections of the research process conclude this chapter.

1.9. Summary of Chapter One In sum, Chapter One has explored the importance and the domination of English in the world in general, and in Vietnamese context in particular, from which it has looked back at English education in Vietnam since it was first introduced. Then the current situation of EFL education was discussed, identifying problems that this area is facing, mostly in relation to the learners’ communicative competence. Chapter One has revealed continuous efforts on the part of the Vietnamese government and people to improve EFL teaching and learning quality. The most prominent effort is the NFLP 2008-2020, which aims to achieve comprehensive and critical changes in EFL education in Vietnam. As previously mentioned, one of the priorities in this project is textbook choice and renovation – an important factor in English teaching and learning. In Chapter One, I have also shared my own experience as a language teacher as this helped me to formulate the research topic. My students sometimes encounter difficulties in dealing with differences in the cultures represented in ELT textbooks, and it prevent them from completing tasks and influence their intercultural communicative competence. From the important role played by English textbooks in EFL classrooms, and learners’ urgent need of intercultural communicative competence in English learning, I pose a research question about cultural representations in ELT textbooks and their influence on intercultural competence in language learning. The research was carried out at technical universities in Hanoi, which have similar unfavourable EFL teaching conditions. In order for readers to have a thorough understanding of the real context of the research, Chapter One has also provided information on the management system of Vietnamese education from secondary to tertiary level. The history and current situation of EFL teaching and learning, especially at tertiary level, was described, and this confirms the importance and timing of the NFLP 2008 – 2020 in improving the quality of EFL education in Vietnam.

35 Finally, Chapter One has emphasised the significance of the research in terms of assisting administrators, textbook designers, language teachers and researchers as well as students in their own responsibilities. It has also led the readers through the organising logic of the whole thesis, to help them map out what to expect in the following chapters.

A review of relevant literature on ELT textbooks and intercultural competence in EFL teaching will be discussed in detail in Chapter Two.

36 Chapter Two: Literature Review This research explored how representations of life outside Vietnam in 1st year technical university English textbooks in Hanoi may influence students’ intercultural communicative competence in the process of learning English. This research first examined the issues of cultural perspectives in textbooks, and the responses of language teachers and students to these cultural representations. Then this research tried to understand what conditions are needed to improve students’ intercultural communicative competence in language learning. Culture teaching in foreign language teaching is a significant issue because culture is inseparable from language (Kramsch, 1998), and culture is the fifth important dimension in English education (Lewis & McCook, 2002)

A review of the literature in the subject area provides an understanding of the background knowledge needed to address the research question. This chapter reviews relevant research on ELT textbooks in language classrooms (section 2.1). This section justifies the important role of ELT textbooks in language classrooms, especially in EFL classroom contexts. Then it explores the textbook selection process and textbook choices in language classrooms. Although the textbook selection process includes predictive evaluation and retrospective evaluation, there is little record of retrospective evaluation in the literature, and predictive evaluation is only one of the steps in the selection process. The second section of this chapter (section 2.2) enquires into Hall’s (1997) theory of culture as representations of life to form the theoretical framework for this study. The third section (section 2.3) explores the representation of cultures in ELT textbooks. It defines English as an international language, which crosses the borders of the Inner Circle, Outer Circle and Expanding Circle (Kachru, 1992). Then this section redefines culture in English as an International Language (EIL) paradigm, which provides implications for culture in ELT textbooks. In this section, I review previous studies on culture in ELT textbooks, and present different approaches to examining cultural representations in ELT textbooks, from which I declare the most relevant approach and an analytical framework to examine culture for this study. Section 2.4 discusses the connection between the representations of culture in ELT textbooks and language learning. It presents the good effect as well as barrier that cultural representations in ELT textbooks may have on language learning. This section examines an intercultural approach in foreign language education by providing the goal of intercultural language

37 teaching and an understanding of intercultural communicative competence. From these discussions, I present the analytical framework for phase three of this research in connection with the data collection and data analysis of the research.

2.1. ELT Textbooks in EFL Classrooms

2.1.1. The role of ELT textbooks in EFL classrooms. ELT textbooks play a vital role in any English language-teaching program (Nahrkhalaji, 2012). ELT textbooks do not usually remain limited to the realm of a specific subject, but instead represent educational discourses, which provide students significant and broader information about the worldview, socio-cultural practices and participation in society in broader terms (Tahir Yaqoob & Zubair, 2012). In foreign language classrooms, textbooks are generally accepted as the main learning sources and the most relevant materials in which linguistic and cultural knowledge is presented (García, 2004).

There appears to be little research, however, on the role of textbooks in language classrooms (Crawford, 1995). The role of ELT textbooks is complex, but may be considered from two different perspectives: the deficiency view and the difference view (Allwright, 1981). The deficiency view sees textbooks as secure compensation for deficiencies in the language classroom, allowing teachers to make sure the syllabus is well covered and their practice is fully effective. The difference view, on the other hand, sees textbooks as “carriers of decisions” made by people other than language teachers (Allwright, 1981, p. 6). The difference view does not mean the language teacher is deficient as a language teacher, but the professional expertise of textbook writers must be different from that of a language teacher, with the latter’s responsibility to create a good English learning environment for learners (Allwright, 1981). Both views on ELT textbooks emphasise the need for decisions in EFL classrooms to be taken and acted upon by those with relevant expertise (Crawford, 1995). The textbook designer and the language teacher each have their own responsibility with ELT textbooks, however, they all share the task of providing students with the best language teaching content and environment based on these ELT textbooks. Regardless of different perspectives, ELT textbooks are the centre in language classroom.

38 In EFL classrooms, the appropriate use of instructional textbooks is important because it can change the quality of language teaching (Hutchinson & Torres, 1994). ELT textbooks make a great contribution to the goal and content of learning. In many countries where English is spoken as a foreign language, in particular Southeast Asian countries, ELT textbooks are the predominant source of language and culture that learners are exposed to (Dinh, 2014). They are sometimes the only source of language input (M. T. T. Nguyen, 2011), which offers undeniable and remarkable advantages in terms of providing the context of the lessons and classroom practice (Nahrkhalaji, 2012). ELT textbooks are the framework or guide to help students’ learning in class and at home, which allows for learners’ greater autonomy (Hutchinson & Torres, 1994; O'Neill, 1982). Being the roadmap of the course, with ready-to-use activities and attractive illustrations, ELT textbooks may help teachers enhance the effectiveness of their teaching. Textbooks help teachers save time preparing lessons, sequence the curriculum, and maintain a good pace in their lessons. In other words, textbooks support teachers with classroom management, free them from coping with new content and procedures, and provide them with clear guidance in classroom practice (Allwright, 1981; Hutchinson & Torres, 1994). Textbooks can serve “as a useful map or plan of what is intended or expected” in the classroom environment, thus enabling teachers and students to have a clear image of where the lesson fits into the wider context of the language program (Crawford, 1995, p. 28; O'Neill, 1982). With all these considerable factors, textbooks are widely regarded as an excellent vehicle for change (Hutchinson & Torres, 1994).

Even though a considerable number of language scholars talk about the effective use of textbooks and the reliance of teachers and students on textbooks in language classrooms, there are others who believe the use of textbooks is a problem. The problems arise from the textbooks themselves, and from the overdependence of teachers and students on these textbooks. The textbooks used in the EFL context are usually textbooks created by native authors in Inner Circle countries such as the UK and the US. The textbooks are used by learners of English worldwide, and become global language textbooks. The spectrum of opposing views on the use of these global textbooks varies from strong criticism to total refusal to use textbooks in classes.

39 One problem with global textbooks is identified as lying within the global textbooks themselves. Global textbooks have been implicated in the failure of learners of English to develop the ability to use the language successfully. These course books focus on linguistic input rather than opportunities for language acquisition and development; they do this because “that’s what teachers are expected and required to do by administrators, by parents, by publishers, and by learners too” (Tomlinson, 2008, p. 3). Global textbooks may also be seen as inappropriate in particular contexts, or insufficiently engaging or relevant for their actual users (McGrath, 2006) as “publishers sometimes neglect matters of cultural appropriacy” (Sheldon, 1988, p. 239). For example, rural learners’ needs are different from those of urban centres; minorities have different needs from the majority; and haves and have-nots need different materials or approaches (Akbari, 2008). By attempting to cater for all students at a particular age and level, “global course books often end up not meeting the needs and wants of any” (Tomlinson, 2012, p. 158). These textbooks have also been criticised for providing non-authentic language that has little connection with reality (Abdollahi-Guilani, Yasin, & Hua, 2011; Richards, 2014). The depiction of various cultures in current ELT textbooks has been recognised as too stereotyped to reflect the real world. These stereotypes do not facilitate intercultural understanding and mutual respect (Bao, 2006; Bao, 2016). A frequent criticism is the disregard of global textbooks for the localness of learning and learning needs (Akbari, 2008). These global textbooks do not engage local socio-political and cultural contexts; thus, they seem to be “vacuous, materialistic, trivial and simplistic” (Michael & Linda, 1999, p. 82). This criticism is based on the assumption that each group of students is so unique that any materials designed for another group cannot fit in. Textbooks are “designed primarily to satisfy administrators and teachers but in so doing often ignore the needs and wants of learners” (Tomlinson, 2012, p. 158). In other words, textbooks are not a supportive means for students’ learning process, but the base for teachers and administrators to build on their curriculum.

The above-mentioned opposing views on ELT textbook themselves presume that it is possible to predict the language needs of students outside the classroom. These opposing views also disregard the common linguistic and learning needs of many learners (Crawford, 1995). Different as they may be, learners need to be provided with certain linguistic

40 knowledge in order to acquire a language. Therefore, ELT textbooks, with all their advantageous features, are still an important factor in language classrooms.

Another issue with global textbooks, which leads some researchers to strongly oppose the use of them in language classes, is the teachers and students’ firm adherence to textbooks as instructional materials. When teachers and students depend too heavily on global textbooks, they turn the advantages of these textbooks into disadvantages. In such cases, teachers and students attach great importance to their textbooks to supply almost all the items that they need to have in their lessons (Awasthi, 2006). It is possible that teachers and students potentially limit themselves, their imagination and their capacity to think professionally by relying too much on global textbooks (Crawford, 1995). Language teachers use all the ready-to-use grammar input, skill practices and sequences of language knowledge in these textbooks. Instead of participating in day-to-day decisions that have to be made about what to teach and how to teach it, teachers now just “sit back and operate the system, secure in the belief that the wise and virtuous people who produced the textbook knew what was good for us” (Hutchinson & Torres, 1994, p. 315). These instructors depend heavily on what is presented in the books and hardly bother to address the ELT curricula. In such contexts, when teachers complete the books, it means they complete the curriculum because textbooks are synonymous with curriculum (Awasthi, 2006). Students may also feel secure when having a core textbook that covers much of the language input and practice in class (Sheldon, 1988). The dependence on textbooks “limits the knowledge of the students to whatever the textbook offers to them” (Awasthi, 2006, p. 2). This is especially true in the context where learners have little or no access to English outside classrooms (McGrath, 2006). Teachers and students’ heavy dependence on ELT textbooks, therefore, may result in dissatisfaction with, and limitation of the goals and content, of EFL education.

Important as they may be, ELT textbooks are not the only factor that influences the language learning process. Although ELT textbooks may make a great contribution to the goals and content of language teaching, they cannot determine either (Allwright, 1981). Teachers and students are the other two determining factors; the learning process is “the interaction between teachers, learners and the materials at their disposal” (Crawford, 1995, p. 27). The difference and the deficiency views on the role of ELT textbooks, which state

41 that decisions in EFL classrooms are to be taken and acted upon by those with relevant expertise, is reemphasised.

2.1.2. ELT textbooks selection process. Taking into account all the characteristics of global ELT textbooks, and the identified issue that textbooks may become the main teaching curriculum for the classroom, teachers often have the task of selecting which materials to use. In any teaching and learning process, teachers are aware that learners are the focal points. When selecting textbooks, language teachers need to keep in mind learners’ needs, as global commercial textbooks “may not address the needs and aspirations of the learners in question” (Awasthi, 2006, p. 4). Teachers generally carry out predictive evaluation of the materials available to them to determine which textbooks are the most appropriate to their teaching purposes. Then, once they have used the material, they may feel it is necessary to make a retrospective evaluation of the textbooks to determine whether the textbooks really worked for them (Ellis, 1997, p. 36).

Predictive evaluation enables teachers to acquire useful, accurate, and contextual insights into the overall nature of the textbooks. Through these evaluations, teachers learn the content of the book, the way it is written, its strengths and weaknesses, and this facilitates the adaptation of their teaching to meet the objectives of the course and learners’ needs (Awasthi, 2006; Cunningsworth, 1995). Teachers can carry out predictive evaluation of their textbooks in two main ways. They can rely on the reviews of experts in the field. Some journals in ESL and EFL teaching, for instance, provide teachers with reviews of commercial textbooks. They can also carry out their own predictive evaluation based on the guidelines, checklists and standard criteria for ELT textbooks choice that have been explored by researchers (Ellis, 1997). The spectrum of evaluation criteria in textbook selection includes: availability, appropriateness, authenticity, sufficiency, cultural bias, educational validity, flexibility, guidance and value (Cunningsworth & Tomlinson, 1984; Sheldon, 1988). In addition, the selection process may consider matching the ELT textbook to programs and/or the courses, as well as reviewing its skills, exercises and activities (Garinger, 2002). A teacher needs to “match the materials with the goals and objectives of the program, and to ensure that they are consistent with one’s beliefs about the nature of

42 language and learning, as well as with one’s learners’ attitude, beliefs and preferences” (Nunan, 1991, p. 209). This process may help address the practical concerns with regards to a lack of cultural awareness in global textbooks.

Evaluation checklists do not reflect the whole story about decision-making. Sometimes choices are made based on simple criteria such as “popularity”, with a belief that there must be a reason for a textbook to sell well or to be chosen by peers. In other contexts, sometimes choices are made by teachers’ favouring “material which have face validity (i.e., which conform to people’s expectations of what materials should look like) and which are visually appealing” (Tomlinson, 2003a, p. 5). No set of criteria will ever become standard because textbook evaluation is fundamentally subjective (Sheldon, 1988, p. 240). While presenting long lists of evaluative criteria, researchers place emphasis on adapting these criteria to a unique situation with the aim of integrating with and contributing to long-term educational goals (Angell, DuBravac, & Gonglewski, 2008). For example, a two-phase approach to evaluate a global ELT textbook in Iran was carried out with that aim. A framework containing during-use and post-use evaluation was designed after a number of checklists were examined. During-use evaluation involved measuring the value of textbooks whilst observing how they were used in language classes. The results of post-use valuation can help ELT teachers make decisions about the adaptation and adoption of such teaching materials (Nahrkhalaji, 2012).

Retrospective evaluation of ELT textbooks has its own special significance. Retrospective evaluation “involves making judgments about the effect of the materials in the people using them” (Tomlinson, 2003b, p. 15). Teachers need to look back at the textbooks and reconsider their selection; they need to consider which activities work for their students and which do not, and what modifications should be made to make these textbooks more effective for future use (Ellis, 1997). Teachers and administrators can also use retrospective evaluation to test the validity of predictive evaluation, and use these data to improve predictive instruments.

Important as it may be, there is little record of textbook retrospective evaluation or very few attempts to conduct it (Ellis, 1997). Thorough evaluation of a complete set of materials seems to be such a daunting task which few teachers have time or willingness to undertake

43 or are willing to do that. In order to use ELT textbooks effectively, teachers are advised to keep assessing materials “in an ongoing manner rather then solely prior to adoption and to provide feedback to publishers regarding problems and suggestions” (Angell et al., 2008, p. 569). Another possibility is for the teacher to pilot a single chapter or section of a book, formally evaluating both during and afterwards how well the book matches their expectations and goals (Angell et al., 2008). This task can be carried out through looking at specific representations of language and cultures in textbooks, and putting them through a micro-evaluation. Through micro-evaluation, it is noted if a task works for a particular group of learners, what the weaknesses in the design of a task are, and how they may be improved (Ellis, 1997).

All cases considered, there is no perfect one-size-fit-all recipe for choosing and adopting a textbook. One suggested solution is to keep a balance between global concerns and the considerations of the local context (Angell et al., 2008). What to include in the content of ELT materials depends on the “background and the goals of the students and teacher” (McKay, 2000, p. 9). ELT textbooks should not be dictionaries or grammar books, neither should they be purely skills-based books. Instead, they should provide learners with contextualised language input, guided tasks for interactive communication, and language intake for development (Bruton, 1997). More importantly, ELT textbooks should reflect the importance of communicative language in context and provide students with linguistic or cultural proficiency (Angell et al., 2008). Learners are encouraged to compare their own culture with those represented in the textbook (Gray, 2000). This helps provide a basis for cross-cultural awareness among language speakers in the “increasing global village” (McKay, 2000, p. 11), thus also helping facilitate language acquisition.

2.2. Representation of Everyday Life as Culture Although there is a notable amount of research devoted to defining the nature and the role of culture in foreign language study, culture remains a hotly debated issue in the teaching of foreign languages around the world (Kramsch, 2013). There are many definitions drawn from linguists’ observations. Culture is said to be “one of the most difficult concepts in the human and social science” (Hall, 1997, p. 2). There is “high culture” as well as “mass culture” or “popular culture” and there is also “Big C”- the formal culture and “little c” -

44 the daily lifestyle of a particular group of people (Brody, 2003, p. 39). Some researchers share Brody’s definition of culture by referring to “Big C” and “little c” as “objective culture” and “subjective culture” (Bennett, Bennett, & Allen, 2003, p. 243).

The term, culture, is also used to refer to all the ideas and assumptions about the nature of things and people that we learn when we are members of a social group. A common definition of culture in the study of language is that culture is “socially acquired knowledge” (Alptekin, 1993, p. 136; Yule, 2014, p. 271). This kind of knowledge has the same functioning mechanism as our first language – we initially acquire it without any conscious awareness. This knowledge consists of shared values, norms and behaviour, which are necessary for one to know or believe in order to be part of a certain group (Byram, 1989).

Perhaps the most insightful definition of culture for the purpose of ELT, and the one that will be adhered to in this paper, comes from Hall (1997) who looks at culture from an anthropological view. In a ‘social science’ context, culture from an anthropological view is regarded as learned and shared values, beliefs and rules for social behaviour. This refers to distinctive features with regards to the ways of life of a people, community, nation or social group. “Culture became synonymous with the way of life and everyday behaviours of members of speech communities, bound together by common experiences, memories and aspirations” (Kramsch, 2013, p. 64); or culture is the total ways of life of people composed of their learned and shared behaviour patterns, values, norms, and material objects (Rogers & Steinfatt, 1999). The understanding of culture from an anthropological perspective focuses on the “shared values” of a group and/or society (Hall, 1997, p. 2). These “shared values” are formed by a system of representation that Hall (1997) describes as “the production of the meaning of concepts developed in our minds through language” (p. 17). Representation is the link between concepts and language, which enables us to refer to the real world of objects, people or events. Representation has two systems. The first system forms our shared conceptual maps by organising, clustering, arranging, classifying and establishing relations between concepts. The second system is the process of constructing, arranging and organising these conceptual maps with a set of signs. These signs may be integrated into a shared language, which represents those concepts (Hall, 1997, pp. 17-18). The relation between things, concepts and signs is at the heart of the production of meaning

45 in language, and the process to link these three elements together is what we call “representation”.

As Hall’s theory of representation involves the use of language, signs and images which stand for or represent things, this theory is used as part of the theoretical framework of this research. Textbooks belong to our cultural universe and powerfully inscribe our social knowledge. They are informed by systems of representation, as in Hall’s theory. The relationship of these systems is then tied into articulated discourses. Through ELT textbooks, learners are constantly exposed to these systems. Because there may be “a direct relationship between the values and attitudes learners express and those found in the texts with which they work” (Littlejohn & Windeatt, 1989, pp. 171-172), it is necessary to examine these books carefully. The main aim of this research was to examine representations of life outside Vietnam – the target and international target culture – through what is expressed in language. In this case, life outside Vietnam is symbolised through the topics, the texts and the images in ELT textbooks.

2.3. Representation of Culture in ELT Textbooks

2.3.1. English as an International Language (EIL). The English language has now gained a worldwide lingua franca status and has been considered “a medium of intercultural communication” (Seidlhofer, 2003, p. 9). To define different varieties of English, English is categorised into three circles: the “inner”, the “outer” and the “expanding” (Kachru, 1992, pp. 356-357) (see figure 2.1).

The Inner Circle includes the USA, UK, Canada, Australia and New Zealand where English is spoken as a native language. The Inner Circle is also described as ‘norm-providing’ because its speakers create norms for people who learn English as a foreign language. These countries, especially the UK and the US, are traditionally the focus of ELT textbooks (Seidlhofer, 2003). The Outer Circle refers to countries such as India and the Philippines, where English is used as an official language. The former and current British colonies and countries or territories form part of this circle. The Expanding Circle consists of many other countries such as Korea, Japan, Iran or Vietnam, where English is considered a foreign language. Based on the spread of English in Expanding Circle countries, it is possible to say that the highest numerical use of English, on the basis of population, occurs in this

46 circle. As the increasing number of non-native speakers of English already outnumbers native ones, English is now not only the property of the Inner Circle countries but also an international language used by non-native speakers all over the world (McKay, 2000). The native speakers are now the minority in the English-speaking world, while there is increasing need for non-native speakers to use English in their daily transactions (Brumfit, 2001).

Figure 2.1: Kachru’s three circles of English

(Source: Crystal, 2004, p. 107)

Although the Inner and the Outer Circles of English varieties in this model make up the EIL (Crystal, 2007), other countries in the Expanding Circle may possibly join the Inner and Outer Circles as a result of the rapid spread of English across the world (Seidlhofer, 2003). English speakers in the Outer and Expanding Circles are not merely absorbing and parroting the English spoken in the traditional centre of influence; they are actively reinterpreting, reshaping and redefining English in oral and written forms. For example, in the Philippines, locals speak ‘Englog’ – a ‘Tagalog – infused English’. In Japan, visitors encounter ‘Japlish’, while in Singapore, there is ‘Singlish’, and in India, it is ‘Hinglish’ – a mix of Hindi and English (Nault, 2006, p. 316). Even in the Inner Circle countries, there is

47 an Australian version of English that may bewilder British or American speakers. The English language is now re-colonised by subaltern people who speak it, making English the basic international medium of communication, and “the world’s primary vehicle for storing and transmitting information” (Alptekin, 2002, p. 60). As English is evolving into different forms across the world, ELT textbooks serve as a medium of communication and interpretation. Textbooks, therefore, matter.

Several factors contribute to the increasing use of English worldwide, and its status as a truly international language. In the first place, the expansion of transnational corporations has contributed to the promotion of English. English is the lingua franca in communication and business documentation between these corporations and local companies in non- English speaking countries (Graddol, 1997). The increasing number of world organisations with international networks has resulted in a greater demand for English globally. English operates as the working language for international bodies and conferences, scientific and academic publishing, international banking, tourism, education, information technology, and a significant number of other social activities (Graddol, 1997). Another factor specifically linked to the prominence of English is the Internet – an international technology for communication. Internet users are increasing in number every second around the world. Not surprisingly, the number of people having contact with English is also increasing (Gray, 2002). In fact, the number of countries where English is spoken as a second or foreign language is greater than native-speaker countries (Hermawan & Lia, 2012). It is more likely for someone to speak English to a non-native than a native English speaker in this contemporary era (Clyne & Sharifian, 2008).

2.3.2. Culture in EIL paradigm. Culture has always been an indispensable part of any language teaching and learning situation. Culture is, in fact, an explicit source of content for language-teaching textbooks (Akbari, 2008). When examining ELT textbooks, there are three categories of culture: “the source culture” which refers to the native culture of the learners, “the target culture” which is the English-speaking culture, and “the international target culture” which denotes various other cultures than “the source culture” (Cortazzi & Jin, 1999, pp. 204-205). These categories of culture are illustrated in figure 2.2.

48

Categories of culture

International Target Source Culture Target Culture (English- Culture (various other (learners’ own culture) speaking culture) cultures than source)

Figure 2.2. The three categories of culture

Based on this category of culture, cultural materials are also divided into three types: “the target culture”, “the learners’ own culture” and “the international target culture” (McKay, 2000, pp. 8-9). Being relevant to defining whose cultures to include in ELT textbooks, and to integrate into EFL classrooms, this model, which considers the sources of cultural information, has recently been adopted in many studies of ELT textbooks (Aliakbari & Jamalvandi, 2012; Dahmardeh et al., 2014; Hermawan & Lia, 2012; Ho, 2009; Kiss & Weninger, 2013; Mahmood, Asghar, & Hussain, 2012; Mekheimer, 2011; Rajabi & Ketabi, 2012; Shin et al., 2011; Tajeddin & Teimournezhad, 2014). The frequent adoption of such categorisation in these studies supports the value and relevance of this model in determining the cultural content of language textbooks.

Cultural content in ELT textbooks has frequently belonged to the target language. Learners of a new language may want to communicate with the users of that language, and getting familiar with the cultural values of the target society is considered one of the requirements for successful communication (Akbari, 2008). This assumption holds true for learners who want to go to work or study in the UK or the US. However, due to a paradigm shift to EIL in language learning, the real situations in which many learners find themselves are different (Liu & Laohawiriyanon, 2012). English has now become an international language as a result of its spread among the Expanding Circle countries (see Kachru’ three circles of English model, p. 47); this expansion is especially important in Asia, the fastest developing continent in the world. Some researchers have questioned, “Should ELT

49 materials in Asia focus primarily on preparing learners to be able to communicate fluently, accurately, appropriately and effectively with other non-native speakers of English?” (Tomlinson, 2005, p. 5). This question stresses the point that most learners of English in Asia are unlikely to communicate with native speakers of English, but that more and more communication in English involves non-native speaker/non-native speaker interactions (Alptekin, 2002).

Researchers have recognised the increasing involvement of non-native speaker/non-native speaker in English communication. Over 65% of interactions in English are between non- native speakers (Graddol, 1996). Interactions in English between Japanese and Thais, or Chinese and Germans, or Vietnamese and Italians are now more common. Asian learners of English do not have to insist on modeling themselves on native speakers of standard British or American English because “that is neither necessary for international communication nor attainable without sustained exposure to it” (Tomlinson, 2005, p. 6). Applied linguistics supports this view, claiming that it is not rational to think of native speakers of English as the sole owners of the language and the arbiters in terms of correct grammar and usage (Alptekin, 1993). A standard native-speaker variety of English is only one of the correct varieties, and should not be set as the model for learners to imitate (Kirkpatrick, 2002; Pennycook, 2014; Seidlhofer, 2001, 2003; Tomlinson, 2005). This was previously verified by the varieties of English in the Outer Circle countries where English was used as an instrument of colonisation (see pp. 47-48). English learning, therefore, is not considered the traditional English language learning, but is perceived on more culturally appropriate terms.

English has developed certain features that do not belong to any nation. Every day, millions of non-native speakers of English are gradually developing an international variety, which can be used as an effective target for Asian learners who need English for international communication (Tomlinson, 2005). “English already represents many cultures and it can be used by anyone as a means to express any cultural heritage and any value system” (Smith, 1987, p. 3). In other words, English has become “denationalised” (Akbari, 2008, p. 278), and is not always inextricably tied to one particular culture. Therefore, ELT textbooks nowadays cannot be grounded in a single culture like American or British or a particular local culture; instead, it is more realistic to take into account broader international perspectives (Alptekin, 1993) and usage trends.

50 In this setting, investigating the representations of culture in ELT textbooks is neither easy nor simple (Weninger & Kiss, 2013). In fact, as previously mentioned, there has been an ongoing debate in the literature on how ELT textbooks need to incorporate culture, and how such content is to be analysed. In these studies, the three categories of culture defined by Cotarzzi and Jin (1999): the source culture (the learner’s culture), the target cultures (English speaking cultures) and the international target cultures (various cultures other than the source culture) have been applied as the role model for analysis. As this classification demonstrates its appropriateness for the purpose of this study, to examine foreign culture in ELT textbooks, it helps to underline the target cultures and the international target cultures, which are composed of ‘life outside Vietnam’ in these textbooks.

2.3.3. EIL and implications for cultures in ELT textbooks. Language researchers and practitioners have considered global textbooks as “an artifact, a commodity which promotes socio-economic norms through its texts, activities, values, and, especially, its illustration” (Tomlinson, 2012, p. 164). A textbook is not just a collection of linguistic items – it is a reflection of a particular world-view based on the selection of resources, both textual and visual. Most textbook writers are known to be native speakers who consciously or unconsciously disseminate the values of their own English-speaking countries in the texts they compose (Alptekin, 1993). Other researchers share this view, stating, “course books will directly or indirectly communicate sets of social and cultural values which are inherent in their make-up” (Cunningsworth, 1995, p. 90). Textbooks impart a view of teaching and learning, a view of the target language and the culture(s) that the target language represents, and their own worldview (Tomlinson, 2012). Textbooks are also a means of transmitting cultural values from generation to generation:

Textbooks are an important window into a culture; more than just books, they are semiofficial statements of exactly what the opinion-forming elite of the culture wants his educated youth of that culture to believe to be true about the past and present world (Blaut, 2012, p. 6).

Textbooks are undisputedly the main source of cultural knowledge in EFL/ESL learning and teaching contexts. ELT textbook designers may be said to “present a vision of the world in the text they produce” (Gray, 2002, p. 157). Apparently, the intention of

51 introducing the target language culture as an effort to learn target language well, which mainly refers to Western culture, is considered quite logical (Hermawan & Lia, 2012). However, there have been voices against the cultural imperialism of native English- speaking countries, especially the United States and the United Kingdom. The inclusion of native cultural elements is sometimes considered as part of a colonial agenda to impart Christian beliefs and values to young learners. Although the use of learner culture in foreign language classes increases the confidence of the learners, the absence of local cultural content in ELT textbooks is clearly problematic (Shah et al., 2014). As may be seen in Chapter Five later in this thesis, this situation is true in Vietnamese higher education context, with the widely use of global ELT textbooks across teaching curricula.

ELT textbooks may differ greatly in terms of the amount and nature of the cultural load (Aliakbari & Jamalvandi, 2012). This “hidden curriculum” has obviously influenced “the content and image of the teaching material, and indeed the whole curriculum” (Cunningsworth, 1995, p. 90). As such, when learners acquire new knowledge of the language in the process of learning, they unintentionally enter into the cultural system of the target language (Alptekin, 1993). Some scholars believe this system is just for prospective tourists (Sercu, 2000) or culturally biased and socially stereotyped (García, 2004). ELT textbooks are the promise of entry into an international speech community, which tend to be ideally represented (Gray, 2000). In EFL classrooms where global textbooks have great authority, it is potentially dangerous when students often tend to uncritically accept their views communicated via representations (Tomlinson, 2012).

A number of studies on the examination of culture within ELT textbooks have uncovered consistent biases favouring certain cultural groups over others. ELT textbooks in Japan reveal the dominance of American English and American characters in dialogues and readings, and the promotion of these as a universal standard. English textbooks in Japan show “a strong inner-circle orientation in the choice of linguistic samples and representations of English users and uses” (Matsuda, 2002, p. 438). The majority of the main characters in these books are native speakers and the dialogues are exclusively among native speakers (Matsuda, 2003). Iranian EFL course books have been criticised for not adequately preparing learners for intercultural communication due to the lack of diverse social issues, the excessive focus on language forms, and little promotion of cultural

52 awareness in the books (Hayati, 2009, p. 149). English language textbooks in were found to prefer the cultures of English speaking countries over those of Africa or Asia (Yuen, 2011). The investigation of cultural content in ELT textbooks in Turkey found a high coverage of cultural topics from the US and England as the main target culture of English (Kirkgöz & Agçam, 2011). ELT textbooks in Korea were found to contain mostly British or American values, rather than internationally oriented cultures (Song, 2013). Research which examined EFL global textbooks in Vietnam demonstrated the foreignness of these textbooks to Vietnamese learners (Truong & Phan, 2009). In broader scale research into seven series of international ELT textbooks that were designed for ESL/EFL contexts in several Asian countries (with a total of 25 books), the domination of Inner Circle cultural content was also prevalent in all the textbooks that were examined (Shin et al., 2011). These are not the minority in this view; other researchers have criticised the cultural imbalance or cultural deficiencies in ELT textbooks (Mahmood et al., 2012; Tajeddin & Teimournezhad, 2014). It has been asserted that, “no well-designed ELT course books exist that explicitly focus on cross-cultural and multicultural themes from a global perspective” (Nault, 2006, p. 323)

These common findings, that the representation of the target cultures is dominant, may lead to an assumption that Inner Circle cultures are more highly valued than those from the Outer or Expanding Circle. There are reasons for this imbalance in the representation of cultures. Instead of spending time on looking for outside resources and evaluating whether these resources are appropriate for publication, it is obviously more cost-effective for textbook designers to use their own cultural and social contexts. Textbook designers are also usually native speakers of English. These designers naturally find it more difficult and uncomfortable to compose texts free from the influence of their own Anglo-American culture. Yet the most important reason lies in the characteristics of the target language, which by nature is intertwined with its own cultural norms and values (Shin et al., 2011).

Despite this, some countries with state-promoted religions, most of which are Muslim, have tended to offer a counterview regarding the overwhelming influence of the target culture in ELT textbooks. A number of studies have demonstrated that locally produced ELT textbooks reflect the source culture of the particular country, rather than the target or international target cultures (Kirkgöz & Agçam, 2011). In a study that investigated teaching

53 materials in Morocco, it was found there was less benefit gained by including Western culture in the textbooks. The introduction of Western culture would result in a tendency for comparison between native cultures and foreign cultures, which could contribute to learners’ discontent with their own culture (Adaskou, Britten, & Fahsi, 1990). Pakistani people experience hostility towards representations of Western culture in ELT textbooks, hence they may not have the motivation to know about the society or the culture of native speakers (Shah, Afsar, e Haq, & Khan, 2012). Locally produced textbooks in Iran also concentrate exclusively on Iranian culture and religion (Majdzadeh, 2002). Saudi Arabia and Chile are extreme in the use of their own-designed materials with little reference to the culture of Inner Circle countries (Turkan & Celik, 2007). Locally published textbooks in Vietnam referred mostly to Vietnamese people and places, followed by American and other cultures (Dinh, 2014). A considerable number of other locally published ELT textbooks used in Korea, Turkey, and Morocco focus on the source culture rather than the target ones (McKay, 2004).

The findings of these international studies indicate that both global ELT textbooks, that favours the Inner Circle cultures, and the locally designed ELT textbooks focusing exclusively on their own cultures and religions, show “deficiencies” or “potential demerits” (Hermawan & Lia, 2012; Nault, 2006, p. 322; Shin et al., 2011, p. 256; Tajeddin & Teimournezhad, 2014). Internationally distributed textbooks full of British or American viewpoints might hinder learners’ acculturation because these books do not foster EIL users in expanding their cultural awareness. These books are also said to undermine learners’ agency. By using these books, learners are learning about “a limited section of the world” and are receiving “incomplete exposure to the English language” (Matsuda, 2002, p. 438). This limited exposure to the English language may make learners think that their English, which may differ from a native speaker’s, is unacceptable. They may feel embarrassed about their accent and hesitate to communicate in English (Matsuda, 2003). Similarly, the lack of target cultural perspectives in locally designed ELT textbooks may create a barrier for learners who seek to develop intercultural communication and target language skills (Shin et al., 2011; Tajeddin & Teimournezhad, 2014).

In addition to the imbalanced representation of foreign cultures, ELT textbooks have also been found to view learners as prospective tourists, which could explain the presence of an

54 incomplete and extremely positive picture of a foreign reality (García, 2005). For example, a culture may be presented in a practical, tourist format such as instructions on how to get things done in the target language. Learners may, therefore, try to adapt it or adopt it as their own when they travel to target countries (Kramsch, 2013). This restricted view of language may lead to learners’ being stereotyped, which is itself an obstacle to interpersonal communication and linguistic competence.

With English as a lingua franca and a means of international communication, ideal global ELT textbooks should not only prepare learners to use English with native speakers, but also with non-native speakers of English. The limited exposure to English varieties in the classroom may lead to confusion or resistance when students are confronted with different types of English users and uses outside this context (Matsuda, 2003). In order to achieve the goal of international communication, instead of providing learners with a particular standard or model, these materials should expose learners to many types of language-based interactions and engage learners through different types of speakers and texts (Tomlinson, 2005). Students may find it beneficial if material writers and publishers devote more attention to issues such as cultural misunderstandings, cross-cultural pragmatics, stereotypes, non-verbal communication or culture shocks (Nault, 2006). It is essential to introduce more than a single variety of English or one culture into the materials for international communication (Matsuda, 2003; McKay, 2003; Nault, 2006). A thoughtful incorporation of cultures in textbooks may help learners to communicate more successfully in cross-cultural situations. Even if one variety of English is chosen as a dominant target model, students should also be aware of varieties other than British or American “to develop a more comprehensive view of the English language” (Matsuda, 2003, p. 721). This incorporation of cultures is especially important in the era of learning English as an international language.

Catering for the purpose of intercultural language teaching does not necessarily mean that ELT textbooks should be “mass-produced for an international market regardless of local contexts” (Dinh, 2014, p. 146). They should not be a kind of “one-size-fits-all” textbook, which tries to satisfy all needs and in the process, loses pedagogical, linguistic, and cultural value. These “one-size-fits-all” textbooks are often accused of excluding the local and presenting a world that is different from reality. Learners are not engaged authentic

55 communication (Gray, 2002). In other words, such textbook designers have moved from authenticity to appropriateness in designing their books. New global textbooks are now similar in design and content because they are following similar guidelines in terms of cultural content. They may stress the international functions of English, but finally end up with “bland and characterless constructions of international conferences, airport lounges and hotel reception desks, which could be anywhere and nowhere…” (Pulverness, 2004, para. 33). These global textbooks are designed to avoid offensive topics to users, and to ensure a fair and balanced representation of people from different races, religions, genders, ethnicities, and classes (Gray, 2002). For example, modern and very quintessentially British textbooks, the New Headway series, are now “much less exclusively located in Britain” (Gray, 2002, p. 154). Although balancing the two contradictory elements in designing ELT textbooks, appropriacy and inclusivity, is a difficult task, there is an apparent shift in international settings, which reflects the growing sense in ELT textbook publishers of English as a lingua franca.

2.3.4. Approaches to examining cultural representation in textbooks. Researchers have carried out a great many studies to examine culture in English language textbooks because of the interrelation between language and culture and the importance of textbooks in English language teaching. These studies have revealed different portrayals of culture across all their dimensions (Rajabi & Ketabi, 2012). Cultural information may be embedded in informative and descriptive texts, dialogues, writing tasks, lexical items, and visual and audio recordings (Adaskou et al., 1990). Textbooks thus convey sets of cultural values, which are often referred to as the “hidden curriculum” (Cunningsworth, 1995, p. 90). A variety of approaches have been applied to investigate this hidden curriculum and provided valuable insight into cultural elements in textbooks.

Most research into culture in ELT textbooks has used quantitative research tools, which employ frequency counts of cultural representations as evident in the textual and visual materials of textbooks (Çakir, 2010; Dahmardeh et al., 2014; Kirkgöz & Agçam, 2011; Mahmood et al., 2012; Rajabi & Ketabi, 2012; Shin et al., 2011; Song, 2013; Yuen, 2011). These representations present the target language culture, the source culture of the learners, or follow an international cultural orientation (McKay, 2000). Other research has used

56 qualitative methods, which apply critical discourse analysis (García, 2005; Tahir Yaqoob & Zubair, 2012), or a thematic approach in analysing the content of texts within the teaching materials (Su, 2007). Some studies paid more attention to texts and text analysis (Juan, 2010), while others relied on both text and pictures as the basic units of their research (Yuen, 2011). Others explored textbooks in terms of the meaning potential they have in their texts and images, “as opposed to those taking cultural content as fixed in textbooks” (Weninger & Kiss, 2013, p. 695). Not only using a variety of approaches, these research studies applied a wide range of analytical frameworks as well.

The quantitative analysis framework of four different aspects of culture, Product-Practices- Perspectives-Persons, was adopted to examine foreign cultures represented in two textbooks in Hong Kong (Yuen, 2011). The first aspect, Product, is named big C culture. It refers to the formal institutions (social, political, and economic), the great figures of history, and those products of literature, fine arts, and the sciences that were traditionally assigned to the category of elite culture (National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project, 1996, cited in Yuen, 2011). The other aspect of culture, Practices, is the way of life of a particular group of people (Brody, 2003, cited in Yuen, 2011). This ‘little c’ aspect refers to daily living studied by the sociologist and the anthropologist: housing, clothing, food, tools, transportation, and all the patterns of behaviour that members of the culture regard as necessary and appropriate (National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project, 1996, cited in Yuen, 2011). These two aspects are referred to as “objective culture’, while the more intangible concepts such as world views, values and beliefs by members of a society are “subjective culture” (Bennett et al., 2003, p. 243). This aspect of culture is named Perspectives. The last aspect to be considered is Persons, which was added by Moran (Yuen, 2011, p. 459). While Products, Practices, and Perspectives often characterise culture, famous icons or individuals can also be a cultural symbol of one particular country. Queen Elizabeth or Mother Teresa, for example, represents the different cultures of The United Kingdom and India, respectively. After analysing the data, Yuen’s final conclusion indicated that the culture represented in the textbooks favours English speaking-countries (Yuen, 2011).

In contrast to Yuen’s methodology (2011), an alternative semiotic framework that drew on the semiotic theory developed by Charles Sanders Peirce was offered (Weninger & Kiss,

57 2013). By introducing semiotic principles in EFL textbook analysis, this approach focused on the “dimensions of the meaning-making process, on how things can mean, rather than on empirical classroom data from distinct learning contexts” (Weninger & Kiss, 2013, p. 696). In this approach, textbooks were analysed in terms of the meaning potential they generated through texts and images, without necessarily insisting or imposing any meanings. The activities of looking or reading were the units of examination. Texts, images and tasks were considered together in order to understand how they facilitated certain interpretations. This allowed teachers to explore and exploit these as part of learners’ dynamic engagement with texts and images in textbooks (Weninger & Kiss, 2013).

Another study adopted both qualitative and quantitative approaches in investigating the cultural content in ESL textbooks in Pakistan (Mahmood et al., 2012). The researchers followed Byram et al.’s (1994) model, which included such categories as social identity, beliefs and behaviours, sociopolitical institutes, socialisation and life cycle, national history, geography and stereotypes. As culture is expressed through language, and bases itself on words, words representing cultural aspect were denoted and counted, in line with Byram’s model. It was then determined whether the culture presented belonged to the target culture, source culture or both (Mahmood et al., 2012). This approach highlighted the presence of particular cultures and focused on cultural content as well as how some other aspects are overlooked. “The results reveal that the major focus of textbook Step Ahead 1 is non-native culture, inadequate, inefficient inter-cultural harmony is found in it and the least consideration has been given to the source, which is likely to alienate the learners from their own culture” (Mahmood et al., 2012, pp. 35-36)

Thompson’s (1984) rubrics were utilised to clarify the meaning of cultural values (Asgari, 2011). In Thompson’s analytical framework, the concept “ideology” was defined as “the ways in which meaning serves to sustain relations of domination” (Asgari, 2011, p. 890). This concept is used to connect education and power relations. Thompson’s rubrics of cultural values include: hegemony of English, which has to do with English speaking countries; consumerism; personal issues; health and social issues. To clarify the meaning of each of these values, a definition for each cultural value was given. As these values are parts of people’s lives, they are realistic and can become part of the learners’ value system (Asgari, 2011).

58 Still other researchers have employed different analytical frameworks. ELT textbooks have been analysed qualitatively in accordance with the model proposed by Ramirez and Hall (1999) (Aliakbari & Jamalvandi, 2012). The two main sections of the model are the amount and various categories of cultures, which refer to English-speaking countries, non-English speaking Western countries, Eastern nations, China, and Cross-national references. The five major cultural categories include: social issues; personal issues; religion, arts and humanities; political systems and institutions; environmental issues (Aliakbari & Jamalvandi, 2012). Similarly, Ramirez and Hall’s (1990) categorisation was used to examine the representation of culture in Iranian Language Institute advanced level textbooks. Five out of these eight categories were present in these advanced books, which show good variety across these texts (Rashidi & Najafi, 2010).

2.3.5. Theoretical framework for cultural representations in ELT textbooks in this study. From various approaches to cultural representations in literature, it is clear that researchers’ analytical frameworks draw on a variety of definitions of culture, most of which well serve the intention and the purpose of the research. However, researchers in the investigation of cultural representation in ELT textbooks have used some models more frequently than others. One of the most frequently used models is the one proposed by Adaskou, Britten and Fashi (1990). As a holistic and profound framework, their four senses of culture have been adopted as a research instrument in numerous studies (Hermawan & Lia, 2012; McKay, 2000; Rajabi & Ketabi, 2012; Shah et al., 2014; Stapleton, 2000; Tajeddin & Teimournezhad, 2014). Using this framework, problems were found in both localised and international textbooks (Tajeddin & Teimournezhad, 2014). The localised textbook series may not serve to enhance intercultural understanding among learners, since in this case very few references were made to target or international cultural elements. On the other hand, the problem with international textbooks was the absence of the source culture.

Adaskou, Britten and Fashi’s (1990) comprehensive model includes four ‘senses’ of culture: the aesthetic (culture with capital C), the sociological (culture with small c), the semantic (the conceptual system embodied in the language) and the pragmatic (or sociolinguistic). The aesthetic includes literature, media, music, films and the fine arts (whether serious or popular), literature – the study of which used to be one of the main

59 reasons for language teaching. Very often, some forms of culture in this sense are also sources of cultural information in the sociological sense. The sociological sense refers to the way of life in the target community. This category includes the structure of different institutions, from the national health system to the family, and interpersonal relations at home, at work, and during free time activities. In other words, it includes the organisation and nature of family, home life, interpersonal relations, material conditions, work and leisure, customs and institutions. The semantic is the conceptual system embodied in the language, which is culturally distinctive because it relates to a particular way of life and context. This system conditions all our perceptions and our thought processes, time and space relations, and emotional states, and colour usage. The pragmatic means the background knowledge, social skills, and paralinguistic skills, which help create successful communication with other members of the target language community and vary according to setting, audience, purpose and genre. It includes the ability to use appropriate exponents of various communicative functions; the ability to use appropriate intonation patterns; the ability to conform to norms of politeness, where different from the learners’ culture, including taboo avoidance; the awareness of conventions governing interpersonal relations – questions of status, obligation, license, where different from the learners’ culture; the familiarity with the main rhetorical conventions in different written genres e.g. different types of letters and messages, form-filling, advertisements. The last two types, the semantic and the pragmatic senses of culture, are stated to be necessary for learners’ achievement. The other two types, aesthetic and sociological, foster international understanding and challenge negative stereotypes and other prejudices (Adaskou et al., 1990).

The frequent application of ‘four senses of culture’ framework, in terms of examining the cultural representation in language textbooks, indicates that this framework is widely accepted and that the four categories of culture are well established. This framework is not necessarily all-inclusive or mutually exclusive, but the four senses of culture are representative of the countless dimensions of culture. They provide both the concrete substance and the abstractness of cultural concepts. This framework is comprehensive and holistic in the way it focuses on both tangible cultural content, through texts and images, and intangible cultural values through the underlying semantic and pragmatic meanings embedded in the language. As this framework was developed for an EFL context, it is

60 particularly appropriate for studies on non-native speakers. The four senses of this framework are useful for examining the cultural representations in ELT textbooks because they incorporate topics which are normally dealt with in general EFL courses. Such culture-related topics may have different degrees of importance, depending on vary according to the aims of the courses; however, this framework defines the substance of cultural teaching in many EFL educational contexts. For those reasons, this ‘four senses of culture’ model forms part of the analytical framework for the cultural examination in ELT textbooks of this study.

2.4. The Connection between the Representation of Culture in ELT Textbooks and Language Learning

2.4.1. Cultural aspects in foreign language learning. Since the introduction of CLT, linguists have placed a lot of emphasis on the learning of not only English itself but also the culture of English-speaking societies. This is due to their intertwined relationship. Learners should be informed how native speakers of English see the world, and how the English language reflects the ideas, customs, and behaviour of their society. It means that a good command of linguistic knowledge contributes to the correctness of sentences, while familiarity with cultural knowledge of that language may guarantee appropriateness of discourse (Fageeh, 2011). As a result, some scholars consider culture the fifth skill in language learning (Lewis & McCook, 2002). It is even more than a skill in that it cannot be separated from language (Kramsch, 1998). In fact, target language culture is an essential feature in every stage of foreign language learning (Stewart, 1982).

Language shapes our culture and our viewpoint of life; therefore, language is not just a means of communication, it is a conduit of culture as well. When learning a language, students are exposed to a target language and human nature reflected in that language. Learners are simultaneously provided with cultural knowledge input through the language knowledge (Wei, 2005). This cultural input helps learners to have appropriate language behaviours in terms of culture, for example, how to accept an invitation, how to take leave, how to express agreement or disagreement, or how to make requests (Coltrane, 2003). Language is senseless when learners pay no attention to the people who speak the target language and the country where the language is spoken (Pulverness, 2003). When one fails to learn the culture of the target language, the language learning process is deemed to be

61 incomplete or a recipe for becoming a “fluent fool” (Bennett et al., 2003, p. 237). The question of culture teaching now is not whether it should be taught but how it should be taught (Nault, 2006). Textbooks, as a conduit of culture, have an important role to play in bringing forward culture to learners so that it is not a language barrier to students’ language acquisition.

Because “second language learning is often second culture learning” (Brown, 1986, p. 33), language learning and teaching involves the negotiation of cultural identity. Learning a foreign language provides learners with a cross-cultural experience that requires them to negotiate new cultural and linguistic codes that are different from their own (Kubota, 2004). The intrinsic link between language and culture gives rise to some terms such as acculturation - learners assimilate new culture or linguaculture - language is interrelated with culture and is taught in tandem with its culture (Friedrich, 1989; Rajabi & Ketabi, 2012, p. 707). Some English instructors “have interpreted their task…. as that of getting their students to ape native speakers as faithfully as possible, or rehearsing them in patterns of native-speaker behaviour, with all the cultural baggage that comes with this unquestioned, even unnoticed” (Seidlhofer, 1999, p. 237). However, as mentioned in section 2.3.1 in this chapter, if the goal of English language teaching pedagogy is to train learners to communicate in a globalised world, then learners’ communicative competence needs to be redefined with a broader language knowledge and cultural knowledge, and not be confined to the target language culture. In other words, the ultimate goal of modern language learning has now shifted from communicative competence to intercultural communicative competence (hereafter ICC), which is a dynamic process of encountering other cultures and becoming more confident with one’s own culture. This process is directed toward using English as an international language in a globalised era, and not to reach a perfect, native-like linguistic competence.

In that spirit, it is also emphasised that learning about a new culture does not necessarily mean accepting that culture (McKay, 2000). One is not obliged to strictly follow the conventions of the target culture (Kramsch, 1993). That explains why interculturalism - knowing about another culture, and biculturalism - accepting another culture, are clearly distinguished (Byram, 1998). In the EIL classroom, where the language belongs to its users, it is more relevant for learners to reach the goal of interculturalism (McKay, 2000). This

62 “enables them to mediate/interpret the values, beliefs and behaviours (the ‘cultures’) of themselves and of others and to ‘stand on the bridge’ or indeed ‘be the bridge’ between people of different languages and cultures” (Byram, 2006, p. 12). In other words, learners need to be aware of the differences between their own cultural values and beliefs and the target culture; at the same time, they need to have the capacity to negotiate these differences in order to achieve common understanding and establish solidarity (M. T. T. Nguyen, 2011). With this in mind, full exposure to cultural diversity in the English language may help learners raise their own cultural awareness, and at the same time develop insights into the values and beliefs of other cultures. In this way, the goal of interculturalism may be achieved in EIL classrooms (McKay, 2000). This informs learners on how to behave in a manner that is considered culturally acceptable, while also developing greater tolerance and receptiveness toward others (Cunningsworth, 1995). The issue arises as to which types of culture and what kinds of culture should be included in ELT textbooks and should be taught in the language classroom.

2.4.2. Effects of cultural aspects in foreign language learning. Across a variety of linguistic and cultural boundaries, cultural differences are assumed to greatly influence language learning and communication. In a language class, every single element to be taught is linked to culture in some way or other as “every lesson is about something and that something is about culture” (Tseng, 2002, p. 20). Effective language learning among different cultures is challenging, due to the different ways of thinking, seeing, hearing, and interpreting the world embedded in these cultures. They bring both positive and negative values: While cultural differences may lead to communication breakdown, they also provide learners with valuable learning targets (Kubota, 2004). Therefore, learners’ attitudes toward other cultures may range from resistance to hostility at one extreme, to affection on the other (Knutson, 2006). As a positive attitude toward the target language and culture helps promote affinity with the lingua-culture, it may facilitate language learning. In contrast, if learners feel alienated from the target language and culture, this cultural gap may hinder language-learning processes, and is commonly framed as a cultural barrier in the path of learning/teaching different languages (Mirdehghan, HoseiniKargar, Navab, & Mahmoodi, 2011; Rajabi & Ketabi, 2012). Although language instructors are well aware of leaners’ affinity to target culture, they show more concern

63 about cultural factors that seriously hinder the effectiveness of the learning process (Mirdehghan et al., 2011).

In an EFL classroom context, learners’ learning behaviours and progress are generally regulated by their pre-existing knowledge, attitudes and beliefs (Talley & Hui-ling, 2014). Therefore, familiarity with the cultural context assists learners in the handling of various language tasks (Alptekin, 1993). A review of literature has presented numerous examples on how cultural familiarity facilitates foreign language acquisition, and comprehension in particular (Bakhtiarvand & Adinevand, 2010; Erten & Razi, 2009; Hayati, 2009; Lee, 2007; Nguyễn, 2003; Pulido, 2004, 2007). Research on the impact of cultural knowledge on listening comprehension in Iran emphasised that cultural familiarity, background knowledge and linguistic complexity were essential features in developing and enhancing listening comprehension. As long as these three factors were applied and learners were exposed to these, listening comprehension would be developed (Bakhtiarvand & Adinevand, 2010; Basavand & Sadeghi). Another study in Iran demonstrated that familiarity with culturally oriented language material promoted Iranians’ listening proficiency (Hayati, 2009). A research on the effects of cultural familiarity on reading comprehension in Turkey showed that cultural familiarity facilitated comprehension (Erten & Razi, 2009). Another study in Spain found that topic familiarity had a significant impact on text processing, comprehension, and second language lexical referencing and gain (Pulido, 2007). Participants in research in Korea who read culturally familiar topics found that they understood the content of the reading better (Lee, 2007). The familiarity with cultural contexts had role to play in assisting students to handle various language tasks.

Despite the advantages of teaching the target language’s culture, confusion could occur due to ignorance of cultural information. Ambiguity in some functions of the target language may arise if learners do not recognise the hidden meaning of a language unit (Rajabi & Ketabi, 2012). For example, learners should be aware that the statement “It’s cold” can function as a general comment on the weather and as an implied request to close the window. In addition, learners should be informed of culturally accepted attitudes and behaviours in the target language. Being afraid of losing face, Asian learners may be embarrassed and reluctant to speak because of the fear of making mistakes when they do not know how to respond correctly in a particular situation related to cultural differences

64 (Alptekin, 1993; Huang, Dotterweich, & Bowers, 2012). It is understandable that the lack of target cultural information will hamper language learning. Cultural unfamiliarity has been found to have a considerable negative influence on the assessment of listening and reading comprehension in Vietnamese universities. This negative influence may lead to the decrease of reliability of this assessment (Nguyễn, 2003). Similarly, foreign language learners have encountered cognitive processing difficulties in reading and writing activities relating to unfamiliar contexts (Winfield & Barnes-Felfeli, 1982). In a different skill area, culturally influenced rhetorical patterns were said to have a great impact on Japanese learners’ ESL/EFL composition due to these patterns’ underlying social and cultural assumptions (Kobayashi & Rinnert, 1996). Cultural barriers for Taiwanese EFL students stemmed from ‘acculturation’ – the adaptation process in a new setting; “culture shock” – the negative feelings learners have due to “cultural dislocation” and the “foreignness” of the learning context; and feelings of “social distance” – experience of different social standing from that found in a peer group (Talley & Hui-ling, 2014, pp. 78-79). In religious countries such as or Saudi Arabia, cultural obstacles included Western culture with opposing religious values and beliefs, sure to hinder the process of English language teaching (Khuwaileh, 2000; Mekheimer, 2011). Cultural inequality and lack of inclusiveness in ELT materials are factors which affected learners’ motivation in Botswana (Magogwe, 2009). Cultural dimensions, such as social factors, religious matters, and taboo words, are also considered to have interfered in the effective language learning of Iranian learners (Mirdehghan et al., 2011).

In short, language does not in any way function independently of the social context of that language. As English today belongs to all who speak it, the context is not confined to its native setting but has expanded across diverse settings. Also, it is “unrealistic and misleading” to present that setting in “a stereotypical manner” to EFL learners, or in a way that entirely lacks comparative insights and critical perspectives (Alptekin, 1993, p. 141). Instead of this, EFL material writers and teachers should try to build conceptual bridges between the culturally familiar and unfamiliar for learners when they acquire English. That is, in EFL settings, students should be provided with opportunities to practice the English they will use in local situations and international circumstances. Local and international contexts relevant to students’ lives should be used, as opposed to irrelevant contexts from

65 the English-speaking world (Alptekin, 1993). English educators should “adopt and promote a more cosmopolitan outlook that recognises and accepts other ways of life, modes of thought, and styles of English usage beyond Great Britain and the United States” (Nault, 2006, p. 324). They should emphasise cultural differences as a starting point for students to develop cross-cultural awareness. Then teachers can elaborate further on the target culture, the similarities and differences between students’ own culture and the target one (Gonen & Saglam, 2012). Finally, culture learning should be considered an experiential and on-going, open-ended process essential for English language education, as opposed to a momentary diversion from regular lessons in language teaching (Nault, 2006).

2.4.3. Intercultural approach in foreign language education.

Understanding the goal of Intercultural Language Teaching (ILT) With the widespread use of EIL and the emerging modern approaches to English education, the aim of English learning has shifted from communicative competence to intercultural competence. The latter aim assists learners to widen their singular worldview by learning a foreign linguaculture, thus leading learners towards intercultural competence. When a learner achieves intercultural competence in English learning, he/she is able to use English in communication and understands that language use is fundamentally cultural (Crozet & Liddicoat, 1999). A competent intercultural speaker can be defined more comprehensively as follows:

An intercultural speaker is someone who can operate their linguistic competence and their sociolinguistic awareness of the relationship between language and the context in which it is used, in order to manage interaction across cultural boundaries, to anticipate misunderstandings caused by difference in values, meanings and beliefs, and thirdly, to cope with the affective as well as cognitive demands of engagement with otherness (Byram, 1995, quoted in Crozet & Liddicoat, 1999, p. 115).

Every time learners use English, they perform a cultural act, which involves two cultures: their own and the target language. As a result, EFL learners need “to develop a cultural position that mediates between these two cultures” – which is called the third place (Crozet & Liddicoat, 1999, p. 113). The following section provides different definitions of

66 intercultural communicative competence provided by previous scholars. Based on these understandings of ICC, I clarify the important role of the language teacher in assisting students to achieve intercultural communicative competence in terms of what this means for language teaching and learning outcomes. Again, language textbooks should be an important facilitator in this teaching and learning process.

Intercultural communicative competence The concept of intercultural communicative competence has redefined the goal of language learning and teaching with the integration of culture into language study. In the process of intercultural learning, EFL learners have to gain insight into both their own and a foreign culture (Kramsch, 1993). The term ICC has been defined in a number of ways by different researchers (Byram, 1997, 2012; Lo Bianco, Liddicoat, & Crozet, 1999; Sercu, 2000).

Byram’s conception model of intercultural communicative competence

Intercultural communicative competence is defined as the ability “to interact with people from another country and culture in a foreign language [emphasis added]” (Byram, 1997, p. 71), or in another word, ICC is the “ability to communicate and interact across cultural boundaries” (Byram, 1997, p. 7). This definition implies that in order to develop ICC, learners need to be able to negotiate and mediate between multiple identities and cultures in different situations. The most challenging feature for intercultural interaction can be viewed as the differences in interlocutors’ cultural backgrounds. Byram’s much-cited ICC model (See figure 2.3) is presented in relation to four language competences: linguistic competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence and intercultural competence. The complicated process of developing intercultural communicative competence requires five significant factors (savours) representing the aspects of IC: attitude, knowledge of oneself and others, skills of interpreting and relating, skills of discovery and interaction, and critical cultural awareness (Byram, 1997, p. 91) (see Figure 2.3).

67

Figure 2.3. Intercultural competence elements

(Source: Byram, 1997, p.34)

In Byram’s (1997) IC model, critical cultural awareness is positioned at the very centre of the model. This central positioning “embodies the educational dimension of language teaching” (Byram, 2012, p. 9). It implies that the other four components in the model – attitude, knowledge, skills of interpreting and relating, and skills of discovery and interaction – can be acquired to develop linguistic and intercultural competence without critical cultural awareness. However, ICC pedagogy may not achieve its full potential, and the addition of critical cultural awareness assists students in maximising their linguistic functional abilities (Byram, 2012). If students do not possess critical cultural awareness, they may not apply correctly the knowledge they have learnt or perform appropriately in intercultural communication. Byram’s ICC model is valuable in presenting the structural components of IC and the objectives that need to be achieved in the development of ICC.

Liddicoat’s conception and model of intercultural competence

68 Liddicoat had a dynamic approach to culture and culture teaching. He viewed culture as a set of variable practices that people engaged in their daily life (Liddicoat, 2002). Thus, Liddicoat’s conception of culture is not about information or things, but instead emphasises actions and understandings. A person who has cultural knowledge does not mean that he/she knows information about the culture; it means he/she knows how to engage with culture (Liddicoat, 2002, p. 7). In his dynamic approach to culture, intercultural competence is “the ability to negotiate meaning across cultural boundaries and establish one’s own identity as a user of another language” (Liddicoat, 2002, p. 8). Based on this conception, Liddicoat pressed the importance of learning about one’s own culture in the process of Intercultural Language Teaching (ILT). In order to learn about other cultures, one needs to know about culture of one’s own so that one does not assimilate oneself into the target culture, but rather creates oneself a comfortable third place (Lo Bianco et al., 1999). This comfortable third place is positioned between two cultures, where one can communicate and interact successfully with others while maintaining one’s own cultural identity.

In order to achieve the goals of dynamic culture teaching approach, Liddicoat proposed five principles. He stressed that culture must be taught in tandem with other skills and from the beginning because he argued that culture is fundamental to language and it is integrated into language (see Figure 2.4).

69 Figure 2.4. Points of articulation between culture and language

(Source: Liddicoat, 2002, p.11)

Liddicoat emphasised that the aim for language teaching is now not “a native-like English speaker norm”, but “a bilingual norm”, who is comfortable and capable of communicating in intercultural context (Liddicoat, 2002, p. 10). He observed that cultures are relative, and he urged learners to expose themselves to other cultures and make comparison to their own culture. Finally, he concluded that culture is an on-going process, and teachers can’t teach everything about cultures. They need to help learners to form their own ways of exploring other cultures (Liddicoat, 2002). These five principles in dynamic culture teaching approach assist teachers and students in developing intercultural competence.

Liddicoat (2002) proposed a pathway for developing intercultural competence. The development of IC is considered a cyclical process, which engages learners in exploring their own and the target culture. This pathway serves as a model of “learner’s internal processes of noticing, reflections and language production” (Ho, 2009, p. 67). In this model of IC development (see Figure 2.5), language learners having certain knowledge of their own culture are exposed to new cultural input form target cultures.

Figure 2.5. A pathway for developing the intercultural competence

(Source: Liddicoat, 2002, p.11)

Liddicoat (2002) emphasised that learners have to notice this input, because the invisibility of cultures makes it difficult to notice cultural differences. Language teachers have an 70 important role to play in promoting this ‘noticing’. Once students notice cultural differences, they reflect on the nature of these differences and make a decision on how to response to these differences. They modify their cultural practices to accommodate this new cultural knowledge and this process results in output in the language. This process is just initial modification, and the output provides more opportunities to have another ‘noticing’. Learners may feel comfortable or uncomfortable with the new cultural practices they have conducted, or these modified culture practices are considered successful or not in a target environment. This ‘noticing’ continues to be further reflected on, and be realised in learner’s language output. This process continues in an endless cycle of learning (Liddicoat, 2002).

Cultural acquisition is a not linear but cyclical and on-going process. Learners in this process do not reach the native-like destination, but rather find themselves comfortable in “an intermediate intercultural ‘third place’ developed between the sets of practices in the first and second language” (Liddicoat, 2002, p. 11). While Byram’s (1997) conception of intercultural communicative competence clarifies structural components of IC, Liddicoat’s (2002) model of developing IC demonstrates how to address the goal of developing IC in language education. Liddicoat’s (2002) model has high pedagogical values in providing language teachers with ideas and principles in incorporating culture in their own teaching context. This model therefore forms the theoretical framework for the exploration of teachers and students’ perception of cultures and the influence of culture on the process of developing students’ ICC.

The role of language teachers in ILT In language teaching and textbooks, the concept of cultural (or social cultural) understanding is widely used in the literature but is still largely undefined for language practitioners. In an EFL classroom, the teacher is expected to assist students in recognising and understanding how people of other cultures act, behave, and communicate. However, there are certain tendencies among language teachers to include cultural information as part of their language teaching. Apart from a few exceptions, teachers in a research project in Japan recognised the important role of culture in their classes. Most of them included cultural information as part of their language teaching; however, they incorporated this

71 content less systematically than other aspects in their teaching (Stapleton, 2000). These teachers may feel that their first and foremost responsibility is to ensure their students have a good command of the foreign language; consequently, the time devoted to teaching about culture is seen as time lost for language teaching and learning (Sercu, García, & Prieto, 2004). Their culture teaching practice is greatly affected by other curricular considerations and limitations (Gonen & Saglam, 2012). Other research indicates that teachers tend to display negative feelings regarding stereotyping, superficial and biased cultural knowledge. Sometimes, there even exists a ‘distancing’, which means staying away from cultural aspects of any texts (Forman, 2014; Mekheimer, 2011). These teachers just effectively skip social cultural understanding because they may be unclear about what they are supposed to do or how to communicate these cultural aspects (Carr, Commins, & Crawford, 1998).

Teachers’ negative feelings about the cultural content in textbooks may then lead them to believe that “adapting their teaching style to dovetail with the cultural expectations of the students” is important (Stapleton, 2000, p. 301). A research in Japanese language classes confirmed that teachers give serious thought, and take action to make changes in their teaching, in order to suit their students’ responses. If the goals of language teaching in each curriculum are less bound to the knowledge of language, and more engaged in the perception of cultural identity and difference, language teachers and learners alike may feel less overwhelmed (Knutson, 2006).

Due to the impact of mass media, the globalisation of technological progress, multiculturalism and postmodernism, the changing role of the English language in the globalised world has fed the debate over how culture should be incorporated into the teaching of English. In the EFL context, this issue receives great attention (Siddiqie, 2011). With the introduction of CLT over the past four decades, and the inextricable role of culture in language education, exposing learners to a single culture is no longer appropriate; intercultural teaching is, therefore, finding its way into the field (Tajeddin & Teimournezhad, 2014). Intercultural competence involves the ability to communicate in all types of encounters regardless of the specific cultural contexts (Talley & Hui-ling, 2014). For example, intercultural competence also means creating a balance for English speakers between their own culture and international cultures. This position makes English speakers more confident in any international communications:

72 As such, an intercultural interaction is neither a question of maintaining one’s own cultural frame nor of assimilating to one’s interactant’s cultural frame. It is rather a third place. In so doing the participant in the interaction is an experiencer, not an observer, of difference. The ability to find this third place is at the core of intercultural competence (Crozet, Liddicoat, & Lo Bianco, 1999, p. 5).

Because effective communication requires more than communicative competence, and in order to avoid miscommunication, intercultural competence is necessary in a globalised world (Thanasoulas, 2001). It involves not only knowledge of cultural factors existing in the target language community, but also intercultural or cross-cultural awareness such as knowledge of cultures other than the source and target language culture (Tajeddin & Teimournezhad, 2014). Intercultural competence helps learners face cultural challenges and frees them from feelings of frustration when communicating across a number of contexts with cultural differences. The pedagogy of EIL now should be framed as “one of global appropriacy and local appropriation” (Alptekin, 2002, p. 63). EFL teaching and learning should prepare learners “to be both global and local speakers of English and to feel at home in both international and national cultures” (Kramsch & Sullivan, 1996, p. 211). As such, while English is a global language, it is realised in a local context. Consequently, in order to develop new perspectives on their own culture and counteract prejudiced attitudes toward others, learners should be exposed to other varieties of English. The more learners experience how different cultures represent the world, the more likely they will act politely and appropriately as international citizens (Siddiqie, 2011). An intercultural approach in language learning assists learners in developing insight into other cultures, and having positive attitudes towards others, while becoming more aware of their own culture as well (Tajeddin & Teimournezhad, 2014).

In EFL classrooms, teachers should try to help students raise awareness about cultures inside and outside the linguistic circle. Teachers are the ones who can bring foreign culture into the classroom. However, they do not need to have an encyclopedic knowledge of all English-language cultures, nor do they need to be bilingual, because even “being a native speaker does not guarantee one the ability to explain one’s culture to newcomers” (Byram & Kramsch, 2008, p. 33). These teachers are expected to have a critical, cultural and linguistics consciousness to be able to see overrepresented or underrepresented groups

73 (Song, 2013). They are willing to learn about English-language cultures, or to embark on this lifelong road of discovery, and thus ignite interest in intercultural competence in their students (Klippel, 1994). If teaching the English language for intercultural competence is worthwhile for teachers, in terms of both professional and personal development, then it may become meaningful for their learners as well.

In EFL classroom settings, intercultural teaching may be considered as one of the ways to achieve students’ goals. Students utilise their pre-existing knowledge as a basis to explore more global understandings (Forman, 2014; Kubota, 2004). Similarities between cultures should be emphasised, followed by the discussion of differences. Topics to be taught in the target language should be related to students’ context (Cakir, 2006). All these contributing factors will undoubtedly facilitate the process of culture and language teaching and learning in EFL education. This process helps learners to develop an awareness of diversified cultural frameworks, and provides “a non-judgmental evaluation, and finally the acceptance of the norms of the target language culture” (Krasner, 1999, pp. 83-84). This is referred to as the process of developing intercultural competence in the preceding section (Liddicoat, 2002).

2.5. Summary This chapter has reviewed the literature on textbooks, culture in textbooks, and cultural pedagogies on EFL teaching that are relevant to the study. I presented the role of ELT textbooks and textbook selection process in language classrooms, the interrelation of language and culture, and the representation of cultures in ELT textbooks. I reviewed the influence of culture on students’ EFL education within the EIL paradigm. I described different perceptions of intercultural communicative competence, based on which I discussed the important role of language teachers in the intercultural teaching approach.

Playing an important role in educating an intercultural speaker, culture needs to be considered as an integral part of English teaching (Crozet et al., 1999; Liddicoat, 2002). In an intercultural language teaching approach, it is essential to teach culture in tandem with language. However, a review of literature has shown that culture is mostly addressed as cultural artifacts, cultural elements and its functions (Byram, 1997). In this way, culture is viewed as static rather than dynamic component in language teaching. This view affects the

74 way teachers define their goals in teaching culture. Teachers aim at providing students with cultural knowledge and developing students’ positive attitude toward language and culture learning. The adoption of intercultural language teaching approach is not evident (T. L. Nguyen, 2013).

ELT textbooks, a common form of language teaching materials, represent cultural content that does not satisfy the demand to integrate culture and language. Instead, these ELT textbooks represent a bias in their cultural representations. They represent cultural products and factual knowledge which are represented separately from language skills. ELT textbooks were found to focus mainly on representing target language cultures (i.e., English-speaking cultures) and ignore source culture. There is a recent trend of ELT to present diverse cultures in order to meet the increasing demand of learning English as an international language.

The aim of my study was to examine which types of culture and what kinds of culture are embedded in ELT global textbooks in Vietnam for the university level. Following this, my study investigated how these cultural representations in ELT textbooks influence students’ intercultural communicative competence. The review of literature has suggested that culture is a core component of EFL education, and developing students’ intercultural communicative competence is as significant as developing linguistic competence. A synthesis of previous research on cultural representations in ELT textbooks has identified the choice of theoretical frameworks for examining cultural representations in ELT textbooks. The discussion of perceptions of intercultural communicative competence and approaches toward intercultural language teaching has helped identify the frameworks for exploring teachers’ and students’ perceptions on culture and the influence of culture on developing students’ ICC. As with the current trend of learning English as an international language, the interrelation of language and culture, and the current dynamic view of culture learning that sees the development of students’ ICC as an on-going process, phase three of this research was carried out based on the framework for developing students’ ICC proposed by Liddicoat (2002).

In the next chapter, I outline and expand on the research methodologies that guide the study and discuss the stages of the research and the analysis of data. I present features of

75 qualitative descriptive research to prove that this type of research suits the nature of the current study and provide a truthful account of the teachers and students’ opinions regarding the influence of cultural representations in ELT textbooks on students’ intercultural communicative competence. I clarify the methods used in the three phases of the study and describe the steps for conducting these phases. The method used in the first phase is structured interview with Heads/Vice Heads of Language Faculties. I describe the implementation of this phase, especially the research sites. The data are coded both manually and by NVivo, and analysed using thematic analysis. Addressing the seven current textbooks identified in the first phase, the second phase applies content analysis as its method. The sources of culture framework by Cortazzi and Jin (1991) and the types of culture framework by Adaskou, Britten and Fashi (1990) are used as the two analytical frameworks during this phase. Phase three investigates teachers and students’ opinion on how foreign cultural representations influence students’ cultural competence. I present criteria for selecting participants. This phase applies Liddicoat’s (2002) framework to in- depth interviews to explore what teachers and students think about representations of culture in ELT textbooks and how these representations influence students’ intercultural communicative competence.

76 Chapter 3: Methodology

3.1. Overview In the previous chapters, the history of foreign language teaching in Vietnamese higher education has shown Vietnamese foreign language policy as a barometer of political and social changes. With regards to English, this barometer of social change is most visible in the educational reform of 1986 (Doi Moi) and in the more recent NFLP 2020. While the educational reforms of 1986 saw the official introduction of English across the whole education system, the NFLP 2020 focuses on the quality of language teaching. An important aspect of this reform is the textbook used to teach English. In my review of literature in Chapter Two, while there is a rich body of literature on ELT textbook research (Section 2.3.3, pages 51-56), there is comparatively little information about the influence of cultural representations in ELT textbooks on the development of students’ intercultural communicative competence. In particular, there is an absence of such research within the specific context of Vietnamese technical universities. In recognition of this gap, this research has examined current textbooks at ten technical universities in Hanoi, and investigated the influence of these textbooks’ cultural representations on students’ intercultural communicative competence. This chapter elaborates on the methodologies applied in all stages of this research project.

The following illustration provides an overview of the specific research phases in the Vietnamese context.

Cultural informati Texts and images on

-Source culture Teachers Intercultural Teaching ELT Sources -Target culture teaching in of culture English as -International target and EFL course culture a Foreign students classrooms Language books

-Aesthetic Senses of -Sociological culture -Semantic -Pragmatic

77 Figure 3.1. Illustration of this research phases

This diagram demonstrates that this research was carried out in an Expanding Circle country context (refer to section 2.3.1, pages 46-48), where English is taught and learnt as a foreign language. More specifically, this research focused on technical universities in Hanoi during the first semester of the academic year 2015-2016. Current ELT textbooks were identified and analysed to see what and how different cultures are represented. The research then investigated the influence of these foreign cultural representations on the cultural competence embedded in English education.

Table 3.1 lists the discrete phases of the research development. In the first phase, Heads or Vice Heads of Language Faculties at ten technical universities in Hanoi were interviewed. A key aspect of these interviews discovered what textbooks were being used and how and why they were selected. This phase examined whether or not foreign cultures affect these universities’ textbook choice.

In the second phase, current ELT textbooks were chosen as the subject of the analysis. Cortazzi and Jin’s (1999) sources of culture model, and Adaskou, Britten and Fashi’s (1990) categorisation of cultures, generated in the theory of cultural representation in English textbooks, were applied to the English textbooks in order to label and categorise data. The results of this analysis suggest that language teachers and their students are exposed to the representations of life outside Vietnam as these representations are embedded in these teaching textbooks.

Phase three explored how the representations of “life outside Vietnam” influence teachers’ and students’ teaching and learning. Language teachers and their students were interviewed to gather their perspectives on these foreign cultural representations. Liddicoat’s conception of intercultural competence and his model of developing intercultural competence formed the theoretical framework for my analysis of this phase. My analysis considered what types of cultural representations were to be included, and how they should be provided; in the content of the ELT textbooks to better serve learners’ use of EIL.

78 Table 3.1. Research design

Phases Research Instruments Data Outcomes Questions Collection

Phase 1. What English Interview protocol Structured Corpus of ELT One textbooks are used interviews textbooks used by non-major 1st at ten year Vietnamese universities university students? 2. Why and how Interview protocol Structured Reasons and the are these textbooks interviews process of chosen? textbook choices Phase 3. To what extent is Cortazzi and Jin’s (1999) model Content Representations Two life outside Source culture: the native culture analysis of life outside Vietnam of the learners Vietnam in ELT represented in Target culture: the English- textbooks these textbooks? speaking cultures such as British or American culture International target culture: various cultures other than ‘the source culture’ 4. How is life Adaskou, Britten and Fashi’s Content Representations outside Vietnam (1990) four senses of culture analysis of life outside represented in ELT Aesthetic: the media, the cinema, Vietnam in ELT textbooks? music and literature textbooks Sociological: the organisation and nature of family, of home life, of interpersonal relations, material conditions, work and leisure, customs and institutions Semantic: the conceptual system embodied in the language controls our perception and our thought process Pragmatic: background knowledge, social skills and paralinguistic skill that, in addition to mastery of the linguistic code, make possible successful communication Phase 5. According to Interview protocol for teachers Semi- Teachers and Three teachers and Interview protocol for students structured students’ students, how does Liddicoat’s conception of interviews perceptions on the representation intercultural competence (In-depth cultural of life outside Liddicoat’s pathways for interviews) representations Vietnam in these developing intercultural in ELT textbooks influence competence textbooks and students’ cultural their influence competence in on language and learning English? culture teaching

79 An appropriate research methodology, which aligns with both the research questions and the theoretical framework, is very useful (Creswell, 2012). In order to answer the research questions of this study, the project subscribed to the qualitative paradigm, and more specifically descriptive research. Qualitative and descriptive research methods have been commonly used to conduct research in disciplines such as education, psychology and the social sciences. The use of these methodologies has increased in second and foreign language teaching and learning research. For example, Yuen’s (2011) notable study or Shin et al.’s (2011) important research on foreign cultural representations in language textbooks used qualitative descriptive research methodologies. The increasing interest in these types of research methodologies originates from the recognition that language teaching and learning is a complex process. In order to address this complexity, researchers need to carry out more in-depth investigation, and understand individual learners and teachers and their behaviour and experiences (Nassaji, 2015). The terms qualitative and descriptive research may be used interchangeably; however, there are a number of factors, which make them slightly different. The most important is that qualitative research is more holistic in its goal or degree of control, whereas descriptive research tries to describe relationships between variables. Often, descriptive research is the first step in a research investigation to gather more information on a topic to generate a hypothesis (Swatzell & Jennings, 2007). The following sections will address further the favourable features of a qualitative descriptive research that made it suitable for the current project. Section 3.2 discusses the key issues connected to qualitative research. The specific type of qualitative approach, and the qualitative descriptive design are discussed in section 3.3. Research methods for each stage of the study are discussed in Section 3.4, Section 3.5 and Section 3.6. In each section, the data sources, data collection and data analysis for each stage are considered. Section 3.7 and Section 3.8 address research rigour in qualitative design and ethical issues respectively, while Section 3.9 concludes the chapter.

3.2. Qualitative Paradigm A qualitative research paradigm offers a broad approach to the study of social phenomena and applied fields. It has become an increasingly popular “mode of inquiry” for education and language learning (Marshall & Rossman, 1999, p. 2). A qualitative paradigm was considered suitable to this project, because “qualitative research seeks to provide rich

80 thorough descriptions and interpretations about the phenomena under study as they occur in their natural environment” (Sousa, 2014, p. 211). In other words, a qualitative research explores the phenomenon that is context-bound and closely connected to the participants’ and the researcher’s values and opinions (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010). The researcher is able to achieve a more in-depth understanding of participants’ attitudes, behaviour and social views (Barnham, 2015). At the same time, the researcher should maintain his/her stance of neutrality of as “an unobtrusive researcher” (Marshall & Rossman, 1999, p. 4). Through this approach, the research is “exploratory”, “descriptive”, “comprehensive” and “interpretive” (Sousa, 2014, p. 211). These qualities are in alignment with the nature of the current project, to understand and highlight the various perspectives of language teachers and students on the influence of foreign cultural representations in language learning.

Language teaching and learning elements, such as foreign cultural representations in ELT textbooks and their influence on language learning, are complex and may not be broken down into objectively measureable and quantifiable variables. Therefore, research that applies a qualitative paradigm can address this complexity more effectively by identifying intangible factors, such as human beliefs, opinions, emotions, or relationship to the issues (Mack, Woodsong, MacQueen, Guest, & Namey, 2005). This advantage accords with the nature of the present study. Adopting a fundamentally descriptive orientation, this research offers in-depth explanations regarding how the influence of cultural representations on students’ intercultural communicative competence is conceptualised and enacted by participants. Thus, qualitative descriptive research was considered the most appropriate paradigm in this case.

3.3. Qualitative Descriptive Research As previously noted, this research is descriptive in design and has evaluated textbooks using a qualitative approach. Before providing a more detailed account of the techniques used in each phase of this research, it is crucial to appreciate how well descriptive research aligns with this study.

Qualitative descriptive research provides “a clear description of a specific phenomenon or experience” from the perspectives of the participants (Magilvy & Thomas, 2009, p. 299; Swatzell & Jennings, 2007). Descriptive research is explorative: to become familiar with a

81 phenomenon or to obtain new insights (Kramer, 1985; Magilvy & Thomas, 2009). Descriptive research does not attempt to predict or manipulate an outcome, rather it aims to find answers to questions, such as who, what, when, where, how and why (Swatzell & Jennings, 2007). As part of this process qualitative descriptive research facilitates a “comprehensive summary of an event in the everyday terms of those events” (Sandelowski, 2000, p. 336). The researcher observes, describes, explores and analyses characteristics of that event to accumulate knowledge that may be incomplete in previous work (Kramer, 1985).

A great deal of literature identifies the definitions or purposes of descriptive research. The statement that characterises descriptive research as “to provide an accurate portrayal or account of characteristics of a particular individual, situation or group” (Dulock, 1993, p. 154) may be considered the cornerstone for the design of this research. This research aims at providing a nuanced account of the participants’ perspectives on the influence of cultural representations on learners’ intercultural communicative competence. In gaining insights into this area, this research has made “no attempts to modify, control or introduce something new to the situation being studied” (Kramer, 1985, p. 41; Lambert & Lambert, 2012); instead, it has sought to discover potential relationships among different variables such as language teachers, students and textbooks, as these are aspects of the whole process of English teaching and learning, and not try to intervene in their teaching or learning processes. It also has applied different research methods, such as document analysis and semi-structured interviews with teachers and students, to examine the multiple aspects of the problem. The data have been classified, summarised and interpreted; variables and the relationships among these variables identified; finally, this has led to the generation of hypotheses, conceptual frameworks or theories (Dulock, 1993; Kramer, 1985; Magilvy & Thomas, 2009).

Although the present research is divided into three different phases, due to their particular characteristics, all these phases address the main research question. As one of the main aims of the study was to develop a critical, analytical understanding of cultural components in ELT textbooks, the second phase categorised which cultures are mostly referred to in these ELT textbooks and identified the most prominent dimension used to represent life outside Vietnam. In the third phase, semi-structured interview as a qualitative approach was

82 applied to investigate the influence of culture in ELT textbooks on students’ cultural competence.

This study mainly used primary data as the subject of analysis. To examine the cultural representations, data were derived from ELT textbooks. Interview notes are the source of data used in the analysis that identifies the influence of life outside Vietnam on students’ learning process. The following sections - 3.4, 3.5 and 3.6 - specify the qualitative techniques used to collect data for this research.

3.4. Phase One

Phase one of this research featured preliminary investigations into ten technical universities in Hanoi to find out what textbooks were being used at these institutions and identified reasons why these textbooks were chosen. However, this was not the only purpose of the investigation as it obtained more information on language teaching syllabi, English teaching hours, additional teaching materials, as well as teaching time and other practical issues relating to EFL education. This additional information may provide readers with an overview of the physical settings in which the research was carried out. The qualitative technique used to collect data was structured interviews. These interviews were conducted at ten technical universities in Hanoi, which included characteristics that represented other technical institutions in Vietnam. The reasons for this selection are justified as follows.

3.4.1. Research sites.

Together with Ho Chi Minh City, Hanoi has a high concentration of leading universities in Vietnam. In Hanoi, there are about 60 public and over ten private tertiary institutions. Among this number, there are 14 STEM (Science-Technology-Engineering-Mathematics) training institutions, which are called “technical universities”. These are specialised universities that focus on a single area of study (see section 1.6.3, pages 27-28) and share certain characteristics, described as follows.

Firstly, being under the co-administration of line ministries and MoET means these technical universities have a similar core curriculum. Secondly, students at these universities generally may have a low level of English proficiency. Once a year these universities take in students from all over the country through the national entrance exams.

83 To enter STEM universities, students have to take an entrance exam in Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry, as these subjects are considered appropriate for various specialisations of these universities. These students have very a clear intention of what they need to learn to enter the universities of their choice, so they focus on subjects necessary for the entrance exam, and overlook other subjects such as English. As a result, students from STEM universities generally struggle more with English, and they have lower levels of understanding of this language than students from other universities. Thirdly, as previously mentioned, these universities focus more on single areas of study with limited time spent on the English language in their curriculum. Table 3.2. Ten participating technical universities in Hanoi No Specialty MoET Line-ministries STEM Categories U1 Science and technology X X National Key U2 Agriculture X Ministry of Agriculture and X National Rural Development Key U3 Architecture X Ministry of Construction X Standard U4 Transport and X Ministry of Transport X Standard communications U5 Water resources X Ministry of Agriculture and X Standard Rural Development U6 Mining and geology X X Standard U7 Civil engineering X Ministry of Construction X Standard U8 Posts and X Ministry of Information & X Standard telecommunications Communications U9 Natural resources and X Ministry of Natural X Upgraded environment Resources and Environment U10 Electric power X Ministry of Industry and X Upgraded Trade Among the total 14 technical universities in Hanoi, this research focused on ten STEM public universities as its research sites. These universities share previously mentioned features of STEM universities, especially disadvantages in their English language education. These common features made them suitable to be grouped as the research sites for this study. Based on this choice, two national key institutions, five standards and two newly upgraded universities were considered to be part of this research. For ethical reasons, the official names of these ten universities have been de-identified and labeled by numbers from one to ten. These universities are differentiated by their generic names basing on their specialty. Among the four remaining technical universities in Hanoi that have been excluded from this research, three belong to the armed forces, and the fourth is a vocational institution. Therefore, they do not fall into the precise category as the selected universities. 84 The ten participating universities share similar contexts (See table 3.2). Eight out of ten universities are public universities under the control of line Ministries and MoET. Two universities which are subject to the sole administration of MoET are U1- a science and technological university and U6 - a mining and geology university. Given the absence of complete and reliable data on the rankings of Vietnamese universities, some STEM universities are considered more notable and attractive in term of specialisations and more challenging in terms of intake criteria. These “elite” or “leading” universities have multi- disciplinary training programs that are in great demand in Vietnam (U1 and U2). Students who want to study at these universities generally need to have higher results at the entrance exam. Besides this, there are other standard technical universities, which have gained considerable prestige since they were founded over 50 years ago (U3 to U8). There are also newly upgraded universities, which used to be technical colleges under the control of line- ministries (U9 and U10). These ten selected technical universities were the most appropriate representatives to be the sites of this research.

3.4.2. Respondents. In order to collect data for the first two research questions, Heads or Vice Heads of the language faculties from ten participating universities were asked to join structured interviews. These Heads or Vice Heads were selected because they had detailed information about the English teaching programs at their universities. To ensure anonymity of the research participants, and provide support in identifying extracts from a particular participant, labels were used to discriminate different data sets. Thus, ten Heads of language faculties were labeled from FH1 to FH10. The use of labels helped the researcher to be more objective in the data analysis process, because the researcher was not obsessed with the names of participants or their personalities behind the names (Gibbs, 2008). The participants for phase one are presented in the second column in table 3.3.

85 Table 3.3. Research participants for Interview phase one Universities Head/Vice Head of Language Faculty U1 FH1 U2 FH2 U3 FH3 U4 FH4 U5 FH5 U6 FH6 U7 FH7 U8 FH8 U9 FH9 U10 FH10 Through interview data, readers may develop a detailed overview of the English teaching programs at the researched institutions, therefore providing a better understanding of the research context. The interviewed Heads or Vice Heads were asked questions about the ELT textbooks used at their universities. They were then asked about influential factors in their choice of ELT textbooks, and the reasons why they changed their textbooks. Besides this, they were asked questions about the English teaching program at their universities, such as English teaching hours, placement tests, entry and exit requirements, and additional teaching materials.

3.4.3. Structured interviews. Interviews are one of the most common forms of qualitative research methods (Mason, 1996). From an ontological perspective, people’s beliefs, experience, views or knowledge are valuable properties of social reality that scientific research is meant to explore. Epistemologically, talking with people, listening to them and gaining access to their accounts are legitimate ways to generate data on these valuable properties. Therefore, qualitative researchers rely extensively on doing interviews, which have been termed “a conversation with a purpose.” (Kahn and Cannell, 1957, p.149, quoted in Marshall & Rossman, 1999, p. 108) There are several forms of interviews, ranging from unstructured to highly structured, with ordered sets of questions. Researchers decide which form to choose based on the subject of the research, the types of information, the setting of the research and the features of the group of participants. Based on the first and the second question of this research, which endeavour to find out what textbooks are being used and how and why they are chosen, structured interviews were applied as the main method to generate data.

86 Structured interviews are best used in cases where the participants are homogeneous and have common characteristics and outlooks (Kane, 1983). For example, in the first phase of this research, the participants were Heads or Vice Heads of language faculties at technical universities in Hanoi. This means they hold the same managerial positions at similar types of universities in one geographical area. In general, the faculties they are working at have similar organisation and the same mission of teaching English for non-major technical students. Additionally, these participants may share similar life-styles, philosophies and experiences. Moreover, structured interviews are also appropriate in the case where the researcher knows enough about the subject and the participants that he/she knows what is important to ask and how to ask it (Kane, 1983). Although the main purpose of these interviews was to find out what ELT textbooks were being used at ten technical universities and their selection processes, phase one of this research also sought to understand more about the context in which the textbooks were used. The interviews therefore were not very structured but fell slightly in the spectrum towards the semi-structured interview category. The participants were free to add more information about the English language teaching and learning situation at their institutions.

3.4.4. Interview Protocols. In the interview protocols, the interview questions, settings and interview procedures are listed. This preparation ensures that all the interviews are conducted in an appropriate and consistent manner (Creswell, 2012; Lichtman, 2010). All information on the settings of the interview, such as time and venue, or even brief information about the participants, is recorded in the interview protocol (Creswell, 2012). Procedures for administering the interviews are outlined in order that no important step is missing, and all the interviews are conducted in a consistent manner (Lichtman, 2010). These procedures consist of parts such as: introduction and aim of the current study, guarantee of the researcher to ensure the participants’ confidentiality, estimated time of the interview, the consent form, permission to tape the interview, explanation on how the information gathered will be processed, and closing sentences (Creswell, 2012; Lichtman, 2010). By having such interview protocols, the interviews in this study were conducted in a professional and reliable manner. Relevant contextual information was recorded. Following these procedures ensured that simple yet significant gestures, such as introducing the aim of the study or thanking the participants,

87 were included. Those simple gestures helped the researcher build good rapport with the participants (Creswell, 2012). This was very important should the participants be later asked for further information required by the research. The interview protocols used in the first phase of the current research can be found in Appendix 3.

3.4.5. Conducting the Interviews. The interviews with Heads/Vice Heads of Language Faculties were conducted with the support of the Rectors from these technical universities. Ten Heads of Language Faculties were contacted and sent information statements and consent forms. The questions, which were translated into Vietnamese, were sent to them prior to the actual interviews. Therefore, the interviews were not time-consuming because the participants were prepared and provided the researcher with relevant information and the pertinent textbooks. As the interviews were in Vietnamese, translation of the interview transcripts was required. The method for confirming the accuracy of the translation result is discussed in the following section. While the interviews were structured, the participants were able to expand on their responses and add more information.

Part of the reason why the participants were more comfortable and informative in the interviews was the interviews’ location. In order to generate real-life experience from the participants, the interview location and setting should be as natural, familiar and convenient as possible for them (Berg & Lune, 2012). In this case, all the interviews were conducted at the participants’ place of work at their respective campuses. The most challenging aspect was the availability of the Heads/Vice Heads, and setting up appointments for an interview with each of them. Each of the research sites was allocated a time limit of two weeks for all the interviews (including teacher and student interviews: the reasons are explained in more detail in the following section). The first interview was conducted in Hanoi on 25th September 2015, while the last interview took place on 16th January 2016. Ten Heads of Language Faculties, 18 language teachers and 20 students attended the interviews. At each of the research sites, the Heads/Vice Heads interviews were generally conducted first, and then came the interviews with language teachers and students. Although the time planned for each research site was two weeks, there were usually overlaps in the schedule because it took more time to arrange interviews with participants than expected. After all the

88 interviews were completed and current ELT textbooks were collected, these textbooks were subject to a content analysis to discover which cultures were represented and, more importantly, how they were represented.

3.4.6. Data collection. Generating research participants’ perceptions via interviews required careful planning and a close consideration of equipment and procedures. All interviews in phase one were conducted in Vietnamese, and each lasted about 30 minutes. These interviews were recorded, transcribed and translated into English. Initial interviews with Heads/Vice Heads of language faculties focused on the ELT textbooks being utilised by their universities, and the reasons for their selection and any subsequent changes to textbooks.

After the interviews, it was necessary to translate the data into English. To ensure a precise and objective translation, the data was translated into English following the back-translation procedure (Liamputtong, 2010), described as follows. First, the interviewees were asked to review transcriptions of their interviews in Vietnamese. Then I translated the transcriptions from Vietnamese to English. After this, an English teacher at a Foreign Language University was asked to translate the data back from English to Vietnamese, without viewing the original Vietnamese version. The back-translation result was then compared with the original Vietnamese version using content analysis. Vietnamese-translated sentences were compared with their original sentences for the matches and mismatches. It was found that the two versions were about 94.5% similar at a sentence level. After the translation process, dada analysis was then conducted on the English version of the interview transcripts, largely because the final results of the analysis had to be presented in English.

3.4.7. Data analysis. In this phase, the initial coding addressed questions one and two. Data analysis was carried out following the six steps of thematic analysis. A-priori codes, inductive codes and themes were utilised to analyse the interview data. (For further details about thematic analysis, refer to part 3.6.7 in which the steps of thematic analysis are identified and aligned with the steps used to analyse data in phase three.) Before data analysis, key terms used throughout this phase were defined as follows.

89 Codes are defined as “labels used to describe a segment of a [data] text” (Creswell, 2012, p. 244). They are “the most basic segment, or element, of the raw data or information that can be assessed in a meaningful way regarding the phenomenon” (Boyatzis, 1998, p. 63). Codes can be divided into a-priori and inductive codes. A-priori codes are derived from the theoretical framework or the research questions. For example, in this research, each ELT textbook was given a specific code, New Headway thus became NH or New English File became NEF. When analysing the data set, the a-priori codes do not always cover the entire data. The researcher also made use of the terms provided by the interviewees and developed inductive codes to generate a richer analysis (Johnson & Christensen, 2014). In this instance, the central investigation was about how and why ELT textbooks were chosen. This involves teachers investigating textbooks before using them, and evaluating them after their use. Therefore, besides the a-priori codes such as “predictive evaluation” (PE) and “retrospective evaluation” (RE), some inductive codes such as “matching shortened timeframe” (MSTF) or “support students’ self-study” (SSS) were generated from the interview data set. These codes were subsequently analysed and grouped together into similar themes. Themes capture “something important about the data in relation to the research question, and represent some level of patterned response or meaning within the data set” (Braun & Clarke, 2006, p. 82). In this research phase, five themes aggregated from the codes helped to address the first two questions.

The six steps of thematic analysis, used to analyse the data collected in phase one of the research, are as follows.

The first step involved familiarising the data. I transcribed the interviews with Heads/Vice Heads, read these data a number of times, and formulated initial ideas. Then I read the entire data set to shape these ideas and identify their interconnection (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010). In this phase of the research, the most exhausting and time-consuming task in this step was transcribing and translating the interviews. It took me several days to transcribe a 30-minute interview. This time was compensated by the interest and excitement experienced when reading the transcripts and formulating ideas.

The second step saw the generation of initial codes. I coded the data with a word or phrase that described and captured its essence (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010). There is a list of

90 these a-priori codes in table 3.4, which correspond with the gathered data. These a-priori codes were directly connected to the research questions (RQs). For example, the codes NEF (New English File), NH (New Headway) or SF (Straightforward) were linked to the first question, “What textbooks are being used by first year technical Vietnamese university students?” Similarly, the codes AC (Advantageous characteristics of the book), A (Availability of the books in market) or PE (Predictive evaluation) addressed the second question, “How and why are these textbooks chosen?”

Table 3.4. A-priori codes for the first phase

Descriptor Code New English File Pre-inter NEF New Headway Third Edition NH American English File AEF New Cutting Edge NCE Cutting Edge Third Edition CE Objective KET OKET Straightforward SF Credibility of publishing house CPH Suitability with exit requirement SExR Advantageous characteristics of the book AC Positive feedback from other universities PF Suitability with course objectives SCO Suitability with students SS Availability of the books in market A Supportive materials for teachers and students SM Suitability with timeframe STF Predictive evaluation PE Retrospective evaluation RE However, some codes were relevant to more than one research question. For example, the code “supporting students’ self-study” (SSS) can apply to both themes “reasons for choosing a textbook” and “reasons for changing a textbook” which relate to two different questions. And a-priori codes do not cover the entire data. Besides utilising a-priori codes, the manual coding in this phase generated more inductive codes. An example of this are the codes “raising interest in teaching” (RI) or “matching shortened timeframe” (MSTF), which were generated during the second manual coding. Table 3.5 presents the inductive codes used during analysis.

91 Table 3.5. Inductive codes Descriptor Codes Exit requirement ExR Entry requirement EnR Number of teaching hours THN Additional teaching hours ATH Matching exit requirement MexR Updating information and knowledge UIK Raising interest in teaching RI Increasing students’ communication skills ICS Matching shortened timeframe MSTF Supporting students’ self-study SSS The third step involved identifying themes. I collated codes into potential themes, and gathered all data relevant to each theme. However, among the inductive codes, there were similarities and overlaps. These codes were then merged with each other. For instance, the two initial codes “Suitability with students’ level” (SSL) and “Suitability with students’ cultures” (SSC) were merged into one code “Suitability with students” (SS). The codes that had the highest number of sources and references, as well as being relevant to the theoretical framework, were considered as significant codes. As a result, by combining both a-priori codes and inductive codes, 28 significant codes were used as the basis for generating themes. As a consequence, five potential themes were identified and they are listed below.

Table 3.6. Potential themes and supporting codes in phase one

Potential themes Supporting significant codes - English teaching curriculum THN, ATH, EnR, ExR - Current textbooks CE, NH, NEF, SF, OKET, AEF, NCE - Reasons for choosing a textbook CPH, SexR, AC, PF, SCO, SS, A, SM, STM - Reasons for changing a textbook MexR, UIK, RI, ICS, MSTF, SSS - Process of choosing a textbook PE, RE

In step four, the themes were reviewed. I checked if the themes matched the coded extracts (level 1) and the entire data set (level 2), thus generating a thematic ‘map’ of the analysis. The five potential themes, listed above, were further refined for the most prominent themes. This process was done following the two levels of refining and reviewing themes discussed above. During the first level, the coded data extracts for each potential theme were reviewed again to determine whether they formed a coherent pattern or not. During the second level, the refined potential themes and thematic map were checked for validity

92 against the whole data set. The entire interview data were reread to ensure the identified themes remained relevant. As the data gathered from the structured interviews were quite clear, the five themes were relevant to both the coded extracts and the entire data set.

In the fifth step, themes were further defined and named. I continued to refine the specifics of each theme, and determine the overall story of the analysis. I generated clear definitions and names for each theme. During this phase, the five potential themes retained the same names, as the codes clearly aligned with these themes.

The sixth step involved producing the report. I generated a comprehensive description of each unit of analysis. Relevant extracts from the interview data were selected to show the essence of a theme that was being explored.

The findings of this phase are presented in Chapter Four.

3.5. Phase Two Once phase one was completed, I had obtained the information of which textbooks were being used at the ten technical universities, the reasons why these textbooks had been chosen, and the process by which these textbooks had been selected. The ELT textbooks used at the ten technical universities were gathered and subjected to content analysis to reveal what cultures were represented and how they were represented within these texts.

Since one of the focuses of this study was the analysis of cultural contents, the analysis units of the study included reading passages, texts and pictures, and all other activities in the students’ books. It was not necessary for the teacher’s books to be analysed because this was beyond the scope of the research. For the organisation of the research phases, please refer to Table 3.1.

3.5.1. Content analysis. The use of documents often entails a specialised analytic approach called content analysis (Marshall & Rossman, 1999). Content analysis has long been one of the most frequently applied research methods in the field of education (Basturkman, 1999; Sándorová, 2014). Any form of communication using written materials, such as textbooks, newspapers or emails - even music and pictures - can be considered as the raw material for content analysis (Marshall & Rossman, 1999). Content analysis is a research method that “uses a

93 set of procedures to make valid inferences from text” (Weber, 1990, p. 117). It is a “systematic coding and categorising approach” that is used to explore large numbers of texts to determine “trends and patterns of words used, their frequency, their relationships, the structures and discourses of communication” (Vaismoradi, Turunen, & Bondas, 2013, p. 400). In a narrower sense, content analysis is applied to research on the cultural content in foreign language textbooks (Sándorová, 2014). It is, therefore, a prominent research method used in this study.

In comparison with other research methods, content analysis is distinguished by several advantages. The first, and also the greatest, strength of content analysis is its unobtrusiveness. This feature ensures that the researcher is able to collect targeted data, and the risk of participants’ responses being influenced by the interviewer is reduced to nil (Marshall & Rossman, 1999). Secondly, it is applied directly to texts or transcripts, giving the derived data a specific context. The validity and reliability of the research is also ensured by the combination of both the qualitative and quantitative analysis of texts, largely through the use of the frequencies and percentages of analysis units. Finally, it allows the researcher to handle large volumes of data collected from longitudinal studies and then collate this information into smaller categories (Krippendorff, 2012; Sándorová, 2014, p. 96). The procedures used in the content analysis method make it suitable for investigating the cultural components of foreign language textbooks (Sándorová, 2014; Shah et al., 2014). In this research, content analysis has been applied amongst other issues to explore the nature of categories of culture and types of culture senses.

Content analysis can be approached as a quantitative and/or qualitative research method. Quantitative content analysis applies numbers and percentages in its text analysis, whereas qualitative content analysis examines meanings, themes and patterns that may be manifest or latent in a particular text, as opposed to merely counting words or extracting ‘objective’ content from texts (Sándorová, 2014). The purpose of this research phase was to find answers about what cultures were present in ELT textbooks, and how those cultures are presented, based on the analytical frameworks developed by previous scholars; therefore, this phase opted for both quantitative and qualitative content analysis. Applying the frameworks proposed by Cortazzi and Jin (1991), quantitative analysis catered for statistical and numerical results in terms of frequency of the source culture, target culture

94 and international target culture represented in ELT textbooks. These types of cultures were then given a thorough examination to see if they fell into an aesthetic, sociological, semantic, or pragmatic category (Adaskou et al., 1990). Qualitative analysis allows for the description of these types of cultures and categories of cultures. Meanwhile, it draws readers’ attention to “unique themes that depict the variety of the perceptions of the phenomenon, rather than statistical importance of the frequency of particular concepts” (Sándorová, 2014, p. 97). In other words, while quantitative research provides the basis for this research by acknowledging the importance of a variable through its frequency, qualitative research allows for one’s meaning to be explored in different perspectives. Numerous scholars in their research studies of cultural content in ELT textbooks highlight the use of a combination of these two approaches because of the mutual support provided by each method (Aliakbari & Jamalvandi, 2012; Ho, 2009; Juan, 2010; Kim, 2011). As applied in this phase of the research, this combined method strengthened the validity of the findings and allowed for the use of triangulation as a strategy to improve the validity of this qualitative research.

3.5.2. Instruments. As noted in section 3.1, ELT textbooks from ten technical universities were subjected to a critical analysis of cultural components to address research questions about which cultures are in these textbooks and how those cultures are represented. Two frameworks were adopted to identify and analyse these cultural elements. Firstly, the cultural components presented in ELT textbooks were categorised into three types: the source culture, the target culture and the international target culture (Cortazzi & Jin, 1991, p. 204-5). These types are described as follows.

The source culture: native cultural representations of the learners. In this situation, the source culture is Vietnamese cultural representations, which are rarely found in global course books.

The target culture: cultural representations of the countries where English is the first language, for example, the United States, Great Britain, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. An example is shown in figure 3.2.

95

Figure 3.2. New Headway Pre-Intermediate Third Edition representing target culture (Source: Soars, J. & L., 2007, p.19) This example tells the story of a British woman who lives a transatlantic life between two big cities, Manchester and New York. Her social life and work represent an aspect of the target culture, which in this context is British and American.

The international target culture: cultural representations of non-English speaking countries in Africa, Asia or Europe. An example of this kind of cultural representation is illustrated in figure 3.3

Figure 3.3. New Headway Pre-Intermediate Third Edition representing international target culture (Source: Soars, J. & L., 2007, p.35)

In this example, the cultural representation of is depicted with a description of a floating market in , and the typical activities of Thai people in that particular

96 setting. This represents the unique culture of Thai people, which is not from source or target cultures.

The target cultures and the international target cultures represented in the textbooks form the representations of life outside Vietnam. At the same time, Adaskou, Britten and Fashi’s (1990) definition of culture in four senses was used as the framework to evaluate these representations. According to the definition provided by their research, culture has four separate areas of meanings: the aesthetic, the sociological, the semantic and the pragmatic (Adaskou et al., 1990, pp. 3-4). These areas are elaborated as follows.

The aesthetic, or Culture with a capital C is usually presented in the form of media, cinema, music (whether classical or popular) and especially literature. An example of aesthetic sense is shown in figure 3.4. In this example, students are provided with posters of James Bond’s films and asked to reflect their experience and prior knowledge of the James Bond film series.

Figure 3.4. An example of aesthetic sense representation (Source: Soars, J. & L., 2007, p.35)

The sociological sense, or culture with a small c, refers to “the organisation and nature of family, of home life, of interpersonal relations, material conditions, work and leisure, customs and institutions.” (Adaskou et al., 1990, p. 3) This dimension of culture reflects the way people interact and communicate within their cultural context. For example, going to the supermarket or shopping is often considered ‘a small, unimportant thing’ and therefore

97 a women’s role in Vietnamese culture. But figure 3.5 illustrates a Western man doing the supermarket shopping as part of his routine.

Figure 3.5. An example of sociological sense representation (Source: Soars, J. & L., 2007, p.30)

The semantic, or “the conceptual system embodied in the language”, controls “our perceptions and our thought processes.” (Adaskou et al., 1990, p. 3) This can be represented in the forms of opinion, general beliefs or norms. Semantic areas such as food or clothes are associated with a particular way of life; therefore, they are distinctive and closely related to the sociological sense of culture. A semantic sense of culture is illustrated in figure 3.6 with the star signs denoting different beliefs of those who were born under these signs.

Figure 3.6. An example of semantic sense representation (Source: Soars, J. & L., 2007, p.10)

98 Finally, the pragmatic or sociolinguistic sense refers to “the background knowledge, social skills and paralinguistic skills that, in addition to mastery of the language code, make possible successful communication” (Adaskou et al., 1990, p. 4). It includes the ability to use appropriate exponents of various communicative functions; the ability to use appropriate intonation patterns; the ability to conform to the norms of social courtesy, where different from the learners’ culture, including taboo avoidance; the awareness of conventions governing interpersonal relations – questions of status, obligation, license, where different from the learners’ culture; the familiarity with the main rhetorical conventions in different written genres e.g. different types of letters and messages, form- filling, advertisements (Adaskou et al., 1990, p. 4). An example of pragmatic sense is represented in figure 3.7. This picture illustrates strategies for making successful conversations to English speakers and models of intonation in English for learners.

Figure 3.7. An example of pragmatic sense representation (Source: Soars, J. & L., 2007, p.21)

The elaboration of these two analytical frameworks, Cotarzzi and Jin’s (1991) types of cultures and Adaskou, Britten and Fashi’s (1990) sense of cultures facilitated the manual coding process for phase two. Based on these two frameworks, checklists for types of cultures and senses of cultures were formed in order to materialise the codes. These checklists and the working sheets for each textbook’s coding are in the appendices.

99 3.5.3. Data collection. From the findings in phase one, a selection of ELT textbooks was gathered for content analysis. Table 3.7 denotes the ELT textbooks being used at these universities and their labels. Table 3.7 demonstrates that U3, U6, and U10 use the same textbook, New English File Pre-Intermediate. U2 and U7 use the same textbook series New Headway Third Edition. U1 had been teaching Cutting Edge Third Edition for only three weeks at the time of the interview. Before that, U1 used to use American English File Elementary and Pre- Inter, the same textbooks as U8. The three remaining universities U4, U5 and U9 use different textbooks, which are Straightforward, Objective KET, and New Cutting Edge respectively.

Table 3.7. Analysed ELT textbooks at ten participating universities and their labels University ELT Textbooks Label U1 Cutting Edge Elementary 3rd Edition CEe3 U5 Objective KET KET U4 Straightforward 2nd Edition SF2 U3+U6+U10 New English File Pre-Intermediate NEFpr-i U2+U7 New Headway Third Edition Pre-Intermediate NHpr-i U8 (+U1) American English File Pre-intermediate AEFpr-i U9 New Cutting Edge Elementary NCE-e As a result, there were a total of seven textbooks series that needed to be analysed. These textbooks series were at different levels, mostly from Elementary level to Pre-Intermediate level. However, only the books used at a first-year level were chosen for analysis. These books are Cutting Edge Elementary Third Edition, Objective KET, Straightforward 2nd Edition, New English File Pre-Intermediate, New Headway Pre-Intermediate Third Edition, American English File Pre-intermediate, and New Cutting Edge Elementary. To make it easier to categorise the teacher and student interviews associated with these textbooks during phase three, the analysed textbooks were labeled as in Table 3.7.

3.5.4. Data analysis. The data collected in phase two were from the ELT textbooks being utilised at the research sites. As almost every piece of a language is able to carry a cultural load of some sorts, cultural information in ELT textbooks can be communicated by “informative and

100 descriptive texts”, “texts presenting foreign attitudes and opinions”, “human-interest texts”, “questionnaires, writing activities”, “lexis – particularly idioms and unfamiliar collocations which involves alien concepts”, “the exponents of a communicative function”, realia or pseudo-realia of all sorts”, “illustrations and other visuals, and sound recordings” (Adaskou et al., 1990, pp. 3-4). In other words, the analysis unit for this phase was all kinds of texts, pictures and sound recordings in ELT textbooks.

The textbook analysis process was carried out in two different stages. In the first stage, the general objective of each unit or each lesson was determined. For example, the subject of unit five in CE Elementary Third Edition was travelling (Appendix 6). Each lesson in this unit made learners familiar with means of transports and different famous cities in the world as well as the notable features that make these cities different. Based on this subject, I could make a general conclusion that the texts, pictures and sound recordings that probably contained source culture, target cultures, and international target culture might be under a sociological sense of culture.

In the second stage, all kinds of texts, pictures and sound recordings were classified into types of culture and senses of culture. After making an appropriate prediction in stage one, I examined the main ideas of texts, pictures and sound recordings in each unit or lesson. These were divided into numerous sections. For example, the vocabulary and reading section in Unit 5, Cutting Edge Elementary Third Edition, consisted of three vocabulary exercises about transport, a gap-fill reading and listening exercise, a pronunciation section, and two post-reading practices (Appendix 6). The length of each section might vary from a long paragraph to a few sentences such as some grammar or pronunciation examples. If one item from any of three sources or four senses of cultures appeared again in a different section, it was counted more than once. The primary concern of this phase was the frequency of appearance in terms of cultural sources and senses, which illustrated both the breath and the depth of foreign cultural representations in ELT textbooks.

Any texts, images or sound recording were defined as referring to life outside Vietnam when the representation was foreign and had an obvious connection with its origin. For example, the mere word motorbike is not considered to be life outside Vietnam because the connection to its possible foreign origin is not evident. Although motorbikes do not

101 originate in Vietnam, it is unlikely for people, especially from Vietnam, to consider them foreign. In contrast, a Toyota Camry, for example, is a representation of life outside Vietnam because its brand name indicates the origin. Similarly, a picture of a man becomes a representation of foreign cultures when there are traits to signify his foreign origin, for example his hair colour or his clothing.

Qualitative data gathered in phase two from content analysis were manually coded. Thematic analysis was used to identify what cultures (target and international target cultures) (Cortazzi & Jin, 1991, p. 204-5) that life outside Vietnam represented. Then this representation was subject to qualitative analysis and categorised into the four senses of culture: aesthetic, sociological, semantic and pragmatic (Adaskou et al., 1990, pp. 3-4). Statistical counting in the form of percentages was conducted to analyse the quantitative data. A-priori codes, derived from the theoretical framework, were used (Boyatzis, 1998; Johnson & Christensen, 2014). There are seven a-priori codes used for the data analysis as can be seen in Table 3.8.

Table 3.8. A-priori coding device for content analysis

Descriptor Code Theme Source culture SC Sources of cultures Target culture TC International Target culture ITC Aesthetic AE Types of cultures Sociological SO Semantic SE Pragmatic PR As can be seen in Table 3.8, these a-priori codes were connected to the themes, which were analysed in the light of the research questions (RQs). For example, the codes of SC (source culture), TC (target culture), and ITC (international target culture) were aggregated into the theme “sources of cultures”, which helped to answer the 3rd research questions: “To what extent is life outside Vietnam represented in these textbooks?” Similarly, the codes of AE (aesthetic), SO (sociological), SE (semantic) and PR (pragmatic) addressed the theme “types of cultures” to answer research question number four: “How is life outside Vietnam represented in these textbooks?”

Figure 3.8 illustrates an extract from unit 10.2 in Objective KET after stage one of manual coding. In this piece of reading, target cultural and international target cultural

102 representations were coded in colours. Eleven target cultural representations and five international target cultural representations were found in this extract. This example was done in the paper version of these textbooks with colour pens.

This content analysis approach allowed the data to be qualitatively analysed, and at the same time the data were quantified in frequency number or percentages (Vaismoradi et al., 2013). After classifying and recording the cultural loads in the text, the data were transferred to Microsoft Excel 2007 for further analysis. The frequency of each dimension of culture was compared via percentages, frequency distributions and graphs if necessary. The percentages were analysed to reveal what cultures were presented in the books, and which dimensions of culture occurred the most frequently.

Figure 3.8. An example of textbook manual coding (Source: Capel & Sharp, 2005, p.65)

After each book was analysed, the findings were then compared and contrasted among the seven textbooks. The findings were discussed qualitatively in response to research questions three and four. Chapter Four presents the findings of this phase.

3.6. Phase Three Interviews with language teachers and students at the ten participating universities were arranged once those with Heads/Vice Heads were completed. These teacher and student

103 interviews were in phase three of the research, but because of time and financial constraints, all the interviews in phase one and phase three were conducted together at the research sites (see section 3.4.5, pages 89-90 this Chapter). This combination did not alter any steps in the research procedures, because there was no cause and effect relationship between phase two and three. The results of these two phases were combined to analyse the influence of foreign cultural representations in students’ development of intercultural communicative competence.

Phase three represented a thick description of teachers and students’ perspectives on how life outside Vietnam was represented in ELT textbooks, and how this in turn influenced students’ intercultural communicative competence. This description was made on the basis of interviews conducted with selected teachers and students. Although the interviews were semi-structured, teachers and students were free to talk about their concerns with cultural representations and ELT textbooks. It was my intention to encourage the participants to expose their views because the purpose of this phase was to uncover and describe teachers and students’ perspectives on this issue, and these interviews were the sole means of gathering data in this case. What mattered here were the subjective views of language teachers and students (Marshall & Rossman, 1999). In this phase, these semi-structured interviews might fall into the category of loosely structured or in-depth interviews on the spectrum. This was a valuable method in that they provided useful and appropriate features in relation to understanding people’s view. The following section clarifies the features of in-depth interviews to understand why they were suitable to the purpose of this phase.

3.6.1. In-depth interviews. The in-depth interview is a qualitative technique used to elicit “a vivid picture of the participant’s perspective on a research topic” by encouraging people to talk about their personal feelings, opinions, and experiences (Milena, Dainora, & Alin, 2008, p. 1279). In- depth interviews belong to the semi-structured and loosely structured categories in the continuum model. In an in-depth interview, a small number of participants are individually and intensively interviewed to expose their perspectives on a particular research topic (Boyce & Neale, 2006). The interviewed participant is considered the expert, and the interviewer is the student who desires to learn everything that the participant can share

104 about the topic (Milena et al., 2008). The interviewer seeks insightful information that cannot be acquired through other types of data collection – such as survey or focus groups - by asking open-ended questions, actively listening and reflecting upon what the speaker is saying (Adams & Cox, 2008; Johnson, 2002). As a social form, the in-depth interview involves social interaction and rapport building (Johnson, 2002; Minichiello, Aroni, & Hays, 2008; Rosenblum, 1987). In order to encourage others to talk about their personal experiences, feelings and opinions, the in-depth interview needs to develop intimacy, a similar process to that of creating a friendship. Once the researcher has formed some rapport with the participant, s/he is far more likely to release sensitive data (e.g. related to privacy and trust) (Adams & Cox, 2008). This is important for qualitative research, which seeks to understand the nature of a phenomenon and provide an insightful analysis of the research problem.

In-depth interviews may be valuable for exploring the influence of cultural perspectives in ELT textbooks on language learning because one of their strengths is to “enable the researcher to gain access to groups of people in order to provide both a deep and broad view of situations, people and settings” (Minichiello et al., 2008, p. 66). As an in-depth interview is an opportunity to gain insight into a person’s perception of the world (Milena et al., 2008), this method of enquiry allows us to investigate this influence through teachers and students’ opinions in a real-life context. Multiple views on ELT teaching and learning from teachers and students may be expressed through dialogues, and help the researcher deeply explore these issues.

3.6.2. Teachers. In qualitative descriptive studies, purposeful sampling techniques may be used “to obtain cases deemed information-rich for the purposes of study” (Sandelowski, 2000, p. 338). In other words, these techniques allow researchers to generate the most insightful data from the representative participants among a wide range of varied cases (Sandelowski, 2000). In phase three of the research, which involved identifying which language teachers and students to interview, purposeful sampling was adopted. This technique allowed the researcher to intentionally select participants who had a better understanding of the central phenomenon (Creswell, 2012; Englander, 2012). In order to undertake purposeful

105 sampling, criteria for choosing suitable informant teachers were developed. As this research is about cultures in ELT textbooks and the influence of cultures on learners’ development of intercultural communicative competence, the interviewed teachers needed to have relatively extensive experience in English teaching, preferably from 5 to 7 years of working as a language teacher. In order to generate rich information, half of the interviewed teachers had studied or spent a period of time living abroad. They were likely to have more experience of life outside Vietnam, and so thoroughly understand what makes it difficult for learners in terms of cultural barriers. Therefore, for each of the textbooks used in these universities, two language teachers - one of whom had graduated from an overseas institution and the other from a national university - were chosen for the in-depth interviews to reveal their teaching experience in relation to cultural dimension in textbooks. They were given samples of culture-related materials in the textbooks they were using and were asked what they thought may be the difficulties for learners, what should be explained in detailed, and what should be changed to allow for a better understanding of the materials.

3.6.3. Students. For the same reasons mentioned in section 3.6.2 (page 107) purposeful sampling techniques were applied in the selection of student participants. In general, students studying in these technical universities come from different parts of the country. However, more students from urban areas are entering elite universities due to the higher entrance requirements that may be harder for rural students to fulfill. Students coming from towns and cities with more privileged living conditions may be exposed to a more open learning environment. They are, therefore, more likely to be familiar with foreign cultural representations which are widely reflected on the Internet, through films or TV, and through the presence of tourists in the large cities of Vietnam. On the contrary, students from the countryside or mountainous regions may have fewer opportunities to have such exposure. They may be naïve to life outside Vietnam or the foreign cultural representations in the ELT textbooks they are using as study resources. For these reasons, for each of the textbooks used, two students were chosen - one from a town or city and the other from a rural area - to interview with similar questions as for teachers. This selection provided a diverse range of views on how different students from different backgrounds negotiate with foreign cultural representations in language learning.

106 3.6.4. Interview Protocols.

Interview protocols were designed to gather information from participants in a consistent and systematic way. In the preparation of these interview protocols, I divided them into three main sections. The first section was designed in order to gather information about interviewees’ background such as EFL training, teaching experience, or qualification, interest or preferences in language learning and teaching. The second section of the interview protocols focused on interviewees’ perceptions of ELT textbooks and cultural representations in these textbooks. The third section explored teachers’ teaching practices, focusing on teaching culture. I aimed to investigate what aspects of culture the participants incorporate in their EFL teaching and what culture-based techniques and activities were employed for the development of students’ ICC. Further, I aimed to seek their suggestions on how to promote EFL teaching and learning in the Vietnamese context in order to meet the goal of developing students’ intercultural communicative competence. The interview protocols for the third phase of the research are in Appendix 4 and 5.

3.6.5. Conducting the interviews.

Just as teacher and student interviews were linked to the analysed books and their universities, the interviewed teachers and students were labeled in relation to their international experience and their location to ensure their anonymity and to identify the data sets. For example, in Table 3.9, the teachers who were from U1 and did not have international experience were labeled as IT1 while who had lived or studied abroad were labeled FT1. Similarly, U1 rural students were labeled as RS1 and U1 urban students were labeled US1.

With regards to conducting language teacher and student interviews, the main interview questions were sent to the participants at least three days prior to the actual interviews. This saved a lot of time in the interviews, and assisted the participants in providing relevant data. In general, most of the teacher participants were well prepared and showed enthusiasm for their teaching position. The interview questions generated responsive, engaged answers.

107 Table 3.9. Participating teachers and students in phase three University Teachers Students With Without Rural Urban international international experience experience 1 FF FT1 IT1 RS1 US1 2 FT2 IT2 RS2 US2 3 FT3 IT3 RS3 US3 4 FT4 IT4 RS4 US4 5 FT5 IT5 RS5 US5 6 FT6 IT6 RS6 US6 7 FT7 IT7 RS7 US7 8 FT8 IT8 RS8 US8 9 FT9 IT9 RS9 US9 10 FT10 IT10 RS10 US10 However, the application of purposeful sampling methods did not ensure that the right subject would be available. In some universities, none of the English teachers had any experience living abroad. In other universities, teacher participants had experienced only a short time abroad, such as one or two months. Despite this obstacle, most of the interviews lasted from 30 to 45 minutes, and some went up to one hour. There was only one interview, which lasted 15 minutes, where the respondent showed unwillingness and hastiness in answering questions even though she had previously agreed to participate. All the interviews with language teachers were conducted at the research sites. Most of them took place in the staff rooms while others happened in classroom settings. Interviews with students were conducted mostly in campuses, with the exception of four, which were conducted at quiet cafes. The last interview was conducted on the 16 January 2016 (see section 3.4.5, page 89).

3.6.6. Data collection. While collecting data from documents (ELT textbooks) was quite straightforward, generating research participants’ perceptions through in-depth interviews required even more careful planning and consideration of appropriate tools and procedures. All interviews in phase three were conducted in Vietnamese. Each one lasted from 30 minutes to one hour, and these interviews were recorded, transcribed and translated into English. These in-depth interviews with faculty members clarified points of discussion and elaborated on the topics of cultural influences on language learning and teaching. In-depth interviews with students

108 focused on the same topics as the teachers, to see how they perceived the barriers caused by cultural differences in their learning.

As all the interviews in phase three were in Vietnamese, the interview transcriptions were translated into English following the back-translation procedure used in phase one (see section 3.4.6, page 90). After the translation process, the English versions of the interview transcripts were subject to data analysis.

3.6.7. Data analysis. This phase used thematic analysis to analyse interview data. Thematic analysis is an independent qualitative descriptive approach, which provides core skills to researchers to conduct many other forms of qualitative analysis (Vaismoradi et al., 2013). It is described as “a method for identifying, analysing and reporting patterns (themes) within data” (Braun & Clarke, 2006, p. 79). It is a repetitive process and there may not always be a linear progression from one phase to the next. The movement may be back and forward, and so on, in the process if required (Boyatzis, 1998).

As can be seen in Figure 3.9, the six phases in thematic analysis by Braun and Clark (2006) are summarised; at the same time, they were adapted into specific steps in this research phase. These steps form the basis of the interview data analysis.

As noted in part 3.5.4, codes, themes, and patterns were used to analyse the data. (For the definitions of codes and themes, please also refer to part 3.4.7, pages 90-94) There are a- priori codes and inductive codes. Codes can also be differentiated based on their level of importance and quantity (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010). Codes that are highly relevant to the theoretical framework and the research hypothesis are called significant codes, whereas insignificant codes are less pertinent to that framework or hypothesis. Codes that occur more frequently in the data set are major codes, while minor codes are infrequently seen in the documents. To be more exact, codes that were applied to at least 55% of the interviews were considered major codes in this study. In case a code is significant but does not occur in a high frequency, it is called minor-significant code. Similarly, significant codes that occur frequently are major-significant codes, which in turn constitute and generate themes. It was possible that minor-insignificant codes and major insignificant

109 codes both appeared in the data set, and how these codes were presented were addressed in later sections.

1. Familiarising the data: Reading and re-reading the data, transcribing and translating the data Transcription Translation Reading and rereading the data ê 2. Generating initial codes: Coding generating features of the data systematically across the entire data set Manual Coding NVivo-assisted coding Used a-priori Generated 186 Used a-priori codes for coding Generated 55 codes for coding inductive codes (formatted as existing nodes in inductive codes NVivo) ê 3. Searching for theme: Collating codes into potential themes Manual Coding NVivo-assisted coding Transferred all Separated major vs. Set aside minor and Identified manual codes to minor codes and insignificant codes and potential Nvivo to expedite significant vs. rival explanation codes (X themes analysis insignificant codes codes) ê 4. Reviewing the themes: Checking how themes work in relation to coded extract and the entire data set, generating thematic maps of the analysis First Level Second Level Set-aside minor Generated Examined Re-aligned refined Addressed rival themes and the thematic themes against themes with research explanations units of analysis maps the entire data questions and theoretical framework ê 5. Defining and naming themes: Refining each specific theme, generating clear definitions and names of each theme, checking the consistency of the overall story captured by the analysis Defined 12 significant themes Examined units of Took into account how life outside and 63 major codes analysis to generate 5 Vietnam affects students’ cultural patterns competence ê 6. Producing the report: selecting vivid, compelling extract examples, final analysis of selected extracts, relating back of the analysis to the research question and literature, producing a scholarly report of the analysis Selected exemplary quotes Wrote the Reporting the influence of life outside findings chapter Vietnam on students’ cultural competence Figure 3.9. Thematic analysis phases based on Braun & Clarke (2006)

As the aggregates of the codes, themes can be major or minor as well as significant and insignificant. By extension, there can be major-significant, major-insignificant, minor- significant and minor-insignificant themes. A pattern is considered a bridge between codes and themes and between themes themselves, in order to explain a phenomenon (McMillan 110 & Schumacher, 2010). Pattern is also an explanation about the relationship between variables in a study (Yin, 2013). The summary of the key terms used to describe and discuss the data can be found in table 3.10.

Table 3.10. Key terms in data analysis Key term Definition Code The most basic segment of data Theme Combination of related codes to answer the research questions Pattern The connection between codes and themes to explain phenomena A-priori code Codes derived from theoretical framework Inductive code Codes generated from data or terms provided by interviewees Major code/theme Highly frequent codes/themes Minor code/them Infrequent codes/themes Significant code/theme Codes/themes highly relevant to theoretical framework/hypothesis Insignificant code/theme Codes/themes less or not pertinent to theoretical framework/hypothesis In total, I generated 186 codes through manual coding and 55 codes via NVivo assisted coding. I then refined these codes, checking for overlapping codes and categorising codes into major and minor codes, as well as significant and insignificant codes. The refining process set aside minor and insignificant codes, preparing the remaining data set for potential themes. Figure 3.10 illustrates an example of NVivo assisted coding.

Figure 3.10. An example of NVivo assisted coding

111 After categorising these refined 63 codes into potential themes, these themes were refined into 12 significant themes. They included: teachers’ perception of ELT textbooks, teachers’ perception of cultural representations in ELT textbooks, teachers’ views on difficulties in English learning and teaching, teachers’ views on the influence of culture on students’ development of ICC, teachers’ approaches towards cultural representations in ELT textbooks, teachers’ perspectives on improved teaching contexts, students’ perception of ELT textbooks, students’ perception of cultural representations in ELT textbooks, students’ views on English teaching and learning difficulties, students’ views on the influence of culture on their development of ICC, students’ views on cultural teaching approaches, and students’ perspectives on improved teaching contexts.

These significant themes were then reexamined and generated into five patterns in order to develop an interpretation and explanation of my findings: Teachers and students’ perceptions of ELT textbooks, teachers and students’ perceptions of cultural representation in ELT textbooks, teachers and students’ views on the influence of culture on students’ development of ICC, teachers and students’ views on cultural teaching approaches, and teachers and students’ perspectives on improved English teaching and learning context. The analysis in Chapter Six presents the findings of this phase.

3.7. Ensuring the Reliability of the Research In order to ensure the reliability of this research, different types of validity procedures were implemented at different stages of the research. These procedures are summarised in Table 3.11 and discussed in the subsequent paragraphs.

As a validity procedure, triangulation searches for “convergence among multiple and different sources of information to form themes or categories in a study” (Creswell & Miller, 2000, p. 126). This study applied triangulation in several ways. There were various data, derived from a range of participants such as Heads/Vice Heads, language teachers and students. Different methods were utilised in different stages: phase one and phase three used interviews and phase two applied document analysis. By using triangulation, the narrative account was validated because the research did not rely on a single incident or data point but on multiple forms of evidence (Creswell & Miller, 2000). With member checking, the validity process shifts from the researcher to the participants. After the

112 interviews were transcribed, all the transcriptions were returned to the participants to get them to confirm the credibility of the information. While some participants may not have been willing to participate in the member checking process, it was useful in increasing the reliability of the narrative accounts. In fact, 40 out of 47 participants had the chance to review their interview transcripts, and 20 of them were willing to review the research results. This ensured that the data collected was precise, and the research results were reliable.

Table 3.11. Procedures to ensure reliability of the research

No Type of validity procedure Stage 1 Triangulation Data collection 2 Member checking Composition 3 Disconfirming evidence Data analysis 4 Thick, rich description Composition Note. Adapted from “Determining Validity in Qualitative Inquiry” by Creswell & Miller, 2000, p.126.

Addressing disconfirming or negative evidence is also a procedure closely related to triangulation and achieving internal validity (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Seeking disconfirming evidence in data analysis reduces the personal bias that may occur when the researcher looks for evidence that only supports the preferred explanation. In practice, this is a difficult process because researchers have a tendency to find evidence that is consistent with their themes or categories (Creswell & Miller, 2000). In this research, negative evidence has been found in the analysis process; however, it does not outweigh the supportive evidence but further reinforces the account’s credibility because it helps acknowledge the complexity and variety of reality.

Another procedure for establishing credibility is to provide a thick, rich description of the account. This research describes the setting, participants, methods, procedures, and themes of analysis in great detail. For example, the preferred method of interview allows issues to be explored in a greater depth. Interviews are often said to be prone to bias, depending on the way they are conducted. The selection of respondents and the influence of the interviewer on the interview process have to be considered (Ryan, Coughlan, & Cronin, 2009). To minimise potential bias and enhance the reliability of this study, detailed interview plans and documentation - as well as a detailed account of the interview process - 113 were provided. In-depth interviews may also encounter difficulty in obtaining an honest account of informants’ feelings, experiences and beliefs, if they are intentionally distorted. Crosschecking was effectively employed to assist the researcher in this process (Minichiello et al., 2008); also, the consistence in the research approach and well-designed questions help achieve rigour (Tod, 2006). For this research study, it would have been easy and appealing to choose a convenient sample of teachers or students. In order to minimise convenience sampling and increase the reliability of the research, a list of criteria for choosing suitable teachers and students was established. This list of criteria provided an appropriate sample of participants, and therefore helped ensure reliable research results.

Moreover, as all data in this research were collected from primary sources, this research method offers clear advantages for the study: The data collected from textbooks and interviews are authentic and reliable. However, in content analysis, problems may arise from the “ambiguity of word meanings, category definitions, or other coding rules” (Weber, 1990, p. 118). Hence, it is of crucial importance that the procedure of coding and classification are reliable. This was validated by the checklists for content analysis and the worksheet grids for the coding of each textbook (See references 7&8). The variables developed during this process were ensured to represent what it is attempting to measure (Neuendorf, 2002; Sándorová, 2014; Weber, 1990). The coding and categorisation of this research were piloted on small units of texts first, and then changes were made as necessary.

Qualitative in-depth interviews are often criticised for having a small sample size and therefore lacking rigour (Baxter & Eyles, 1999). In this study, although participants were sampled based on the criteria relevant for the purpose of the study, with the vivid details of thick, rich descriptions, the findings are applicable to other universities with similar contexts in Vietnam. ELT textbook selection in these universities should be taken into more careful consideration with regard to learners’ objectives. In addition, sufficient language and cultural input must be provided for students to achieve cultural competence in their language learning.

114 3.8. Ethical Considerations When eliciting highly personal and sometimes sensitive information from a particular individual, in-depth interviews require detailed and careful ethical consideration. One fundamental aspect is the protection of respondents’ rights. It is the researcher’s responsibility to take all necessary action to protect the person who participated in the research project. The researcher also has overall responsibility over the informed consent, and the anonymity and confidentiality of the gathered information (Johnson, 2002; Ryan et al., 2009). The matter of how deep the questions should probe into the issues is of similar importance, as sometimes we cannot “fully anticipate the consequences of such probing” (Johnson, 2002, p. 115).

This study had relatively limited ethical issues in terms of data collection because the participants were adults, and interviews at managerial levels as well as with selected teachers and students were conducted. As a result, standard procedures in providing ethical considerations were followed.

Firstly, I sent emails to ten universities for their permission to work with their Dean of Language Faculty and the selected teachers and students. Consents from participating universities were obtained in early January 2015 and UON ethical approval number H- 2015-0144 was granted in June 2015 (see appendix 10). The participants were clearly made to understand the purpose of the study, and showed no reluctance to taking part in the interviews. As the participants knew that they were going to talk with a peer and a colleague, mutual trust was quickly developed.

Secondly, I ensured that the participants were informed of their rights; for example, knowing that they are being researched, being informed about the nature of the research and being able to withdraw at any time (Ryen, 2004) (see appendix 11 for information statement for rector). The signing of the consent letters ensured that the participants were aware of all their rights (see appendix 12 for consent form for teacher). It was also necessary to ensure that the informants fully understood the content of the letter. In this situation, not only the consent letters but also information statements were translated into Vietnamese.

115 More importantly, the matter of confidentiality was guaranteed. This meant the researcher was “obliged to protect the participants’ identity, places and the location of the project” (Ryen, 2004, p. 233). In this study, all the data collected were kept in a secure place and all the informants were de-identified and coded by letter and numbers.

Ethical issues were also taken into account during data analysis and when reporting on the results. As previously mentioned, the participants had a chance to see the interview transcripts and were subsequently informed of the findings of the study to ensure the accuracy of their accounts. The results of this study were shared with the 20 participants who had indicated their willingness to receive the findings.

3.9. Summary Chapter Three has outlined the methodology used by this study. This chapter begins by presenting features of qualitative descriptive research, which provides an accurate portrayal of characteristics of particular individuals, situations or groups. These characteristics suited the nature of the current research and have provided a truthful account of the teachers and students’ opinions regarding the influence of cultural representations in ELT textbooks on students’ intercultural communicative competence.

The method used in the first phase was structured interviews with Heads/Vice Heads of Language Faculties. The interviews were successfully conducted and transcribed and translated into English using a back-translation method. The data were coded both manually and by NVivo, and analysed using thematic analysis. Eighteen a-priori codes and ten inductive codes were identified during the analysis. These 28 codes were then categorised into five potential themes. As phase one’s main purposes were to name the current textbooks and to list the textbook selection criteria, the analysis process was not too complicated and the results were quite straightforward.

Addressing the seven current textbooks identified in the first phase, the second phase applied content analysis as its method. As a method used to explore large amounts of texts to determine trends and patterns of words used, their frequency, their relationships, the structures and discourses of communication, content analysis has been applied in research on the cultural content in foreign language textbooks. The sources of culture framework by Cortazzi and Jin (1991) and the types of culture framework by Adaskou, Britten and Fashi

116 (1990) were used as the two analytical frameworks during this phase. The seven codes that were found were categorised into two main themes, which addressed the two research questions about which cultures are in these textbooks and how those cultures are represented.

Phase three investigated teachers and students’ opinion on how foreign cultural representations influence students’ cultural competence. This phase applied in-depth interviews to explore what teachers and students think about representations of culture in ELT textbooks and how these representations influence students’ intercultural communicative competence. For each of the books analysed, at least two teachers (one had overseas living experience and one did not) and two students (one urban and one rural) were interviewed to provide rich data for comparison. In total, eighteen teacher interviews and twenty student interviews were conducted in this phase. The interviews were transcribed and translated into English using the back-translation method. They were then coded manually for the first coding and using Nvivo for the second coding, and analysed thematically. During the analysis process, a total of 241 inductive codes were found. These codes were then refined into 63 codes and classified into 12 significant themes to help answer the last research question.

The findings of this study are based on document data and evidence from the interviews with Heads/Vice Heads, language teachers and students, all of which went through thematic analysis procedures. By using these methods, the present research could portray the situation of textbook use at technical universities in Hanoi and how life outside Vietnam influences students’ cultural competence in English learning.

117 Chapter 4: Phase One Findings

4.1. Overview Chapter One and Chapter Two describe my study’s research context and relevant literature regarding cultural representation in ELT textbooks and its influence on students’ cultural competence. Chapter Three outlines the research methodology applied in the three phases of this research. Phase one utilised structured interviews for gathering data from managing staff to ascertain what the current textbooks were, and why and how they were selected. Content analysis in phase two examined cultural representations in current ELT textbooks. Phase three applied in-depth interviews to investigate teachers and students’ points of view on how cultural representations in ELT textbooks influence students’ cultural competence. This chapter presents phase one’s findings. I employed thematic analysis to relate what textbooks were being utilised, and understand how and why these books had been selected at these institutions. Figure 4.1 illustrates the core findings for phase one. In this illustration, the main points from the data analysis result are grouped based on the codes and themes to address the first two research questions.

What English How and why are textbooks are Phase One these textbooks used? are chosen?

EFL teaching Current Reasons for Reasons for Process of curriculum textbooks choosing textbooks changing choosing textbooks textbooks

+ Cutting Edge + Matching new exit +Numbers of Third Edition + Credibility of publishing houses requirement teaching + New Headway + Suitability with Exit requirement + Updating hours Third Edition + Advantageous characteristics information and +Additional + New English File + Positive feedback from other universities knowledge + Predictive teaching + Straightforward + Suitability with course objectives + Raising interest in evaluation hours + Objective KET + Suitability with students’ levels and teaching + Retrospective + Entry + American English culture + Improving students’ evaluation requirement File +Availability of the books in the market communicative skills + Exit + New Cutting Edge + Supportive materials for Ts and Ss + Matching shortened requirement + Suitability with the timeframe timeframe + Supporting students’ self-study

Figure 4.1. Illustration of phase one’s findings

118 In this chapter, section 4.2 addresses the first research question: “What textbooks are being used by first year Vietnamese technical university students?” by naming the corpus of current textbooks and describing the context in which these textbooks are used. Section 4.3 relates to the second research question: “Why and how are these textbooks selected?” by analysing the rationales and the process of selecting these textbooks. As discussed in Chapter Three, although this phase focuses on the current textbooks, and the rationale and process for these selections, my analysis provides a detailed description of the research context. It investigates English language teaching programs and decisive factors in changing a textbook. This analysis therefore attempts to present a comprehensive understanding of the research sites and the complexities involved in the choice of textbooks. Section 4.4 summarises this chapter by consolidating the key findings in light of the first two research questions and provides a basis for phase two analyses.

4.2. Textbook Use in Technical Universities in Hanoi Although there are general contextual commonalities among participating universities (See table 3.2), each distinctively organises their English language curriculum in accordance with their own institutional agenda and purposes. The data analysed in this phase produced varied findings about the textbooks used. My analysis began by looking at textbook choices. Based on this analysis, section 4.2.1 describes the provision of teaching hours and assessment that relates to textbook use. Section 4.2.2 describes current textbook use at these technical tertiary institutions.

4.2.1. The context of textbook use. Among the ten participating technical universities, eight are under the administration of MoET and line Ministries (See table 3.2 for line Ministries). Although some of them are elite institutions, many are mainstream and others are newly upgraded college institutions, all are STEM universities under the administration of MoET (See table 3.2). Following MoET’s centralised management, these STEM universities’ curriculum frameworks would share commonalities. However, I found that differences exist among these universities in terms of the provision of English teaching hours and assessments related to English textbook use. These differences are illustrated in table 4.1 and are discussed in the subsequent sections.

119 Table 4.1. English teaching curriculum at technical universities in Hanoi

Universities Number of teaching hours Additional English Placement Exit (15 hours = 1 credit) teaching hours Test Requirement U1 180 (non-core subject) No Yes TOIEC 450 U2 120 No Yes TOEIC 400 U3 105 Yes (60 hours for Yes A2 A1) U4 180 No Yes B1 U5 120 No No A2 U6 90 Yes (60 hours for Yes B1 A2) U7 300 (non-core subject) No Yes TOEIC 450 U8 315 No Yes B1 U9 120 No Yes TOEIC 350 U10 105 No No No

Number of English teaching hours (THN) Table 4.1 suggests different statuses of EFL teaching at these universities. In eight of the ten participating universities, English is a core subject in the curriculum, which means every student has to attend the course, sit for the tests, and then has the test results recorded. In the other two universities (U1 and U7), where English is a non-core subject, students’ exam results are not recorded. Students may or may not attend the course provided that they earn a pass. EFL education is far more informal in these two institutions, especially as students progress at their own pace and decide when to take tests. Some students may complete the exit requirement at the beginning of their programs if they are qualified. Otherwise, students are allowed to attempt the English exit test many times until they pass. Whether an institution includes English as a core or a non-core subject is the consequence of a provision in the NFLP 2020’s regulations. The NFLP 2020 permits students to be flexible in their English language learning as long as they meet the exit requirement of B1 under CEFR (See Chapter One, section 1.1.4, pages 4-5).

English might be considered more important in the eight institutions where it is a core subject. However, that belief is questionable because the total teaching hours allocated for English at these institutions vary. U1 and U7, where English is a non-core subject, allocate a comparatively large number of hours for EFL teaching and learning (180 and 300 hours respectively). This increased instructional time is in contrast to most of the other participating universities where English is a core subject. These universities are gradually

120 reducing English teaching hours to shorten the length of the programs. The reason why these programs are being condensed is to lower student tuition fees and living costs. Shortening the length of programs allows universities to be more competitive in the educational market. FH6 remembered:

Before K50, our student had 300 hours of English instructions in two years (...). But after K50, the teaching curriculum was condensed. The teaching time was reduced to only 150 hours. From K54, we followed the credit system, which reduced the English teaching time to only 6 credits (90 hours). You can see how hard it is to manage within the time given (FH6). (K50 and K54 were used to name different student cohorts)

Trước K50 sinh viên có 300 giờ Tiếng Anh trong hai năm (…). Nhưng sau K50 chương trình bị rút lại. Giờ dạy bị giảm xuống chỉ còn 150 tiết. Từ K54 chúng tôi học theo tín chỉ, và giờ Tiếng Anh cũng bị giảm xuống chỉ còn 6 tín chỉ (tương đương 90 tiết). Bạn thấy là chúng tôi đã gặp khó khăn như thế nào với thời gian cho phép (FH6)

While most universities are reducing their English teaching hours and EFL teaching is allocated six to eight credits in the curriculum (120 hours on average), U4 and U8 are two exceptions. U4 provides 12 credits in English and U8 offers 21. FH4 admitted that their Rector Board was concerned about English teaching and learning. He stated:

Our Rector and the Scientific Committee members pay much attention to EFL education and understand the importance of English in our time. We also think that even if MoET hadn’t imposed any requirement, our university would have had our own language exit requirement for our students (FH4).

Ban lãnh đạo và Hội đồng Khoa học nhà trường đã rất quan tâm tới việc học và dạy ngoại ngữ và cũng hiểu được tầm quan trọng của Tiếng Anh trong thời đại này. Chúng tôi nghĩ rằng ngay cả khi Bộ không áp chuẩn đầu ra thì trường chúng tôi vẫn sẽ có chuẩn đầu ra riêng dành cho sinh viên của trường (FH4).

Of the ten participating universities, U8 provides the most amount of English teaching time (315 hours). To explain for the increased amount of contact hours, FH8 said:

We have seven credits a semester and 21 credits for the whole course. We have quite a lot of teaching hours. It took us time and great effort to request these teaching hours from the university. Really it was not easy at all. However, I must say that the university is now very

121 understanding. They pay special attention to English teaching and learning. They provide us the best conditions for teaching (FH8).

Chúng tôi có 7 tín chỉ một học kỳ và 21 tín chỉ cho toàn khoá học. Thực sự là chúng tôi có khá nhiều thời gian giảng dạy. Mà chúng tôi cũng tốn rất nhiều công sức mới đề nghị được khối lượng giờ giảng này từ nhà trường. Thực sự là không dễ dàng. Tuy nhiên tôi cũng phải công nhận là nhà trường rất hiểu. Họ đặc biệt quan tâm tới việc học và dạy tiếng Anh. Trường tạo mọi điều kiện tốt nhất cho chúng tôi giảng dạy (FH8).

Table 4.1 indicates a great variation in the number of teaching hours among the eight universities where English is a core subject. The number of English teaching hours offered reflects their concern about their students’ proficiency. Some universities provide students with additional English teaching hours. I elaborate in the following section.

Additional English teaching hours (ATH) As noted in the previous section, many universities have reduced the length of their teaching time to be more competitive in the educational market. These universities approve a credit-learning system, which requires students to be more active in their study and increase their self-study hours. Consequently, contact hours shrink, and EFL instructional hours are reduced, as English is often regarded as a less important subject at these institutions.

In spite of that, U3, U6 and U9 have made efforts to increase English instructional hours. Among the eight universities that have English as a core subject in their curriculum, U3 and U6 provide their students with four more credits in remedial English. These additional teaching hours are intended to supplement those students whose English proficiency is below the entry requirement. Students pay fees for these courses; however, their results are not recorded in their academic transcripts. They are required to pass these courses before registering in their main English course. These additional teaching hours are the consequence of the provision for the NFLP 2020 implementation. This change has allowed universities to increase their English teaching hours and prepare students for the English exit requirements.

In the following excerpt, FH9 retold his experience of ensuring an acceptable number of English instructional hours at his university. This increase in English contact hours was

122 somewhat different from U3 and U6. U9’s English Faculty confronted difficulties when requesting more contact hours. Other faculties objected when it was proposed in a university meeting. Because the total teaching time of the university curriculum cannot be changed, any increase in English teaching hours implies a reduction in other subjects’ credits. FH9 related:

I spoke in a university meeting where I proposed a new program, not to increase the teaching hours for our Faculty teachers, but because an English teaching and learning process needed to follow a scientific logic. I guessed that they didn’t believe my words much (he laughed), because they always thought their subjects were important, too (FH9).

Tôi phát biểu trong một cuộc họp ở trường là tôi đề nghị chương trình mới không phải để tăng giờ dạy cho giáo viên khoa tôi, mà bởi vì bản thân việc dạy và học tiếng Anh là một quá trình, và cần tiến hành theo một logic khoa học. Tôi đoán là người ta cũng không tin lời tôi lắm (cười), bởi vì họ luôn nghĩ là môn của họ cũng quan trọng (FH9).

FH9’s argument focused on students’ benefits as he specified the necessity of having enough instructional hours in English language teaching and learning, especially at the initial stages of the learning process. He explained:

Foreign language learning is a very specific process in which students’ self-study needs great support and instruction from teachers. Without this support, it is hard for students to self-study, especially at the early stages. It is not like other subjects when you can read materials and ask your friends or teachers if you do not understand something. For foreign language learning, it’s clear that you need to reach a certain level of language before you can learn by yourself (FH9).

Học ngoại ngữ là một qúa trình rất đặc thù và khác biệt trong đó việc tự học của sinh viên rất cần sự hỗ trợ và hướng dẫn của giáo viên. Không có sự hướng dẫn này thì sinh viên rất khó tự học được, đặc biệt là ở giai đoạn đầu. Tiếng Anh nó không giống như các môn học khác khi bạn có thể đọc tài liệu và hỏi bạn bè hay thầy cô nếu bạn không hiểu một cái gì đó. Đối với ngoại ngữ, rõ ràng là bạn cần đạt tới một mức độ nào đó trước khi bạn có thể tự học được (FH9).

U9’s Management Board finally approved this proposal, adding more credits to EFL teaching. Their students have two more English credits in their EFL course, increasing their contact hours to 120.

123 FH9’s case illustrates difficulties in acquiring an additional amount of time for English at technical universities. Among the ten institutions, only one allocates two more credits to supplement their current limited number of class hours, and two provide four credits for remedial English. These universities’ efforts in providing more instructional English hours are to assist their students in completing the exit requirements, while these students are underprepared at entry levels, and the contact hours are limited. The following sections elaborate entry requirements, exit requirements, and the relationship among these factors with instructional teaching hours.

Entry requirements (EnR) Eight out of ten universities employ placement tests for their first-year students as entry requirements. Most English Faculties use placement tests to differentiate instructions when students are assigned classes appropriate to their English proficiency. These English Faculties normally run two types of classes. While these classes may be named differently from institution to institution, usually they are referred to as elementary and pre- intermediate. Because of a large enrolment, there is a wide range of students’ proficiency even within a particular class.

Institutional arrangements vary regarding how students progress from elementary to pre- intermediate classes. In some institutions, in order to continue to the next level, students have to demonstrate proficiency at their present level. For example, a student with an elementary level needs to pass an elementary exit exam to be eligible for a pre-intermediate class’s registration. However, in some other institutions, even when students do not pass elementary proficiency level tests, they are allowed to continue studying in pre- intermediate classes. These institutions give their students permission to retake the elementary proficiency level test multiple times until their graduation.

Seven participating universities adopt the practice of requiring students to give proof of proficiency at their present level before continuing to the next class. At U2 whose exit requirement is 400 TOEIC, “students, who have 155 TOEIC scores upward, are allowed to learn TA1. Others need to learn TA0 to improve their English. These students need to pass TA0 in order to learn TA1” (FH2). Similarly, U3’s students who are underprepared for A2 level need to study Basic English and acquire A1 proficiency level following the CEFR

124 framework (For proficiency levels in CEFR framework, refer to appendix 1). FH3 explained their policy:

Students who are really good at English are exempted from learning, but they still have to take the final exam. Those who achieve A1 will be eligible to enter A2 class and use this book (he pointed to the book New English File Pre-intermediate). Others will have to learn Basic English (…). These Basic English classes may be organised during nighttime on weekdays or daytime at weekends. After students finish four credits of Basic English and achieve A1, they will start learning A2 (FH3).

Những sinh viên nào thực sự giỏi tiếng Anh rồi thì được miễn học, nhưng vẫn phải thi cuối kỳ. Những bạn nào đạt A1 rồi thì sẽ được vào học lớp A2 và dùng cuốn giáo trình này (chỉ vào cuốn New English File Pre-intermediate). Những bạn khác sẽ phải học tiếng Anh cơ bản (…). Những lớp tiếng Anh cơ bản này có thể được học vào ban đêm các ngày trong tuần hoặc ban ngày cuối tuần. Sinh viên sau khi học xong 4 tín chỉ tiếng Anh cơ bản và đạt trình độ A1 sẽ bắt đầu học A2 (FH3).

U6 follows the same practice as U3. Their first-year students who pass A2 proficiency level in classification exams register for B1 classes. Others register for A2 classes if they want to revise their English. U1, U4, U7, and U8, each of which has set up different exit requirements, adopt this practice in controlling their teaching quality. In order to save time and money organising a placement test for thousands of students, U1 differentiates their students based on their English test results in the high school exit exam.

Although the practice of requiring students’ proficiency to engage with higher-level English classes has clear advantages in quality management, two universities, U9 and U10, do not use it. U10 has never had any entry or exit requirements. Although their English teaching staff hopes to establish a B1 exit requirement in 2016, it is uncertain that their expectation is achievable. FH10 admitted that whether they can implement their language proficiency policy or not depends on available infrastructure or teaching staff. She said:

We are now getting impatient because other universities have already implemented their language projects. We haven’t done anything while there are too many things to do (…). We have to depend on our university’s policy (…). We need to consider our resources. Our university could be the last to implement the NFLP 2020 Project (FH10).

125 Bây giờ bọn mình đã rất sốt ruột bởi vì các trường khác đã tiến hành các đề án ngoại ngữ của họ rồi. Bọn mình còn chưa làm cái gì trong khi có quá nhiều thứ phải làm (…). Bọn mình phải dựa vào chính sách của trường (…). Bọn mình cần xem xét các nguồn lực nữa. Trường mình chắc có lẽ sẽ là trường cuối cùng tiến hành theo đề án ngoại ngữ 2020 (FH10).

One of the reasons for this hesitation is that U10 has been recently upgraded from a technical college. This college used to belong to a corporation, which offered little funding for education. The Rector Board was indecisive about implementing a new language policy. Recently, this university has been transferred to the Ministry of Industry and Trade. It has received more funding for educational activities. There are important decisions for U10 to make in regard to its administrative and operational policies. At the time of my interviews, each language class consisted of 70 to 80 students. There is neither an entry requirement for freshmen nor exit requirement for graduates. U10’s EFL program is subjected to more disadvantages compared to other technical universities.

Inadequate funding is not the reason for deferring the implementation of a new language policy at U9, which is also a newly upgraded university. Among other participating institutions, U9 pioneered the use of placement tests for students and teachers. They received technical assistance from an international educational non-government organisation to implement these placement tests. FH9 assured me that their placement test results were valid and reliable; however, their primary use was to allocate students for differentiated instructions rather than quality management. FH9 stated, “There’s no document by MoET to allow setting up a barrier for students when they enter the university. Our universities won’t do it because we are afraid of breaking the rules” (Bộ không có quy định nào cho phép trường lại dựng lên một hàng rào khác cho sinh viên vượt qua khi các em đã vào đại học. Trường chúng tôi sẽ không làm như vậy bởi vì chúng tôi sợ phạm luật) (FH9). U9 did not require their students to have a certain level of English proficiency before starting their English courses because the university strictly followed MoET’s documents, which were sometimes inapplicable for every situation. FH9 admitted the drawbacks of their EFL program, “it’s so irrational that differentiated students learn the same program and take the same end-of-term test” (Rất là bất hợp lý khi sinh viên được phân loại rồi lại học chương trình giống nhau và thi cuối kỳ như nhau) (FH9). Their

126 university’s limited facilities and administrative difficulties were cited as reasons for this problem. More importantly, as FH9 stated, “It is because of MoET’s strict regulations that the university’s Management Board is prevented from changing anything that is not allowed in their documents” (Những quy định cứng nhắc của Bộ đã làm cho trường không thể thay đổi được bất kỳ cái gì không có trong văn bản của Bộ) (FH9). It seems that U9 may have adopted a strict interpretation of MoET’s regulations; however, some of their decisions may be unworkable given the current situation.

Unlike U9 and U10, U5 had conducted placement tests in the past but found them not to be helpful. Firstly, their placement test indicated that most of their students’ English proficiency level was low. FH5 said that once they carried out a placement test at the beginning of their English course, all but three in about 80 English classes were at elementary level. Secondly, there was no alternate EFL program for those who were more advanced in English proficiency. After classification, students were to study the same program in the same length of time and sit for the same final tests. FH5 attributed this problem to limited classrooms and limited number of English teachers. She stated that:

This classification exam was not really effective, because after that, students (with mixed levels) studied the same program. It was because of difficulties in the physical conditions (the university infrastructure and human resources). So, we stopped this exam and now organise students into their class mechanically (FH5).

Thi phân loại đầu vào không thực sự hiệu quả, bởi vì sau đó sinh viên (các trình độ) lại học cùng một chương trình. Điều này là do những khó khăn về điều kiện thực tế (cơ sở vật chất và nguồn nhân lực). Vì vậy chúng tôi không tổ chức thi như thế nữa và sinh viên được sắp xếp vào các lớp một cách cơ học (FH5).

In general, U5 may have subjective and objective reasons to decide not to carry out a placement test. However, their decision was mostly due to its own institutional conditions, for example, limited physical facilities and human resources. In my opinion, U5’s decision not to implement a placement test and provide alternate programs for different level students was more associated with their administration policies. To some extent, running one program for 80 English classes was much more administratively convenient and economically effective than running two programs at the same time, in which one program served only three classes.

127 English exit requirement (ExR) The NFLP 2020 requires that by the year 2020, university graduates have B1 English proficiency level according to the CEFR framework (Refer to section 1.1.4, pages 4-5). Table 4.1 indicates a massive difference in terms of exit test types from institution to institution. As stated in section 4.2.1, among these universities, U10 has neither entry nor exit requirement due to their institutional condition and policies. FH10 expressed her anxiety about her university’s indetermination in keeping up with MoET’s regulations to follow the NFLP 2020. They were running out of time to make a decision and act accordingly to MoET requirements.

Up to the time of the interviews, U4, U6 and U8 had acted in strict accordance with MoET’s regulations. They implemented their own language project conforming to the NFLP 2020 and introduced B1 English proficiency level as their graduates’ exit requirement. U3 and U5 proposed one level lower than required - A2 proficiency exit level. Their decision was made based on their students’ entry level. FH5 explained, “U5 is a technical university, so initially, based on the students’ entry level the university decided to set their exit requirement one level lower, which is A2” (trường chúng tôi là trường kỹ thuật, vì vậy chúng tôi dựa vào trình độ đầu vào của sinh viên để quyết định đầu ra thấp hơn một bậc là A2) (FH5). These two universities are on target to establish B1 English proficiency level by 2020. Four other universities, U1, U2, U7, U9, on the other hand, are using TOEIC scores as their exit requirement. The scores range from 350 to 450. TOEIC used to be one of the common yardsticks adopted by many universities to measure students’ English proficiency before the NFLP 2020. FH7 explained why they continue using this testing system:

MoET does not require us to strictly follow the CEFR framework, but we can use similar testing systems to test our students and the results can be inferred to equate with CEFR. MoET has general requirements and guidelines, and each university can act accordingly (FH7).

Bộ không yêu cầu bắt buộc phải theo chuẩn chung châu Âu, chúng tôi có thể sử dụng các chuẩn khác tương tự để test sinh viên và kết quả có thể phiên sang chuẩn châu Âu. Bộ có quy định và hướng dẫn chung để mỗi trường làm theo (FH7).

128 This explanation may be considered as a reason; however, none of the scores that these universities referred to as their targets are equivalent to B1 proficiency level. There is a long way from these scores to B1 exit level, which is equivalent to 550 TOEIC (See appendix 2).

Although U1, U2, U7, U9 are using the traditional TOEIC testing system, they realise its shortcomings. This testing system focuses on listening and reading skills, and excludes speaking and writing. FH1 emphasised that although they are using TOEIC test, it is not an efficient tool. U1, U2 and U9 plan to change their exit requirement in accordance with the route map of the NFLP 2020 in the next school year (2016-2017). U7, in contrast, will keep TOEIC as the testing system for their exit requirement. This was confirmed by their FH saying, “In my opinion, we are not going to change to B1 level. We may have some minor changes such as textbooks, types of tests or ways to mark the tests, but I think we will stick to TOEIC exit requirement” (Theo quan điểm của tôi thì chúng tôi sẽ không chuyển sang chuẩn B1 châu Âu. Chúng tôi có thể có một số thay đổi nhỏ ví dụ như giáo trình, cách kiểm tra đánh giá, nhưng tôi nghĩ chúng tôi sẽ vẫn giữ chuẩn TOEIC) (FH7). Their decision is allowed by MoET’s regulations, as long as this university carries out their exit exams following the exit requirements set by MoET.

General discussions of the English teaching programs This initial investigation at the ten participating universities displays major similarities as well as differences across their EFL teaching programs. Based on the status of EFL in the university curriculum, there are two groups of universities; one has English as a core subject and the other a non-core subject. The universities in these two groups resemble and differ greatly in terms of entry requirement, exit requirements, time allocation, and relationship among those factors in their EFL teaching programs.

In the first group, two universities, U1 and U7, resemble each other in having English as non-core subject, by which it means students’ only concern is a pass or a fail. These two universities classify students into different proficiency levels and manage teaching and learning quality by this classification. Their graduates’ proficiency level is expected to be 450 TOEIC scores. The difference between these two universities is the amount of time they allocate for EFL education to fulfill that objective. U1 offers teachers and students 180

129 hours while U7 provides 300 hours for EFL education. The difference in time provision raises unanswered questions as to how these two universities implement their English teaching and learning tasks in order to achieve their purpose; and on what scientific basis do they rely to determine their English teaching time to achieve a certain level of language proficiency.

In the second group, the other eight universities have English as a core subject in their curriculum. Regarding the entry requirements, most universities carry out placement tests to classify students and assign them to appropriate classes. Students are required to demonstrate their present proficiency level before continuing to more advanced level classes. This method of controlling English teaching and learning quality may assist students in timing their progress to achieve their language exit requirements. In spite of this advantage, U5 and U10 do not apply placement tests due to their institutional conditions and policies.

These universities differ greatly in their exit requirements. Although most participating universities referred to the NFLP 2020 in establishing their graduates’ English proficiency level, they have introduced their own exit requirements irrespective of MoET’s policy. Four universities use different TOEIC scores, two use A2 and three use B1. One university, U10, does not apply an exit requirement for their graduates.

The inconsistencies are found not only in the exit requirements, but also in the time frames each university allocates for its EFL program. In some situations, in order to achieve different objectives, they allocate a similar time frame. In some other situations, varied time frames are used for the same objectives. For example, U3 and U6, who provide 60 additional hours for remedial English, have roughly similar English teaching hours but different exit requirement. U3 allocates 105 hours (equivalent to seven credits) for EFL teaching while U6 provides only 90 hours (six credits). The illogic is that with a smaller number of teaching hours (including official and remedial), U6’s exit requirement is B1 level while U3’s is A2. Other universities have the same exit requirement but allocate a different number of English teaching hours. U3 offers 165 hours while U5 has 90 for A2 proficiency level. U6 provides 150 hours (including 60 remedial teaching hours), U4 180

130 hours, and U8 315 hours for B1 proficiency level. The inconsistency in the timeframe and the exit requirements among these participating universities is apparent.

While there was disagreement among universities in their exit requirements and time allocation to fulfill their course’s objectives, the FHs showed more concern with regard to the quality of exit requirement exams. FH9 was worried that there was less pressure on students who they thought they would have plenty of time. Students would wait until the last minute to complete their exit requirements. FH9 predicted that:

The most dangerous thing is when students are about to graduate, teachers will be under pressure to be less demanding on students and let them pass the exam. It is impossible to stop a great number of students getting the degrees just because they haven’t met the exit requirement (FH9).

Điều nguy hiểm nhất là khi sinh viên sắp tốt nghiệp, giáo viên sẽ bị sức ép là không được đòi hỏi cao ở sinh viên nữa và phải cho sinh viên qua. Trên thực tế không thể nào bắt một loạt sinh viên không được nhận bằng tốt nghiệp chỉ bởi vì các em không đạt được chuẩn đầu ra (FH9)

He admitted that sometimes they had to be very flexible with their institutional TOEIC test so that most of their students might pass. This may mean lowering the test levels or becoming less demanding on students’ performance.

U2 and U6 also need to adjust their exit exams in order to have an acceptable number of successful test takers. FH2 admitted that by the end of their English course, most of their students could hardly achieve B1 proficiency level. They need to adapt the test to suit with their students’ level. She said, “if we keep original B1 tests, I think that our students won’t possibly be able to graduate” (Nếu chúng tôi cho thi đúng chuẩn B1 thì tôi nghĩ sinh viên của chúng tôi sẽ không thể tốt nghiệp được) (FH2). In U6, after the placement test, only a few students are eligible for the New English File (NEF) Intermediate course to prepare them for B1 exit requirement. Therefore, most of the students register to the NEF Pre- intermediate course using 60 remedial English hours. FH6 said they had intended to teach the NEF Intermediate course after students finish this NEF Pre-intermediate course. This preparation would provide students time to revise their English and retake the exit exams until they pass. But their Rector Board did not approve this proposal. They insisted that in a

131 credit learning system, their students should decide when to learn the NEF Intermediate course and when to complete exit requirements. At the time of the interviews, there have not been any NEF Intermediate classes yet, although this program has been implemented at U6 for three years. It appears that U6’s students may wait until their final year to do the NEF Intermediate course and sit for the exit exam. Consequently, when time is short for these students, as FH9 mentioned, teachers may need to either be less demanding or adapt the exit exams to their students’ proficiency levels. In that way, most students will be able to pass the exam and graduate. However, the quality of the exit requirement is not ensured, and the exit exam is just a formalistic procedure.

This initial investigation into the EFL teaching and learning programs at ten technical universities has demonstrated a lot of contradictions and inconsistencies regardless of the fact that these technical universities are under MoET’s control and line-ministries. It provides a description of the context in which the ELT textbooks are used. The following section identifies current ELT textbooks at these universities.

4.2.2. Current ELT textbook use. The ELT textbooks used at the ten participating universities are presented in Table 4.2. There are some similarities and differences in their choices of ELT textbooks. Basically, seven textbook series are used. The most popular textbook series is New English File (NEF), which is used by U3, U6 and U10. New Headway (NH) is the second popular textbook series, which is used by U2 and U7. Thus, half of the participating universities are using either NEF or NH series. The other half has a different collection. This textbook collection includes Straightforward series (SF), Objective KET (OKET), American English File Series (AEF) and New Cutting-Edge Series (NCE). U4 has used SF series from A1 to B1 for one year since they implemented their language project in accordance with the NFLP 2020. U8 has used AEF for 2 years since they started a new EFL program. U5 has used OKET – an A2 exam practice-oriented book - for 4 years and they are thinking of changing to a new one. Similarly, U9 is currently using NCE but plans to change to Life series next year.

Table 4.2. Current English textbooks at ten participating universities

132 U Main textbooks Hours Supplementary Exit level materials U1 Cutting Edge Elementary Third Edition 180 TOEIC practice TOEIC 450 tests U2 New Headway Elementary and Pre- 120 Target Scores TOEIC 400 Intermediate Third Edition TOEIC practice tests U3 New English File Pre-Intermediate 105(+60) KET practice tests A2 U4 Straightforward A1/A2/B1 180 PET practice tests B1 U5 Objective KET 120 Grammar Spectrum A2 KET practice tests U6 New English File Intermediate 90 (+60) PET practice tests B1 U7 New Headway Elementary, Pre- 300 TOEIC practice TOEIC 450 intermediate and Intermediate Third tests Edition U8 American English File Elementary and 315 Pathways/Tactics B1 Pre-Intermediate for Listening PET practice tests U9 New Cutting Edge Elementary and Pre- 120 TOEIC practice TOEIC 350 Intermediate tests U10 New English File Pre-Intermediate 105 No No One special case of this study is U1, who had been using the Cutting Edge Elementary Third Edition for three weeks at the time of the interviews. U1’s English faculty teaching staff chose this book for their new EFL teaching program in accordance with the NFLP 2020. They proposed this new program to their Rector Board one year ago, but their proposal had not yet been approved. FH1 explained several reasons for this lateness:

Our University had no Rector for one year, and the Vice Rectors couldn’t make such an influential decision. Furthermore, I think they do not pay much attention to this issue, either (FH1).

Trường chúng tôi không có Hiệu trưởng một năm nay rồi, và các Hiệu phó thì không thể đưa ra một quyết định quan trọng như vậy. Thêm nữa tôi nghĩ họ cũng không quan tâm lắm tới vấn đề này (FH1).

The faculty decided to change to a new textbook first, as they were allowed to do so without the approval of the Rector Board or the University’s Scientific Committee. Before the current book, U1 used American English File 1 and 2 in 180 hours with the objective of TOEIC 450 exit requirement. Although a new book was introduced, their exit requirement

133 was not changed. The introduction of this new textbook is to prepare and test the suitability of the book before their proposal of the new EFL program is accepted.

With regard to time allocation for these ELT textbooks, table 4.2 illustrates a great variety of time frames among the universities using similar textbooks. For the most popular textbook series, U3 and U10 provide 105 hours (seven credits) for NEF Pre-Intermediate level. U6, on the other hand, offers 90 hours (six credits) on NEF Intermediate level. U6 has been implementing their language project for two years. However, after the placement test, few students are qualified to study this NEF Intermediate course. U6 uses 60 remedial hours to supplement their students’ language proficiency by teaching them NEF Pre- Intermediate. To date, there have not been any NEF Intermediate classes at this institution.

For the second popular textbook series, U2 offers 120 hours for both NH Elementary and Pre-Intermediate level textbooks while U7 provides a large number of 300 hours for three levels from Elementary to Intermediate. It is noted that besides using both NH Elementary and Pre-intermediate level textbooks, U2 use Target Scores and other TOEIC practice tests. FH2 explained that in order to help students achieve the course objectives; they have to cover these textbooks and supplementary materials in a limited time. A comparison between U2 and U7 indicates a great variation in the time allocations for the same core textbooks.

For other textbook series such as AEF, NCE or SF, each university provides different numbers of teaching hours for each textbook level. For example, U1 provides 180 hours for CE Elementary while U4 provides 180 hours for three SF book levels (Elementary, Pre- intermediate and Intermediate). Similarly, U5 offers 120 hours for OKET A2 (Pre- Intermediate) while U9 offers 120 hours for NCE Elementary and Pre-intermediate. According to U1 and U5’s FHs, these universities spend a considerable number of teaching hours on one textbook level because they think their teachers and students need more contact hours to carry out language activities and practice English skills. They assist their students in developing four skills and being able to use English for communication, not just knowing about English. Therefore, U1 and U5 are teaching their students from elementary level with focus on students’ communicative competence. As noted in the previous sections, they cannot possibly increase English contact hours for higher-level textbooks to 134 meet the exit requirement. Therefore, their students need to self-study in order to bridge the gap between their current textbooks and the exit requirements (FH1).

U4 and U9 spend 60 hours on one textbook level. They manage to provide a complete course from entry to exit requirement levels in 120 or 180 hours. With these limited contact hours and students’ low English proficiency level, teachers and students feel rushed in implementing language teaching and learning activities. The intention to provide a language link from entry to exit requirement may help ensure students’ confidence in taking the courses; however, this intention may not be practical in improving students’ language skills in classrooms due to time pressure.

In addition to these core textbooks, all universities except for U10 use a collection of supplementary materials. These additional materials are mostly exam-oriented. They are usually practice books that connect to TOEIC, PET or KET tests. Sometimes, they may be practice tests compiled by English language teachers, who understand what their students need in order to pass the exams. Those who use the most popular NEF textbook series, U3 and U6, include in their limited teaching time some KET and PET practice tests. These materials help familiarise their students with A2 and B1 exit exams. Those who use the second popular NH textbook series, U2 and U7, supplement their students with TOEIC tests to familiarise them with TOEIC exit requirement. U5 and U8 use grammar texts such as Grammar Spectrum or skill-developing textbooks such as Basic Tactics for Listening or Pathways to improve language skills that are considered important in their program.

ELT textbooks used at the ten participating universities are quite varied in spite of some popular textbooks series such as NH or NEF. Totally, seven textbooks representing seven series were subject to an analysis for the foreign cultural representations in phase two of this research. To provide a better understanding and a detailed description of the textbook use, the reasons for those textbooks choice and the detailed process of textbook choice and evaluation in teaching contexts are discussed in the following sections.

4.3. Textbook Choice and Evaluation The initial findings suggest that there are a variety of ELT textbooks used at the participating universities. Each university has their own choice of textbooks, which focuses

135 students on their course objectives. To provide a systematic and detailed account of each university’s textbook choice and evaluation, this part will discuss reasons for textbooks choice (Section 4.3.1), reasons for textbook change (Section 4.3.2), and the process of choosing textbooks (Section 4.3.3).

4.3.1. Reasons for textbook choice. Interviews with Heads/Vice Heads of the Language Faculty identified that each university chose their current textbooks based on their institutional conditions. There are common tendencies as to why particular textbooks were selected among these universities. The coding process has suggested that these Heads/Vice Heads have reasons for their choice. These reasons include “Advantageous characteristics” (AC), “Suitability with exit requirement” (SER), “Suitability with students” (SS), “Positive feedbacks from other universities” (PF), “Suitability with timeframe” (ST), “Suitability with course objectives” (SCO), “Credibility of Publishing House” (CPH), “Availability” (A), “Supportive materials for teachers and students” (SM). Some of these reasons were mentioned by more FHs than others, and some were not very popular.

More common reasons for textbook choice Credibility of Publishing House (CPH)

The credibility of the publishers was the most often mentioned reason given by participating universities for choosing their textbooks. Although FHs did not report that the reputation of well-respected publishers was the most important reason why they chose the books, most universities (n=7) noted that this was one of the criteria that they took into account. FH5 stated that they always choose textbooks from English speaking countries, such as England or the United States. Reputable publishers such as Cambridge University Press or Oxford University Press were the two most cited names. FH6 explained:

I must say that textbook writers are experts, and they work hard to write textbooks. So, these textbooks must be really good to sell well in the international market. That’s why I usually choose books published by Oxford or Cambridge University Press (FH6).

Tôi phải công nhận rằng những người viết giáo trình là những chuyên gia, và họ phải làm việc rất vất vả để viết được những cuốn giáo trình này. Vì giáo trình phải ổn thì mới bán

136 được ở trên thị trường quốc tế. Do vậy tôi luôn chọn giáo trình của các nhà xuất bản Oxford hay Cambridge (FH6)

FH7 stated that their teaching staff chose books from reputable publishers because these publishers have good quality books. Language faculties appear to feel more confident in using textbooks published by reputable publishers.

However, there were alternative explanations as to whether or not universities should choose books based on the prestige of publishing houses. FH9 and FH10 rejected this idea. FH9 said that good books are not necessarily from reputable publishers. Some new publishers publish very good textbooks. FH10 emphasised, “Publishing houses are only a small factor in choosing the book. It is not true that books from famous publishing houses must be good” (Nhà xuất bản thì cũng chỉ là một phần nhỏ trong chọn giáo trình. Không phải cứ nhất thiết sách của nhà xuất bản nổi tiếng là hay là tốt) (FH10). They referred to the book Life published by Cengage Learning to justify their moving away from established publishers to a new publisher. This textbook has recently been suggested to multiple universities by the NFLP 2020 and has been positively reviewed by language teachers. FH9 explained:

Firstly, the content of the book is closer to Vietnamese culture. It has common and similar cultural factors for Vietnamese people because it is specially designed for the Vietnamese context. Secondly, the book has very useful supplementary materials and teaching aids for teachers. It also provides students online accounts for self-study. This helps teachers control their students’ learning (FH9).

Đầu tiên, nội dung của cuốn sách rất gần gũi với văn hoá Việt Nam. Nó cung cấp những thông tin chung hoặc kiến thức văn hoá gần với người Việt bởi vì nó được viết dành riêng cho ngữ cảnh Việt Nam. Thứ hai là cuốn giáo trình này có những tài liệu hỗ trợ giảng dạy rất hữu ích cho giáo viên. Nó cũng cung cấp cho sinh viên tài khoản online để tự học. Điều này giúp giáo viên quản lý được việc học của sinh viên (FH9).

For most of the other available textbooks in market, students are able to use the cheaper photocopied or reprinted versions. However, for the textbook, Life, students have to pay more money to use the colour hard-covered textbooks with their included online accounts. These online accounts facilitate students’ self-study progress with teachers’ supervision. In spite of a more expensive cost, this textbook assists teachers in providing necessary

137 supporting materials. FH9 said they were in the process of changing their current textbooks to this new one.

Suitability for exit requirement (SExR)

Five FHs referred to the suitability of ELT textbooks to their exit requirement as the first and foremost reason for selection. Most of the current textbooks have been used at these universities for several years. Their use corresponds to the length of time the NFLP 2020 and B1 exit requirement, which is a part of the CEFR adoption, have been implemented. In the process of moving toward the B1 exit requirement, these universities have chosen these textbooks.

U1 was in a complicated situation at the time of the interviews; they were using a new book – Cutting Edge Elementary Third Edition - with the old exit requirement TOEIC 450 (Refer to section 4.2.2, page 135). Before this present book, American English File 1 and 2 were used, because “all the listening in American English File textbooks is American English, which is suitable for the TOEIC test” (tất cả phần nghe trong cuốn American English File là giọng Anh Mỹ, rất phù hợp với các bài test TOEIC) (FH1). Following the NFLP 2020, they wanted to change their teaching program and their exit requirement into B1 as assigned by MoET. However, their proposal for change was not approved because of several institutional reasons. In order to save time, they decided to change the textbook to Cutting Edge Elementary Third Edition this year. The reason for their choice was “This book has the Common European Framework attached to the book, for example, the level of this book is from A1 to A2. This is suitable to the 6 - level framework that is assigned by MoET in the NFLP 2020” (Cuốn giáo trình này có kèm chuẩn khung châu Âu, ví dụ mức độ của cuốn sách này là từ A1 tới A2. Như vậy rất phù hợp với khung 6 bậc của Bộ trong đề án ngoại ngữ 2020) (FH1).

FH2 expressed her preference for their current books The New Headway Elementary and Pre-Intermediate Third Edition by saying that these books had suitable vocabulary for their exit TOEIC test. Currently having TOEIC 400 as the exit requirement, this university intended to change its entry and exit requirement into CEFR framework as required by MoET in their coming school year. However, FH2 asserted that the first book they would choose for the new program would be the same book - New Headway series. It was not

138 because these books were the best, but because they found that these books were highly communicative. Therefore, these books were suitable to the B1 exit test. It was noted that the university has used this book for four years.

U4’s current textbooks - Straightforward series - were chosen because these textbooks prepare students for their B1 exit exam. They have been using their current textbook series for two years since the implementation of their new language project following the NFLP 2020. FH4 explained the reasons for their choice:

These course books are designed in strict accordance with A1/A2 and B1 levels. The practice exercises in these books are designed similarly to the types of KET and PET tests. Of course, those practice exercises are not exactly the same as the test, but the amount of vocabulary and skills are sufficiently provided for the PET [B1 level] test (FH4).

Cuốn giáo trình này được thiết kế rất sát với các bậc trình độ A1/A2 và B1. Các bài luyện tập trong những cuốn giáo trình này được thiết kế tương tự với các bài kiểm tra KET hoặc PET. Tất nhiên những bài luyện kiểu này không nhất thiết là y như bài test nhưng lượng từ mới và kỹ năng cũng đủ để sinh viên thi PET (FH4).

Having B1 as their exit requirement, U8 chose American English File Book 1& 2 for their students because “The book American English File has a clear description of each level of language competence and the direction to achieve that level” (Cuốn American English File có miêu tả rất rõ ràng mỗi trình độ và hướng tiếp cận để đạt được trình độ đó) (FH8). U10 has not introduced either entry or exit requirement, but they are heading towards a B1 exit requirement following the NFLP 2020. The current textbook was chosen because “this book is appropriate for the B1 level required” (Cuốn sách này phù hợp với trình độ B1) (FH10).

All cases discussed illustrate the orientation toward exit requirements in choosing textbooks at ten technical universities in Vietnam. Most of the textbooks were selected to assist students in fulfilling their exit requirements. However, many tended to choose textbooks with lower levels than a B1 exit requirement, and these universities may not base their decisions on a common system of language proficiency when making their choice. Table 4.2 indicates gaps and inconsistences in terms of textbook levels and exit proficiency levels. U1’s new textbook to prepare for B1 exit requirement is elementary level. U8 uses

139 elementary and pre-intermediate level books, but requires B1 exit level. U1, U2, and U9 using elementary and pre-intermediate level books, but introduce different TOEIC scores from 350 to 450 for their exit requirements. U7 has TOEIC 450 as the exit requirement, but uses elementary, pre-intermediate and intermediate level books. Moreover, none of these TOEIC scores are equivalent to B1 level (See section 4.2.1, pages 130-131). According to FH1, students need to put much more of their efforts for self-study to fill any language gaps between levels of chosen textbooks and exit proficiency levels. Among the ten participating universities, U4 and U6 have suitable level textbooks with B1 exit requirement.

Advantageous characteristics of the book (AC)

In addition to considering the prestige of publishers and the relevance of the books to exit requirements, decision makers chose one book or another based on the advantages that those books might have. U1, U3, U8 and U10 chose their current textbooks because they wanted to use newly published books with updated information. Their books have been in market for one or two years. U2, U4, U6 and U7 valued their books because they are highly communicative and have effective integrated language skills. They confirmed that they are teaching students following a communicative language teaching approach. Other advantageous characteristics of their selected books are a friendly design, familiar vocabulary, and systematic grammar system.

Suitability for the course objectives (SCO)

Five universities (U3, U4, U7, U8 and U10) referred to course objectives as one of the reasons for their textbook choice. In most settings, textbooks are the most effective tools to help teachers and students achieve their learning purposes. U8 and U10’s first and foremost criteria when choosing textbooks is whether these textbooks meet with the learning objectives of the course. FH4 explained why they thought the selected books should be appropriate to the course objectives. She said:

The first thing we need to consider is our purpose of teaching. What do we teach our students to do? When we have identified the purposes, we will design the test to verify our purposes. Then we choose the textbooks that help familiarise students with the test (FH4).

140 Điều đầu tiên chúng tôi cần xem xét là mục đích dạy. Chúng tôi dạy để sinh viên có thể làm được gì? Khi chúng tôi đã xác định được mục đích dạy và học, chúng tôi sẽ thiết kế các bài kiểm tra cho các mục đích đó. Rồi chúng tôi sẽ chọn giáo trình để giúp sinh viên làm quen với các bài kiểm tra đó (FH4).

FH4 said that in the past, speaking skills were not assessed in their final test. Therefore, language teachers did not see the need in teaching English for the purpose of oral communication. If they spent time on speaking skills, there would not be enough time for students to practice other skills. After the university’s adoption of the B1 exit requirement following the NFLP 2020, U4’s language teachers had a very clear direction of what to achieve at the end of the course. The final tests consist of four language skills, and CLT is referred to as one main objective in the learning and teaching process. The current textbook at U4 was selected in consideration of those purposes.

U3 acknowledged that they are a technical university with limited teaching hours and resources. They considered reading and writing skills as their priority. They were aware that when learning a foreign language, learners wanted to use that language for communication. However, they had to make the choice of teaching reading and writing. Faculty Head 3 explained:

It’s not because of our students or the society who require reading and writing only. It is because of our limited conditions. If we want to teach speaking and listening, our class must be small enough. And it is impossible to have small classes at our university. So, we had to make a choice and focus on reading and writing within the limited time given. We don’t expect much (FH3).

Không phải bởi vì sinh viên hay nhu cầu xã hội đòi hỏi chúng tôi chỉ dạy đọc và viết mà chính bởi vì những điều kiện hạn chế của trường. Nếu chúng tôi dạy nghe và nói thì lớp ngoại ngữ phải nhỏ. Mà trường chúng tôi thì không thể có lớp nhỏ được. Vì vậy chúng tôi phải lựa chọn và tập trung vào đọc và viết trong thời gian hạn chế cho phép. Chúng tôi không kỳ vọng nhiều (FH3)

U7 chose their current textbooks based on the objective of CLT in their EFL program. FH7 said that, “We think that students now need English for communication besides language knowledge and grammar as a requirement of the society. Therefore, we chose this textbook to approach CLT” (Chúng tôi nghĩ rằng sinh viên giờ cần tiếng Anh để giao tiếp do yêu cầu

141 của xã hội bên cạnh kiến thức ngôn ngữ và ngữ pháp. Vì vậy chúng tôi chọn cuốn giáo trình này để tiếp cận CLT) (FH7). This purpose appeared to be achievable in principle. They were teaching three textbooks from elementary to intermediate level in up to 300 English hours. This number of contact hours supports language teachers and students in implementing language activities and skill practice. For other universities having half or less than half of that number of teaching hours, it may be a long way for them to achieve CLT even when they change their textbooks. Moreover, the types of final tests, which focus on grammar and reading, may encourage teachers to adopt traditional teaching method and discourage them from attempting to teach CLT. The objectives of the course, therefore, may not likely be met.

Suitability for students (SS)

A majority of participating universities paid attention to their students’ language proficiency level and cultural background knowledge in choosing ELT textbooks. In any teaching courses, students play an influential role in determining the content of teaching. Educators consider learners’ needs and abilities to include what is relevant for teaching. U2, U4, U5 and U9 emphasised that their students’ English proficiency level and cultural background knowledge are limited. They believed that the familiarity of topics or reading texts would help students focus more on lessons and therefore retain knowledge. FH2 stated that:

When we choose textbooks, we will see whether the readings or the topics are familiar to our students or not. If these topics or readings are too strange, we may not choose those books. We know that if the topics are familiar to our students, they will pay greater attention to the lesson and remember things better (FH2).

Khi chọn giáo trình, chúng tôi sẽ xem liệu các bài đọc hoặc các topics có quen thuộc với sinh viên hay không. Nếu các topics hay các bài đọc quá xa lạ thì chúng tôi sẽ có thể không chọn cuốn đó. Chúng tôi biết rằng nếu các topics đó quen thuộc với sinh viên của mình thì các bạn ấy sẽ chú ý hơn tới các bài học và nhớ kiến thức tốt hơn (FH2)

Sharing the idea that familiar topics or readings were better for students’ learning progress, U5 chose their current textbooks with special attention to their students’ English proficiency level and the suitability of content to students’background knowledge. They

142 were concerned about these factors because their students had mixed proficiency levels. About 80% of their students were from the countryside, who had limited English learning conditions and little exposure to English and foreign cultures.

Having a similar context to U5, U9 suggested introducing the book Life by Cengage Learning into their curriculum because it has Vietnamese cultural content and common cultural knowledge. FH9 asserted that, “When the cultural factors in the book are common and popular, it is easier for students to learn” (Khi kiến thức văn hoá trong giáo trình mà phổ biến và quen thuộc thì sinh viên sẽ dễ học hơn) (FH9). He gave an example of Vietnamese learners having difficulty in remembering words about skiing equipment. Learning new words such as ski boot or snowboard may be difficult for Vietnamese young learners because there is no such sport in Vietnam. Learners would soon forget these words because they are not pragmatic in their context. He further explained, “We use English to talk with people from different countries, not only people from English speaking countries. So, we should be aware of our own cultures and common cultures to be confident in communication” (Chúng ta sử dụng tiếng Anh để giao tiếp với mọi người đến từ các đất nước khác nhau, chứ không phải chỉ nói với những người đến từ các đất nước nói tiếng Anh. Vì vậy chúng ta cần hiểu về văn hoá của chính chúng ta và những kiến thức phổ biến để có thể tự tin hơn trong giao tiếp) (FH9). As the book Life was designed specifically for Vietnamese learners, it may provide students with Vietnamese and international cultural representations to assist students in communicating confidently in a globalised world.

FH6 said they chose textbooks basing on the needs of their students and the real teaching context. Unlike other universities, U6 did not choose to use a textbook only because other universities used them. U6’s English teaching staff carefully considered their textbook choice in order to make it most beneficial for their students. Sharing a similar opinion, U4 attempted to find relevant textbooks for technical students. They thought that books that consist of too many linguistic details or focus on linguistic knowledge might be more suitable for language major students than technical students.

Positive feedback from other universities (PF)

Many universities chose their textbooks based on good reviews these books received from other universities. One of the reasons why U3 chose New English File was “some

143 universities in Hanoi has been using this book and they have provided very positive feedback” (Một số trường đại học ở Hà Nội dùng cuốn này và có phản hồi rất tốt) (FH3). Similarly, U7’s decision to choose New Headway Third Edition series was partly because “the Rector Board learnt from other universities and had recommendations from other universities to use this book” (Ban Giám hiệu học hỏi từ các trường khác và theo gợi ý của các trường khác khi dùng cuốn giáo trình này) (FH7). While FH10 admitted that they used the book New English File following the common trend with others, FH9 disclosed that they chose their current books based on the recommendations of some major language universities who were considered experts in the language-teaching field. In the technical university context where sometimes the Rector Board can make influential suggestions in choosing textbooks for their Language Faculty (U7), referring to book reviews from other universities may be one of the quickest and most convenient ways to select textbooks.

Less common reasons for textbook choice Availability of the books (A)

One additional factor that affected decision makers in their textbook choice is the cost and availability of these textbooks in the market. U1, U3 and U8 take into consideration these two factors when choosing ELT textbooks. Coloured hard-covered books are expensive; therefore, most students choose to use photocopied or reprinted books. International publishers know that students are very price-conscious. If the books are popular and sell well, international publishers sign contracts with local publishers to reprint cheaper versions in a large quantity within the country. If the textbooks are not very popular, students use photocopied books. These photocopied books are not often good quality and therefore affect students’ learning. FH8 stated:

Our students cannot afford to buy coloured books, so they have to buy the photocopied ones, which are poor quality. Some original books are too colourful and it’s hard for students to see the pictures in the photocopied ones. Or some reprinted textbooks have too small words. We need to think of these things when choosing a textbook (FH8).

Sinh viên không có nhiều tiền để có thể mua sách in màu, vì vậy hầu hết các em mua sách phô tô chất lượng kém. Những cuốn sách gốc thì quá màu sắc và sinh viên rất khó nhìn tranh trong những cuốn phô tô. Hoặc một số cuốn in lại thì chữ lại nhỏ quá. Khi chọn giáo trình chúng tôi đều phải lưu ý tới những điều như vậy (FH8). 144 Sometimes, there is even shortage of original coloured textbooks for teachers when they choose newly published textbooks for their teaching. For example, in order to provide enough original textbooks for language teachers, U1 had to spend time searching for the new textbook Cutting Edge Elementary third edition in other big cities.

Supportive materials for teachers and students (SM)

Few Faculty Heads mentioned the supportive materials for teachers and students that were included with the textbooks as a reason they choose their books. Although FH8 counted this criterion one factor in her list, she did not explain why. On the contrary, FH9 showed great interest in this criterion. He said:

Included supportive materials for teachers’ teaching and students’ self-study are an important reason that makes me choose one textbook or the other. This is a decisive factor (FH9).

Một trong những lý do quan trọng khiến tôi chọn cuốn giáo trình này là vì nó có tài liệu hỗ trợ cho giáo viên giảng dạy và cho sinh viên tự học. Tôi nghĩ đây là một nhân tố quan trọng (FH9).

FH9 wanted to introduce the book Life published by Cengage Learning into the EFL teaching program at his university. He thought that this book would help facilitate students’ self-study with its learning accounts. Students’ self-study has long been a gap in the language learning circle as this process is usually neglected in class due to time constraints. By having these supportive learning accounts, teachers would be able to monitor students’ self-learning. However, FH9’s proposal to use this book has not been accepted due to sensitive financial issues related to the administration of line ministries. U9 belongs to the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MoNRE) and MoET. The financial aid from the NFLP 2020 for launching the textbook in this university’s English program was transferred to MoNRE. However, this sum of money was used for installing two language laboratories. At ministerial management level, MoET did not interfere in MoNRE’ business, and MoNRE used that allocated sum of money for a different but related purpose. Similar situations happen at other universities under line ministries. However, within the scope of this study, I did not enquire further into it.

145 Suitability with the timeframe (STF)

Some universities choose a book based on its suitability to the teaching timeframe. As FH8 said, “These universities’ language policies are different, so textbooks chosen must be suitable with the time given” (Chính sách về ngoại ngữ ở các trường là khác nhau, vì vậy giáo trình được chọn phải phù hợp với thời gian cho phép) (FH8). Or as said shortly by FH5, when choosing a textbook, one important thing decision makers needed to consider was the time allocation for their EFL teaching curriculum. In most of the participating universities, their English instructional hours had shrunk from over 300 hours to half or even less than half of that number. Textbooks chosen must be appropriate to that allocated time. Important as it may be, this criterion was mentioned only by the two above-mentioned universities.

4.3.2. Reasons for textbook change. Nine out of ten participating universities changed their textbooks quite regularly. For these universities, changing ELT textbooks did not require a complicated approval. Language Faculties decided which textbooks to use. However, U3 was an exception. “The changing of ELT textbooks will affect other divisions and the whole educational system of the university” (Việc thay đổi giáo trình tiếng Anh sẽ ảnh hưởng cả tới những khoa khác và toàn trường nữa) (FH3). In order to be able to change a textbook, U3’s Language Faculty had to go through complicated procedures. They needed to make a proposal to the Rector Board, and then receive approval from the Scientific Committee before a final decision was made. For those reasons, U3 did not change their textbooks very often.

In contradiction to most other universities, U2 did not see the need to change textbooks too often. FH2 stated that global English textbooks published by a famous publishing house are effective even though their teachers might need to make some necessary adaptations to the books. FH2 said, “In general I think they are all good textbooks, so it isn’t really important to change these textbooks too often. (…) The important thing here is how we use this book effectively for our students” (Nói chung tôi nghĩ giáo trình thì đều tốt cả, vì vậy cũng không nhất thiết phải thay đổi giáo trình quá thường xuyên. (…) Điều quan trọng ở đây là chúng ta sử dụng sách như thế nào cho hiệu quả với sinh viên) (FH2). Despite this different point of

146 view, U2, like most other participating universities, changed their textbooks every three to five years. My coding suggested several reasons for universities’ changing textbooks. These were: “Updating information and knowledge” (UIK), “Raising more interest in teaching” (RI), “Matching new exit requirement” (MExR), “Improving students’ communicative skills” (ICS), “Matching shortened timeframe” (MST), and “Supporting students’ self-study” (SSS). Some of these reasons were frequently referred to; others were less common. These reasons are discussed in the following sections.

More common reasons for textbook change Matching new exit requirement (MExR)

The NFLP 2020 has a great influence in the English teaching and learning situation at these technical universities. Nine out of ten particiapting universities have changed their EFL teaching programs in response to MoET’s language policies, one of which is reframing university’s language exit requirement to the 6 levels of CEFR. U1, U2, U4, U7, and U8 changed their textbooks in order to match them with the new exit requirement. Although U1’s proposal for the new EFL program had not been approved, and they were using TOEIC exit requirement, U1 had changed their textbooks into Cutting Edge Elementary Third Edition. The adoption of this new textbook will prepare both teachers and students for the new B1 exit requirement in accordance with MoET’s language policies (See section 4.3.1, pages 140-142). Other universities also mentioned MoET’s requirement as one of their reasons to change textbooks. As these universities conform to MoET’s policy, they have to respond accordingly to any changes in foreign language assessment by MoET.

Updating information and knowledge (UIK)

U1, U6 and U10 changed their textbooks to update the content and linguistic knowledge that they provide their students. Before an ELT textbook is approved for publication, it is subjected to a long process of review and editing. Therefore, when new textbooks are introduced into the market, the content knowledge provided is already dated. In order to raise students’ interest, English teachers preferred the newest possible textbooks. FH1 said:

Usually we change textbooks every three or four years. We have been using this textbook for 3 years, so I think it is time for us to change to another textbook. As you know, if we

147 use a textbook for too long, we may find it very boring. Moreover, in language learning and teaching, I think we should update with new information (FH1).

Thường cứ ba hoặc bốn năm chúng tôi thay đổi giáo trình một lần. Chúng tôi đã sử dụng cuốn này được ba năm, vì vậy tôi nghĩ đã đến lúc chúng tôi đổi sang cuốn khác. Như bạn biết đó, nếu sử dụng một cuốn giáo trình quá lâu thì chúng ta sẽ cảm thấy rất chán. Hơn nữa trong việc dạy và học ngoại ngữ thì tôi nghĩ chúng ta nên cập nhật thông tin mới (FH1).

U6 and U10 changed their textbooks every five years. They believed that, after that length of time, the information in the books becomes outdated. As a language continuously evolves with new words and usages, students need relevant content knowledge and also current linguistic knowledge.

Improving students’ communication skills (ICS)

U1, U5 and U7 changed their EFL textbooks to support teachers and students in CLT. According to FH1, one important reason why they chose their current textbook was it had more interesting speaking activities. FH1 explained:

When we intend to teach our students following the communicative approach, we need to teach them speaking and listening skills (…). You know that technical students are not very good at speaking skill because they rarely speak a word at high school. So, when we choose textbooks, we will choose the ones that have a lot of speaking activities (FH1).

Khi chúng tôi có ý định dạy sinh viên theo đường hướng giao tiếp, chúng tôi cần dạy các bạn ấy các kỹ năng nói và nghe (…). Bạn biết là sinh viên các trường kỹ thuật thì thường không giỏi các kỹ năng này bởi vì các bạn ấy hiếm khi nói một từ nào khi học phổ thông. Vì vậy khi chúng tôi chọn giáo trình thì chúng tôi sẽ chọn những cuốn mà có nhiều các hoạt động nói (FH1).

In response to MoET’s requirement that university graduates need to use English as a means of communication, U5 intends to develop students’ four language skills at basic level in limited teaching time. The book they chose, OKET, focuses on different language skills’ practices. Similarly, FH7 stated that students need English for communication besides the language knowledge and grammar.

148 Less common reasons for textbook change Raising interest in teaching (RI)

FH1 and FH10 stated that they changed their textbooks to increase teachers’ interest in teaching. Language teachers usually have to use the same textbooks for a long time. It is inevitable that they may feel bored with these textbooks. Decision makers take this into consideration when they decide to change textbooks. FH10 said:

We change textbooks to raise the interest of teachers. It is too boring to teach the same textbook day after day. This boredom kills teachers’ creativity (FH10).

Chúng tôi thay đổi giáo trình để làm giáo viên hào hứng hơn. Chứ dạy cùng một cuốn giáo trình ngày này qua ngày khác thì chán lắm. Và nó sẽ giết chết sự sáng tạo của giáo viên (FH10)

When mentioning why they changed textbooks at their institution, FH1 cited boredom as one of the reasons. Although they had used the book, American English File, for three years, they thought this was too long. As their teachers already felt bored with this, they had recently chosen the Cutting Edge Elementary Third Edition to use.

Matching shortened timeframes (MSTF)

U5 and U10 changed their textbooks because their teaching time was shortened considerably. Their contact hours were reduced from more than 300 hours to half, or even one-third in some programs. Accordingly, the textbooks they used had to be changed to fit with this restriction.

Supporting students’ self-study (SSS)

Textbook support for students’ self-study was taken into consideration when changes were made. U9’s language faculty changed their textbooks to assist teachers’ support of students’ self-study (page 147-148). Their language teaching staff proposed to change to the book, Life by Cengage Learning, which would help provide them with these supports.

4.3.3. The process of textbook selection. EFL textbooks were chosen or changed in a program for particular reasons. They were subjected to a selection process. From my interview data, it appeared that these participating universities followed similar procedures in evaluating and selecting their

149 textbooks. These procedures have been divided into two stages: evaluation before selection (predictive evaluation – PE) and evaluation after selection (retrospective evaluation – RE).

Predictive evaluation (PE) Most FHs admitted that the process of textbook choice at their university was subjective. None of the participating universities carried out any systematic selection of textbooks. Nor did they conduct any trials before choosing their current textbooks. The process in most universities (n=8) was for language faculties to review potential available textbooks in groups. Each group discussed the pros and cons of their chosen textbooks based on the course objectives. In addition, some universities consulted others. The faculties then met to discuss each group’s recommendations before making the final decision. In two other universities, U1 and U6, the English faculties’ managing board studied available textbooks and selected a range of suggested textbooks first to be reviewed by faculties. Then these recommended textbooks were presented to the whole faculties. Over several meetings, the faculties reached a final decision regarding which textbooks were chosen.

Similar to other universities, U4 did not trial prospective textbooks. However, FH4 insisted that they took textbook selection seriously. FH4 said:

Our teachers studied the books and compared the types of practice in the books with types of PET test at the exit exam. We found that these textbooks are quite appropriate with the objectives of the course. They serve the students’ purpose to pass B1 exam at the end of the course. Then we choose this course book series (FH4).

Giáo viên của chúng tôi nghiên cứu giáo trình này và so sánh các bài thực hành trong giáo trình với các bài test của PET ở thi đầu ra. Chúng tôi thấy rằng những giáo trinhg này khá là phù hợp với mục tiêu của khoá học. Chúng tôi muốn đáp ứng mục đích của sinh viên là đỗ B1 vào cuối khoá. Vậy nên chúng tôi chọn series giáo trình này (FH4).

U8 consulted their University’s Department of Training, who was responsible for academic quality, for the objectives, framework and requirements of the course. U8’s English Faculty worked with the Department of Training to develop criteria for their potential textbooks. These potential textbooks were studied thoroughly before they were recommended in faculty meetings. After the final decision was made, consultants from the Fulbright Scholarship Alumni were invited to faculty seminars, where they shared experience in

150 using the new textbook. A new textbook was only chosen once there was a complete agreement across the English faculties.

Most FHs agreed that global textbooks are generally effective and similar in design. As university language teachers may teach English in multiple institutions, they may have used or known about other textbooks in the market. Their experience in using these textbooks may save them time and assist them when evaluating new textbooks.

Retrospective evaluation (RE) After a new textbook has been introduced into a program, it may be reevaluated for applicability and appropriateness. At these ten universities, textbook evaluation was carried out after a semester or after a year. U1’s teachers had annual meetings and discussed the appropriateness or inappropriateness of each section in the textbook. FH1 stated:

We do not use questionnaires but only through teachers’ recommendations. We encourage our teachers to research the new teaching curriculum so that if there are too many problems, we will be able to change or adapt it in time (FH1).

Chúng tôi không sử dụng bảng câu hỏi mà chỉ qua kênh giáo viên. Chúng tôi khuyến khích giáo viên nghiên cứu chương trình giảng dạy mới để nếu có quá nhiều vấn đề thì chúng tôi có thể sẽ thay đổi hoặc điều chỉnh kịp thời (FH1).

U3 carried out yearly retrospective evaluation. Their teachers recorded unsuitable or inappropriate things in the books and shared these with colleagues to adapt the textbook over time. “Teachers may exchange ideas regularly in order to make timely adjustments to conduct more effective lessons” (Giáo viên có thể trao đổi ý kiến thường xuyên để đảm bảo có những điều chỉnh kịp thời và giảng dạy hiệu quả hơn), FH3 said. Yearly textbook retrospective evaluation at U9 and U10 was carried out without any official evaluation process. Teachers reported their suggestions and discussed these in yearly meetings. FH9 said that:

We make detailed teaching schedules every year. This is the process of reevaluating textbooks. However, we have not done any scientific research yet (…). When we reconsider the detailed teaching schedules, it is when we reevaluate textbooks. Or when we prepare the tests, we also reconsider and reevaluate textbooks (FH9).

151 Chúng tôi lên kế hoạch bài giảng chi tiết hàng năm. Đó cũng là qúa trình đánh giá lại giáo trình. Tuy nhiên chúng tôi không làm các nghiên cứu một cách chính thống (…). Khi chúng tôi xem xét lại bài giảng chi tiết cũng là khi chúng tôi đánh giá lại cuốn sách. Hoặc khi chúng tôi chuẩn bị các bài kiểm tra thì chúng tôi cũng xem xét lại và đánh giá lại giáo trình (FH9).

U2, U4, U5 had meetings among teachers to evaluate textbooks every semester. However, these retrospective evaluations were neither official nor systematic. Teachers reported unsuitable sections in the books in accordance with the syllabus. FH4 felt that these semester evaluations were not enough. In order to provide timely feedback, they used other means of communication, such as Facebook, to exchange ideas. They observed each other’ classes and had discussions on which parts of the book were suitable and which needed to be left out.

Although all participating universities carried out faculty-led retrospective evaluations on a yearly or semester basis, few consulted students in these processes. Some universities took students’ opinion into account in evaluating textbooks. However, they felt that they could not possibly implement students’ recommendations because of time and financial constraints. Instead, they used students’ exam results as a basis to modify their teaching and materials accordingly.

Most participating universities (n=9) were satisfied with their textbook choice. U9 was an exception and intended to change their textbook in the near future because they had used their textbook for a long time and it was no longer suitable for their current situation. Through predictive and retrospective evaluation, these universities did not report any serious problems or difficult issues in textbook selection. However, they reported that language teachers made minor adaptations and alterations to the syllabus or lesson plans. As we can see more clearly in the next chapter, language teachers were always looking for better teaching materials although they were consulted in the selection process and had power over it. Therefore, there was a little difference between the FHs, who thought they had selected appropriate textbooks in textbook selection and the teachers who in many cases showed their desire for better textbooks.

152 4.4. Summary My analysis resulted in the emergence of five themes pertinent to the first two research questions related to textbook used and selection. Figure 4.2 at the beginning of this chapter summarises these five themes, articulates the relevance of these themes to the research questions, and relates these themes to the 28 codes derived from the analysis of the interviews with FHs.

This analysis suggests complicated and inconsistent patterns across the EFL programs at the ten participating universities. Eight out of ten universities offered English as a core subject while the other two offered it as a non-core subject. Whether English was a core or a non- core subject did not clearly affect its relative importance across these universities. The number of instructional hours allocated for English, as a non-core subject, was much greater than those in the universities where English was a core subject. By providing more contact hours, these two universities assisted their students to achieve the program’s learning objectives.

The analysis demonstrates a great spread in the amount of teaching hours provided to students. Surprisingly, some universities with fewer English teaching hours had the same exit requirements as others with more. Some allocated the same numbers of English teaching hours but have different exit requirements. There were significant inconsistencies in EFL programs across these universities. In policy, MoET’s standard requires that high school leavers have elementary level of proficiency. Some universities started their EFL programs using this standard for high school leavers. These universities relied on the levels of the textbooks the students used at high schools (Kramsch & Sullivan, 1996). As they assumed that high school leavers had reached elementary level of proficiency, they began their program at pre-intermediate level. Others, on the other hand, did not make that assumption. They based on their decision on the results of the entry exam and started their program from elementary level.

In addition to the variation in provision of teaching hours and entry levels, these universities’ exit requirements were different. Three out of ten universities had a B1 exit requirement, two had A2 level, four had different TOEIC scores and one did not apply any

153 exit requirement. For those who had TOEIC exit tests, none of their scores reach MoET’s required level of B1, which is equivalent to TOEIC 550 (See section 4.2.1, pages 130-131).

In order to achieve the course objectives, these universities used different textbook. At the time of the interviews, there were seven textbook series being used across the ten universities. Most of them were popular textbooks published by Oxford University Press or Cambridge University Press. The two most popular textbooks were the NEF series and the NH series.

Textbooks are considered a bridge from the entry to the exit proficiency level of a course. The findings of this research show that some universities use the same level textbooks to achieve different exit proficiency levels, and others having the same exit levels use different level textbooks. Most universities are likely to use textbooks with generally lower levels than the required exit levels. These universities expect students to invest significant time in self-study, which may help to fill any language gaps between their textbook levels and exit requirements. By so doing, their students may be able to pass the exit exams.

Nine criteria were used to address the selection of textbooks. The most common reasons for their textbook choice was the credibility of the publishers although FHs said that this was not the most important reason. One common and important reason for these universities to choose textbooks was the relevance of textbooks to the exit requirement. Many universities chose their textbooks based on the recommendations of other universities. Among the nine criteria, the suitability of cultural representations in textbooks with students’ cultural background was mentioned and reemphasised by some universities. FHs observed that policy makers and textbook writers were more attentive to these intercultural connections. The NFLP 2020 has suggested that textbooks be designed specifically for the Vietnamese context. New global commercial textbooks such as Cutting Edge Third Edition included Vietnamese cultural representations in their books. This trend will be further discussed in the following chapters of this thesis.

Six reasons were given regarding why a university changed textbooks. The most common reason was to adapt to the changes in MoET’s English testing requirements. Textbooks were changed also to raise teachers’ interest in their teaching.

154 Although these universities referred to different reasons why they chose these textbooks, FHs reported that their choices were quite subjective. The process of selecting textbooks included predictive evaluation and retrospective evaluation; however, these evaluations were not based on any systematic trialing. Retrospective evaluation is carried out in most universities every semester or year, but it does not frequently have students’ input. FHs reported no serious problems with most of the current textbooks. They reported that teachers adapted materials to produce more effective teaching.

A detailed description of the context in which current ELT textbooks are used has illustrated the complexity and inconsistences in EFL programs at technical universities in Vietnam. Each university responds to MoET’s policies in its own way. They keep a balance between their institutional conditions and the market’s demand. On the one side, they have students at different levels, limited teaching hours and resources. They need to meet specified proficiency levels for graduation. On the other side, these universities need to hold their market share and expand it. They cannot set their entry standard too high. They have to limit the amount of time given to English instructions. They have to meet increasingly higher exit requirements. Most of the universities use CLT and MoET’s B1 exit requirement as a means of promotion to facilitate their market share’s expansion. These universities are responding to the same policies with a great deal of latitude in interpretation. Their choice of textbooks is part of these responses.

Seven ELT textbooks were collected after phase one. The next chapter analyses these current textbooks in terms of what sources of cultures and what types of cultures these global textbooks provide for learners in Vietnam.

155 Chapter 5: Phase Two Findings

5.1. Overview As we have seen, the interview data with Heads/Vice Heads of Language Faculties in Chapter Four indicated complicated and inconsistent patterns in EFL teaching programs at the ten participating universities. Teaching hour allocation, entry requirements, exit requirements, and ELT textbooks varied across these tertiary educations, even though they are all technical universities under the administration of MoET and line ministries. From that analysis, a corpus of seven current ELT textbooks for first-year technical university students, as well as the process of selection and reasons for these selections, was identified.

In this chapter, this corpus of ELT textbooks is subjected to content analysis to identify firstly, the types of cultures represented in these textbooks, and secondly, how they are represented. Section 5.1 presents an overview of the analysis process. Section 5.2 provides a general description of the seven current ELT textbooks. Section 5.3 describes textbook analysis in terms of sources of culture. Section 5.4 reports findings related to types of cultures. Section 5.5 concludes this chapter. The core findings in phase two of this research are summarised in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1. Core findings of phase two

Book Sources of culture Types of culture Total Source Target Inter- Total Aesthetic Socio- Semantic Pragmatic national logical CEe3 1883 10 681 1192 1873 732 769 324 48 100% 0.53% 36.17% 63.30% 100% 38.88% 41.26% 17.31% 2.55% NCEe 2437 2 991 1444 2435 851 1276 225 83 100% 0.08% 40.67% 59.25% 100% 34.95% 52.40% 9.24% 3.41% NEFpr-i 1898 2 901 995 1896 569 1067 124 136 100% 0.11% 47.47% 52.42% 100% 29.98% 56.32% 6.53% 7.17% AEFpr-i 1849 2 892 955 1847 558 1043 119 127 100% 0.11% 48.24% 51.65% 100% 30.18% 56.52% 6.44% 6.86% NHpr-i3 2147 1 1064 1082 2146 675 849 292 330 100% 0.05% 49.56% 50.39% 100% 31.45% 39.56% 13.61% 15.38% SFe2 1629 0 889 740 1629 401 832 290 106 100% 0% 54.57% 45.43% 100% 24.62% 51.07% 17.80% 6.51% OKET 1409 0 554 855 1409 442 867 56 44 100% 0% 39.32% 60.68% 100% 31.37% 61.53% 3.98% 3.12% These seven textbooks focused on target and international target cultures, with little or no attention paid to the learners’ culture. This trend is in alignment with other research

156 findings in Hong Kong, Japan, Iran or Spain mentioned in section 2.3 (Chapter 2 Literature Review). A considerable percentage of representations of life outside Vietnam belonged to the sociological sense of culture. This means that the predominant concept of culture in these textbooks is ‘culture as a way of life’: culture at the surface level. The aesthetic sense of culture, or high culture, which provides learners with more foreign cultural knowledge about music, art, media or literature, was of secondary importance. Yet the last two senses of culture were not neglected, with attempts to provide students with more pragmatic uses of the target language in foreign contexts. These findings are consistent with what Adaskou et al. (1990) conveyed in their influential studies on English learning in Morocco, on which part of the analytical framework for this research was based.

5.2. General Description of the Textbook Corpus As noted in Chapter Three, the textbook corpus for this research consisted of seven internationally distributed ELT textbooks that were designed for ESL/EFL contexts. These textbooks are currently used for first year technical students at ten participating universities in Hanoi, Vietnam. The selection of these textbooks was based on interviews with Heads/Vice Heads of Language Faculties in the school year of 2015-2016. Table 5.2 provides a descriptive overview of these textbooks.

These seven selected ELT textbooks may be considered representatives of common textbooks used for EFL education in Vietnam. This corpus represents a range of reputable publishers such as Oxford University Press (NEFpr-i, AEFpr-i and NHpr-i3), Pearson ELT (CEe3 and NCEe), Cambridge University Press (OKET), and Macmillan Education (SFe2). These textbooks are designed for adult learners at Elementary or Pre-intermediate levels, and most were published between 2003 and 2008. Two more recent textbooks are SFe2 and CEe3, which were published in 2012 and 2014 respectively. Further investigation indicated that CEe3 is an updated version of NCEe, and AEFpr-i, which uses American English, is a version of NEFpr-i, which uses British English. Each pair was written by the same groups of authors and was published by the same publishers at different times. Both NEFpr-i and AEFpr-i comprise nine units. CEe3 and NCEe consist of a similar number of units (14 and 15 respectively), while OKET has the largest number at 20 units. However, each unit in OKET consisted of only two short lessons, so the actual length of OKET is similar to

157 NEFpr-i or AEFpr-i. OKET is an exam-oriented textbook, with the other textbooks following communicative or structural approaches. While CEe3 and its sister NCEe are designed for a task-based learning, AEFpr-i and its sister NEFpr-i follow a communicative approach. All selected books, except for AEFpr-i, use British English in their texts and listening.

Table 5.2. General descriptions of the textbook corpus

Textbook Authors Publisher Level Year Number Approach Language of units CEe3 -Sarah Cunningham Pearson Elementary 2014 14 Task-based British -Peter Moor ELT English -Araminta Crace NCEe -Sarah Cunningham Pearson Elementary 2005 15 Task-based British -Peter Moor ELT English -Frances Eales NEFpr-i -Clive Oxenden Oxford Pre- 2005 9 Communicative British -Christina Latham- University Intermediate English Koenig Press -Paul Seligson AEFpr-i -Clive Oxenden Oxford Pre- 2008 9 Communicative American -Christina Latham- University Intermediate English Koenig Press -Paul Seligson NHpr-i3 -John and Liz Soars Oxford Pre- 2007 12 Structural British -Sylvia Wheeldon University Intermediate English Press SFe2 -Lindsay Clandfield Macmillan Elementary 2012 12 Communicative British -Adrian Tennant Education English OKET -Annette Capel Cambridge Elementary 2005 20 Exam-Oriented British -Wendy Sharp University English Press In order to analyse these textbooks, I read the publishers’ introductions and the editors’ remarks on each textbook. This was in order to identify the pedagogical framework within which each textbook was constructed. I examined the tables of contents, and noted down the themes of each unit. Then I read these textbooks page by page, and highlighted the pages, passages, sentences or words and phrases that were of interest. Whenever necessary, I read the transcripts and the extra activities for each unit that was included at the end of these textbooks, and carefully examined the pictures and illustrations in each section or activity. This first reading enabled more detailed descriptions of these textbooks, as follows.

5.2.1. Cutting Edge Elementary Third Edition (CEe3). CEe3 was the first book to be examined. It had the most recent publication date (2014), and was used by one national key technical university in Vietnam. As noted in Chapter Four

158 (Section 4.2.2, pages 135-136), this textbook was selected for use in U1’s curriculum under their old exit requirement because their proposal for a new language project had not yet been approved.

CEe3 was written by a group of experienced ELT material writers in the UK, who had been TESOL teachers or TESOL teacher educators in other Outer and Expanding Circle countries such as Greece, Spain, Hungary, Columbia and Vietnam. Having a variety of experiences in teaching ESL and EFL in different contexts, this group of ELT material writers included in their CE series a wide range of contemporary topics and materials that helped make the learning process more memorable and engaging. Through these writers’ profiles, it turned out that CEe3 was the updated version of NCEe. Therefore, NCEe was the next textbook to be examined to allow for some comparison between these two sister textbooks.

The language in CEe3 is presented in everyday life contexts and in situations potentially familiar to students. As a new textbook version, besides providing more updated information, CEe3 includes two new sections: World Culture lesson and Language Live. These two new features, which provide functional language and various cultural representations from Outer and Expanding Circle countries including Vietnam, encourage students to investigate global and local issues, and become actively involved in classroom activities. There are 14 units in CEe3, each of which consists of a thematic title mostly concerning everyday life culture – or ‘culture as the way of life’. As can be seen in later sections of this chapter, the cultural representations identified in this textbook largely belong to the sociological sense of culture. In each unit, a Task section is included for students to practice and improve their learning outcomes and to give them a sense of achievement. As can be seen later in Chapter Six, although CEe3 had only been used for three weeks at the time of the interviews (October 2015), it received positive reviews from U1’s teaching staff.

5.2.2. New Cutting Edge Elementary (NCEe). Being a sister textbook to CEe3, NCEe presented itself as a communicative language textbook with a task-based learning approach. First published more than ten years ago by the same writers of CEe3, this textbook consisted of 15 modules that were very similar to

159 the thematic titles of 14 units in CEe3. It is demonstrated in later sections that cultural representations in this textbook largely fall into the sociological category.

One difference between NCEe and the preceding CEe3 is module 0 found at the beginning of the textbook. This module is to help students revise some basic English, such as numbers or the alphabet, some simple conversations, like saying hello, and some relevant classroom instructions. After every five modules, NCEe has a consolidation module that CEe3 does not include. These consolidation modules review the five previous modules and test students’ achievement in four language skills.

A closer look at each module reveals that NCEe focuses more on grammar and has a stronger emphasis on vocabulary and structure than CEe3, although the modules were designed to help students achieve a particular communication goal. There is not a clear separation between the sections in each module, which may make each module look lengthier than it is. As NCEe is about ten years older than CEe3, the pictures and illustrations in NCEe are outdated. Both textbooks have practice and mini-tests enclosed at the end of the book for students’ self-checked progress and achievement.

5.2.3. New English File Pre-Intermediate (NEFpr-i). NEFpr-i was the most popular textbook among the ten participating universities. In the school year of 2015-2016, three out of ten universities in this group were using NEFpr-i. They had been using this textbook for several years, and gave largely positive reviews. This book has a reprinted version in black and white for students.

NEFpr-i consists of nine units, with each followed by Practical English, Writing, and Revision sections. There are four lessons in each unit, each of which is two pages long. There is not a general theme for each unit, but every lesson in the unit covers a particular topic. From the titles of these lessons in the table of contents, it was noticed that a majority of these topics are about everyday life activities, which are part of the sociological sense of culture. Some topics are about the arts, music and history – components of the aesthetic sense of culture. These texts support students by including a full coverage of language skills, with a focus on practical English and pronunciation. This textbook was written by a group of native English teacher educators and professional textbook writers. This group of writers also composed the AEF series – an American version of the NEF series –, which

160 will be analysed in the following section.

5.2.4. American English File Elementary (AEFpr-i). AEFpr-i continues in the same spirit of language learning that its authors developed throughout the NEF series. AEFpr-i follows a communicative approach – to get students speaking, with a strong focus on pronunciation. This textbook is similar to NEFpr-i in content, except for some minor changes to American English in vocabulary, spelling and expressions. These are present in every unit. For example, some common British English words such as film or mobile phone or holiday in NEFpr-i are replaced by American English words such as movie or cell phone or vacation in AEFpr-i. Some nouns indicating cities or places in the UK or Europe such as Southampton or Rome, Italy are changed to Atlanta or Vancouver, Canada to relate the texts more to America. Two noticeable changes are the two texts replaced in some content details in unit 4D (p.49) and unit 5C (p.57). Details of these noticeable changes in AEFpr-i are listed in appendix 9.

The differences in vocabulary and expressions between AEFpr-i and NEFpr-i neither affect the content of any units, nor change any tasks or activities in these textbooks. The main purpose of these changes is to provide learners with a different version of the English language. In terms of sources of culture, there may have been some changes in the number of target cultural representations and international target cultural representations because of the shift to American English. However, the difference between these percentages is not large.

5.2.5. New Headway Pre-Intermediate Third Edition (NHpr-i3). This popular ELT textbook has been used in one key national university and one standard university. Some other universities in this group used this textbook prior to their current ones. A review of the literature suggests that this textbook is not only popular in Vietnam, but also the object of research studies in other countries (Basabe, 2006; Basturkman, 1999; Forman, 2014; Nahrkhalaji, 2012; Rajabi & Ketabi, 2012; Shin et al., 2011). Most Vietnamese students are using the black and white version of this textbook, which is reprinted by local publishers.

NHpr-i3 consists of twelve units, covering a range of everyday life topics. Each unit includes Language Focus that introduces grammatical structures in context and a

161 vocabulary syllabus that is reinforced unit by unit. This textbook was designed to serve traditional teaching methods, and seems to focus more on grammar issues. However, activities for skills practice are integrated, and an Everyday English section supplies practical language scenarios used in everyday conversations. After the first reading, I was left with the impression that this textbook consists of many cultural representations from English speaking countries.

5.2.6. Straightforward Elementary Second Edition (SFe2). Compared with other textbooks, SFe2 was published more recently, in 2012 by Macmillan. The two authors of this textbook have been teachers and teacher educators in many countries including Spain, Mexico, China, and India. In addition, these two authors have made considerable contributions to the teacher resource site, www.onestopenglish.com. As this textbook is relatively new, its content is more responsive and relevant to our ever- changing world.

SFe2 consists of 12 units; and there are four lessons in each unit (A/B/C/D). For easy use and practicality, each lesson occupies two pages and lasts around 90 minutes. To enhance memorable learning, these lessons are interlinked within each unit and across the whole textbook. At the beginning of the textbook, lessons Basic 1 and 2 review some basic knowledge of English, such as numbers, articles, the alphabet or classroom English. This feature is similar in function to module 0 in NCEe. After each unit, the language reference section provides a summary of the grammar focus, functional language and a word list that is convenient for students’ revision. In most other textbooks, this part is separated and placed at the end of the book, which is not convenient for reviewing. As a recently published textbook, the illustrations and the layout are contemporary, giving a fresh new look to this textbook.

5.2.7. Objective KET (OKET). OKET is the last textbook that I examined. In contrast to the other textbooks presented above, OKET is an exam-oriented textbook, which offers students complete preparation for the Cambridge KET examination (A2 level). This textbook provides a strong focus on language development and systematic A2 exam preparation.

OKET comprises 20 units with a variety of explicit topics such as friends, shopping or food

162 and drink. There are two double-paged lessons for each unit, which give students a sense of completion and progress. Each unit consists of either exam folders or writing folders to provide learners with in-depth exam practice. However, unlike the other textbooks used for a general English course, OKET is not designed to correspond to an incremental increase in proficiency levels. As an exam-oriented textbook, OKET focuses more on practice for the Key English Test, and thus covers a wide range of necessary topics. Because of these features, this textbook is not commonly used in general EFL programs at tertiary level, but is more suitable for exam-oriented courses.

In my study, the representations of life outside Vietnam were examined mainly through the foreign cultural representations embedded in this corpus of seven ELT textbooks. As content analysis was used to reflect patterns and to describe trends, it is a suitable analytical tool to examine data tendencies within these textbooks. Due to the large number of texts and images to be examined, I used a quantitative approach to collect systematic and objective data to address the questions of “What life outside Vietnam is represented?” and “How is life outside Vietnam represented?” Frequency counts and numbers were used to identify trends. In the first coding, cultural representations were categorised into three types: source cultural representations, target cultural representations, and international target cultural representations. Based on the subcategories of target cultural and international target cultural representations defined during the first coding, the second coding classified these two subcategories into four further dimensions of culture: aesthetic, sociological, semantic and pragmatic. In addition to using simple numbers and percentages to present the findings, detailed descriptions are provided to enhance deeper understanding of the coding process. The following sections systematically discuss the analysis and findings within this corpus.

5.3. Sources of Cultures in the Corpus of Seven Textbooks As previously discussed, culture plays a significant role in language teaching and learning in that it provides a basis for the content and topics to be used in classrooms, as well as cultural models for pragmatic standards (McKay, 2003b). For example, Vietnamese learners of English are taught how to appropriately receive a compliment in English, while they may act otherwise in their culture. Cultural information used in language textbooks

163 and materials can be categorised into three types: source cultural representations, target cultural representations, and international target cultural representations (Cortazzi & Jin, 1999). A review of literature has indicated that global ELT textbooks, written by native speakers and published in the Inner Circle countries, have mostly used target and international target language cultural representations (Shah et al., 2014; Shin et al., 2011; Yuen, 2011).

100% 90% 80% 45.43% 52.42%51 .65%50 .39% 70% 63.30%59 .25% 60.68% 60% International target culture 50% Target culture 40% Source culture 30% 54.57% 47.47%48 .24%49 .56% 20% 36.17%40 .67% 39.32% 10% 0% CEe3 NCEe NEFpr-i AEFpr-i NHpr-i3 SFe2 OKET

Figure 5.1. Sources of culture in the corpus of seven textbooks

In this corpus of seven current ELT textbooks for first year students at technical universities in Hanoi, the coding result for sources of cultures is consistent with the extant literature. Target and international target language cultural representations are dominant in all textbooks examined, shaping a lively picture of life outside Vietnam. The source cultural representations – in this case Vietnamese cultural representations – have little emphasis in all these textbooks. Figure 5.1 illustrates these trends. In figure 5.1, there is almost no sign of source cultural representations but a balanced share between target and international target cultural representations.

5.3.1. Representations of source culture. Figure 5.1 suggests that there is hardly any sign of Vietnamese cultural representations in this corpus. The coding indicates that the most recent textbook, CEe3, contains a tiny portion of Vietnamese culture (0.53%) of the total cultural representations. NEFpr-i and

164 AEFpr-i come second, with an even smaller portion of 0.11% Vietnamese cultural representations. NCEe and NHpr-i3 have miniscule percentages of 0.08% and 0.05%. The two remaining textbooks, SFe2 and OKET, have none. These percentages demonstrate that global textbook writers take little notice of learners’ cultural representations in their ELT textbooks.

There are 17 examples of Vietnamese cultural representations in this corpus of seven ELT textbooks. Figure 5.2 illustrates the percentages of Vietnamese cultural representations that each textbook contributes. Of these 17 examples, CEe3 provides the most representations of Vietnamese culture (58.83%); NCEe, NEFpr-i and AEFpr-i rank second with 11.76% each; and NHpr-i3 has only 5.89% of the total number. SFe2 and OKET do not contain any Vietnamese cultural representations.

Vietnamese cultural representations

11.76% 5.89% CEe3 11.76% NCEe 58.83% NEFpr-i AEFpr-i

11.76% NHpr-i3

Figure 5.2. Vietnamese cultural representations of each textbook

CEe3 is the most recently published textbook to be used at the time of this study (this textbook was published in 2014). This may be one of the reasons why CEe3 includes the most Vietnamese cultural representations. It was previously noted that U1 decided to use this textbook in their curriculum under an old exit requirement, and before their proposal for a new language project had been approved. What are the implications of this choice? As can be seen in Chapter Six, FH1 confirmed in her interview that her students needed language input for Vietnamese representations. Even if they were familiar with these representations, they might not have enough English vocabulary to discuss them. FH1 also stated that if a purpose of an international language is to explain one culture to another,

165 then a focus on source culture in the materials helps students acquire the language needed to do this (FH1).

In CEe3, the most frequent reference to Vietnam was the name of the country. Vietnam was referred to twice in the first unit of the textbook, when students were required to talk about countries and nationalities in the world. Names of countries or famous places seem to be the highest instances of reference to a country or a geographical location in all seven textbooks. Then, bun cha, a type of Vietnamese food, was used to signify a cultural symbol of Vietnam. This symbol is seen through the eyes of a native English speaker from London. It seems natural that this character mentions Vietnam and Vietnamese food when he talks about what he likes about London.

One of the fantastic things about living in London is that you can get food from all around the world. One of my favourite kinds of food is from Vietnam. Near where I work, there is a really good Vietnamese restaurant…I often go there for lunch. The cooks are all Vietnamese and they do all the cooking in front of you. The specialty is bun cha, which is noodles with meat and chili and sauce. The sauce is delicious – it’s made with fish and vegetables. Mmm … I love it!

(Excerpt from Cutting Edge Elementary Third Edition, Unit 6 Recording 4, p.169)

That the Vietnamese cultural representations are mentioned through the view of a native speaker may provide Vietnamese learners with foreigners’ understanding of Vietnam. There are four references to Vietnam in this extract. The first reference is the name of the country - Vietnam. Vietnamese restaurant, Vietnamese nationality and the specialty of “bun cha” are the other three references that represent Vietnamese culture. These representations may encourage learners to talk about their country while using the target language. Another example of references to Vietnam is to be found in a long reading text in unit 9 of this textbook. The reading text is about the top five unusual shops in the world. One of these amazing shops is L’Usine in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam (Figure 5.3).

166

Figure 5.3. Example of Vietnamese cultural representation in CEe3

(Extract from Cutting Edge Elementary 3rd Edition, Unit 9, Vocabulary & Reading, p. 83)

Although in this text, there is nothing special or specific about Vietnam except for names of places - Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, this representation may attract Vietnamese learners’ attention and raise their interest in language learning. They may feel proud that one shop in a big city of their country is included with other shops from famous cities in the worlds, such as Tokyo, New York, London and Buenos Aires (these four cities are mentioned in previous paragraphs of the text). An ordinary Vietnamese person may have no idea about the existence of L’Usine. However, the presence of Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam in this reading text, as well as other above-mentioned references to Vietnam in this textbook, demonstrates the growing attention of global textbook writers to include Vietnamese culture in their writing.

In the four other textbooks, NEFpr-i, AEFpr-i, NCe3 and NHpr-i3, references to Vietnam are more modest. These references include names of people, names of places and the name of the country. In the two textbooks, NEF and AEF, Vietnam is referred to in a long reading text in a gap-filling exercise. This long text is about a football match between two famous clubs, Manchester United and Bayern Munich, in the Champion League Final. A Vietnamese football fan named Duc retells this match in a fictitious article for a sport newspaper or magazine. This situation can be contrasted with the situation in the textbook CEe3, of a native speaker talking about Vietnamese food, because this portrays what foreign culture is like in a Vietnamese person’s eyes. The main content of the text is about the match, and the reference to Vietnam is one short sentence, This week, Duc from Vietnam writes. This imaginary situation may appear surprising, because among the hundreds of Outer Circle countries and billions of people who love football, Duc from

167 Vietnam was chosen to write about his most exciting moment. This reference to Vietnam seems superficial. It does not represent much about Vietnamese cultural values, or provide readers with cultural knowledge about Vietnam. Yet, it may encourage Vietnamese learners to read and do the exercise more enthusiastically, inspired by a Vietnamese person talking about football in a world magazine.

In the textbook NCEe, there is only one sentence that refers to Vietnam: “Hanoi is the capital of Vietnam”. This sentence is in a text to provide geographical facts about some countries as the basis for communication activities. In NHpr-i3, the only reference to Vietnam is the name of the country, which is mentioned once in a long reading text and plays an insignificant role in the meaning of the text. Again, names of places and the name of the country are representations of Vietnam. For these representations in NCEe or NHpr- i3, they are neither providing learners with cultural knowledge nor motivating learners in their language learning. They may capture some attention from learners in the lesson, but do not significantly contribute to the intercultural learning process.

5.3.2. Representation of target culture and international target culture. As previously stated, the representations of target and international target culture are predominant in this corpus of textbooks. As can be seen in Figure 5.1, these cultural representations occupy the whole seven columns representing the seven textbooks that were examined. There is almost no sign of source cultural representations in these data. Although the predominance of target and international target cultures in these global ELT textbooks is the overall trend within this corpus, there are some slight differences in the portions of the target cultural representations and international target cultural representations. There are three patterns in the ratio of target and international target cultural representations. In some textbooks, the international target culture outweighs the target culture and vice versa; in others, their portions are approximately equal. In general, however, representations of international target culture are greater than those of target culture. The difference in these proportions is represented in Figure 5.4.

168 Ratio of target culture and international target culture in the corpus

45.12% Target culture representations 54.88% International target culture representations

Figure 5.4. Target and international target cultural representations in the corpus

Textbooks featuring more international target than target cultural representations Figure 5.5 illustrates the dominance of international target culture in CEe3, NCEe and OKET. This group of textbooks includes more international target cultural representations than target cultural representations.

70.00% 63.30% 59.25% 60.00% 50.68% 50.00% 40.67% 39.32% 36.17% Source culture 40.00% Target culture 30.00% International target culture 20.00%

10.00%

0.00% CEe3 NCEe OKET

Figure 5.5. The dominance of international target culture in CEe3, NCEe and OKET

Cutting Edge Elementary Third Edition (CEe3)

As the updated version of NCEe, CEe3 was published about ten years later than the original, with much improvement in its structure and significant changes to its contents and topics. However, CEe3 retains its original identity and associated pedagogical implications for teaching and learning. It provides students with functional language and varied cultural

169 representations from Outer and Expanding Circle countries, and encourages students to investigate global and local issues, and to be actively involved in classroom activities.

Compared with its older version (NCEe), CEe3 has a higher percentage of international target cultural representations and Vietnamese cultural representations, with a decrease in target cultural representations. There are more attempts on the part of textbook writers to engage learners in the shift to learning English as an international language. The international target cultural representations in CEe3 include references to a wide variety of countries. These representations range from life in the Artic to student life in India, from the traditions and customs in Japan, Iran or Turkey to wild life in African deserts, and from the architecture of Europe to festivals in South America. The writers of this textbook seem to have provided learners with a comprehensive world image.

Although these representations in this textbook are to present cultural knowledge, more and more of them provide a basis for language practice. For example, unit 12 (pages 107-108, CEe3) includes four pictures: an Indian bride at her wedding, a big party including many old people wearing English patriotic party hats, a woman blowing out candles on her birthday cake, and some Japanese girls wearing kimonos (See Figure 5.6).

Figure 5.6. Example of international target cultural representations in CEe3

(Extract from Cutting Edge Elementary 3rd Edition, Unit 12, p.106-107)

These pictures provide a basis for a vocabulary and speaking session about celebrations and parties in different cultures. Students listen to a recording about these events, and decide what event the person is talking about; they are then asked to speak about their weekend’s plans based on these pictures. In order to complete this task, students need to have a general understanding of these celebrations. These representations have undoubtedly enriched students’ cultural background knowledge and facilitated an intercultural learning process. 170 Another example of target and international target cultural representation is a listening and speaking skill task about souvenirs from different countries (pages 84-85, CEe3). The task begins with a short introduction about an English family, who hosts foreign visitors from all over the world, and loves to collect souvenirs. Figure 5.7 presents an introduction of the Taylor family and provides a context for the following tasks. This introduction is followed with pictures of different souvenirs: one set of Matryoshka dolls, a cuddly camel, and a bottle of maple syrup (Figure 5.8).

Figure 5.7. Example of target and international target cultural representations in CEe3 (1)

(Extract from Cutting Edge Elementary 3rd Edition, Unit 9, p. 84)

From these language inputs, learners are required to listen to the guests - who are going to stay with the Taylor family - talking about what souvenirs they are going to buy for the family and why they have chosen a particular souvenir. The post-listening practice requires students to talk about their own choice of souvenirs. This cultural representation includes references to both target and international target cultures. The Taylor family in London, their habits, and the picture of a bottle of maple syrup from Canada are representatives of target language culture, while the Matryoshka dolls and the camel are references to Russia and the desert of Petra. This representation is a living example of intercultural relationships, formed by the inclusion of both target and international target culture.

171

Figure 5.8. Example of target and international target cultural representations in CEe3 (2)

(Extract from Cutting Edge Elementary 3rd Edition, Unit 9, p. 84-85)

While other global ELT textbooks confine their target cultural representations mostly to the UK and the US, CEe3 includes references to other English-speaking countries such as Canada, Australia or New Zealand. For example, unit three of this textbook introduces ‘life in Melbourne’. This topic provides the context for an integrated task of listening, reading and talking about life in a favourite town. The structure of the task facilitates the students’ learning processes by providing background information, prompts and suggestions before the production stage. In other words, students are equipped with necessary language input before they are required to produce a sentence. Other cultural representations in this textbook, regardless of whether they are source, target or international target culture, are presented in a logical structure that facilitates students’ learning processes. We will return to this discussion in Chapter Six and Chapter Seven.

Objective KET

OKET has a similar pattern of cultural representations within the two textbook versions, CEe3 and NCEe. It has more international target cultural representations than target cultural representations (See Figure 5.5). In this textbook, the percentage of international target cultural representations ranks highest (60.68%), followed by target culture representations (39.32%). Unlike the two sister textbooks, OKET does not include any source cultural representations. Among these seven textbooks, it is also the textbook that has the least cultural representations, in terms of both target and international target cultures. The number of life outside Vietnam representations in this textbook is about half that of the total number of foreign cultural representations in other textbooks such as NEFpr-i or AEFpr-i. This lower percentage may be explained by the exam-oriented nature

172 of this textbook, which focuses on practicing skills for exams rather than providing cultural knowledge or context. As the target cultural content in each unit of this textbook is not high, OKET develops a picture of a flat world with no boundaries, where English is learnt as an international language. Even if the target culture was embedded in some representations, the references to English speaking countries were not overly specific or explicitly connected to any particular country. The texts about the history of a T-shirt, and famous movies and celebrities, most of which refer to the U.S, contain the most target cultural representations. Figure 5.9 is an example of an American movie, Pirates of the Caribbean, which features Hollywood star, Johnny Depp.

Figure 5.9. Example of target culture representation in OKET (1)

(Extract from Objective KET, Unit 5-8 Revision, p. 54)

In this example, the text is about the content of the film Pirates of the Caribbean. This reading is illustrated with a picture of Johnny Depp, the actor who plays the role of Captain Jack Sparrow, the main figure in the film. The text mentions the name of the film, the name of the main actors and actresses, and the plot, which includes a number of proper nouns that indicate places in America. In this short text, all these details directly refer to the US.

In contrast with a few fairly condensed cultural representations, the majority of target cultural representations in OKET do not contain specific cultural information. Without direct references to the UK and the US, such as the name of these countries or famous cities and places, these cultural representations may be read as common cultural knowledge that may be seen anywhere, and may refer to any country. For example, Figure 5.10 presents a 173 story about a girl on summer holiday who was rescued by a helpful dolphin when she fell off her boat into the sea in the USA. In this example, if the text did not mention Florida, Miami, the USA or London, the content of this text could relate to many other countries from the Outer and Expanding Circles countries.

Figure 5.10. Example of target culture representation in OKET (2)

(Extract from Objective KET, Exam folder 3, p. 37)

There is no direct reference to any African countries in OKET, except for some pictures of people of African origin, but this textbook includes a variety of cultural representations from Asian countries, such as the Chinese New Year Celebration in China (unit 1- 4 Revision) or the founder of the first Game Boy in Japan (unit 17). Such references may help add more colour to the picture of life outside Vietnam, which by nature is quite monotonous and simple in this textbook.

Textbooks featuring equal target and international target cultural representations The three textbooks that feature approximately equal target and international target cultural representations include NEFpr-i, AEFpr-i and NHpr-i3. As can be seen in Figure 5.11, the percentage of target and international target culture representations in these three textbooks are quite similar: approximately half of the cultural representations are from the Inner Circle countries, and the other half are from Outer or Expanding Circle countries.

Similar to the other textbooks in this corpus, most of the references to target and international target cultural representations in these textbooks are names of people and

174 names of places. There are also specific references to particular countries that contain deeper layers of meaning, which may cause some constraints for teachers and students. These representations are mostly concerned with fine arts, politics or literature. Examples of these representations are referred to in the following section.

60.00% 52.42% 51.65% 50.39% 49.56% 47.47% 48.24% 50.00%

40.00% Source culture 30.00% Target culture

20.00% International Target culture

10.00%

0.00% NEFpr-i AEFpr-i NHpr-i3

Figure 5.11. Approximately equal representations of target and international target culture in NEFpr-i, AEFpr-i and NHpr-i3

New English File Pre-intermediate and American English File 2 (NEFpr-i and AEFpr-i)

As noted in section 5.1, NEFpr-i and AEFpr-i are the two textbook versions with differences in British and American English vocabulary and in some names of places such as towns, cities or countries. As AEFpr-i uses American English, it tends to refer to countries in America. Some changes in the names of places may not affect the number of cultural representations because these references belong to target cultural representation category. Figure 5.12 illustrates the example of changes in names of places in one text of the two textbook versions. These changes do not affect the content of the reading text, just a different notion of geographical areas.

In this example, Manchester is replaced by San Antonio, Texas, and this change makes no difference in terms of target cultural representations. Some other changes, however, result in slightly different percentages of target and international target cultural representations in the two textbooks. For example, AEFpr-i replaced the name Brittany in France, which 175 belongs to international target culture, with Gulf Coast in Texas, the name of a place that refers to target culture. Such changes may increase or decrease the frequency numbers of target or international target culture. However, as can be seen in Figure 5.11, there is not a significant difference in these numbers between two textbooks.

Figure 5.12. Changes in names of places in NEFpr-i and AEFpr-i in the same text

(Extracts from NEFpr-i and AEFpr-i, Unit 2A, p. 16)

The cultural representations of life outside Vietnam in NEFpr-i and AEFpr-i are specific of the target and international target cultures. Although references to names, people and places in the world account for considerable percentages of frequency, notable cultural representations refer to distinctive features of the target and international target culture. For example, lesson 1C in these two textbooks present fine art and art works by Henri Marie Raymond de Toulouse-Lautrec and Picasso. Figure 5.13 illustrates the two artworks of these two famous artists. Students are asked to label parts on a face (the first artwork) and to identify who is who in a listening task (the second artwork).

The title of this lesson, At the Moulin Rouge, was taken from the name of one of this artist’s artworks. Other listening and speaking practices in this lesson were designed based on this artwork. In addition to introducing the artist Henri Marie Raymond de Toulouse-Lautrec, teachers and students need to understand the context and the meaning of this artwork. In addition, in this lesson, one artwork by Picasso, Portrait of Dora Maar, is also introduced.

176 Students are required to learn some vocabulary about parts on one’s face based on this artwork. Students need to be presented with some information about Picasso, one famous founder painter of Cubism, before starting to learn new vocabulary. As can be seen later in Chapter Six, teachers may have to prepare carefully and look to the web in order to enrich their cultural background of these two representations, based on which they can conduct an effective lesson.

Figure 5.13. Representations of international target culture in NEFpr-i and AEFpr-i

(Extract from NEFpr-i and AEFpr-i, Unit 1C, p. 8-9)

In lesson 2B, these two textbook versions provide a reading about a photographer retelling his dramatic and memorable moments in his photography career. This photographer retells the moments he took pictures of the US president saying goodbye to the White House after the Watergate scandal, a woman trying to break the Berlin wall, and the Beatles composing the song I feel fine (see Figure 5.14).

The text and the pictures represent deep culture and political understanding of the three countries: Germany, England and the US. It is necessary for teachers and students to have cultural background information about the Watergate scandal and how it made the US President resign. This may help them understand the look on the faces of his family members in the picture. Teachers and students would need to know about the Berlin wall and understand why that German woman in the picture hated it and wanted to break it.

177 They would need to know more about the Beatles and their songs, especially the song I feel fine when they are required to read about the context of its writing. These multiple-layered cultural representations are very popular in these two textbooks. They require teachers and students to carefully prepare in terms of cultural knowledge as well as language knowledge for each lesson.

Figure 5.14. Representations of target and international target culture in NEFpr-i

(Extracts from NEFpr-i, Unit Two, page 18)

NEFpr-i and AEFpr-i feature not only specific and profound target and international target culture but also the general common ones. These representations, however, seem to focus more on Europe and America, and pay less attention to Asia or Africa. In the whole two textbook versions, there is only one representative of Africa. This is a man who worked as tour guide on an island in Africa. There is also an image and a short text about a couple from Japan, who were having a honeymoon in England (see Figure 5.15).

This modest number of cultural representations from Africa and Asia contributes to the incomplete picture of life outside Vietnam in the two textbooks. The lack of cultural representations from continents other than Europe and America does not support the purpose of learning English as an international language, either. This issue will be discussed in more detail later in Chapter Seven.

178

Figure 5.15. Representatives of continents other than Europe and America

(Extracts from NEFpr-i and AEFpr-i, Unit 2, p. 25 and Unit 3A, p. 29)

New Headway Pre-Intermediate Third Edition (NHpr-i3)

Unlike NEFpr-i and AEFpr-i, NHpr-i3 includes cultural representations from all over the world. Although life outside Vietnam in this textbook features the dominance of Inner Circle countries, cultural representations from other Outer Circle and Expanding Circle countries are not significantly inferior. In fact, these percentages are approximately equal (49.56% and 50.39%) (See figure 5.11).

In addition to the dominance of target cultural representations from England, the US, or Canada, NHpr-i3 also presents a variety of cultures across Europe, America, Asia or Africa. Unit one introduces a girl coming from Croatia. Unit two presents the life and work of a Chinese woman living in Guangdong province, China. Unit four describes a floating market in Bangkok, Thailand, an open-air market in Provence, France, and the souks of Marrakech in Morocco. Unit six portrays the diversity of London when housing people from various countries in the world such as Nigeria, Korea, Turkey or Portugal. Besides two direct references to Africa in unit five about a Nigerian community in London, and in unit nine about going on a safari, NHpr-i3 also includes numerous pictures of people of African origin (see Figure 5.16).

179

Figure 5.16. Representations of Africa in NHpr-i3

(Extract from NHpr-i3, Unit 6, p. 51 and Unit 9, p. 71)

The presence of these cultural representations contributes to a comprehensive picture of life outside Vietnam represented in this textbook and support English learning as an international language. As most of these target and international target cultural representations provide context and basis for skill practice, they seem not to require teachers too much preparation in terms of cultural knowledge in their teaching.

Textbooks featuring more target cultural representations Straightforward Elementary Second Edition (SFe2)

The last textbook in this corpus, SFe2, focuses more on target cultural representations. Although the difference between these target and international target cultural representations is not too significant (54.57% and 45.43% respectively), this is opposite with other textbooks in the corpus. Figure 5.17 represents the percentages of target and international target culture in SFe2.

Having 54.57% target cultural representations, SFe2 refers to England and the US more often than to other English-speaking countries. Big cities such as London and New York are mentioned more frequently than other places. There are some references to Canada, but there are not any references to Australia or New Zealand.

180 Representations of 'life outside Vietnam' in SFe2

0%

45.43% Source culture 54.57% Target culture International target culture

Figure 5.17. Cultural representations of life outside Vietnam in SFe2

The cultural representations from the UK and the US are specific and typical of those countries. For example, Figure 5.18 presents the list of top ten favourite books in Britain, which may not be very familiar to EFL learners. The second picture shows some of the phone facts in North America, which is a specific reference to the US. It seems that SFe2 provides a confined picture of target culture within the UK and the US.

Figure 5.18. Target cultural representations in SFe2

(Extract from SFe2, Unit 6B, p. 65 and Unit 4D, p. 49)

International target culture accounts for a smaller half of the cultural representations in SFe2. This textbook includes cultural representations from a variety of countries in the world. It describes Cape Town, South Africa in unit ten, presents some kinds of food from Mexico and Spain in unit seven, and mentions Myanmar, India, Singapore or Cuba in some 181 of their texts. The two Asian countries which are more frequently referred to in this textbook, are China and Japan. These two countries are the most developed and the biggest countries in Asia with huge markets for EFL. For example, unit one includes the national flag of China and unit seven presents sushi, a famous Japanese dish. These two international target cultural representations provide the basis for different activities. While the national flag of China is a suggestion for a simple speaking task of describing the colour of the flag and saying which country a student comes from and what nationality he is, the picture of sushi is an illustration for more challenging speaking and listening tasks.

Although focusing on more target culture, the representation of life outside Vietnam in SFe2 is a colourful picture of different countries in different continents. While some of these representations may be simple and straightforward in providing cultural knowledge, other representations include different layers of meaning that require both a deep and broad cultural knowledge of the target and international target culture. The ‘representation of life outside Vietnam’ in this textbook therefore is not uniform.

5.3.3. Summary of cultural representations in the corpus of textbooks. My analysis of seven global ELT textbooks in terms of cultural representations identifies similar patterns in which sources of cultures are presented. These textbooks pay little attention to source culture (which is Vietnamese culture in this situation), and present a dominance of target and international target cultures. SFe2 and OKET take no notice of Vietnamese culture. These findings are in alignment with the discoveries of previous research on cultural representations in global ELT textbooks (Dahmardeh et al., 2014; Shah et al., 2014; Shin et al., 2011; Truong & Phan, 2009; Yuen, 2011). There is, however, evidence that there are increasing representations of Vietnamese culture in these global textbooks. Recently published global textbooks include more references to Vietnam. For example, CEe3, which was published in 2014, includes up to ten references to Vietnamese culture. Most of these representations are simple, for example, name of the country or name of a place. A few representations refer to Vietnamese people or Vietnamese food, which are ‘surface culture’. They do not provide ‘in-depth’ understandings about Vietnamese culture.

‘The representations of life outside Vietnam’ account for most cultural representations in the seven textbooks. There are three different patterns of representations: CEe3, NCEe and

182 OKET include more international target cultural representations; SFe2 consists of more target cultural representations; and NEFpr-i, AEFpr-i and NHpr-i3 have approximately balanced percentages. The differences in the percentages of target and international target cultural representations, however, are not significant.

The seven textbooks refer mostly to the UK, the US and Canada in presenting target cultural representations. Australia and New Zealand are the two least represented. CEe3 is the only textbook, which includes a reading about life in Melbourne, Australia. The imbalance in the portions of references to English speaking countries draws an incomplete target culture picture that includes only the UK, the US and Canada. This imbalance also prevails in the representations of international target culture in most of these textbooks. References to European countries are found more frequently, and Asian or African countries are underrepresented. In the two textbooks, NEFpr-i and AEFpr-i, there is only one reference to Asia, and one reference to Africa. OKET does not have any direct reference to Africa, except for some pictures of people of African origin. Among the seven textbooks, CEe3 seems to provide the most comprehensive picture of the world as it includes representations from all continents with considerable percentages.

Names of people and places are the most frequent references in the representation of life outside Vietnam in all these international textbooks. These references are not too complicated to figure out and categorise. The target and international target cultural representations in CEe3 or OKET are quite straightforward as they provide cultural knowledge as the basis for skills activities. Other representations with multiple layers of meanings in NEFpr-I, AEFpr-i or SFe2 require teachers and students to have a comprehensive cultural knowledge. While transparent cultural representations are supportive in providing interesting cultural information, those with multi-layered meanings require more careful preparation. Whether a representation is transparent or has hidden meanings partly depends on what sense of culture it is represented by. These representations of life outside Vietnam were then subjected to the second coding to identify how they are represented. From my analysis, we might understand whether or not language activities in a textbook are designed to support students’ intercultural competence in EIL.

183 The following sections discuss senses of culture.

5.4. Senses of Cultures in the Corpus of Seven Textbooks The results of cultural content identification in this corpus of seven textbooks suggest that there are similar patterns in the treatment of source, target, and international target culture. The representations of life outside Vietnam are dominant in all seven textbooks. In order to examine how this picture of life outside Vietnam is represented in these seven textbooks, this chapter applies the framework developed by Adaskou, Britten and Fashi (1990) in categorising these representations into four senses of culture: aesthetic, sociological, semantic and pragmatic. Research results indicate homogenous patterns in the representations of four senses of cultures in these seven textbooks. As indicated in Figure 5.19, the sociological sense accounts for the most representations (50.65%); the aesthetic comes second (31.95%); and semantic and pragmatic are the least represented (10.8% and 6.6%). These findings reveal that the corpus of seven textbooks emphasises the sociological and aesthetic senses of culture without disregarding the semantic and pragmatic senses.

100% 31.95 90% 10.80 6.60% 80% % % 70% 60% Pragmatic Aesthetic 50% Semantic Sociological 40% 30% Sociological Semantic 20% Aesthetic Pragmatic 10% 50.65 0% %

Figure 5.19. Representation of life outside Vietnam in four senses of culture

These findings are in alignment with Adaskou, Britten and Fashi’s argument of the important role these four senses of culture play in learners’ achievement of intercultural communicative competence. While the semantic and pragmatic senses of culture are, to some extent, necessary for the development of students’ communicative competence, the aesthetic and sociological senses of culture have more important roles to play. Firstly, these senses of culture help promote international perception and reduce stereotypes and prejudices toward the target language. Secondly, these senses encourage learners to

184 appreciate their own culture, from which they become more receptive toward others, and this may help facilitate students’ travel or stay in a foreign country. Finally, these senses of culture bring about more motivation for learners in the classroom context (Adaskou et al., 1990, p. 4). The following sections discuss each sense of culture in these textbooks to identify their contribution to the learner’s achievement in terms of communicative competence.

5.4.1. Sociological sense of culture. Figure 5.19 suggests that the occurrences of sociological sense of culture are predominant in the representation of life outside Vietnam. They account for over half of the total representations in the corpus of seven textbooks (50.65%). The sociological sense of culture is called low culture or small ‘c’ culture. This sense of culture includes aspects of “organisation and nature of family, of home life, of interpersonal relations, material condition, work and leisure, customs and institutions” (Adaskou et al., 1990, p. 3) (See Chapter Three, section 2.3.5, pages 59-61). These aspects belong to a vast area dealing with culture as a way of life. This sense of culture also focuses on common or minor themes; therefore, the representations of the sociological sense are prevalent in most of the textbooks. Of the total seven textbooks, CEe3 and NHpr-i include less than half of the sociological sense of culture (41.56% and 39.26% respectively). However, the sociological sense of culture still prevails over other senses of culture in these two textbooks. In the other five textbooks, the sociological sense of culture predominates by representing over 50% of the total cultural representations. OKET especially allows for 61.53% of sociological sense of culture, leaving three other senses less than half of the total percentage. The sociological sense is the most widespread sense of culture represented in these global textbooks.

The occurrences of the sociological sense of culture encompass every aspect of life. The most common occurrences in the sociological sense are connected with names of people and names of places. For example, Figure 5.20 introduces a text in the textbook CEe3 about family connections. In this short text, there are 17 occurrences of names of people and one name of a country.

185

Figure 5.20. Example showing the frequent occurrences of names of people

(Extract from CEe3, Unit 2, p. 19)

The family connection of an English actor is the theme of this text. After my first reading, I thought that the cultural representations in the text might be categorised as the aesthetic because this text has some details related to mass media and film industry. For example, this text presents Emilia Fox, an English actor, and other members of her family, who are also actors in English film industry. However, on second reading, I decided that the cultural representations in this text are mainly about the connection of Emilia’s family members and only coincidently on their professional careers. Many people in her family, for example, her grandmother, her parents, her brother, her uncle, her cousins, are all actors. The text is more relevant to the sociological sense of culture in the way that it deals with work and the organisation and nature of a family. The foreign names of people in the text include: Emilia Fox, Edward Fox, Joanna David, Angela Worthington, James Fox, Laurence Fox, Lydia Fox, Freddie Fox, Rose, and King George V. Some names are repeated several times, and the repetition of names in the Western family is common. The total occurrence of names in the text is 17.

NCEe and OKET also discuss family trees, but in greater detail than CEe3. Unit 12 OKET includes vocabulary and reading practices for students based on the life of Scarlett Johansson. Reading about famous film stars such as Scarlett Johansson and doing exercises based on her personal details may be more interesting and engaging than reading

186 about someone unknown. These target culture representations are associated with the organisation and nature of family, one component of the sociological sense of culture.

Together with names of people, names of places also prevail in all of the textbooks examined. Names of places include names of countries, cities, towns, areas, tourist attractions, famous buildings, monuments, rivers, lakes, mountains, streets, and any other names except for people. Figure 5.21 illustrates one example of frequent place naming.

Figure 5.21. Example showing the frequent occurrence of names of places

(Extract from SFe2, Unit 6D, p. 68)

In Figure 5.21, this short text includes 13 representations of target culture that relate to names of places. They are: London, Oxford Street, Knightsbridge, London, Chelsea, Arsenal, Kew Gardens, the Thames, St Paul’s Cathedral, the London Aquarium, and the Tower of London (the city of London is repeated twice in the text). Although the text presents a short introduction about popular tourist places in London, under each name of place there are different stories that contain their societal and cultural values. These names of places are categorised into the vast area of “material conditions”, one of the components that constitute the sociological sense of culture.

The occurrences of life outside Vietnam representations are frequently recorded in the organisation of home life, interpersonal relations, and work and leisure. Many of the conversations, texts or tasks in the corpus of textbooks are between friends, family members or colleagues discussing or introducing their daily activities. Pictures and illustrations for these conversations, texts or tasks are featured with foreign faces, most of

187 which are of European or American origin. Figure 5.22 presents an example of conversations among friends about their leisure activities in their daily conversations.

Figure 5.22. Example showing conversations among friends

(Extract from OKET, Unit 14.1, p. 86)

In this picture, the two friends are talking with each other about playing a musical instrument in a music band. They mention electric guitar, music band, and guitar player, which are related to music, one component of the aesthetic sense of culture. However, the content of the conversation is mainly about the boy trying to persuade the girl to join his music band, which he thinks needs a guitar player. The conversation seems to be about an interpersonal relationship, one of the components of the sociological sense of culture. Eight occurrences of names and six pictures illustrated in this conversation are counted as 14 representations of sociological sense of culture in this example.

The organisation of home life and interpersonal relations in the sociological sense of culture are represented in multiple reading texts about family relationship and family problems. These reading texts concentrate on family values, more specifically about the relationships between parents and children, or brothers and sisters. For example, NHpr-i3, NEFpr-i and AEFpr-i include reading texts about problems between parents with their

188 teenage children. In English speaking cultures, children at the age of 18 are expected to live independently from their parents, while in Vietnam this is not a dominant cultural value. Many traditional Vietnamese parents want their sons and daughters to live with them even when they marry and have their own children. Vietnamese people tend to live in extended families where grandparents may help look after grandchildren when their parents are at work. Some reading texts in these textbooks represent cultural practice which is uncommon in Vietnam. AEFpr-i includes a reading text about one couple in Spain who takes their children to court because their children are irresponsible (unit 4B, p.43). SF2 has a story about a grown-up man, who has a good job and a good car, but does not want to leave home and his parents. That situation may be considered normal in Vietnamese society, but in this case, his father is very angry with him, and wants him to move out. Due to differences in family values between various cultures, family relationships and problems become rich sources of cultural representations in these global ELT textbooks.

The final component of a sociological sense of culture, work and leisure, are frequently found in the representations of life outside Vietnam. All textbooks examined contain texts about types of work, jobs, sports, markets in the world, shopping centres, shopping streets, holiday abroad, life in big cities, and festivals all over the world. Dealing with culture as a way of life, this sociological sense of culture covers a vast area of representations that help it constitute the biggest share among the senses of cultures in these seven textbooks.

5.4.2. Aesthetic sense of culture. In the seven global ELT textbooks examined, the representations of life outside Vietnam in an aesthetic sense of culture rank second place among the four senses of culture (see Figure 5.9). This sense accounts for 31.95% of the total representations, which is a considerable percentage compared with other senses. As can be seen in table 5.1, CEe3 and NHpr-i3 have more balanced percentages of aesthetic and sociological senses of cultures. While CEe3 contains of 38.88% aesthetic and 41.26% sociological, NHpr-i3 contains 31.45% aesthetic and 39.56% sociological. In five other textbooks, the percentages of aesthetic sense are about half that of sociological sense. Aesthetic sense is the second popular sense of culture in the corpus of textbooks.

The aesthetic sense of culture, or Culture with a big C, mostly consists of arts, music,

189 media, cinema, and literature. These topic areas are frequently presented in every textbook. The most common topic represented in every textbook is music. CEe3 introduces an English famous singer songwriter, Adele in unit four (page 35), and Queen, a legendary rockband in unit eight (page 73). The textbooks NEFpr-i and AEFpr-i raise a list of multiple questions about ‘fifty years of rock’, and introduce John Lennon and the famous song Imagine in the same unit. NHpr-i3 presents soul music and singer Leroy in unit six (page 46). SF2 presents the Grammy Award Winners, such as The Rolling Stones, Britney Spears, and Bob Dylan in unit 12A, page 122. While the representation about Adele is in a listening task, the representation about Queen is to provide cultural information for a reading task. The quiz, ‘fifty years of rock’, on the other hand, is to examine students’ cultural knowledge about famous music bands or singers. As presented in Chapter Six, this quiz, ‘fifty years of rock’ may not support students’ communicative competence because it calls for students’ prior cultural knowledge of Western culture in answering these questions. Students may have difficulties in completing the tasks associated with this questionnaire (See section 6.3.2, page 243). Figure 5.23 illustrates this quiz about music.

Figure 5.23. Example showing the quiz, ‘fifty years of rock’

(Extract from NEFpr-i and AEFpr-i, Unit 2C, p. 20)

In this example, the first task, which requires students to fill in the blanks using Wh- question words, seems to be achievable for most students. However, the second task asking students to choose the right answers for those questions may be beyond their knowledge. This assumption is supported in Chapter Six when teachers and students who I interviewed 190 noted this quiz as one of the most challenging cultural representations in the textbooks they used (see section 6.3.2, page 243).

Other common aesthetic sense topics are about movies, cinema and famous people, including actors and actresses. These topics are widespread in seven of the textbooks, and may be repeated several times throughout. Table 5.3 below illustrates the use of these topics in the seven textbooks.

Table 5.3. The use of aesthetic sense topics in the seven textbooks

Textbook Unit Representations or titles Purposes CEe3 7 - Life stories of famous people - Testing cultural background knowledge. (Mozart, the Jackson Five, footballer Pele…). - Providing basis for other activities - Jackie Kennedy Onassis 8 Cleopatra - Testing cultural background knowledge - Providing context for language input NCEe 4 Famous British and American stars - Providing context for other activities 8 Film facts! - Providing context for other activities NEFpr-i 7 Hitchcock or Tarantino? - Testing cultural background knowledge - Providing context for other activities AEFpr-i 7 Hitchcock or Tarantino? - Testing cultural background knowledge - Providing context for other activities NHpr-i3 3 The name’s Bond, James Bond - Providing context for other activities 7 - Fame! - Testing cultural background knowledge - Davina Moody – Drama Queen - Providing context for other activities SFe2 6 Actor! Author! - Providing context for other activities OKET 8 A great movie - Testing cultural background knowledge - Providing context for other activities 12 Scarlett Johansson - Providing context for other activities 17 James Bond - Providing context for other activities 20 Famous people (David Beckham, Kelly - Testing cultural background knowledge Osbourne, Arnold Schwarzenegger) - Providing context for other activities

Among the 13 units that represent movies, cinema or famous people, the representations in seven units provide context for language input or skills activities, and require students’ cultural background as well. In most cases, these representations may be beyond students’ background knowledge. For example, unit seven CEe3 includes a quiz about the life of famous people: Mozart, the Jackson Five, twin actors Mary Kate and Ashley Olsen, skater Tara Lipinski, footballer Pele and actress Tatum O’Neal. Vietnamese students may know that the talented composer Mozart was from Austria, but it is harder for them to know details about the Jackson Five or actress Tatum O’Neal. They may have never heard of the twin actors Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen; and they cannot possibly know when these twin actors’ first TV show was. Although this quiz is just a warming up task for presenting a

191 grammatical issue, the sense of incompletion may have some influence on learners.

Another example of aesthetic sense representations that requires students’ cultural background knowledge is the reading and speaking task in unit seven, NEFpr-i. The task provides details about two famous directors, Hitchcock and Tarantino, and students are instructed to decide what details belong to whom. As can be seen later in Chapter Six (See section 6.3.3, pages 255-256), this task seems to be too demanding not only for students, but for teachers as well. In order to complete the subsequent speaking task, retelling details about Hitchcock and Tarantino, both teachers and students need to have sufficient cultural information about these two directors. The task is designed to provide cultural information, but in fact calls upon students’ non-existent prior background knowledge. Textbook writers appeared to assume that learners from Outer and Expanding circle countries should somehow be familiar with such information.

Aesthetic sense representations play an important role in providing contexts for language input or other skills practice activities. They may be a reading text about a film for reading comprehension, or illustrations for speaking and listening comprehension tasks. These representations prove to be helpful in English learning when they provide new cultural knowledge and attract students’ attention. For example, unit eight in NCEe includes interesting facts about films and cinema that provide students with much information on this industry. Students are provided with “important firsts”: the first film, the first talking film, the first full-length cartoon, and the first film made by computer. They are also informed that the biggest film was Titanic, the top-paid actor was Arnold Schwarzenegger, Cameron Diaz and Julia Robert, the greatest star of silent movies was Charlie Chaplin, and the ‘fun fact’ that Hollywood is not the biggest movie industry in the world, but Bollywood is. These fun facts about the movie industry provide context for a reading exercise and facilitate grammatical presentations on past tense afterwards.

Figure 5.24 illustrates another example of aesthetic sense representations that provide useful context for other skill activities. Unit eight in NCEe provides details about the film the Lord of the Rings, one of the three most successful films after the film Titanic. These details supply students with the background knowledge necessary to do a listening task about the author of the Lords of the Rings book. These details may help raise students’

192 interest in getting to know more about the author who wrote the book, from which they have information to complete the practice exercises associated with this representation.

Figure 5.24. Example of aesthetic sense representation providing context for skill practice

(Extract from NCEe, Unit 8, p. 72)

Other aesthetic topics such as arts, media or literature are less common in these seven textbooks. NCEpr-i and AEFpr-i include the most representations related to art and art works. As noted in section 5.3.2 (pages 178-179), these textbooks include two pictures by Pablo Picasso and Henri Marie Raymond de Toulouse-Lautrec and their subsequent practices. In addition, these two textbooks introduce a famous photo named Lovers at the Bastille and the moment it was taken. These are the only two textbooks that include works of art amongst their aesthetic representations.

OKET includes one long reading text about the life history of Marco Polo, a Spanish explorer in the thirteenth century. This text is about the life history of Marco Polo, but it is also about the history of the Middle Ages. Marco Polo was the first European explorer to travel to Asia. This text was categorised into the aesthetic sense of culture. Another unit in this textbook, unit ten, features six famous buildings in the world, which are considered to be current works of art: Sydney Opera House, Eiffel Tower, Sagrada Familia, Colosseum, Guggenheim Museum, and Parthenon. Together with the pictures of these buildings, students are instructed to match mixed details about places, time and people associated with

193 each corresponding building.

CEe3 and NHpr-i3 include some reading texts about media, such as the information age (unit 7, CEe3), the amazing world of Ebay (unit 4, NHpr-i3), and the invention of Google (unit 10, NHpr-i3). As noted earlier, NCEe and SF2 do not have any representations related to art, literature or media. Although the representations of the aesthetic sense are not as prevalent as those of the sociological sense, they play an important role in providing context for language input and skill practice. A considerable number of these representations require teachers and students’ prior cultural background knowledge in order to complete the assigned tasks associated with the representations.

5.4.3. Semantic sense of culture. The representations of the semantic sense of culture are not as widespread. They account for 10.80% of the total number of representations (See Figure 5.19). As can be seen in table 5.1, CEe3 and SFe2 consist of around 17% of the total representations while other textbooks include about 10%. OKET has the smallest percentage of semantic sense, which is 3.98%. Representations of semantic sense of culture fall third in the rank.

The semantic sense of culture, as defined by Adaskou et al (1990), is the “conceptual system embodied in the language” that “conditioning all our perceptions and our thought processes” (p.3). In this corpus of textbooks, the representations of the semantic sense of culture are sparse. In NEFpr-i and AEFpr-i, unit two includes representations of semantic sense in a long reading text about important moments of a photographer’s career. The reading text mentions The White House, the Watergate scandal in the first paragraph, and the Berlin wall and people, old and young, trying to break the wall with stones in the second paragraph. As noted in section 5.3.2 (pages 179-180), in order to understand the semantic sense representations in the following two paragraphs, students may need to understand the underlying meanings of these representations.

1. I took this picture on August 9th, 1974. He was saying goodbye to his cabinet and the White House staff after the ‘Watergate’ scandal. All his family were standing round him. You can see from their faces what they were feeling.

2. In 1989, I was working in London on a story when suddenly I heard the news that the Russians were planning to make Berlin an open city. So I got on a plane. 194 When I arrived in Berlin many people, young and old, were attacking the wall with stones. The woman in the photo was shouting, ‘I hate it, I hate it’.

(Extracts from NEFpr-i, Unit Two, page 18)

In the first paragraph, the words the White House staff and the Watergate scandal are embodied with semantic meanings that require students’ deeper cultural background knowledge. Students may need to understand that the White House staff represents the current US government, and that the White House originates from the name of a famous office building of the US government. Students also need to be familiar with the Watergate scandal, when US President Nixon and his close aids had to resign from their posts after playing ‘dirty tricks’ on their political opponents such as bugging their offices in the Watergate office complex in Washington D.C. Students would also learn that the name Watergate and the suffix -gate has since become synonymous with any political scandals in the US or elsewhere, such as the Monica-gate scandal with US President Bill Clinton in later years.

In the second paragraph, students will need to know the reasons why Berlin was not an open city, why the Russians were planning to make it an open city, and why the German people wanted to break the wall. These representations bring back the history of Germany and the separation of East Germany, affiliated with the Eastern Bloc, and West Germany, allied with NATO, during the Cold War. The Berlin Wall used to be considered a protective wall against the “Fascists”, and later a restriction on freedom of movement. This famous picture was taken in 1989, when the East German government announced the fall of the Berlin wall after a series of radical political changes. The fall of the Berlin wall paved the way for German reunification, which had been longed for by German people for a long time.

Most semantic representations in these textbooks provide context for language practice. From the above examples, it is clear that behind some semantic representations are complicated stories related to those countries’ culture, history and politics. Therefore, in order to present these semantic representations, teachers need to be equipped with thorough relevant cultural knowledge.

195 5.4.4. Pragmatic sense of culture. Pragmatic sense representations are the least common in the seven textbooks. They occupy only 6.60% of the total cultural representations of four senses (See Figure 5.19). As can be seen in table 5.1, NHpr-i3 includes the biggest share of pragmatic sense representations (around 15%), while NCEe, OKET and CEe3 consist of insignificant percentages (3.41%. 3.12% and 2.55% respectively). From these percentages, it is clear that the pragmatic sense of culture is not the focal point of these textbooks; however, it is not totally neglected, either.

The pragmatic sense of culture, as informed in Adaskou, Britten and Fashi’s (1990) influential article, consists of “the background knowledge, social skills and paralinguistic skills” that, besides the knowledge of language, facilitate successful communication (p.4) (See Chapter Two, section 2.3, page 60). For example, this sense of culture helps learners use appropriate intonation patterns and exponents of communicative functions. It enables learners to conform to norms of politeness, which may be different from theirs. It also informs learners of the conventions that regulate interpersonal relations, which may be different from theirs. It familiarises learners with the main rhetorical conventions in written genres, for example, learning how to write a business email, how to leave a message, how to fill in a form, or how to post an advertisement in newspaper. The pragmatic sense of culture is, to some extent, necessary to the learners’ communicative competence.

NHpr-i3 includes the pragmatic sense of culture in the Everyday English part at the end of every unit. For example, unit two of this textbook presents the conventions of having a successful conversation in English with two examples of conversations between teachers and students. This example was cited in picture 3.7 of Chapter Three - the Methodology (page 101). In this example, the first conversation between an English teacher and his student was unsuccessful due to the lack of some common conventions in having a conversation as well as the flat intonations of the student showing her indifference. The second conversation is a success thanks to the interest of both speakers and their techniques in maintaining the conversation. They keep their conversation flowing, raise and lower their voices when necessary, add more comments, and ask interesting questions. These conventions may be applied to other cultures as well, but they are typical of the English language. Other conventions in everyday life, such as telling the time and dates, giving

196 phone numbers, asking for directions, filling in a form, going to the doctor’s, and expressing surprise and happiness, are included in every unit of this textbook. That may explain why NHpr-i3 includes the most representations of pragmatic sense (15.38%) among the seven textbooks.

Although having a variety of practical functions, the pragmatic representations in the six other textbooks may not be sufficient for students to use English as a means of communication. NCEe includes a limited number of representations in this sense. They are simply sentence structures for students to role-play in daily situations, such as telephoning or ordering food or drinks. Compared with NCEe, the more updated textbook CEe3 includes new Language Live sections that integrate writing conventions such as completing a form, sending a text message or writing a letter. Figure 5.25 below illustrates ‘text speak’ – the kind of English people use when sending a text message.

Figure 5.25. Example of presentation of life outside Vietnam in pragmatic sense of culture

(Extract from CEe3, Unit 14, p. 131)

In this example, some ‘text speak’ words, which are created from similar sounds with ‘normal English’, are provided. These words look a bit strange, but they are commonly used in text messages as they consist of fewer letters compared to words with the same meanings. These representations of the pragmatic sense of culture provide learners with practical usage of a variety of English that they may encounter in their everyday life. In this representation, students are first required to match each text speak with its original word. Then they read the messages and rearrange them in the right order.

197 The new Language Live sections in this textbook provide some useful tips on ordering food and drink, asking for goods and services or telephoning in English politely. Learners are provided with sentence structures to role-play these conversations, and they are advised to be as friendly and polite as possible. Similarly, NEFpr-i and AEFpr-i integrate some pragmatic representations at the end of each unit, with focus on some conversation conventions such as asking for directions, calling reception or buying tickets. As an exam- oriented textbook, OKET randomly includes representations of life outside Vietnam in the pragmatic sense of culture. In general, these pragmatic representations are necessary in everyday life; however, they were sparsely seen in the majority of textbooks examined.

5.5. Summary There are consistent patterns among the seven textbooks in terms of how they represent sources of culture and types of culture. Obvious imbalance occurs in the breadth of cultures represented in these textbooks. Most references are made to target culture and international target culture, which is life outside Vietnam. Representations of source culture, in this case Vietnamese culture, are underrepresented (See section 5.3.1, pages 167-170). Analysing these textbooks using different analytical frameworks and research methodologies, this research study provides findings consistent with former studies, which explored global English textbooks (Dahmardeh et al., 2014; Shah et al., 2014; Shin et al., 2011; Yuen, 2011). These former studies contribute to the two ‘extremes’ in the current body of literature on the development of ELT materials: Local culture based in local ELT textbooks and American/British culture based in global ELT textbooks (Dinh, 2014).

Given the overemphasis on life outside Vietnam, these textbooks fail to provide balanced opportunities for Vietnamese culture to appear in textbooks, and therefore, may fail to nurture self-confidence and pride in students themselves. The more recent textbook, CEe3, had made some improvements to this issue. These textbook writers attempted to enable learners to compare their own culture with foreign cultures, from which they may gain a better understanding of their own culture (Adaskou et al., 1990).

The variability in the percentages of sources of culture holds true regarding the representations of different countries in the world. The amount of coverage of the cultures of the Inner Circle countries is greater than that of other cultures. Most representations refer

198 to the UK, the US, and Canada. In some textbooks, there are a few or even no references to other countries in the Inner Circles such as Australia or New Zealand. This is similar to what Hermawan and Lia (2012) and Lund (2007) found in their studies that the Anglo- Saxon countries (in this instance, the USA and Britain) hold the focus of target cultural representations. As for international target culture, references to Europe are dominant, leaving Africa or Asia with the fewest representations. These deficiencies provide learners an incomplete picture of countries in the world, which may also hinder intercultural communicative competence.

These textbooks display identical patterns in life outside Vietnam representations in terms of senses of culture. They pay imbalanced attention to the four senses of culture proposed by Adaskou et al. (1990). The sociological sense of culture (little c culture) is significantly predominant in the representations of life outside Vietnam. The aesthetic sense of culture (big C culture) comes second in the rank, followed by the semantic. The pragmatic sense of culture receives the least mention in this corpus of seven textbooks. These findings are mostly in alignment with those of previous research studies (Abdullah, Sanda Kumari, & Chandran, 2009; Adaskou et al., 1990; Hermawan & Lia, 2012). These findings also signify that these textbooks emphasise culture as the way of life – little c culture. Little c culture plays a more significant role in everyday communication than big C culture. In order to develop intercultural communicative competence, students first need to be able to communicate their daily way of life (Wintergerst & McVeigh, 2014). As textbooks communicate these cultural values, they help develop students’ intercultural competence.

In these seven textbooks, life outside Vietnam is represented mostly in the knowledge- oriented form, which provides cultural facts through texts and images. Besides the main role of providing contexts for linguistic skill development, representations of life outside Vietnam in the four senses of culture may sometimes affect students’ development of ICC. Some representations are designed to check students’ knowledge about Western culture. These textbooks have assumed that students may have a certain amount of familiarity with representations of Western culture. As will be seen later in Chapter Six, by designing the representations in this way, textbook writers are calling on students’ prior knowledge which may be non-existent. Students may face with difficulties in dealing with these representations that require a background knowledge of Western culture.

199 In short, textbook publishers share similarities in how they construct their textbooks, and in what they think important to have in these textbooks. As discussed earlier in Chapter Two the Literature Review (Section 2.4.3, pages 66-67), the goal of modern ELT is to train learners to become fluent speakers, who can accommodate themselves in a variety of cultural perspectives without losing their own cultural identity. With that goal in mind, the domination of target and international target culture, together with the underrepresentation of source culture in these textbooks signifies the deficiency of these textbooks in supporting students’ awareness of the English varieties these days (Hermawan & Lia, 2012). While developing students’ self identity and confidence in accommodating themselves in an international environment should be the primary goal in intercultural language teaching, these textbooks’ deficiency has urged teachers and textbook writers to reconsider types of cultural knowledge to include in their textbooks (M. T. T. Nguyen, 2011). It might be helpful for textbook writers to consider expanding the variety of cultural information provided, including a good balance of both international target culture and Vietnamese culture. This may help prepare learners to be confident with their own culture and integrate themselves in intercultural communication. Any decision to include only or mainly British/American culture would be considered limited and limiting.

The domination of sociological and aesthetic sense representations in the seven textbooks signifies these textbooks are content-oriented, and that they focus on culture as a way of life. By focusing on aesthetic and sociological senses, these textbooks provide students with information about culture as a way of life to encourage international understanding and minimise stereotypes and prejudice against other cultures. They also encourage students to compare their own culture with others, from which they are more appreciative of their own culture, and more open toward other cultures. In the Vietnamese context, these textbooks should enable learners to use English to express their own cultural identity by providing them with necessary language knowledge. These textbooks, by focusing on the sociological and aesthetic sense of culture, play an important role in assisting students’ intercultural communicative competence. However, culture has other aspects. A balanced integration of other cultural dimensions, which in this case involves various concepts of culture, should be taken into account.

200 In Chapter Five, I have analysed the corpus of current textbooks in terms of sources of culture and types of culture, which has indicated how these textbooks facilitate or interfere with students’ intercultural competence. In Chapter Six, I present interesting findings of how teachers and students navigate these linguistic situations toward intercultural competence in their teaching and learning process. I analyse teachers and students’ viewpoints on these textbooks and discover students’ cultural background knowledge. My analysis then uncovers how these foreign cultural representations affect students’ intercultural competence and how Vietnamese teachers and students negotiate these foreign cultural representations in ELT textbooks.

201 Chapter Six: Phase Three Findings

6.1. Overview Chapter Four provided a general picture of the EFL teaching programs and the corpus of ELT textbooks currently used at technical universities in Hanoi, Vietnam. Chapter Five described in detail the representations of life outside Vietnam in these ELT textbooks, largely in terms of which cultures are most represented and how these cultures are represented. In these global ELT textbooks, my analysis of their representations has demonstrated a bias towards target and international target cultures – based knowledge, and the dominance of sociological and aesthetic senses of culture. These representations have, to some extent, made contributions to students’ intercultural communicative competence.

Students Teachers

Belief towards English Foreign cultural Locations learning experience

Rural Urban Engaged Disengaged With Without

ELT textbooks & CRs in Responses to CRs & CRs in ELT textbooks & ELT textbooks teaching practice of CRs CR teaching pedagogy

Similarities and differences Conclusions

Figure 6.1. Organisation of Chapter Six

202 Figure 6.1 illustrates the organisation of Chapter Six, representing the shared and divergent views of teacher and students in terms of textbooks, cultural representations in textbooks and the influence of these representations on students’ intercultural communicative competence. Chapter Six examines teachers and students’ interviews to address the question of how they, who engage with these representations, perceive them and respond to them. My analysis helps explain how these representations affect students’ intercultural communicative competence. As illustrated in figure 6.1, I commenced this analysis by looking at the data from several perspectives that emerged during the data coding process. I first compared and contrasted teachers and students’ responses to similar interview questions. As such, I noticed a number of key factors that influenced their responses. These included: the ‘location’ and ‘belief’ factors among students, and the ‘international experience’ factor among teachers. For students, the ‘location factor’ and their ‘belief’ toward English learning were the most prominent element affecting their responses to cultural representations in ELT textbooks. As noted in Chapter Three, whether students were from urban or rural areas may influence their cultural background knowledge. These students had variable prior cultural knowledge and cultural experience due to the amount of their exposure to different cultures. Their familiarity with foreign cultures thus shaped their interpretation of representations of life outside Vietnam. The coding process also observed that whether students had positive or negative attitudes towards English learning affected how they perceived representations of life outside Vietnam. From these emerging themes, students’ responses were analysed based on the ‘location’ and ‘belief’ perspectives to understand what effect cultural background had on students’ appreciation of cultural representations and how their ‘belief” in English learning influenced the development of intercultural communicative competence.

Similarly, I observed that teachers’ first-hand international experience seemed to have a significant influence in forming their perspectives on ELT textbooks and cultural representations in these texts. Teachers’ responses were then analysed based on their cultural experience, representing their similar and different views. Depending on their appreciation of cultural issues in language teaching, these teachers may apply a range of methods when dealing with representations of life outside Vietnam. Having completed the analyses of teachers and students’ interview data, I compared and contrasted their

203 responses. In this process, there emerged noticeable similarities as well as differences, especially in terms of cultural topics and cultural teaching pedagogies. These agreements and oppositions are a common phenomenon in classrooms, which may represent a deficit discourse between teachers and students. A lack of time seemed to be another issue; teachers and students mentioned shortage of time in almost every section of the interviews. From these findings, I drew conclusions about how teachers and students at technical universities in Hanoi interpreted representations of life outside Vietnam, and thus clarified how these representations affected students’ intercultural communicative competence.

6.2. Students’ Responses from ‘Location’ and ‘Interest’ Perspectives

6.2.1. Students’ responses from a ‘location’ perspective. Students’ responses regarding ELT textbooks, and representations of life outside Vietnam, were varied depending on their cultural backgrounds. As predetermined by the criteria used for choosing this sample, half of the students were from the countryside while the other half were from urban areas. I defined rural students as those who usually lived in the country or in mountainous areas, and came to their universities specifically for their studies. Urban students, on the other hand, were those who were born and lived in cities, towns or suburban areas (See Chapter Three, section 3.6.3, page 108). Ten rural students and ten urban students participated in these interviews. As noted in Chapter Three, these students were coded basing on their university’s number. Ten rural students were coded from RS1 to RS10, and ten urban students were coded from US1 to US10. These students’ common responses from a ‘location’ perspective are represented and unpacked in the following sections.

ELT textbooks General impressions of the ELT textbooks

Students expressed more positive than negative impressions of their ELT textbooks. Seven of the interviewed students were content with the variety of topics in their textbooks, while four were pleased with the clear and simple language provided, and four others thought that their textbooks presented comprehensive and focused content. Students also paid attention to these textbooks’ designs and had a preference for interesting illustrations. There were some negative impressions from students; however, most of these negative impressions did

204 not directly relate to these textbooks. Instead, they were expressed in relation to unrelated categories, such as time deficiency (n=7), or a criticism of teaching methods (n=7). Four students did not speak directly about their current ELT textbooks, but rather mentioned other textbooks they knew or had used. The reference to unrelated categories, and to other ELT textbooks, may suggest students’ dissatisfaction with their current textbooks and perhaps their avoidance of direct criticism of these textbooks.

Students from rural backgrounds were likely to be less critical of the knowledge provided in their current textbooks. They may have had less exposure to a wide range of too academically challenging texts. They made positive comments about these textbooks, such as “I think this book is quite interesting and includes most of the things we need such as grammar, vocabulary and other language skills” (Em nghĩ cuốn sách này rất thú vị và có hầu hết mọi thứ chúng em cần, ví dụ như ngữ pháp, từ vựng và các kỹ năng) (RS7), or “I think this book is very well written” (Em nghĩ cuốn sách này viết rất hay) (RS8). Some of these rural students felt their textbooks were “conceptually dense” or “there were too many new words” (Có quá nhiều từ mới) (RS4). However, they often nominated other reasons for their discontent, such as time deficiency or teaching methods. They endeavoured to find positive features related to the textbooks. For instance, RS3 said:

This book may be informative, but we didn’t have enough time to learn it carefully, so I can’t remember much about it. Our main purpose was to pass the exam. After finishing the book, I passed the exam, which was good for me (RS3). (Cuốn sách này có rất nhiều thông tin, nhưng chúng em không có đủ thời gian để học kỹ, vì vậy em không thể nhớ nhiều về nó. Mục đich chính của chúng em là thi đạt. Với em thì sau khi học xong cuốn này, em đã thi đạt, thế là tốt rồi) (RS3) Urban students seemed to be more demanding of their textbooks. Although they mostly had positive impressions of these textbooks, they were still dissatisfied with certain features and had suggestions on how to improve them. US6 said: I don’t like the grammar and the vocabulary very much, because the grammar is quite traditional and the vocabulary is only learning by heart. You need to try to learn a word again and again until you remember it. There is nothing new in these two parts (US6). (Em không thích phần ngữ pháp và từ vựng trong này lắm, bởi vì phần ngữ pháp thì khá là truyền thống và phần từ vựng thì chỉ là học thuộc lòng. Mình phải học đi học lại một từ cho tới khi nhớ được nó. Hai phần này chả có gì mới) (US6) 205 Urban students thought that these textbooks were quite simple and easy for them, or “there is not much new vocabulary” (Sách không có nhiều từ mới lắm) (US8), or “the book is more suitable for low level students” (Cuốn này phù hợp với trình độ thấp hơn) (US9). They sometimes implied that their textbook was not appropriate for their level, as they had covered this knowledge during secondary and high schools. As students normally used reprinted textbooks, which provided new vocabulary with Vietnamese meanings at the bottom of each page, US7 suggested that there should be more of this provision in their textbooks. In one particular situation, when looking back at her textbook (this student had finished this textbook some time before), US3 asked the interviewer whether or not this textbook had been republished. She then explained that she had focused more on the additional practice test book, and that the topics in this textbook had not been interesting; therefore, she did not remember this textbook.

Favourable features of ELT textbooks

Different cultural backgrounds also affected what students paid attention to in the textbooks. When asked about the features they liked, five rural students referred to grammar, practice and content. Two rural students mentioned logical design and interesting illustrations as their favourite features. Two other rural students commented on the cultural information and topics in the textbooks, which had enriched their social background knowledge. Five urban students, on the other hand, appreciated the textbook design and illustrations. Only a few of them showed any interest in grammar or skills practice. US10 and RS10 frankly expressed their dissatisfaction with their textbooks, and stated that they did not like anything in these books. The first two questions of the interviews identified common trends and differences in responses of urban and rural students. Rural students seemed to be more content with their ELT textbooks, and focused more on the content and grammar when learning. Most urban students, on the other hand, found these textbooks a little too easy and simple. They overlooked grammar and content, while referring to design or illustrations as their preferred features. There were other contradictions in these two first responses. Students seemed not to criticise textbooks directly in the beginning, when asked about their impression of their current textbooks, but then were more open when two participants showed their lack of satisfaction with their current textbooks. This may be

206 because students were often not willing to be critical at the beginning of the interview, but later became more relaxed about answering the questions.

Unfavourable features

The ‘location’ factor had a considerable influence on what students liked about their textbooks. Four rural students could or would not identify any weaknesses their textbooks may have. They said, “I don’t see any weaknesses in this textbook” (Em thấy cuốn sách này chả có điểm nào không ổn cả) (RS1), or “I don’t find anything that I don’t like in this textbook” (Em không thấy có điểm nào là em không thích trong cuốn sách này) (RS7). Overall, it seemed that rural students avoided saying negative things about the textbooks they were using. Conversely, more than half of the urban students did not directly report what they were not satisfied with in these textbooks. Instead, their discontent was directed towards teaching methods or limited teaching time. US2 said, “There is nothing wrong with the textbook itself. The thing that matters is its application in our context” (Bản thân cuốn sách nó chẳng có vấn đề gì cả. Vấn đề là mình áp dụng nó thế nào vào hoàn cảnh của mình thôi) (US2). These urban students had already learnt the knowledge presented to them at secondary or high school, such as traditional grammar and there was little new in terms of content. Moreover, they had to rush through the units in the textbooks, and needed more time to read, learn, and fully understand the lessons. US4 described their learning situation:

The textbook seems too much for the time we are provided. There’s too much knowledge in the textbook while we have limited instructional hours. Besides this, we need to do the practice test, so we don’t have enough time for language knowledge (US4).

(Cuốn sách này có vẻ hơi quá nặng với chúng em. Có quá nhiều kiến thức cần học trong sách mà chúng em lại có quá ít thời gian. Bên cạnh đó thì chúng em cũng cần phải làm bài test, nên chúng em không đủ thời gian để học hết trong sách) (US4)

That these urban students did not criticise their textbooks did not necessarily mean that they thought their textbooks were perfect, but it indicated that limited time and traditional teaching methods mattered to them more. One US referred to outdated information and difficult listening practice as disadvantages of some textbooks.

Although urban students and rural students had different reactions to what they perceived as limitations, in some categories their responses matched. They all agreed that these

207 textbooks only represented foreign cultures, which were sometimes unfamiliar to them. They preferred representations that were close to their culture, and suggested that Vietnamese cultural representations should be included in their textbooks. For example, RS5 said, “I think that foreign names like Mr. John or Mrs. Bright could be replaced by Vietnamese names to make it friendlier to the Vietnamese student” (Em nghĩ rằng những cái tên nước ngoài ví dụ như Mr. John hay Mrs. Bright có thể được thay thế bởi tên người Việt để nghe thân thiện hơn với người học) (RS5). Some students preferred to have more Vietnamese meanings provided in the vocabulary sections of their reprinted books. RS10 even suggested having bilingual textbooks, which included both English and Vietnamese versions. Some of them found their textbooks were broken into sections, especially those who were using the NEFpr-i and AEFpr-i. As students usually used reprinted black and white textbooks, they complained about the poor quality of pictures and illustrations, which sometimes affected their learning.

Textbooks’ relevance to course objectives Most rural and urban students agreed that their textbooks met with the objectives of their courses, and that students were likely to achieve the course objectives if they carefully studied the book. They also emphasised that teachers and students needed more class time. RS6 said that, “The textbook meets the objectives of the course; however, we just learn grammar and reading in class. Teachers do not have enough time to teach everything in the textbook” (Cuốn sách này em nghĩ là phù hợp với khoá học, tuy nhiên chúng em chỉ học ngữ pháp và đọc trên lớp. Cô giáo em không có đủ thời gian để dạy hết mọi thứ trong sách) (RS6). US4 confirmed this, saying, “Although the textbook is quite simple and easy to understand, it seems to be too much for the time we are provided with” (Mặc dù cuốn sách này khá là đơn giản và dễ hiểu, nó vẫn quá nặng so với thời gian mà chúng em có) (US4). There were two main themes in students’ perceptions of course objectives. For some students, the course objective was an exam, and passing this exam meant achieving the course objective. US8 commented, “I don’t know what the course objectives are. I just want to pass my exams, that’s all” (Em cũng không biết mục tiêu của khoá học là gì nữa. Em chỉ muốn thi đạt, thế thôi ạ) (US8). RS3 also admitted that, “The textbook helped me pass the exams, and so it meets with the objectives of the course” (Cuốn sách này giúp em thi qua, thế nên em nghĩ nó phù hợp với mục tiêu của khoá học) (RS3). In general, exams

208 are to measure students’ achievement of the course objectives. However, as mentioned in Chapter Four, most exams at these universities were designed to test grammar, reading or writing, and neglected other language skills. Therefore, there was a lack of congruence between these exams and course objectives. Some urban students perceived course objectives in more comprehensive ways, and stated that these textbooks might be sufficient for exams, if studied carefully, but they were insufficient to develop communicative skills.

Textbooks’ relevance to students’ level

Despite coming from different language and cultural backgrounds, nearly all rural students (n=9) and half of the urban students (n=5) agreed that their current textbooks were relevant to their language proficiency level. One rural student thought that although their current textbook was suitable for their language proficiency level, it was not enough for communicative purposes or the exit exams. The other half of the urban students did not think that their current textbook was the right choice. US10 said his textbook was too difficult for him, because he had to learn English from the beginning, and this textbook was not for beginners. On the contrary, four other urban students said that their textbooks were quite easy. They said, “Personally I think this textbook is quite simple for me because I have been exposed to English for a very long time” (Cá nhân em nghĩ cuốn sách này khá là đơn giản với em bởi vì em học tiếng Anh đã lâu lắm rồi) (US6), or “The textbook is quite easy, because I think I have already learnt most of the things in this textbook in tuition classes at language centres” (Cuốn sách này khá là dễ, bởi vì em nghĩ em đã học hầu hết mọi thứ trong cuốn này ở lớp học thêm ở trung tâm rồi) (US8). Most urban students had learnt English for quite a long time, and had used a number of ELT textbooks in tuition classes, which may help explain why they found their textbooks easy. This was not the case for most rural students, who had limited time and exposure to English before going to university. As presented in Chapter Four, foreign language administrators, in trying to reconcile these mixed level students and unfavourable learning conditions, tended to make safe choices and choose textbooks that were more suitable for low-level students.

Students’ interpretation of cultural representations in ELT textbooks General impressions of cultural representations in ELT textbooks

209 Rural and urban students shared many similarities, as well as some differences, in their appreciation of the cultural representations in the ELT textbooks they were using. More than half of these students (n=12) recognised the dominance of foreign cultural representations, and the underrepresentation of Vietnamese cultures in these ELT textbooks. RS6 stated that:

This textbook was written by foreign writers and published in foreign countries. These textbook writers convey their cultural values through the language, so foreign cultures dominate the entire textbook (RS6).

(Cuốn sách này được viết bởi các tác giả nước ngoài và được xuất bản ở nước ngoài. Những tác giả này đã đưa những giá trị văn hóa của họ vào cuốn sách thông qua ngôn ngữ, vì vậy văn hóa nước ngoài rất phổ biến trong cả cuốn sách này) (RS6).

Other students confirmed this viewpoint by identifying the dominance of foreign cultures in their current textbooks. They emphasised the focus on English speaking cultures, especially on English and American cultures, and on the international target cultures of Asian, European or African countries. In some ways, these cultural representations were both strange and interesting for learners. For example, US5 reported that when she learnt about meals during the day, in Vietnamese they had breakfast or lunch, but foreigners also had morning tea or afternoon tea, a cultural difference, which was a bit surprising for her. Another rural student mentioned differences in aspects of life, and the contrast between Vietnamese and foreign cultures.

When talking about fear, in Vietnamese culture we normally talk about the fear of ghosts or something supernatural. But here in this textbook they mention strange fears, such as the fear of close areas or the fear of height. Psychologically, the ways people think are different (RS8).

(Khi nói về nỗi sợ hãi, trong văn hoá Việt chúng em thường nói về nỗi sợ ma quỷ hay cái gì đó siêu nhiên. Nhưng trong cuốn sách này người ta nói về những nỗi sợ rất kỳ lạ, ví dụ như sợ không gian khép kín hay sợ độ cao. Về mặt tâm lý, cách mọi người suy nghĩ đều khác nhau) (RS8)

As RS8 commented, the different ways people looked at aspects of life led to differences in cultures, which might cause difficulties in language learning and highlight the need for some degree of familiarity in cultural knowledge. When making comparisons between 210 Vietnamese culture and foreign cultures, some of these students reported the underrepresentation of Vietnamese culture in these textbooks. One of them said, “I think this textbook was designed with hardly any reference to Vietnam” (Em nghĩ cuốn sách này hầu như không có đề cập tới Việt Nam) (US6), while another student said, “I have never read anything related to Vietnamese culture in this textbook” (Em chưa từng đọc được một cái gì liên quan tới Việt Nam trong cuốn sách này) (RS10). A rural student expressed her strong desire for the inclusion of Vietnamese culture. She said:

I would want to read about Vietnamese cultural festivals, instead of festivals from foreign countries. I also think that pictures of Vietnamese festivals, for example Hung King festival, should replace these pictures (RS5).

(Em muốn đọc về các lễ hội văn hoá của Việt Nam thay vì các lễ hội của các nước trên thế giới. Em cũng nghĩ rằng mình có thể thay thế các hình ảnh này bằng các hình ảnh về các lễ hội của Việt Nam, ví dụ như lễ Giỗ tổ Hùng Vương) (RS5).

RS5 explained that she would find it easier to engage with the representations from her own culture, so that she would be able to use the language knowledge she learnt to talk about these representations. Although students had similar views on the dominance of foreign cultures, and the underrepresentation of Vietnamese culture in these ELT textbooks, their different cultural background knowledge had an influence on how these students perceived common culture or deep culture. Most urban students (n=8) said that the cultural representations in their textbooks were of common culture, which represented everyday life topics, while only nearly half of the rural students agreed with this (n=4). US8 emphasised that, “I think 80% of this textbook represents the everyday culture of foreign countries. The other 20% is about typical features of a country” (Em nghĩ 80% cuốn sách này giới thiệu về văn hoá trong cuộc sống hàng ngày ở nước ngoài, 20% còn lại là về những đặc điểm điển hình của một đất nước nào đó) (US8). As a group, they thought that the cultural content in these textbooks was quite popular with Vietnamese students. It seems that textbook designers had selected the most common and typical representations for learners. Topics represented in the textbooks were very close to students’ everyday lives. There were deep cultural representations, but very often these representations were mediated with the teacher’s assistance, thus these cultural representations became comprehensible and accessible for most Vietnamese learners. It seemed that more exposure to the English

211 language familiarised urban students with foreign cultural representations, which induced them to consider these representations as common culture. However, rural students, with little exposure to English, may find these cultural representations more exotic. It was surprising to learn that three rural students thought there was not much foreign culture in these textbooks, while only one urban student shared a similar opinion.

Students’ knowledge of cultural representations

Regarding cultural representations in ELT textbooks, there were considerable differences between rural and urban students’ prior cultural knowledge. Half of the urban students (n=5) were confident in their background cultural knowledge. They reported having prior knowledge of these cultural representations and their related topics. US8 said, “I have had a lot of opportunities to be exposed to foreign cultures, so I think the cultural representations in this textbook are quite simple. I know most of them, and have no difficulty learning them” (Em tiếp xúc với tiếng Anh khá nhiều, vì vậy em nghĩ các kiến thức văn hoá trong cuốn sách này khá là đơn giản. Em biết hầu hết những điều đó, và cũng k gặp khó khăn gì để học cả) (US8). Two other urban students stated that these cultural representations were very familiar to them because they were about everyday life, and they had learnt about them before.

Other urban students (n=3) admitted that although they had some prior cultural knowledge, they learnt new things in their textbooks. They may have learnt about these cultural representations at high school, but there were things in these textbooks that were new and interesting. US7 cited an example of not knowing that in some countries, people eat with their hands and fingers. US9 explained why they still had some difficulties learning about these cultural representations:

At first when we heard about this topic, we may have had a feeling that it was very familiar to us. But when we have a closer look at these representations, we could see that there are more differences in cultures, and there are things in the outside world that we don’t know. We have some difficulties in learning about new cultural representations, but more importantly we have difficulties using the language related to these cultural representations. (US9)

212 (Đầu tiên khi nghe về một topic nào đó chúng em có thể có cảm giác topic đó rất quen thuộc. Nhưng khi học kỹ hơn những biểu trưng văn hoá này thì em thấy có rất nhiều sự khác biệt về văn hoá, và có những thứ ở trên thế giới mà em không thể biết hết được. Học về văn hoá thì đã không dễ rồi, nhưng điều quan trọng hơn là em chưa thể dùng tiếng Anh để nói về các chủ đề liên quan tới văn hoá đó) (US9).

US6 did not mentioned new things he learnt in his textbook. Instead he emphasised the convenience of the Internet and mass media in supporting students to learn. He said, “It is easy for students to get access to the Internet and mass media. They can search for information on the internet” (Người học có thể dễ dàng kết nối Internet và phương tiện truyền thông. Họ tìm kiếm thông tin trên mạng) (US6). The Internet became one of the most common tools for both teachers and students in searching for more cultural knowledge. By using the Internet, US6 asserted that he might not know all the representations in the textbook, but he would learn more from the Internet.

Sometimes, students did not see the importance of cultural representations in English learning and ignored them. US3 thought that the textbook I brought to the interview had been republished when I asked her about the representations she knew in her textbook. She did not realise there were any, and was not able to provide any information about these representations. It turned out that she had mostly used this textbook to do exercises for final exams, and she had not paid attention to any cultural representations. Her indifference to cultural representation indicated this student’s poor cultural knowledge. This was also one extreme example of students’ practical needs in an exam-oriented English education. Instead of learning English for communication, these students opted for linguistic knowledge and practice exercises in order to pass their exams.

Rural students were more homogeneous in terms of their prior cultural knowledge. More than half of the rural students (n=6) said that they were familiar with common cultural representations, but there was new cultural knowledge for them to learn in their textbooks. These students were eager to receive new knowledge to enrich what they had already studied. RS8 stated:

I feel quite familiar with most of the cultural representations in this textbook, but there are still new things for me to discover. I will try to understand those representations and see if I

213 can learn anything from them. I feel confident when learning about something new in the book, because I want to know more about the outside world (RS8).

(Em thấy hầu hết các biểu trưng văn hoá trong cuốn sách này đều rất quen thuộc, nhưng em vẫn học được những thứ mới. Em sẽ cố gắng để hiểu những biểu trưng này và xem mình có thể học hỏi được gì ở họ. Em cảm thấy rất tự tin khi học về một chủ đề mới nào đó trong cuốn sách, bởi vì em muốn hiểu thêm về thế giới bên ngoài) (RS8)

Two other rural students admitted that they did not know much about cultural representations in their textbooks, but through them they learnt new things about foreign cultures. RS4 remembered reading a text about Cape Town, and her teacher asked students to use some information to fill in the blanks. As students in her class did not know much about this city, their answers were randomly selected. Her teacher then provided them with all the answers. RS3 reported in a reading text about the song Imagine, her teacher provided students with much information about the song. For example, she presented the connection of this song to John Lennon and his wife Yoko Ono, and the context in which the song was written. She played the song for them to let them feel the rhythm of the song. Students in this situation did not have prior knowledge about the subject, and this teacher played the main role of cultural knowledge provider. Of all these rural students, there was only one who said that he knew about these cultural representations, because he had become familiar with them at secondary and high school.

Challenging cultural representations

Rural and urban students had varied views on what representations might be difficult in their textbooks. Five urban students and three rural students reported that they did not find any challenging topics in their textbooks: foreign cultural representations were simple and quite familiar for them. These urban students seemed to be very confident in their background cultural knowledge. One urban student said:

For me there is no representation that is too difficult to learn. I live in Hanoi, so I have a lot of contact with foreign cultures. Even though there are things I have never done, I still understand why people do these things and how they do them. So nothing in this textbook really matters to me (US6).

214 (Với em thì em không thấy có biểu trưng văn hoá nào quá khó mà mình k thể học được cả. Em sống ở Hà Nội, vì vậy em cũng biết nhiều về văn hoá nước ngoài. Có những thứ em chưa từng làm bao giờ nhưng em vẫn hiểu vì sao người ta lại làm và người ta làm như thế nào. Vì vậy với em cuốn sách này chả có gì khó cả) (US6).

The three rural students, who did not think that there were any difficult cultural representations in their textbooks, gave other reasons. One of them said she had learnt about these cultural representations at secondary and high school, so the information was not really new for her. Two others reported that they did not remember experiencing any difficulties with these representations: they just remembered the things they liked. Whether these cultural representations were challenging or not depended on the learners’ attitude and willingness to engage with them. Because they were motivated to learn every unit in their textbooks, all of the cultural representations were interesting and manageable. Through their responses, the urban students indicated their confidence and sometimes expressed slight boredom when covering the same knowledge in their ELT textbooks. On the other hand, rural students conveyed their eagerness to learn more about these foreign cultures. Their responses led me to examine how students’ attitude to language learning influenced their reaction to cultural representations. This material will be discussed later in this chapter (section 6.2.2).

There were other challenging cultural representations that sometimes created barriers to students’ learning. For both urban and rural students, topics related to famous people, inventions, sciences or history were the most challenging. RS10 gave examples of unit 2B, A moment in time, in the textbooks NEFpr-i and AEFpr-i. This reading was about important moments in a photographer’s career, when he took a picture of the collapse of Berlin Wall, the US President Nixon saying goodbye to the White House after the Watergate scandal, and the Beatles composing the song I feel fine. This topic was noted in Chapter Five as one example that contained thick layers of meaning and required students to have cultural background knowledge.

Although urban students seemed to be more confident in their cultural knowledge, some of them had difficulty dealing with representations that were too specific to a particular culture. These specific representations were mostly categorised in terms of the aesthetic and

215 semantic senses of culture. US3 reported that the unit 1C (NEFpr-i), At the Moulin Rouge, was difficult for him for the following reasons:

We really don’t know much about the Arts, so we don’t understand the meanings and context of this picture and the one by Picasso. We even don’t know who Picasso was. Textbook writers shouldn’t include these pictures, and the Moulin Rouge, in this unit. They are too hard to understand (US3).

(Chúng em thực sự không biết nhiều về nghệ thuật, vì vậy chúng em không hiểu ý nghĩa và ngữ cảnh của bức tranh này và bức tranh của Picasso. Chúng em thậm chí còn không biết Picasso là ai. Người viết sách không nên cho những bức tranh kiểu này vào, và bài The Moulin Rouge trong bài này nữa. Những thứ này khó hiểu quá) (US3)

I noted that this unit was one example of the aesthetic sense of culture that required students to have a wide-ranging knowledge in Chapter Five. Another similar example was the reading about James Bond (Unit 3) in the textbook New Headway Pre-intermediate. This reading was also considered challenging because it was long and extremely complicated. Students were not familiar with the Bond films. They hardly understood the content in the reading they were given.

Sometimes, a challenging representation was a guessing game section where students were asked questions about foreign cultures without being provided any clues. In a representation in a different textbook (OKET), students were required to select multiple choice answers for questions such as “In which country were the 2012 Olympic Games organised?” (Olypmic 2012 được tổ chức ở quốc gia nào?) or “What is the name of the fastest athletic runner?” (Tên của vận động viên điền kinh nhanh nhất là gì?) without being provided any reading passages or context clues. Students gave random answers and received correction from their teachers. RS5 said:

I think this activity is meaningless, because even when the teacher provides us with the right answers, we still can’t remember these details. This type of information is too specific, and no one is expected to remember it or use it later (RS5).

(Em nghĩ rằng hoạt động này chẳng có ý nghĩa gì cả, vì thậm chí khi giáo viên đã đọc cho chúng em câu trả lời đúng thì chúng em cũng chẳng nhớ được những chi tiết này. Thông tin kiểu này tiểu tiết đặc thù quá, và cũng chẳng ai có thể nhớ hoặc sử dụng sau này được) (RS5)

216 Other students found particular representations challenging because they were boring and repetitive, and difficult to connect with their own experiences. RS9 gave an example of the topic future job, noting that she could not imagine what she was going to do in her future. These students were in their first year and did not have clear ideas about their potential careers; they were not able to speak much about that topic. One student said she did not find foreign cultural representations difficult because she did not focus on them. This student admitted that she just paid attention to grammar and testing.

Engaging cultural representations

The ‘location’ perspective did not have any clear influence on what representations students might find engaging. Students’ preferences varied across a range of topics. Four students reported that their favourite topics were about love, friends and family because these topics were suitable to their age and peer group. Units featuring popular topics or everyday culture were also favoured. Students wanted to learn about how foreigners behaved in particular situations, and they wanted to be able to compare this with their own culture. They preferred these cultural representations because they had background knowledge about them, and thus they were able to engage with them.

In addition to everyday life topics, sports received significant attention from the technical university students (n=4). These students, most of whom were male, engaged with representations of football, volleyball, basketball or other favourite sports. Two students mentioned the cultural representations of a Vietnamese football fan named Duc, who wrote a letter to a sports magazine about a football match between Manchester United and Bayern Munich (Unit 5D, NEFpr-i). As noted in Chapter Five, this representation had one reference to Vietnam. These students said that this representation attracted their attention, and encouraged them to learn, primarily because it was about football, but also because of this reference to Vietnam. These students also wanted to learn more about other kinds of foreign sports that were not played in Vietnam. For example, they wanted to learn more about baseball, skiing, and ice hockey. This might help explain why this was one of their favourite topics.

Films, music, science and technology, food, famous people, and other topics also engaged students. Technical students reported that they liked these topics because they had some

217 background knowledge of these cultural representations. They related these cultural representations to their own culture or lives. Based on what they already knew, these students were able to enrich their cultural knowledge. This is a key element of effective teaching – the ability to harness students’ curiousity and their prior knowledge to develop both study skills and new knowledge.

6.2.2. Students’ responses from ‘interest’ perspective. During the coding process, I noticed differences in students’ reactions towards cultural representations of life outside Vietnam, and teaching regarding these representations. Two trends emerged in the ways students interpreted and responded to cultural teaching and learning, as well as what they expected from their teachers. Nearly half of the students (n=9) expressed their interest in learning English. Such students had a more positive attitude towards these cultural representations, and wanted to learn more about English- speaking cultures. They seemed to be very active in learning about these cultural representations while appreciating more information on their own. I categorised these nine students as the ‘reportedly interested’ student group.

Yet, over half of the students (n=11) showed less interest in learning English, especially about cultural representations. These students reported that they did not like this language, but they did not hate it; English was just like other subjects in their curriculum. Among these students, one said that whether or not he liked learning English greatly depended on his teacher. If his teacher taught well, he liked learning English, but otherwise he was bored. These students seemed to be indifferent to learning English. I categorised these eleven students as the ‘reportedly uninterested’ student group. It is necessary to recognise that there were individual differences and that this is a generalisation made for the purpose of analysis.

Different as their views on learning English may have been, nearly half of the total students of both groups (n=9) seemed to recognise the important role of English in their future study and career. They either had the intention to attend, or were attending, extra English classes where they paid for tuition. They had clear targets for these extra classes, such as to train for IELTS or TOEIC or for communicative purposes. The following sections describe similarities and differences between these two groups of students in terms of their reactions

218 to cultural representations of life outside Vietnam. These sections also indicate the influence of these representations on their language learning, as well as their expectations about cultural teaching.

Students’ views on the influence of cultural representations from an ‘interest’ perspective Students’ interest in learning English formed their perceptions of cultural representations of life outside Vietnam and determined their reaction toward cultures in ELT textbooks. Eight of the nine ‘reportedly interested’ students agreed that cultural representations had an important influence on their English learning. Only one said that these representations had little impact, and this impact depended on whether these representations were interesting or not. Five among these students confirmed that these cultural representations had a positive impact on them, and encouraged them to focus more on their learning. For instance, US3 asserted that these cultural representations helped enrich her background knowledge. She identified some negative effects these cultural representations may have on learners, but then emphasised that even when she did not have prior knowledge of a representation, and might feel somewhat confused, these representations did not act as a barrier to learning. US5 supported this view by saying:

Cultural representations of life outside Vietnam have a positive effect on my English learning. I’m motivated to know more about the outside world, and these representations provide me with what I need. I think students are now provided with a lot of up-to-date information through mass media, so these representations are not really alien to students (US5).

(Biểu trưng văn hoá ngoài Việt Nam có ảnh hưởng tích cực tới việc học tiếng Anh của em. Em rất thích biết nhiều hơn về thế giới bên ngoài, và những biếu trưng văn hoá này đã giúp em điều đó. Em nghĩ sinh viên ngày nay được cung cấp rất nhiều thông tin cập nhật qua phương tiện đại chúng, vì vậy những biểu trưng văn hoá này không thực sự xa lạ quá với sinh viên) (US5)

US5 also added that she was interested in learning more about other cultures and eager to enrich her background knowledge. She said that this was not only true for her, but also for young people of her age; they wanted to learn about other people and countries, and make

219 comparisons with their own culture. US5 observed that such cultural representations served these purposes.

None of the ‘reportedly interested’ students underestimated the influence of cultural representations on their English learning. Not only were they interested to learn about culture in their textbooks, these ‘reportedly interested’ students also expressed their desire to cover more cultural knowledge of life outside Vietnam. RS7 suggested that culture heightened their interest in language learning, and cultural representations in ELT textbooks motivated them to search for more cultural information on the Internet. US6 and US7 acknowledged that the Internet and mass media provided them with the cultural information they needed. They recognised the role of teachers in cultural teaching, but were also aware that they themselves played a significant role in the learning process. RS8 stated that he felt more excited about learning when his teacher introduced new information into their lesson. He usually did not wait until his teacher provided him with this new cultural knowledge, but actively searched for it on the Internet, both before and after the lessons. This student gave an example from unit 9B, Then he kisses me, in the textbook New English File Pre-intermediate. This unit mentioned a sensitive issue, which is not frequently discussed in Vietnam. RS8 searched in Google to find out how many types of kisses, or which types of kisses were the most romantic, or where to kiss on the face to show different feelings, or how people from different countries kissed to indicate hello or goodbye. As we can see, those students who actively searched for further cultural information not only enriched their own cultural background knowledge, but would also encourage teachers to provide them with more of this knowledge. This phenomenon was discussed in more detail in section 6.2.2 (pages 225-228) that explored students’ reactions to teachers’ cultural teaching.

Eleven ‘reportedly uninterested’ students indicated their lack of attention to cultural representations. Although most of these ‘reportedly uninterested’ students (n=7) agreed that cultural representations of life outside Vietnam had an influence on their English learning, five of them referred to this influence as unhelpful, and only two considered that these representations were helpful in their study. For example, RS2 emphasised the negative influence of cultural representations when he misused synonyms which had a slight difference in meanings. He also complained about not being able to answer the pre-reading

220 questions about James Bond (unit 3, NHpr-i) because he was not familiar with James Bond films, and had little information on this main actor. He could not possibly discuss this content with his classmates, as he had no insight to share. This situation was not specific to his case. It also applied to other ‘reportedly uninterested’ students who reported not being able to complete their classroom tasks due to a lack of background information. RS4 admitted that she could not complete the reading and speaking task about Cape Town (unit 10C, Straightforward), because there were so many new words and she had little information about Cape Town. It was interesting to note that in her interview, RS4 told me that she now knew Cape Town was in South America. After being corrected that Cape Town was actually in South Africa, RS4 explained, “I’m not interested in getting to know more about the places I don’t know. I just want to know more about what I’ve already learnt” (Em không thích tìm hiểu thêm về những nơi mà em không biết. Em chỉ muốn biết nhiều hơn về những điều em đã học) (RS4). RS4 added that all she wanted was to pass the exams.

Another ‘reportedly uninterested’ student, RS5, shared his experience of engaging with a representation about sports one week prior to the interview. They were provided with cultural information to complete a task about Michael Owen, a football player, but then he forgot this information after class. RS5 explained that he was not interested in this representation, and was not motivated to do the task about a person who was totally unknown to him. He then suggested replacing this with a Vietnamese cultural representation, so that he would retain knowledge and be able to use it for communication. RS9 also observed that she did not want to learn about the topics she was not interested in. She might not have any ideas to communicate, and she did not speak any English. She might look for more information on the Internet, but this was unlikely. When students lacked interest in English learning, cultural representations seemed to negatively affect their intercultural communicative competence. Students did not have background knowledge about foreign cultural representations, nor did they have any motivation to learn about these representations. They would not acquire ideas and language to compare these with their own cultures, or to talk about their own and other cultures.

The remaining ‘reportedly uninterested’ students’ (n=4) commented that cultural representations did not have any influence on their English learning. US4 explained that

221 cultural representations were often communicated via illustrations, and they were not too difficult to understand. US8 said these cultural representations were all familiar to him, thus they did not have any effect on his learning. US7 stated that, “Teachers do not mention much about culture. In fact, we only learn grammar, pronunciation and listening, so there is not much influence” (Cô giáo em cũng không dạy nhiều về văn hoá lắm. Thực sự thì chúng em chỉ học ngữ pháp, phát âm và nghe, vì vậy không nhiều ảnh hưởng lắm) (US7). US2 thought that whether these cultural representations affected their English learning depended on each person’s attitude and the time and money they invested in learning English. He asserted,

I think it all depends on you. It depends on whether you are lazy or you work hard, and you can learn the language. There is nothing to do with culture here. Because I see that people who invest time and money in learning English are much better at this language than those who do not (US2).

(Em nghĩ tuỳ mình thôi. Tuỳ mình lười hay chăm, và tuỳ mình có học được ngoại ngữ không nữa. Chứ cũng chẳng liên quan gì tới văn hoá cả. Em thấy rằng ai mà đầu tư tiền bạc thời gian vào việc học tiếng Anh thì chắc chắn học ổn hơn những người k đầu tư) (US2)

‘Reportedly interested’ students tended to believe in the influence of cultural representations of life outside Vietnam on their English learning, and that these representations supported their learning. Three of these ‘reportedly interested’ students indicated their active approach to learning about cultural representations. Yet, most ‘reportedly uninterested’ students either referred to these representations as having negative effects, or thought that these representations did not have an important influence on their English learning. Several reasons were identified in their explanations, and one of these was the traditional teaching method, where teachers did not teach cultural representations, and instead focused on grammar, vocabulary and listening. The following section described students’ recognition of their teachers’ cultural teaching pedagogies.

Students’ views of cultural teaching practice from an ‘interest’ perspective Cultural teaching practices from students’ viewpoints

Both ‘reportedly interested’ and ‘reportedly uninterested’ students had quite similar ideas about how teachers mediated cultural representations in their classroom practice. The most

222 common teaching practices in language classrooms seemed to be traditional, and more teacher than student oriented. Seven students described their teachers’ teaching habits when dealing with challenging cultural representations. These teachers explained difficult issues, provided them with new vocabulary’s meanings, and then guided them through these exercises. These seven students seemed to be content with their teachers’ teaching practice. They believed that through years of teaching experience, their teachers were aware of difficult representations, and had the best strategies to help them through these situations. US2 said, “From her experience, my teacher understands what is difficult for us, and helps us through difficult representations”. The ways teachers mediated these cultural representations were often similar. Four students stated that their teachers translated the texts, and then provided additional information about the text. Three others said their teachers gave examples or illustrations to provide more information. These students agreed that their teachers had tried their best to help them in limited teaching time. Some of them admitted that sometimes they were not interested in these representations, or their teachers did not have enough time to go deeper into them.

The implicit addressing of cultural factors was common in classrooms. Six other students reported that their teachers did not mention cultural factors, or focused on linguistic knowledge. In these situations, their teachers concentrated on practice sections, and directed students to grammar, reading and listening. Some students were not provided with any cultural information, or they received so little or insignificant information that they forgot many of these representations. The limited teaching time was again mentioned as one major reason for the exclusion of cultural teaching. RS8 asked, “We haven’t had enough time for language knowledge in the textbooks, so how can our teachers handle more cultural information?” (Chúng em còn không đủ thời gian để học về ngôn ngữ trong cuốn giáo trình này thì làm sao cô giáo có thể dạy thêm về văn hoá được ạ?) (RS8) Sharing the same view, US3 stated that her teacher focused on practice tests or sentence structure, with little attention placed on cultural information. She explained this absence by saying that her teachers had tried, but they had not been given sufficient time in class. At the interview, US3 admitted:

223 When looking back at this textbook, although we have just finished it, I feel that I have forgotten a lot of information that was in this book. It feels as if I never learnt some of these topics (US3).

(Khi đọc lại cuốn giáo trình này, mặc dầu bọn em vừa mới học xong mà em thấy em quên rất nhiều thứ trong đó. Có cảm giác như em chưa từng học qua một số phần trong này) (US3)

Two ‘reportedly interested’ students, RS8 and US10, besides confirming that their teachers did not provide them with much cultural information, claimed that they usually read and found more information about the topics they were learning on the Internet. This preparation helped them comprehend these texts better when they read them in class. Given limited time and unfavourable teaching and learning conditions, teachers required their students’ home preparation. However, among the twenty students who were interviewed, only two ‘reportedly interested’ students mentioned their home study, and added that they did it because they liked learning English and wanted to know more about other cultures. They sought to widen their cultural background knowledge, and learning about other cultures had become deeply engaging.

In addition to previously mentioned cultural teaching practices, in some classrooms, teachers provided students with vocabulary meanings, and required students to read and translate the texts by themselves. Two students reported that their teachers did not give them any further details, except for the information provided in the textbooks. These students also referred to a lack of teaching time as the main reason for this practice. In one particular situation, RS7 declared that her teacher selected simple units and skipped difficult ones. If students did not ask her to explain a difficult cultural representation, she would ignore it. RS7 then noted that her teacher often used an overhead projector, but there was only grammar content on her slides. It seemed that this teacher tended to use more modern facilities to facilitate her teaching, and not to support her students’ cultural learning.

In spite of these traditional approaches to teaching culture, in which teachers either played a major role in providing more cultural information for their students, or focused on grammar and practice and ignored difficult cultural representations, there were encouraging signs in

224 some classrooms. RS6 and US6 commented that their teachers explained different contexts and the underlying meanings (if any) of difficult representations. Then their teachers provided some illustrations and created similar situations for them to role-play or to act in a drama. By doing so, these students experienced cultures more independently and thus retained and were able to use their cultural and language knowledge. For example, after reading the text, “Are you a party animal?” (NEFpr-i), these students were asked to role- play welcoming guests to a birthday party, or act a role from a story they had studied. RS6 expressed her excitement when learning about cultural content in these ways.

I think role-playing and drama acting are really new and motivating for us. They allow me to experience things I haven’t done before. Doing is remembering. And doing sometimes changes my way of life. For example, through role-playing and acting, I learnt how to be on time for meetings. Our English just comes naturally, and it’s become like our mother tongue (RS6).

(Em nghĩ role-play và đóng kịch thì tương đối là mới mẻ và thú vị với chúng em. Nó cho phép mình trải nghiệm những thứ có thể mình chưa từng trải qua. Trăm hay không bằng tay quen, và đôi khi điều đó cũng làm em thay đổi. Ví dụ qua role-play và diễn kịch, em học cách đến đúng giờ trong các cuộc hẹn. Và cũng nhờ đó tiếng Anh đến với mình cũng tự nhiên hơn, kiểu như giống cách học ngôn ngữ mẹ đẻ ấy) (RS6)

US5 and US9, acknowledged their teachers’ efforts in providing them with a lot of interesting cultural information and illustrations, and did so by using mass media and the Internet to provide context for difficult representations. Their teachers showed them pictures or video clips, and then allowed them to play games and share stories related to these representations, or summarised the content of them. Finally, students were asked to relate these cultural representations to their own culture by writing a short paragraph, or relating what they would do in their own culture in the same situation. US5 and US9 commented that by learning in this way, they understood the content of the texts or things related to the texts. As such, the tasks seemed more achievable to them. Besides this, they learnt more about foreign cultures, absorbed ideas and language knowledge, and found it easy to speak out or communicate in similar scenarios. For example, US5 related a lesson in which they learnt about festival in Spain. Her teacher showed a video about that festival, and provided some necessary vocabulary and an overview of the event so that the students

225 were able to describe the festival. Later in her lesson, the teacher showed another clip about the traditional Tet festival in Vietnam, and required her students to write about this festival following the outline they had learnt. If time permitted, students then presented their writing in front of the class or did the presentation in a following session. These skills- based activities enabled students to acquire knowledge of foreign cultures, yet at the same time they became more confident about their own culture and their ability to successfully communicate with people of other cultures. These skills-based practices, roleplaying, acting, summarising or making cultural comparisons, may be effective for language learners, however, they required teachers’ careful preparation and students’ active involvement in classroom practice. Perhaps as a result of these limitations, only four students mentioned these practices.

Cultural teaching expectations

As can be seen in the preceding section, although most students were not totally satisfied with their teachers’ teaching practice, they offered little criticism of their teachers. Some of them stated that within the limited time and resources given, their teachers had done the best job possible. However, students expressed their ideas about what more informative language sessions may look like. Students’ interest in learning English influenced what they hoped for in their teachers’ teaching. Although these two groups of students shared some common preferences in the way cultural representations were delivered to them, ‘reportedly interested’ students showed their willingness to be more involved in cultural learning activities, while ‘reportedly uninterested’ students seemed to be more passive.

Half of the interviewed students (n=10) agreed that learning with visual aids was the most effective way of encountering cultural representations. US5 said that they learnt and retained knowledge better when they were provided with pictures and video clips. For example, this student said it was boring to read a long historical text, but it was more motivating if the text was illustrated or introduced with a video. RS5 and RS7 also approved of the idea of incorporating more pictures and video into cultural teaching, explaining that such imagery provided more information about cultures and made lessons more engaging. They suggested ways to improve challenging lessons, such as unit 17.2 (OKET) about James Bond, by showing a short video about a James Bond film, or playing

226 a song from the film to engage students with the topic. Sharing similar ideas, RS9 recommended that their teachers should teach about famous people, as this was one of the challenging topics in their textbook. With the support of technology, images and social media, their teachers could create a guessing game about the activities of a particular famous person, and then present information about the actual life of that person.

In addition to preferring visual aids in culture learning, ‘reportedly interested’ students expressed their enthusiasm about being involved in cultural experiences. Over half of the ‘reportedly interested’ students (n=5) wanted to join in a role-play or act in a drama. They wanted to experience more about cultures, as US2 said:

If possible, I would like to act a role in a play, or learn drama in groups. We want to experience difficult cultural situations. This will help us retain and use language better in real life situations (US2).

(Nếu được thì em muốn học theo kiểu role-play hoặc học đóng kịch trong nhóm. Chúng em muốn được thực hành những tình huống khó, điều đó giúp chúng em nhớ lâu và sử dụng tiếng Anh tốt hơn trong những tình huống thực tế) (US2)

Some ‘reportedly interested’ students (n=3) offered more suggestions for their teachers; for example, they preferred to do presentations in class about cultural representations. This task required them to carefully prepare at home by searching for relevant cultural knowledge and practicing their public speaking skills. RS3 said by doing presentations in class, they not only retained cultural and language knowledge better, but also became more confident in learning English as well as everyday communication. US6 and RS6 suggested that their teachers reduce the time for reading and grammar teaching, and increase the time allocated for productive skills. Furthermore, grammar or reading was primarily to provide contexts and linguistic knowledge for productive skills, such as writing and speaking. As cultural mediators, language teachers were expected to create situations in which students were able to use cultural knowledge and linguistic knowledge to communicate. These students emphasised that when they were put in a particular communicative situation, they were able to actually use the language, not only know about the language.

‘Reportedly uninterested’ students seemed to be less involved in such language activities. Instead, most ‘reportedly uninterested’ students (n=7) were passive in receiving knowledge

227 from their teachers. For example, besides preferring learning via visual aids, ‘reportedly uninterested’ students wanted their teachers to provide them with more detailed information and context for the topics. While US10 wanted her teachers to explain difficult representations in Vietnamese, US7 wanted his teachers to provide enough vocabulary to understand complicated sentences in the texts. Four ‘reportedly uninterested’ students expressed their preference for their teachers to relate these cultural representations to Vietnamese culture; for example, they wanted their teachers to give examples of Vietnamese context or daily life that were comparable to the target cultures. These ‘reportedly uninterested’ students preferred their teachers to do most of the job, and they became passive learners. Two ‘reportedly uninterested’ students wanted to play games when encountering cultural representations. One of these, US9 wanted her teachers to provide simpler tasks related to cultural representations. These two ‘reportedly uninterested’ students preferred to study in a more relaxed learning environment, where they felt comfortable chatting with their language teachers. In particular, one ‘reportedly uninterested’ student prioritised receiving good marks. She suggested that her teachers could encourage students’ involvement in language learning and cultural representations by giving marks for their participation. Only one student mentioned that practical method of learning.

6.3. Teachers’ Responses from ‘Cultural Experience’ Perspectives There were considerable differences in teachers’ views in terms of ELT textbooks, cultural representations in these textbooks and cultural teaching pedagogies. Based on the criteria for choosing a sample, eighteen teachers participated in the interviews, with eight teachers having had hands-on foreign cultural experience while ten others had almost none. Two universities, U3 and U6, did not have any language teachers who had ever studied or lived in a foreign country, even for a short period of time. The interview data analysis indicated similarities and differences in these teachers’ appreciation of the ELT textbooks they were using, their interpretations of cultural representations in these texts, and their approaches to these representations, particular their role in facilitating student’s learning. As presented in the following sections, teachers with or without international experience had quite homogenous views on ELT textbooks and the representations in ELT textbooks. However, the international experience had influence on their approaches to foreign cultural

228 representations. Most of the teachers without international experience applied quite traditional approaches, which meant they undertook most of the culture-teaching job in their classrooms. Teachers with international experience, on the other hand, applied more varied approaches to facilitate students’ cultural learning. They utilised their own cultural experience and modern teaching facilities in dealing with foreign cultural representations. They believed that their students were more engaged in cultural representations especially when they were able to personalise their cultural knowledge, and experience culture. Those teachers who did have foreign cultural experience were FT1, FT2, FT4, FT5, FT7, FT8, FT9, and FT10 (except U3 and U6). Ten other teachers who did not have international cultural experience were from IT1 to IT10.

6.3.1. Teachers’ viewpoints on ELT textbooks. ELT textbooks played an important role in language classrooms (See Chapter Two, section 2.1.1, page 38). In Vietnamese technical universities, very often textbooks were considered the Bible, providing curricula, context and practice for language teachers. Regardless of this significance, eighteen interviewed English language teachers had different viewpoints on their textbooks.

General impressions of their ELT textbooks

Generally, teachers had more positive than negative impressions of their ELT textbooks. Nine teachers commented that their current textbooks consisted of comprehensive content and language activities. Seven teachers were keen on particular features of these textbooks, while seven others thought that their textbooks were designed based on a contemporary communicative approach. Those teachers, who valued textbooks, added that their textbooks provided sufficient information for everyday communication, had practical usage and were well designed. One teacher from U1 (FT1), who had been using a new textbook for three weeks at the time of the interview, made comparisons between their previous and current textbooks. Besides giving some comments on their old textbook, American English File Pre-intermediate, describing it as boring and disconnected, FT1 complimented their current textbook, Cutting Edge Elementary 3rd Edition, as a communicative based and practical one. She commented that American publishers were more open to changes than British, who tended to be quite conservative. American publishers were quick to update in response

229 to new trends in ELT, and provide supportive resources for teachers. FT1 provided an example from her current textbook, CEe3, noting that its attached exercise book included information about Ho Ngoc Ha and My Tam, two famous Vietnamese pop singers, in the very first unit, even though this textbook version was not specifically designed for the Asian or Vietnamese market.

Some teachers (n=9) expressed their dissatisfaction with the textbooks they were using. Three of them commented that their textbooks were boring and disjointed, and it was hard for them to carry out language activities. Several others complained that the textbooks were poorly designed (n=2), and contained unfamiliar topics/cultural factors (n=2), or included challenging listening and speaking activities (n=2). On the other hand, a considerable number of teachers (n=8) did not directly criticise their textbooks; instead they introduced other textbooks that they had used, or assigned fault to more external factors, such as traditional class settings, or insufficient teaching hours or facilities. For example, IT4 did not comment on her current textbook, but explained she had limited time for the course; she had to revise grammar with the students, and also spend time practicing the test with them. These teachers observed that their students seemed to opt for traditional teaching methods, or prefer additional teaching materials to their current textbooks. FT8 shared her teaching experience in two universities, U5 in the past and U8 at the time of her interview,

I have a feeling that students don’t appreciate what they have in hand. For example, when I was working at U5, students who were using another textbook were very excited if I used some parts of this textbook. And now I’m teaching here at U8, students seem to be very interested with some of the texts I got from the U5 textbook. They rarely have such reactions with their own textbooks (FT8).

(Em có cảm giác sinh viên không hứng thú lắm với những thứ các bạn ấy có sẵn. Ví dụ khi em dạy ở U5, vì đang sử dụng một cuốn giáo trình khác nên các bạn ấy rất hào hứng khi em sử dụng một số phần trong cuốn này. Và giờ khi em đang dạy cuốn này ở đây, các bạn sinh viên lại có vẻ rất thích khi em lấy một số bài đọc từ cuốn của trường U5. Các bạn ấy hiếm khi thể hiện như vậy với cuốn giáo trình chính thức của các bạn ấy) (FT8)

My analysis of the 18 teacher interviews indicated another interesting finding: teachers who had studied or lived abroad seemed to be more discontented with their current textbooks, while teachers who did not have international experience were more positive. Seven

230 teachers with no international experience either showed their preference for using their current textbooks, or indicated positive features of these textbooks that they found suitable for their students. For example, IT6 said she liked her current textbook because of its clear content, divided skills, meaningful and understandable knowledge, and because of the range of engaging activities. IT8 appreciated the relevance of her current textbook to her students. She said,

Generally, I think this book is quite appropriate for non-major students, and sufficient in terms of language skills. If we can fully make use of this book, it will provide students with comprehensive language skills. The communication skills activities were designed quite clearly, and the tasks and illustrations are effective (IT8).

(Nhìn chung em nghĩ cuốn này khá là phù hợp với sinh viên không chuyên, và khá là đầy đủ cho các kỹ năng. Nếu mình có thể khai thác được tối đa cuốn giáo trình này thì em nghĩ nó sẽ cung cấp đầy đủ các kỹ năng cho sinh viên. Các hoạt động giao tiếp trong này được thiết kế khá rõ ràng, và phần thực hành và minh hoạ cũng hiệu quả) (IT8)

Most teachers who had studied or lived abroad (n=6) expressed different viewpoints. They either criticised the textbook as being boring and disjointed (FT1), or frankly stated that they did not like the textbook (FT10). They raised associated issues. FT4 indicated the poor application of their textbook, which was designed for an online course, but used in a traditional classroom setting. This teacher recognised better aspects of her textbook, which kept students updated with current global trends, such as immigration, multinational cities or working in international environment. However, teachers were not able to apply these better aspects to their present context. They needed more teaching hours and modern teaching facilities to make proper use of the textbook. FT5 also commented on the poor application of her textbook. Her textbook was exam-oriented, and it was totally unsuitable for their general English program. FT5 added that the listening and speaking skills activities were challenging for students, because the way these activities were designed did not support learning. Instead of gradually increasing the level of difficulty, the textbook exposed students to challenging tasks at the beginning of a section. Teachers with international experience seemed to be more critical of their textbooks. They seemed to pay considerable attention to the application of these textbooks across different teaching contexts.

231 Favourable features of ELT textbooks

Intercultural experience did not have noticeable influence on teachers’ views on textbooks’ good features. Most teachers (n=8) agreed on the effective design of their current textbooks; the ways skills-based activities were well connected and supported their teaching. IT7 valued the sensible design of each unit in her textbook, New Headway Pre- intermediate 3rd edition. She commented that,

The first part of each unit is always grammar, and we learn grammar through communication, through speaking and listening. The next part is reading and writing to build up language. Even in reading and writing students are able to listen and to speak English a lot. Then there is listening and speaking when students already have grammar and vocabulary to produce sentences. The last part is social expression for students to practice conversations (IT7).

(Phần đầu tiên của một bài luôn luôn là ngữ pháp, và mình học ngữ pháp thông qua giao tiếp, qua nói và nghe. Phần tiếp theo là đọc và viết để luyện ngôn ngữ. Thậm chỉ trong khi đọc và viết sinh viên cũng có thể luyện nghe và nói nhiều. Rồi sau nữa đến kỹ năng nghe và nói thì sinh viên đã có đủ ngữ pháp và từ vựng để nói. Sau đến phần cuối cùng là social expression thì sinh viên thực hành giao tiếp) (IT7)

IT7 stated that the design of each unit played an important role in facilitating students’ communicative competence. Students were provided with language input and models in order to produce their own sentences and join in a conversation. Sharing this view, FT2 said the New Headway series was one of the best-reviewed textbooks with informative content and effective skills practice; FT7 liked the detailed and logical grammar system and the revision section at the end of the textbook. Four teachers, IT7, FT7, IT2 and FT2, expressed their interest in utilising each unit’s practical section, Everyday English. They said that this section matched with the trend of international testing and communicative language teaching in Vietnam, and foreign cultures were deeply engraved in this part. IT7 explained her reasons for making full use of this section,

You know that sometimes when we learn English, we are confused why people speak this way but not that way, and this section may help. For example, in this section you can see a simple speech act such as greetings. Students learn how to greet people in an appropriate manner, how to greet people in formal or informal meetings, and how to greet people in the

232 first meeting. These speech acts may look simple, but my students may not have learnt them (IT7).

(Bạn cũng biết là đôi khi chúng ta học tiếng Anh, chúng ta thường băn khoăn không hiểu sao người ta lại nói thế này mà không nói thế kia. Thì cái phần này sẽ giúp chúng ta. Ví dụ trong phần này bạn có thể học một số câu đơn giản như chào hỏi. Sinh viên sẽ học cách chào đúng, ví dụ như trong tình huống trang trọng hoặc không thì chào như thế nào, lần đầu gặp thì chào như thế nào. Những thứ này trông có vẻ đơn giản, nhưng rất có thể sinh viên mình chưa được học đâu) (IT7)

While four teachers using the textbook New Headway Pre-Intermediate valued its design and practical sections for communicative purposes, teachers using the New English File and American English File series appreciated the system of pronunciation practice and everyday life information as well as the practical language that these texts offered for skills- based activities. IT3 commented that they could never find such pronunciation practices anywhere in other commercial textbooks. IT1 added that these pronunciation practices were good for students, because they needed to focus on those as a foundation for communication skills. IT8 and FT8 agreed that the Practical English sections in their textbooks were one of the strongest features, providing students with useful language input for everyday conversations and achievable tasks following a communicative approach.

FT1 expressed her satisfaction on the supplementary materials to support teachers in classrooms and the cultural section in her new textbook. She was the only one who was totally satisfied with her current textbook. This new textbook set, Cutting Edge Elementary, provided teachers and students nearly every necessary component for the classroom. This textbook had also improved in the way it viewed learning English as an international language, and incorporated multiple cultures, from Western culture to African or Asian culture into its texts. FT1 observed that the writers of this textbook had significantly changed their views on ELT, which made this textbook different from others. Another good aspect of this textbook was the updated cultural and language knowledge, which played an important role in engaging students in classroom activities.

In all cases discussed, teachers seemed to value the logical design and the well-connected skills-based activities in their textbooks which may help facilitate students’ communicative language skills. In addition to these features, teachers also appreciated the practical

233 language input in the Everyday English, Practical English or Cultural Link sections in the textbooks they were using. These sections also made considerable contribution to improve students’ intercultural communicative competence.

Unfavourable features

Teachers had similar views on the features they did not like about their textbooks. Five teachers reported that skills sections and activities in these textbooks were disjointed, which affected them in conducting lessons. IT1 thought that her textbook provided too many details and these details were not logically arranged. FT4 said that their book consisted of small sections and activities because it was originally designed for an online course, and was not fully exploited in traditional classrooms. This teacher also commented that their students preferred longer and more comprehensive language activities.

Five other teachers could not think of any weak points in the textbooks they were using. They stated that there was no problem with the textbooks themselves, instead they assigned fault to other external factors such as being time poor, or unfavourable teaching and learning conditions. IT10 observed,

I like teaching this book, so I can’t find any problems with this book. The problem is the limited teaching hours, not the book itself. We have limited teaching hours, so very often we have to rush from unit to unit. We can’t teach every part in the book, either (IT10).

(Mình thích cuốn giáo trình này, vì vậy mình chẳng thấy nó có vấn đề gì cả. Vấn đề là mình có quá ít tiết, chứ bản thân cuốn sách không có gì. Bọn mình có quá ít thời gian, nên thường bọn mình phải chạy từ bài này qua bài khác. Mà bọn mình cũng không thể dạy hết các phần trong cuốn này được) (IT10)

IT4 also commented that she did not see any weaknesses in her textbook, and she could not exploit all sections in her textbook because of limited teaching time. She believed that textbook designers must have spent time considering what to and not to include in a global textbook, so there must be reasons for a global textbook to become popular in the educational market. Having a more rational reasoning, IT7 was aware of some emerging issues when applying a textbook in a particular context, and the role of language teachers as a mediator in language classrooms, especially in mixed-level classes. She said, “Even the most perfect textbook is still imperfect in unfavourable conditions. As language teachers,

234 we have to design our lesson to match with students’ needs” (Thậm chí cuốn nào hoàn hảo nhất cũng không thể hoàn hảo trong điều kiện dạy học bất lợi như thế này) (IT7). Like other teachers, IT7 was so interested in her textbook that she could not identify any bad aspects. She used almost all sections of the textbook and hardly removed any skills-based activities. She stated that there was no reason for her to omit any sections in the textbook, because they provided really good activities and her students could manage them effectively.

Four other teachers complained about challenging listening activities in their textbooks, stating that they were the most difficult to teach. Teachers identified students’ poor background knowledge as the most common reason for this difficulty. Students sometimes did not have basic information. They also complained that sometimes students were not really engaged in listening practice because the listening activities in the textbooks did not familiarise them with the TOEIC or B1 exit test. There were other features that teachers did not like about their books, for example, too much/outdated information, too much grammar, or boring topics. However, only one or two teachers made these comments.

Relevance to course objectives

The teachers had various views on whether or not their textbooks were relevant to their course objectives. Teachers with hands-on international experience expressed more uncertainty. For example, FT2 doubted that their current textbook, the New Headway pre- intermediate 3rd Edition, could assist her students to sit for their TOEIC exam. She said,

If the objective of the course is to learn English for communicative purposes, I think this book is quite professionally and carefully designed for such purposes. But if we wanted to teach our students how to sit for exams such as IELTS or TOEIC, it is clear that we need supplementary material (FT2).

(Nếu mục tiêu của khoá học là học tiếng Anh cho giao tiếp thì mình nghĩ cuốn này được viết khá là bài bản và cẩn thận. Nhưng nếu muốn dạy sinh viên để sau thi IELTS hay TOEIC thì rõ ràng là chúng tôi cần sách hỗ trợ thêm (FT2)

FT2 added that this textbook effectively supplemented students in most skill areas, such as speaking, listening, grammar, and in some communication contexts; however, these were largely inadequate. Teachers were using supplementary materials to familiarise students

235 with the types of exit tests. FT4 indicated a lack of congruence between the final objective of their course and the final test, and a misalignment between the test and their textbook. She explained that,

The final objective of the course is for students to pass the B1 exam. However, the final test still focuses on students’ proficiency, with a significant proportion of grammar and a small section of communicative skills. In the meantime, this textbook was designed following a communicative approach. Therefore, there’s a mismatch between what students learn and what they are tested on (FT4).

Mục tiêu cuối cùng của khoá học là sinh viên đạt B1. Tuy nhiên, bài thi hết môn lại tập trung vào proficiency của sinh viên, mà phần lớn là ngữ pháp, còn giao tiếp chỉ chút xíu. Mà cuốn này thì lại được thiết kế theo đường hướng giao tiếp. Vì vậy sinh viên học một kiểu mà thi lại một kiểu (FT4)

FT4 provided some reasons for this misalignment, identifying factors such as students’ low proficiency levels, and their lack of grammar knowledge as a framework to develop other language skills. Their textbook was more suitable for higher-level students. In a different situation, FT5 emphasised the irrelevance of their textbook (OKET) to their course objectives, because the book was designed for exam skill practice, and not for a general English course. FT8 realised the difficulties in teaching mixed level classes using her current textbook, where she set a lower goal to engage mixed ability students with this teaching material. Although she admitted that the book was quite appropriate to the course objective, she observed some discrepancies in what students learnt in the book and what they were tested on in the exam. To some extent, although teachers with foreign cultural experience agreed with the textbook choice, they seemed to doubt the alignment of these textbooks with course objectives.

Teachers with no international experience demonstrated more satisfaction with their current textbooks. Over half of these teachers (n=6) confirmed the relevance of their books to their course objectives. For example, IT7 observed that their textbook met with most of the requirements for a communicative language course. This consideration took into account various factors such as students and societies’ needs, students’ language proficiency levels, the quality of the book, and other factors such as available teaching time or teaching and learning trends. IT9 stated that they focused on students’ communication skills, expecting

236 their students to be able to listen to English and participate in simple, everyday conversations. This teacher commented that their textbook was manageable, and because of this it was appropriate to the objectives of the course in terms of developing communication skills. With the same textbook, Objective KET, while FT5 considered it to be too exam- oriented and therefore inappropriate for use in a general English course, IT5 highly valued its inclusion of necessary language knowledge and the different types of tests for exams. As their students were required to achieve A2 level at the end of the course, IT5 stated that their textbook was appropriate for their course objectives. Some other teachers, while agreeing that their textbooks were relevant to their course objectives, admitted that these texts were not enough on their own, and that they used extra teaching materials in order to familiarise students with different types of tests.

To summarise, most teachers recognised the relevance of their current textbooks to their course objectives. However, teachers with international experience sometimes demonstrated uncertainty about the alignment of their textbooks with course objectives. As a result of focusing on exams, some teachers with little international experience acknowledged the use and overuse of additional practice test books in their teaching. This acknowledgement reaffirms the statements of some students that they overlooked their ELT textbooks and sometimes ignored their texts to spend time on practice tests.

Relevance to students’ level

Teachers expressed a range of views on whether the current textbooks were relevant to students. Nearly half of the teachers (n=9) thought that their textbooks were appropriate for students when they were assigned to appropriate classes with the right textbooks after placement tests. Six other teachers reported that their current textbooks were beyond their students’ levels. Four of these teachers were teaching at U5 and U10, who did not implement placement tests, and their classes were mixed level. U5’s teacher said that grammar and writing practices were achievable for students. However, her students had difficulties with speaking and listening activities, and U5 teachers could not appropriately apply these activities in mixed level classes. U10’s teachers wanted to use an easier textbook so that their students would be able to acquire a sense of completion and achievement, and from which develop their interest in English learning. U10’s language

237 classes were too crowded, usually from 70 to 80 students. It would be unrealistic for teachers to perform speaking activities in such classes.

The remaining teachers did not think that their textbooks were relevant to every student in their classes. They stated that students’ proficiency levels greatly varied within each classified class, and teachers could not possibly adjust their teaching in response to this diversity. These teachers stated that their good students worked well with their textbooks, while weaker students got bored because the texts were beyond their ability. They reported that the most difficult skills-based activity for students was listening. Listening skills were not only difficult for weaker students, but were reported as challenging for good students as well. Teachers’ views on the alignment of their current textbooks with their students’ proficiency levels were, therefore, quite varied.

6.3.2. Cultural representations in ELT textbooks. General impressions of cultural representations in ELT textbooks

Regardless of having international experience or not, teachers communicated homogeneous impressions on cultural representations in ELT textbooks. Eleven teachers commented that foreign cultural representations dominated their textbooks, leaving little room for source cultural representations. For example, FT1 stated that these kinds of global textbooks reflected a heavy load of foreign cultural values. FT4 said all parts in her textbook were oriented towards foreign cultural values. The speaking and listening practices included conversations that were typically foreign. For example, in one conversation, when someone complimented another person, that person immediately replied, “Thank you”. This response may be typical in some foreign cultures, but maybe unfamiliar to Vietnamese people, who tended to turn down compliments to indicate modesty. IT4 agreed with her colleague, emphasising the need to have foreign cultural and linguistic knowledge as a means to facilitate international communication in everyday life, professional experiences or travel.

While acknowledging the dominance of foreign cultures, teachers realised the prevalence of target cultural representations in their ELT textbooks. FT7 observed some mixtures of cultures in her textbook, but she asserted that the target culture was prioritised. She gave examples from the listening section, where all the voices were British English, and the reading sections, where the information and illustrations were mostly from Europe, and

238 especially from England. IT5, FT5, FT7, and IT9 reported the existence of international cultural representations, citing representations from Asian or African countries, such as Japan, Thailand or South Africa. However, the percentage of these representations was small, as English-speaking culture dominated their textbooks. IT5 and FT4 mentioned the underrepresentation of Vietnamese culture in these textbooks, but then stated that they usually asked their students to relate the text to Vietnamese culture. English language teachers seemed to be well informed of the characteristics of global textbooks, which could not include cultural representations of a single culture, but instead had to include a wide range of other cultures. IT1, IT2, FT10, and IT10 observed that most of the cultural representations in these ELT textbooks were of everyday life, or about common cultural experiences, such as food, holidays, or sports. These representations were so popular and familiar that IT10 and IT2 did not think that they were representations of foreign cultures, and concluded that there was not much foreign culture in their textbooks. IT2 said,

There were only a few representations of foreign cultures in my textbook. For example, in unit 8 they mentioned traffic rules in England, where people drive on the left, while in Vietnam people drive on the right (IT2).

(Văn hoá nước ngoài trong cuốn này thì ít lắm. Ví dụ trong bài 8 thì người ta nói đến giao thông của nước Anh là đi bên tay trái, trong khi ở Việt Nam mình đi bên tay phải) (IT2)

As presented in later sections (page 251), IT2 thought that foreign cultural representations had little influence on their students’ learning. Teachers took into account students’ limited learning time; thus, they placed little emphasis on cultural factors. They did not expect students to gain much cultural knowledge after each lesson. These teachers seemed to have a different view of cultural representations and cultural teaching in foreign language education. Analysis of teachers’ diverse views on cultural representations in ELT textbooks and their influence on learners is presented in the following sections.

Challenging cultural representations

There were some differences in teachers’ views on which cultural representations might be challenging for students. While most teachers without international experience (n=6)

239 thought that academic topics - such as technology, science, invention, history, or language - were challenging for students, only one teacher with international experience referred to these as hard topics. Teachers without international experience mentioned several other topics - vacations, laws, tourism, future plans, and famous people – as either challenging for students or difficult for them to implement in their lessons. These teachers specified some possible reasons. For example, they said that these representations were unsuitable or unfamiliar to Vietnamese culture. The most common reasons they referred to were students’ poor prior knowledge and insufficient language knowledge to engage with these foreign cultural representations. IT7 was the only exception. This teacher was confident in her approach to culture teaching and said that her students did not have any difficulty with these representations. She said,

I normally construct every step leading up to a lesson, so I don’t think my students will meet any difficulties in any unit of this textbook. When teaching reading, I certainly have to introduce the reading by providing information about context and cultures. I elicit students’ knowledge and ask them to brainstorm the topic. Then I narrow down the topic and provide students with the necessary information for the content of the reading (IT7).

(Mình thường xây dựng từng bước trong một bài giảng, vì vậy mình không nghĩ là sinh viên của mình sẽ gặp khó khăn với bất cứ bài nào trong này. Khi dạy đọc, chắc chắn mình sẽ phải giới thiệu bài đọc bằng cách cung cấp thông tin về ngữ cảnh và văn hoá. Mình sẽ elicit kiến thức từ sinh viên và yêu cầu các bạn ấy suy nghĩ về chủ đề này. Rồi mình narrow down chủ đề đó lại và cung cấp thêm những thông tin cần thiết về nội dung bài đọc) (IT7)

Teachers with international experience expressed their reluctance in engaging with cultural representations; they listed a range of units that they thought would be challenging for their students. These teachers criticised the way some of the textbook units were designed to examine students’ prior knowledge, not to provide them with cultural information. For example, FT1 did not see the point in teaching their students about the life of two film directors (unit 7B NEFpr-i), especially when the exercise required students much specific prior knowledge, and did not provide cultural context. FT5 mentioned a Marco Polo reading (unit 4.1 OKET) in which her students, before reading the text, had to identify details about famous people such as Neil Armstrong or Marco Polo. This teacher observed that students might know these people by name, but not their life details. Her students were

240 not able to complete the task without being provided necessary contextual information. She admitted not knowing how to effectively implement such pre-reading activities. FT8 was of the same opinion, referring to unit 2 in NEFpr-i with the music quizzes that required students’ much prior cultural knowledge about the music of other countries. FT9 and FT7 not only complained about the design of this representation, but also highlighted the load of language knowledge that students had to obtain in this unit. These two teachers explained that the cultural knowledge was based on grammar content, and that grammar was too complicated for their students to absorb.

FT4 was less confident, admitting that she did not have sufficient information about some cultural representations in textbooks, although she had experienced life in an English- speaking country. These representations sometimes presented concepts that did not exist in Vietnamese culture. FT4 remembered dealing with one particular cultural representation in her textbook, Straighforward:

The concept, Metronap, presented in this textbook is used in the context of modern society, in which urban citizens work very hard and are too busy to have time to relax. These citizens use convenient places for taking a short rest during a busy day. The concept of Metronap is not in the dictionary. I myself have never heard about it, so it is impossible for me to help my students understand the full meanings of the word. I think that my students just accept it and move on (FT4).

(Cái từ Metronap được dùng trong cuốn này là được sử dụng trong ngữ cảnh xã hội hiện đại, khi các công dân thành thị phải làm việc rất chăm chỉ và không có thời gian để nghỉ ngơi. Họ sử dụng những nơi thoải mái để nghỉ ngắn trong một ngày dài làm việc. Mà cái từ Metronap là không có trong từ điển. Bản thân em cũng chưa hề được biết, vì vậy em không thể nào có thể giúp sinh viên hiểu hết ý nghĩa của nó được. Em nghĩ với những trường hợp như thế này thì sinh viên của em đành chấp nhận ý nghĩa như vậy thôi) (FT4).

As we can see, the difficulties students have when encountering foreign cultural representations may originate from teachers as well. Teachers may not be sufficiently confident in their cultural knowledge about these representations, even when they had experienced life in an English-speaking country. Or teachers may not have a passion for teaching culture, leading to these challenging representations being overlooked. In short, most teachers agreed that some cultural representations were challenging for students,

241 largely because they required students’ much prior knowledge. In other cases, students’ insufficient language knowledge and teachers’ insufficient cultural knowledge were considered to be the main factors.

Engaging cultural representations

Teachers had quite diverse views on which cultural representations were engaging for their students in ELT textbooks. Six teachers observed that their students were interested in topics about love, friends, and family. These topics were age appropriate for young students. Five other teachers believed that their students enjoyed learning about everyday life culture or popular topics such as food, neighbours, or sports. The most common reason for their students’ preferences, according to most teachers, was that students had some prior knowledge of these topics. Students could use this knowledge as a basis for learning more about other cultures, or for conversational communication. As IT2 said, “They speak about these topics because they have background knowledge, and they speak what they have in mind” (Các bạn ấy nói về những chủ đề các bạn ấy có kiến thức nền, và các bạn ấy nói những gì các bạn ấy có trong đầu) (IT2). Teachers believed that students liked learning about the topics that they could personalise and relate to themselves. They wanted to know how foreigners behaved in a particular situation, and compared this with themselves. FT2 gave an example of greeting habits, in which Vietnamese people hardly ever hugged or kissed each other, while it was common for Western people to do so.

IT3 and IT6 explained that her students liked topics about sports because they knew the rules and the advantages of sports. For example, these students understood the rules of football or tennis, or were able to say why cycling was good for their health. Moreover, a majority of technical students were male. In addition to enjoying learning about sports they already knew about, they were also interested in learning about foreign sports, which were not popular in Vietnam, such as cricket or baseball. This preference engaged them in lessons, and encouraged them to listen, read, write, and speak in English. FT8 explained that:

Most of my students are boys, and they are interested in sports. They feel relaxed when learning about sports because they have more chance to read or listen or watch about sports.

242 Moreover, this topic is a repeat of what they learnt from secondary to high school, so they are very confident with it (FT8).

(Hầu hết sinh viên ở đây là con trai, và các bạn ấy rất thích thể thao. Các bạn ấy cảm thấy thích khi được học về thể thao bởi vì như vậy các bạn sẽ có thể được đọc và nghe hoặc xem về thể thao. Hơn nữa, chủ để này cũng được nhắc đi nhắc lại trong giáo trình các bạn ấy học từ cấp hai tới cấp ba, thế nên các bạn rất tự tin) (FT8)

There was one particular example about sports that four teachers mentioned as an engaging cultural representation for their students. This representation was also noted in Chapter Five as one of the rare examples of a Vietnamese reference in the textbook NEFpr-i and AEFpr- i. In this example, a Vietnamese football fan named Duc wrote a review about a football match for a foreign sports magazine. These three teachers stated that this representation was interesting for their students because there were hardly any Vietnamese references in these global course books. IT6 remembered:

This course book was written by foreign textbook writers, and is sold globally, but an ordinary Vietnamese person is mentioned here. Really special, isn’t it? This makes my students very excited, especially as they are mostly male and they like sports (IT6).

(Cuốn giáo trình này được viết bởi tác giả nước ngoài, và được sử dụng ở nhiều nước trên thế giới, nhưng lại có bài về một người Việt Nam bình thường ở đây. Như vậy cũng khá là đặc biệt phải không chị? Vì điều này nên sinh viên của em hứng thú lắm, đặc biệt khi hầu hết đều là nam và thích thể thao) (IT6)

IT3 and FT8 shared this view, adding that their students thought this situation was like them sharing their feelings about the football club that they worshipped. FT8 was surprised at this representation, as her students were extremely excited by it. The man named Duc in the reading was like an everyman figure. On the basis of this example, this teacher thought that it might be good to include Vietnamese cultural representations in these global textbooks. The more references to Vietnam that were integrated into the text, the more engaged the students would become.

In addition to topics about everyday life, some teachers believed that topics about modern technology, travelling, or architecture were also interesting for their students. FT1 remembered that at first, she did not expect her students to know much about these topics, but they actually knew quite a bit. This teacher highlighted examples of topics such as 243 Facebook, EBay, or Google as engaging topics for her students. These topics were not unfamiliar to them, but they were new because during their years learning English at secondary and high schools they had learnt mostly about social knowledge, or everyday life, not about modern technology. FT4 also emphasised that her students were interested in getting to know more about advanced technology in their field of study. This teacher gave examples of expat file and high-speed train as the modern societal trends in international cultures. While the first topic expat file looked into the life of people born in one country, but who lived and worked in a different one, the second topic talked about high-speed trains in different developed countries including Japan, France, and Germany.

Still other teachers remarked that their students were more engaged with topics about films, music, or fashion. Whatever topics these students preferred, their teachers stated that they had prior knowledge of these topics, or they were able to personalise and relate them to themselves. This means that they had encountered these cultural representations with the intention of using the information they learnt to communicate with others. IT7 observed that her students could speak English more confidently only when they knew that what they said was considered culturally correct in that context. From these observations, this teacher concluded that teachers and their life experience were important in teaching culture. If the teacher had more real-life experience, their teaching would be more effective and more persuasive. The following section specifíes whether international experience had any influence on teachers’ perception of culture teaching and their cultural teaching pedagogy.

6.3.3. Cultural teaching pedagogy. During the interviews, several teachers - most of whom had international experience - expressed their views on cultural teaching in their teaching practice. These teachers agreed with the integration of culture teaching in foreign language teaching, as they were conscious of the inseparable link between language and culture. FT1 expressed her strong preference for the inclusion of Western culture, because for her it was impossible to approach a language without knowing the culture of that language. She agreed that in their futures, students would mostly work with people from neighbouring countries, or in other continents, so they needed to know about international cultures. However, this teacher insisted that the first time these students learnt a new language, they should learn about the

244 culture of that language. This teacher gave an example of reading a funny English story, where she could not have explained to her students what was funny about the story if she did not know about English-speaking cultures. Moreover, FT1 stated that, in addition to broadening their social background knowledge, her students learnt to adopt good habits and good behaviours through learning foreign cultures. For example, they learnt to be punctual for meetings, as that behaviour was considered important in social interactions. Or they learnt to queue in public, which was not a common social practice in their own culture.

Another teacher with international experience, FT9, recognised the dominance of foreign cultures, especially English-speaking cultures, and its significance to the intercultural learning process. She explained:

This textbook provides some reading texts with typical information about England or Australia. Students then read and are able to know how people in different countries live differently. Students can make sentences comparing life in these countries with their own. By doing so, they understand more about the culture of England or Australia, and at the same time understand more about their own Vietnamese culture (FT9).

(Cuốn giáo trình này cung cấp một số bài đọc có những thông tin đặc thù về nước Anh hay Úc. Sinh viên có thể đọc và biết được những người ở các nước khác nhau sống như thế nào. Các bạn ấy có thể đặt câu so sánh cuộc sống ở những nước này với bản thân họ. Qua đó, các bạn hiểu hơn về văn hoá Anh hoặc Úc, và đồng thời cũng hiểu thêm về văn hoá Việt Nam) (FT9)

In recognition of the importance of cultural representations to the intercultural learning process, FT9 took advantage of these representations in her teaching practice. However, other teachers with international experience identified obstacles in their teaching practice. FT2 observed that her technical students rarely cared about cultural issues in their language learning. Moreover, their background knowledge of the target culture was extremely limited. This was especially true in conditions where they had limited time in class. In some situations, teachers might want to provide them with more cultural information to help them fully understand the lesson content. However, this was optional for teachers, and may or may not happen. As a result, what students learnt about foreign cultures in each lesson was inconsiderable.

245 Sharing the same view, FT4 doubted the application of foreign cultural knowledge in everyday life in the Vietnamese context. She added that this cultural knowledge might be good for those who went to live abroad, but was just for interest for those who stayed or worked inside the country. Because of this, these teachers had varied approaches to cultural representations. They sometimes overlooked irrelevant cultural representations, focusing on supporting selected representations in order to provide the most effective teaching for their students. In order to have a more detailed description of how teachers engaged with these representations, the following section looks at their views on students’ prior knowledge, the effects of these representations on students’ learning, their own approaches towards these representations, and their expectations in terms of their teaching practice.

Teachers’ views on students’ prior cultural knowledge

Teachers shared similar views about students’ background knowledge. Most teachers (n=11) agreed that their students had limited knowledge about cultural representations in ELT textbooks because most of their students were from rural areas. They observed that students who came from urban areas had better background knowledge. These students were more confident in their cultural knowledge than rural students, who had limited exposure to the English language as well as foreign cultures. Yet FT8 observed that nowadays through the Internet, rural students had opportunities to be exposed to foreign cultures. She believed that urban students were more active and more dynamic in perceiving new language and cultural knowledge. Many of these students hoped to travel abroad for higher education, so they set higher aim for their language proficiency level as well as their background knowledge. Although rural students were hard working, their efforts did not seem to be sufficient because the habit of enriching knowledge was a long process. This teacher identified herself as an example of a language learner who came from a rural area. She did not have much exposure to English language and cultures until she started university and lived in the city. This teacher stated that although she studied English as her major, it was not until she had a period of time living in an England did she really understand and absorb English culture. FT8 asserted that living in an English-speaking environment had a great effect on her.

246 Teachers also believed that, because their students had little knowledge about foreign cultures (for example, Western music or films), most found it difficult to encounter cultural representations that were designed to check prior knowledge. In the textbooks New English File Pre-intermediate and American English File Pre-intermediate, unit two was one particular example of a representation that was designed to check prior knowledge. As described in Chapter Five (section 5.4.2, page 192), this unit included a quiz about foreign music, and most questions were about Western music. IT1, IT10, IT3, IT6, and IT9 referred to this quiz as a difficult representation for their students. IT3 said her students might know about the music of their time, but they knew little about the music of the 70s or 80s. For example, they had no knowledge of the song Imagine, and knew nothing about John Lennon’s wife and her connection to this song. FT1 gave an example of her students not being able to complete the tasks associated with readings about two American film directors, who while famous in the US were not well-known in Vietnam. It seemed that textbook designers had the expectation that EFL learners had access to this kind of information; they assumed that learners would be able to answer these questions without any cues. This pedagogical bias in global ELT textbooks inhibits students’ language learning due to their assumption of students’ prior cultural knowledge.

Even when students are provided foreign cultural knowledge, teachers believed that their students’ limited background knowledge and cultural differences influenced their perception of these kinds of representations. For example, IT6 referred to one situation when she was teaching about teenagers’ problems. Their textbook represented Western teenagers as being allowed to have their own opinions in discussions and sometimes arguing with their parents. This was surprising to the Vietnamese students who were highly deferential to their parents. These students did not make decisions for themselves, but would defer to their parents. When learning that their peers in a foreign culture had an independent life, they felt confused, and some questioned this representation.

In addition, students’ limited background knowledge hindered them from understanding these representations and completing their tasks. For example, IT8 reported asking her students what they should bring for a camping trip and they immediately answered that they had never been camping. When teaching a unit about foreign travel, IT3 remembered asking her students to give talks about their own holiday travel. Most of her students (80%)

247 reported that they had never had an opportunity to go on holiday. In another example in New English File Pre-intermediate and American English File Pre-intermediate, this teacher also had to provide context for the representation of the Watergate scandal. She stated, “I see that we as language teachers usually have to provide our students with cultural knowledge in order for them to understand the context of the lesson and learn more quickly and efficiently” (Tôi nhận thấy rằng là giáo viên ngoại ngữ chúng tôi thường phải cung cấp cho sinh viên kiến thức văn hoá để các bạn ấy hiểu ngữ cảnh của bài học và học hiệu quả hơn và nhanh hơn) (IT3). Even so, the Watergate scandal was completely strange for her students who were unfamiliar with Western democracy and had limited knowledge about American history. FT2 agreed with this view, stating that teachers had to do a lot of work in order to make that particular section of the book relevant to language learning. This teacher admitted that she played an active role in sharing cultural knowledge with students and providing them with new knowledge in every lesson that related to cultural issues. Both teachers were unsure whether the value of this lesson was worth their efforts to bring their students to appreciate that story about American democracy and history. Their uncertainty raised a question whether it would be better to provide students with a more familiar representation.

ELT textbooks were a selection of cultural representations, some of which were of interest to students, but some others were perhaps not the best pedagogical choice. However, there was not any guidance to assist teachers in teaching those representations in terms of cultural knowledge. Whether or not language teachers were confident and ready to do both cultural and language teaching is an open question. Some teachers (n=5) expressed doubts about teaching cultures and language. These teachers appeared to lack confidence about their cultural knowledge or they felt that the knowledge they provided students was superficial because of the limited teaching time. Five teachers, three of whom had international experience (FT1, FT4 and FT5), admitted that they were unsure that they could provide appropriate interpretation of a challenging representation. The more international experience these teachers had, the more uncertain about culture teaching they became, as they thought that students could not adequately gain sufficient cultural knowledge in order to develop their intercultural communicative competence given limited teaching time and unfavourable teaching conditions.

248 Teachers’ views on the effects of cultural representations on students’ learning

Teachers expressed similar views on the effects of foreign cultural representations on students’ learning, but this was not uniform. Sixteen teachers agreed that foreign cultural representations either had a negative or positive effect on their students. Two other teachers, one with international experience and one without, thought there were no effects. IT2 said that these cultural representations were common and simple. Even if the topic was not easy, the tasks were achievable for her students; thus, she did not think that these representations were influential. FT8, on the other hand, drew on her own experience as a learner and language teacher (pages 248-249). When she first learnt English and about English-speaking cultures, cultural representations such as Big Ben, the Thames River, or the Statue of Liberty did not make much of an impression on her. Only when she directly witnessed these did she read more about them and feel some connection with them. From these experiences, she thought that cultural representations did not have a direct influence on students’ learning, especially students’ intercultural competence. However, these representations did have their own quality in her future life and career. These representations were therefore time specific.

Although 16 teachers confirmed the influence of cultural representations on students’ intercultural competence, their perception of the degree of this influence varied. Four teachers believed that cultural representations had more negative effects on students who had limited background knowledge. FT7 and IT8 explained that the lack of prior knowledge about a cultural representation might prevent students from expressing their ideas or completing related skills practice. There was barely anything in their mind that may help form an idea. In one situation, when IT8 was teaching about the topics of HIV and arranged marriage in India, her students reported not having adequate knowledge about these topics. As such, they could not possibly speak their mind about these topics in English. In another example, IT1’s students did not know what to write in a postcard because they did not usually write postcards in their own culture. As a teacher, IT1 had to provide her students first with knowledge about postcard writing, for example, the context or the purpose of writing a postcard. Then she guided them what to include in these postcards. She had to explain these details before her students actually practiced writing one. IT8 and IT1 observed that when their students had a better understanding and more

249 information about a cultural representation, they spoke or wrote more confidently. Foreign cultural representations in these situations were barriers to students’ learning processes.

Language teachers, besides providing students with language knowledge, tried to provide as much cultural knowledge as possible because they are aware of the interrelation between language and culture. They recognised that besides language, their students learnt other things from the ways foreign people interacted with others. For example, students learnt to be on time for meetings or speak more politely to their peers. Instead of saying, “Give me the pen!” they may say, “Could you give me the pen, please?” However, these positive effects were not mentioned often. Teachers tended to talk about the negative effects of culture on language learning. FT7 and IT7 listed the difficulties their students were facing regarding the cultural representations in textbooks. Firstly, students’ poor background knowledge seemed to be one of the biggest barriers to language learning. This limited background knowledge resulted from students’ not having the habit of reading. Students had to manage an over-crowded curriculum since they started school, so time for reading and absorbing social and cultural knowledge outside their curriculum was reduced. In this situation, teachers played an important role in supporting their students and trying to fill in the blanks in their cultural knowledge. Without this support from teachers, students would have to spend more time looking for information on their own. However, according to FT7 and IT10, a second disadvantage was that teachers did not have adequate class time to introduce this knowledge in detail to students; students did not have an opportunity to seriously learn about cultures. As a result, teachers and students’ efforts to engage with these representations were not particularly meaningful.

Twelve other teachers believed that foreign cultural representations had both positive and negative effects, which depended on the design of these representations and their students’ interest in language learning. Familiar representations paired with new cultural knowledge were effective in students’ learning. As previously noted (page 244), if students had prior knowledge, they would use this knowledge as a base to do their tasks. These representations even triggered students’ curiosity and eagerness to learn more about the outside world and foreign cultures. FT5 gave an example of the Tomato Festival, a very special festival in Spain. Her students found this festival both familiar and unfamiliar: tomatoes were not new to them, but throwing tomatoes at each other was funny and

250 interesting, especially for young people. Another suitable topic for her students was food. These students may not know about all kinds of food in the world, and to learn more about other kinds of food, such as pizza or spaghetti, was perceived as useful. FT5 then concluded that if foreign cultural representations were connected with the learner’s prior knowledge, students would be more excited to learn.

In contrast, FT9 identified the negative effects of these cultural representations when they required students to have background knowledge to complete tasks. She cited the typical example of a music quiz in unit two New English File Pre-intermediate and American English File Pre-intermediate, in which her students could barely choose a correct answer (Section 5.4.2, page 192). As I previously presented, most teachers considered this representation challenging for their students (See page 249). In this situation, students were required to look for information before class. UT5 and UT8 observed that dynamic students received this new knowledge, processed it and took ownership of that knowledge. They were motivated to learn new knowledge based on prior information obtained. However, those who did not pay much attention to learning the language may not do the preparation. New cultural knowledge was not that influential, as they wanted to do the tasks for the final exams. Although the representation of the music quiz was considered challenging, UT6 explained that the main purpose of the task was not to answer these questions, but instead provide context for future lessons. From these explanations, it may be concluded that although most teachers agreed on the influence of foreign cultural representations, their perspectives on these impacts varied greatly.

Teachers’ approaches towards cultural representations

Teachers without international experience appeared to exhibit homogeneous approaches towards difficult cultural representations in ELT textbooks. When encountering such representations, half of these teachers (n=5) replaced challenging reading texts, changed skills-based practice tests or redesigned tasks to make them more achievable for students. For example, instead of using difficult readings in her textbook, IT10 chose less challenging readings from newspapers or other textbooks. She realised that it was not necessary to strictly follow her textbook. Students were interested in reading something beyond the textbook they had in their hands. In another listening task where there were too

251 many new cultural representations, IT1 changed the task from a listening comprehension into a reading comprehension practice. Student could complete the task more easily, and they also learnt some more cultural knowledge. Similarly, instead of requiring students to listen to a long difficult text or conversation and writing down the answers, IT6 simplified this task by redesigning it into listening and filling the gaps with missing information.

Five other teachers with little international experience provided students with necessary information, compared and contrasted between foreign and Vietnamese cultures, chose suitable sections and skipped challenging cultural representations. In addition, some of them used visual aids to support their teaching. For example, when learning about the song Imagine, IT3 provided students with the context of this song, such as why this song was written, where it was written and what inspired it. After listening to the song, students were required to express their feelings and explain the meaning of the song to the class. As a language teacher, IT3 had to spend much time providing cultural knowledge for her students. In another example, IT5 did not normally skip difficult readings. She required students to read and understand the texts. She provided some vocabulary to facilitate their reading and assist them in completing the comprehension tasks. IT5 then required students to summarise the main ideas of these readings, or to compare and contrast these readings’ content with the Vietnamese context. For example, after reading texts about international festivals, students were expected to be able to comprehend the main themes of these texts, summarise their contents in class and write similar paragraphs about Vietnamese festivals. Or when encountering the challenging text about Marco Polo (a reading which was noted in section 6.3.2, page 243 as containing challenging representations for students), IT5 skipped the pre-reading section, which asked students details about some foreign people. Not being able to answer these questions would discourage students from continuing to read the text, while these details were not really related to the main reading text. By skipping this section, IT5 would have more time to spend on the post-reading section, asking students to outline the ideas and present in groups. Instead of asking students things they did not know at the beginning, this teacher asked them to present what they had learnt. In this way, students had an opportunity to practice speaking about difficult topics. Following a similar approach, IT2 exploited to the full a common topic, Your Favourite Things, by letting her students talk about their favourite sports and places. For unpopular topics such as Famous

252 Inventions, she went through them very quickly and spent time on other sections. Sometimes she just skipped these topics. These teachers with little international experience often used visual aids such as pictures or video clips and required students to practice speaking about these representations. They believed these visuals helped students remember things better or leave a stronger impression on them. For example, IT3 thought it was hard for her students to remember the name of the longest river in the world, but believed that they could do it when she showed them the pictures of this river. These teachers were aware of the impact of visuals on students’ learning.

Teachers with international experience demonstrated more varied approaches towards challenging representations. In addition to using similar approaches to teachers without international experience, those with international experience had other ways of navigating challenging representations. For example, when teaching about places in the world, FT1 personalised students’ knowledge by asking them to write about their own places or country. Alternatively, this teacher asked students to investigate a place and design some quizzes; these quizzes were then brought to class and tested on other students. When encountering a challenging representation about two film directors (See section 5.4.2, page 194), FT1 asked each of her students to look for five pieces of information about these two directors on the Internet before class. Then she displayed pictures of these two directors and conducted a guessing game about them, eliciting the knowledge her students had prepared, and correcting them if necessary. For students whose English was not strong, she asked them to read the text, then close the book, and write down any details they remembered about these two directors. This teacher employed different approaches to cultural representations, depending on her students’ level of proficiency. In all her approaches, she focused on speaking skills by creating as many situations for practice as possible. For example, after a listening task, she asked her students to role-play or act in a drama. Or she asked them to do it at home and post it on their secret Facebook group. The most important thing was that she corrected their speaking, which encouraged them to continue to talk. She was also very creative when requiring her students to go to Sword Lake (a famous tourist attraction in Hanoi), take photos with at least five foreigners, and post these photos on their Facebook group. After completing this task, students understood that by the time they had talked to the fifth person and requested to take pictures with them, they had become more

253 confident speaking English with foreigners, and in experiencing other cultures as well. For other speaking activities in her textbook, she preferred using gap-filling exercises, with the aim of encouraging her students to use oral communication. FT1 seemed to have effective ways to approach difficult cultural representations depending on the different levels of her students.

To engage students with challenging cultural representations, FT10 usually began the lessons by telling relevant stories. For example, when teaching about the topic of teenagers’ problems, she told her students stories about relationships between Western teenagers and their parents, then asked them to relate these stories to their own situation, and describe their response. As a result, students drew their own conclusions. FT10 reported that her students did not have enough vocabulary to express their ideas. And because of large classes, these students tended to switch to Vietnamese language during their discussion as she could not monitor all groups. FT10 also admitted that given limited teaching time, she was not able to assist them much with their spoken English.

Sharing the view that the time allocated for English learning was severely inadequate, FT2 and FT4 prepared their lessons very carefully at home, and provided students with the most typical information and practical examples linked to students’ daily life. They combined the use of modern teaching facilities to help their students to develop a general view or imaginative perspective on cultural representations. FT2 and FT4 believed that this approach was more persuasive and effective for their students.

Similar to other teachers without international experience, FT5 and FT7 usually simplified the tasks for their students by relating these tasks to the Vietnamese context. In this way, the tasks were more achievable because students developed their own ideas and were able to speak out. For example, when teaching the topic about famous people, instead of asking students to speak about strange people who they did not know, FT7 asked them to share five to seven sentences about their teachers or friends. These teachers also recognised a large gap in English proficiency between urban and rural students, and noted that most of their students were from the countryside with limited English knowledge.

FT8 and FT9 had even more practical approaches to cultural representations. In spite of limited English teaching time, which they regarded as one barrier to their teaching, they

254 tried to engage their students with cultural activities that they created for them. For example, during Halloween, FT8 organised some activities for her students to evoke the atmosphere of this Western festival. FT8 and FT9 believed that students learnt from what they did, and they required their students to look for cultural information on the Internet, do mind maps about the topics, and present them in class. For example, FT9 asked her students to do mind maps about animals. Her students selected the animal they wanted to present, and created the main ideas such as its habitat, its population, or its physical features. When they completed their mind maps, they were able to remember the ideas and develop these without having to learn them by heart. They then presented the information they had gathered in front of the class. For these two teachers, the most important thing was to guide their students to study and experience culture by themselves in order to retain knowledge. FT8 and FT9 had spent a period of time living abroad, and they believed that their experience was helpful to their teaching career. These two teachers were able to integrate their personal experiences into their daily teaching and they were confident when teaching cultural representations.

Teachers’ perspectives on improved teaching contexts

Most teachers believed that they had tried their best to deliver language and cultural knowledge to their students given unfavourable conditions. They enthusiastically shared what they had done to assist their students when encountering challenging cultural representations, but did not say much about what they expected they could do in ideal conditions. Most teachers wanted to have more teaching time, so that they were able to use visual aids and other modern teaching facilities when presenting new knowledge for their students. For example, when teaching about the topic Music with a question about Elvis Presley, if time permitted, IT6 would have let her students listen to a song by this famous singer, and shown them his pictures or videos. FT7 thought it would be highly effective if she were able to show pictures of the things that her students may not know about and let them discuss these, or elicit their knowledge. IT10 wanted her students to search for cultural information at home, and discuss this in groups or present this information in class. However, these teachers reported that they could not do what they wanted because of limited teaching time. In IT10’s language classrooms of 80 students, these kinds of teaching practices were an impossible dream.

255 In addition to preferring more teaching time, teachers expressed ideas about textbook improvement. IT5 wanted to be able to integrate her learners’ culture with international culture. She suggested that reading texts should include more descriptions of Vietnamese ways of life. Texts about native or international cultures should also be introduced to learners, but they should not be too challenging and should facilitate students’ learning. IT1 also expected that skills activities should include an information gap to encourage students to speak and listen, and would not require too much prior knowledge. Teachers seemed to be quite satisfied with their current approaches to cultural representations, and require only external changes, such as greater time allocation and textbook improvement.

6.4. Similarities and Differences in Teachers and Students’ Perceptions of Cultural Representations and the Influence of these Representations on Students’ Development of Intercultural Communicative Competence

6.4.1. Teachers and students’ perceptions of cultural representations in ELT textbooks. Teachers and students had similar impressions of the cultural representations in ELT textbooks. Most teachers (n=11) and students (n=12) recognised the dominance of foreign cultural representations and the underrepresentation of Vietnamese culture in ELT textbooks. These teachers and students emphasised the focus of these representations on English speaking cultures, especially on British and American cultures, and the international target cultures of European and Asian countries. While students expressed preferences for having more Vietnamese representations in these ELT textbooks, their teachers were conversant of the characteristics of these global textbooks. They recognised that these textbooks included a wide range of international cultures, leaving little room for Vietnamese culture. In order to facilitate their students’ engagement with these foreign cultural representations, teachers often related these to Vietnamese culture, and required their students to refer to their own experiences and prior cultural knowledge. Most teachers and students also agreed that the representations in these textbooks were of common cultures, which represented daily life topics such as food, holidays or sports. If there were some deep cultural representations that required students to have rich prior knowledge, these representations were mediated by teachers to make them more accessible for Vietnamese students.

256 Students’ prior knowledge and teachers’ beliefs about their students’ knowledge did not always match. More than half of the students (n=11) either stated that they had encountered these cultural representations at high school, or were very confident in their background knowledge. However, eleven teachers believed that their students had limited knowledge of cultural representations. These teachers seemed to underestimate their students’ prior cultural knowledge. Still, teachers made accurate observations that urban students were quite confident in their background knowledge, while rural students were less so. They observed that rural students had limited exposure to English and foreign cultures. Although most rural students tried hard in their learning, their efforts were not sufficient. Urban students, on the other hand, had more English learning opportunities since primary school, and better cultural and language knowledge. Both urban and rural students admitted to receiving new cultural and language knowledge in textbooks and from teachers, who played the twin roles of cultural knowledge provider and language knowledge provider. Teachers, as a part of their practice, identified representations that either provided students with more cultural knowledge, or required students to have prior knowledge. However, a few of these teachers expressed doubts about their role. They either felt uncertain about the cultural teaching practices of some other teachers who may not correctly understand a cultural representation, or be afraid of providing their students with superficial cultural knowledge due to limited teaching time. These doubtful teachers had hands-on international experience.

There were some matches in what teachers and students considered challenging representations in their textbooks. The first match was that most teachers and students believed that academic topics such as technology, science, invention, or history, and even some practical topics such as future plans or famous people, were difficult to learn. They cited unit 1C, At the Moulin Rouge, and unit 2B, A moment in time, in the textbook NEFpr-i and AEFpr-i respectively as examples of challenging topics. Teachers and students also agreed that students’ poor background knowledge was one of the most important reasons for this difficulty. They shared the view that cultural representations requiring background knowledge was another important factor for students’ learning difficulties. They identified unit 2 about the music quizzes, and unit 7B about the life of two film directors in NEFpr-i and AEFpr-i, as examples of representations that relied upon students’ prior knowledge.

257 Despite these commonalities, there was a slight mismatch between teachers and students’ views on challenging cultural representations. While eight students reported that they did not find any challenging topics in their textbooks, because either these representations were simple or they had learnt this knowledge at high school, most teachers disagreed. They listed a wide range of topics that they believed were challenging for their students. These teachers admitted that sometimes they themselves did not have sufficient cultural knowledge about a challenging representation because the concept was new, or there was no such concept in their culture. The representation of Metronap in the textbook Straightfoward was given as an example of this deficiency (See section 6.3.2, page 242).

There was a close match between what teachers and students considered to be engaging cultural representations. Although students’ preferences varied across a range of topics, many students preferred learning about love, friends, and family, as well as popular topics about everyday life. These students wanted to learn about how foreigners behaved in similar situations so that they could learn from them. Interestingly, six teachers believed that their students were interested in topics about love, family, and friends. Five other teachers observed that their students enjoyed learning about everyday life or popular topics. These teachers and students agreed that the students preferred these topics because they had prior knowledge of them, and they were able to personalise or relate the cultural knowledge they learnt to their own situation or culture.

Teachers and students also shared their perspectives on other engaging topics, for example, film, music, food, technology, or sports. They cited an example about a Vietnamese football fan named Duc who wrote a letter to a sports magazine about the match he enjoyed (New English File Pr-i and American English File Pr-i) as an engaging cultural representation. Teachers and students commented that they found this representation engaging because they were surprised to see a in a global textbook. The global textbooks they had used included stories about foreign people with foreign personal names and places. This formed a common impression that global textbooks consisted of merely target and international target culture. The inclusion of a source cultural reference into an ELT textbook turned out to have a positive effect on the learning process.

258 In addition, teachers observed that their students were quite interested in learning about new technology, such as high-speed train or Ebay or Google. As these students were technical students, they had prior knowledge about these topics and were confident to talk about what they knew. This convergence in their views showed that teachers had good insights into their students’ learning preferences. Based on their teaching experience, they understood what was suitable for their students and what their students favoured in terms of cultural representations.

6.4.2. Teachers and students’ perceptions of cultural influence in intercultural communicative competence. The influence of representations of life outside Vietnam on students’ intercultural competence

Most teachers and students agreed that foreign cultural representations had an influence on students’ intercultural communicative competence. Only five students and two teachers denied the importance of these components on English learning processes. While five of the nine ‘reportedly interested’ students confirmed the positive effects these representations had on their communicative competence by encouraging them to communicate successfully with others, five of the 11 ‘reportedly uninterested’ students referred to this influence as negative, as it discouraged them from communicating with others and completing class tasks. While none of the nine ‘reportedly interested’ students underestimated the influence of these cultural representations, and showed their interest in learning more about ‘life outside Vietnam, four ‘reportedly uninterested’ students believed that these representations did not have any influence on their intercultural communicative competence. From that we can conclude that students’ interest in English learning has influence on their perceptions of the representations of life outside Vietnam in global ELT textbooks.

Of the 16 teachers who confirmed the influence of these representations, four believed that this influence negatively impacted the learning process due to their students’ poor background knowledge. Twelve others had nuanced appreciation when they observed that this influence was either negative or positive depending on the design of these representations and students’ interest in English language learning. This indicates that these representations had positive effects when they did not require students to have prior

259 knowledge. These representations also had positive effects on ‘reportedly interested’ students, who liked learning English, were eager to learn more about foreign cultures, and used active approaches when encountering these representations. From these findings, it appears that teachers had formulated a very precise evaluation on the influence of representations of life outside Vietnam on students. This may be because their teaching experience helped them become more understanding and sensitive about students and their learning habits.

Although most teachers and students agreed on the influence of cultural representations, they had different explanations for this influence. Most ‘reportedly uninterested’ students either referred to these representations as having negative effects or denied any effects these representations may have, and they provided a lot of internal and external factors to explain this situation. One of these factors centred on their teachers’ traditional teaching methods. Some of these students reported that their teachers did not present cultural representations; instead they focused on teaching grammar, vocabulary and listening. However, their teachers offered different explanations. They realised that their students’ background knowledge was poor due to their little time for reading. Teachers were conscious of the connection between language and culture. In addition to providing language knowledge, these teachers confirmed that they tried their best to provide students with as much cultural knowledge as possible. For representations that required students to have prior knowledge, these teachers said that they used appropriate teaching methods to facilitate their students’ learning. Although having different explanations for the same phenomenon, both teachers and students mentioned one important external factor affecting the teaching and learning process: limited teaching time. Due to time limits, teachers and students did not have the chance to seriously teach and learn about cultures, and their engagements with cultural representations were not meaningful.

Cultural teaching practices

Most students regarded teachers’ teaching practices as traditional and more teacher than student oriented (See section 6.2.2, page 225). According to these students, their teachers applied monotonous ways of teaching. Either they explained difficult representations, provided students with new vocabulary and meanings, then guided them through exercises,

260 or they translated the texts and then provided additional information. Teachers were also reported to overlook cultural representations, and focus only on the technical aspect of language teaching, such as grammar, reading and listening. In addition to these traditional teaching methods, students acknowledged that some teachers applied more engaging strategies. For example, in addition to using visual aids and modern technologies such as pictures, videos, films, or music to provide context for challenging representations, these teachers created situations for their students to role-play or act in a drama, and related these representations to their own culture by letting them play games or share their personal stories. These students admitted that these skills-based activities enabled them to acquire and retain language and cultural knowledge, at the same time they became more confident about their own culture and successfully communicated with people of other cultures. Effective as these activities may be, only four students reported that their teachers applied them in their teaching.

While most students observed that their teachers’ teaching methods were traditional, monotonous, and predictable, teachers’ responses indicated otherwise. Teachers reported that they used multiple activities in their teaching. Teachers without international experience believed that they had tried their best in limited teaching time. They replaced challenging reading texts, changed skills practice or adapted tasks to make them more achievable. They provided students with contexts, using visual aids or modern media, skipped difficult sections and compared and contrasted cultures. They believed their teaching methods would help their students to encounter cultural representations in textbooks. Each teacher with international experience even had their own approaches to challenging cultural representations. The most important thing for them was to guide their students to study and experience culture by themselves. In that process, as cultural mediators, teachers were able to assist their students by integrating their personal experience into their daily teaching.

Cultural teaching expectations

Although students understood their teachers’ difficulties and were sympathetic, they expressed dissatisfaction with their teachers’ teaching practices. Students would have liked to have more effective English lessons and more cultural information. ‘Reportedly

261 interested’ students were willing to become involved with more cultural learning activities. They wanted to participate in a role-play, act in a drama, make a presentation or experience cultural events. ‘Reportedly uninterested’ students were more passive, noting that they wanted their teachers to provide them with more detailed information via visual aids. These students also wanted their teachers to give examples of Vietnamese culture that were comparable to target cultural representations. They seemed to want their teachers to carry out a lot of activities. Teachers, on the other hand, believed that they had the best teaching methods to assist their students. These teachers were not very self-critical; instead they strongly focused on external factors. They expressed their preferences to have more teaching time, to have better teaching conditions, and to have more engaging cultural representations in their textbooks. Students and teachers’ expectations, therefore, were not aligned.

6.5. Summary This chapter presented teachers and students’ views on ELT textbooks, representations of life outside Vietnam in these textbooks and their influence on students’ intercultural competence. The analysis indicated that ‘location’ and ‘interest’ factors had an influence on students’ perceptions of cultural representations of life outside Vietnam and also their responses to these representations. Rural students seemed to be more satisfied with their textbooks, while urban students were more demanding of them. Urban students were more confident in their prior knowledge, and they showed a desire to have better textbooks. ‘Reportedly interested’ students normally observed the positive aspects of learning about foreign cultural representations, while ‘reportedly uninterested’ students believed that foreign cultural representations prevented them from completing tasks in class, and negatively influenced their intercultural communicative competence. The analysis also indicated that while teachers’ international experience seemed not to have much impact on their views about ELT textbooks and cultural representations, this international experience clearly made a difference to their teaching pedagogies. Teachers with international experience generally had more diverse approaches to cultural teaching, and used more engaging strategies with their students. This understanding was based on the core principle that it was experience that mattered, because culture was a living entity, and was not something that was frozen in textbooks.

262 Both teachers and students acknowledged that target and international target cultural representations dominated their textbooks. They agreed that there were few references to Vietnamese culture in these textbooks. Sometimes these representations were non-existent. Teachers and students admitted that most of the representations of life outside Vietnam were of everyday culture, which belonged to the sociological sense of culture. Some of the most challenging cultural representations were restricted to the aesthetic sense of culture. Teachers and students believed that the inclusion of Vietnamese culture would play an important role in facilitating and engaging students in the development of their intercultural communicative competence. In spite of these commonalities, teachers and students had quite opposing views on teachers’ cultural teaching pedagogies. While most students described their teachers’ cultural teaching as traditional, and wanted their teachers to apply more communicative approaches, teachers believed that they were doing their best given the limitations of their job.

This chapter focused on teachers and students’ views of ELT textbooks, cultural representations in ELT textbooks, and their influence on students’ development of intercultural communicative competence. The following chapter presents the discussion of findings in Chapter Four, Chapter Five, and Chapter Six. It then proposes recommendations for Vietnamese technical universities to improve students’ development of ICC, and gives practical implications for related students, teachers, policy makers and textbook designers.

263 Chapter Seven: Discussion and Conclusion

7.1. Overview

My study investigated the representations of life outside Vietnam in current English textbooks at technical universities in Hanoi, and their influence on students’ intercultural communicative competence. I examined the perceptions of ten technical universities’ Language Faculty administrators about their ELT textbooks and EFL teaching programs to gain general overviews on the context of this study. I examined the cultural content embedded in the corpus of seven textbooks that were currently used at these ten universities. I interviewed these universities’ EFL academics and their students to understand their perceptions of representations of life outside Vietnam in these textbooks, and explored how these representations influenced students’ intercultural communicative competence (ICC). Unheard voices of teachers and students, who engaged with foreign cultural representations, were raised, and problems with cultural representations in ELT textbooks were identified. My study demonstrated teachers and students’ similar and contradictory views on how these cultural representations influenced students’ intercultural communicative competence, as well as on teachers’ cultural teaching pedagogies in technical university contexts. My study indicated that for most students, cultural teaching practice was monotonous and unsatisfactory, while most teachers reported having applied diverse and effective cultural teaching activities. Based on these findings, I propose recommendations for technical universities to improve students’ intercultural communicative competence. Also presented are practical implications for material designers, textbooks writers, language education administrators, English teachers and students to effectively perform their job.

This chapter summarises the study of the influence of representations of life outside Vietnam on students’ intercultural communicative competence by discussing the extent to which the central research question was addressed. As noted in Chapter Three, Research Methodology, there were three phases in this project. The purpose of phase one was to provide detailed description of the research context, and identify a corpus of global ELT

264 textbooks used at technical universities in Hanoi, as well as examine how and why these textbooks were chosen. The findings of this phase identified a pattern of textbook use at these universities in accordance to exit requirements, although there existed rhetoric in the explanation of language education administrators to emphasise students’ communicative competence. Phase two focused on the cultural representations of life outside Vietnam in these textbooks, applying the sources of culture model (Cortazzi & Jin, 1999), and senses of culture framework (Adaskou et al., 1990). The findings demonstrated a predominance of foreign cultural representations, with a strong focus on British-American and European cultures, and an underrepresentation of the source culture (Vietnamese culture in this context) and many different international cultures. Phase two also uncovered a similar pattern in these textbooks which emphasised the sociological and aesthetic sense of culture, and stressed less on the semantic and pragmatic senses. Phase three explored how students and teachers perceived and responded to these representations in their learning and teaching activities. The data analysis in this phase demonstrated a strong agreement of teachers and students on the patterns of cultural representations in these textbooks. This phase also identified multiple teachers and students’ views of the influence of these representations on students’ intercultural communicative competence and teachers’ cultural teaching pedagogies.

The understandings from these three phases are considered to address the overall research question: How may representations of life outside Vietnam in 1st year technical university English textbooks in Hanoi influence students’ intercultural competence in learning English? In order to address this question, in the following sections, I discuss language education administrators’ reasons for textbook selection to identify the connection between their choice and the course objective of developing students’ intercultural communicative competence. Then I unpack how these textbooks assist students’ development of ICC by presenting how the senses of culture and sources of cultures in these textbooks facilitate or interfere with this process. Finally, I present students and teachers’ perspectives on these representations to specify their influence on students’ intercultural communicative competence. From the findings, I propose recommendations for technical universities to improve students’ intercultural communicative competence, and offer practical implications

265 for textbook designers, administrators, EFL teaching staff and students. I identify the limitations of my study, based on which, I give suggestions for further research in this area. The final section of this chapter is a reflection of how this present study has benefited me as a language lecturer at a technical university, and indicates the lessons learnt after the completion of this project.

7.2. Addressing the Research Questions This section revisits the aim of the study and the research questions in order to review to what extent the findings have addressed them. As presented in Chapter One, this study aimed at examining the cultural representations of life outside Vietnam in ELT textbooks at technical universities in Hanoi, and their influence on students’ intercultural communicative competence. To achieve this aim, the principle research question was asked: How may representations of life outside Vietnam in 1st year technical university English textbooks in Hanoi influence students’ intercultural competence in learning English? This question was addressed through three phases of the research. The key understandings about current textbooks, cultural representations within these textbooks, teachers and students’ perceptions of these cultural representations and how they influence students’ ICC development are specified in the following sections.

7.2.1. The corpus of current textbooks at ten technical universities in Hanoi. To answer the question “What English textbooks are used by non-major 1st year Vietnamese university students?” I constructed a corpus of current ELT textbooks at technical universities in Hanoi. I interviewed ten Heads/Vice Heads of English Language Faculty at these universities, using structured interview techniques. Although this phase focused on current textbooks, I intended to seek a more comprehensive understanding of the research sites. In addition to identifying what ELT textbooks were being used across these ten universities, the findings of this phase suggested general contextual commonalities among participating universities, as well as their distinctive English language curricula in accordance with their own institutional agenda and purposes.

General descriptions of these technical universities’ EFL teaching programs

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Ten participating technical universities were under the administration of MoET and line- ministries (See Chapter Three, section 3.4.1, pages 84-86). These universities were public STEM universities which usually focus on a single area of study. In most of these universities, English was a compulsory subject. These universities shared similar unfavourable teaching and learning conditions, such as low and mixed level students, large classes, limited teaching time and a crowded curriculum.

In addition to the similarities, these universities presented significant differences in their EFL programs. One difference was the status of these English courses in these universities’ curricula. Two universities had English as a non-core subject, which meant students’ concern is a pass or a fail only. The other eight universities had English as a core subject, which meant the result of this course was added to students’ final results. Another difference was an entry requirement, which was applied by most universities (n=8). Two universities (U5 and U10) did not apply an entry requirement due to their institutional conditions and policies.

Another significant difference was the multiple exit requirements that these universities were employing. Although most participating universities referred to the National Foreign Language Project 2020 in establishing their graduates’ English proficiency level, they introduced their own exit requirements irrespective of this MoET policy. Four universities employed different TOEIC scores, two required A2 level, and three applied a B1 exit requirement. U10 did not have an exit requirement for their graduates. In order to achieve these various exit requirements, these universities allocated a wide range of teaching hours, ranging from 90 credit hours (including additional teaching hours) to 300 credit hours. Most universities spent a limited teaching time on English, around 120 credit hours for the course. The most notable difference was that although teaching in similar timeframes some universities had vastly different course objectives to achieve. In some other situations, varied time frames were used for the same objectives. For example, in order to achieve 450 TOEIC scores, U1 offered teachers and students 180 credit hours while U7 provided up to 300 for EFL education (See section 4.2.1, pages 122-124). As the English teaching time in most universities was limited, these universities admitted becoming very flexible with their institutional exit tests. This flexibility might mean that they lowered the test levels or they

267 became less demanding of their students. The description of EFL programs at ten participating universities pointed out a lot of inconsistencies in the context in which these ELT textbooks are used.

Current ELT textbooks at ten participating universities There were basically seven current global ELT textbooks at ten participating universities (See table 4.2, section 4.2.2, page 135). The most popular textbook was New English File Pre-intermediate, which was used by three universities U3, U6, and U10. The second most popular one was New Headway Pre-intermediate, which was used by U2 and U7. The newest textbook adoption was Cutting Edge Elementary Third Edition, which had been used for only three weeks at the time of the interviews. These books were published during 2008 to 2012. The most recent one was Cutting Edge Elementary Third Edition, which was released in 2015. In addition to these core books, most universities except for U10 used a collection of in-house materials. These in-house materials were mostly exam-oriented, which connected students to their exit exams. These materials were practice test books to prepare students for A2, B1 or TOEIC exit exams or a collection of tests designed by teachers who had a firm understanding of their students’ needs (See section 4.2.2, page 137).

The first sub research question in phase one identified the corpus of current ELT textbooks at ten participating universities. In addition, this phase provided a detailed description of the contexts in which these textbooks were being used. There existed complexity and inconsistencies in EFL programs at these universities. Although most of these universities were under line ministries and MoET administration, and shared a similar national curriculum, they responded to MoET in different ways. The interviews with Heads/Vice Heads of Language Faculties indicated that most of these universities tried to conform with MoET’s requirements, and their choice of textbooks was a part of this response. The following section will elaborate on textbook choices.

7.2.2. The process of and the reasons for textbook choice.

The structured interviews with Faculty Heads (FHs) in phase one were also conducted to address the research questions two, “How and why are these textbooks chosen?” Although

268 the interviews were structured, the participants were free to speak more about other factors related to their textbook choice. They described the process of choosing their textbooks and expressed their views on the reasons for textbooks choice and textbook changes.

Subjective process of textbook selection

Participating universities followed similar procedures in selecting their textbooks. Their procedures were divided into two stages: evaluation before selection (predictive evaluation) and evaluation after selection (retrospective evaluation). Most participants reported that their textbooks choice was subjective in some ways (See section 4.3.3, page 152). The predictive evaluations were not based on any systematic trialing, nor were any teaching trials of these textbooks conducted. The retrospective evaluations were carried out once a semester or once a year in faculty meetings. In these meetings, teachers indicated inappropriate sections in these texts and decided whether or not to include them in class activities. These universities rarely consulted students’ opinion in their retrospective evaluations, and if they did, they could not possibly implement students’ recommendations because of time and financial constraints. Instead some universities used students’ exam results as a basis to adapt their teaching and materials. They consulted the spectrum of students’ results to decide which sections of the textbooks should receive more focus and which sections could be left out. Teachers could also look at students’ mistakes in their exam papers and understand their students’ strength and weaknesses, from which they adapted their teaching practices. However, these conclusions were subjective because they were just teachers’ assumptions. Students’ needs should be taken into consideration before the textbooks were chosen. In most cases, the decision for textbook choice was made based on faculty members’ approval; Faculty Heads (FHs) reported that there had been no serious problems with these choices to date. Some FHs admitted teachers’ adaptation of the textbooks for more effective teaching.

Reasons for textbook choices

There were various reasons as to why these ten participating universities employed their current textbooks, depending on their institutional conditions and their teaching priorities. Each university referred to some reasons as important and some as additional. For most 269 universities, the most important reason was the suitability of these textbooks with students’ language exit requirements. Some other universities paid more attention to the relevance of the course content to students’ cultural background. The reasons were specified as follows:

The suitability of these textbooks with students’ language exit requirements: Most FHs reported that the most important reason for them to choose their current textbooks was its appropriateness with their universities’ language exit requirements. They believed that these textbooks would help facilitate their students in the process of acquiring language exit requirements. According to the NFLP 2020, university graduates had to achieve a B1 exit requirement, which meant they were expected “to be able to use English to communicate confidently and be able to study and work in a multi-lingual and multi-cultural environment; thus, better enabling young Vietnamese people to contribute to the industrialisation and modernisation of the country” (To, 2010, p. 106). From this requirement, it can be inferred that these universities expected their graduates to develop both linguistic competence and intercultural communicative competence in order to use English as a means of international communication in contemporary world. By selecting their current textbooks, language education administrators believed that these textbooks would be helpful for their students to achieve the exit requirements.

The suitability of cultural content in textbooks with students’ cultural background: Some Heads/Vice Heads emphasised the suitability of cultural content in these textbooks with students’ cultural background in their selection. The NFLP2020 suggested that universities use ELT textbooks designed specifically for the Vietnamese educational market. One example was the textbook Life published by Cengage Learning. This textbook was designed based on Vietnamese geographical, social and cultural information. Four FHs referred to this textbook as their choice for the near future. The most recent ELT commercial textbook in the corpus, Cutting Edge Third Edition, included the most Vietnamese references in it. The presence of more and more Vietnamese cultural representations in these recent ELT commercial textbooks, and the occurrence of ELT textbooks published specifically for Vietnamese language education market illustrated a new trend in English language education. Instead of emphasising British or American

270 cultures, these textbooks shifted their focus to diverse international cultures, with more attention to Vietnamese culture. Some interviewed teachers believed that American publishers such as Pearson, McMillan or Sangate were more flexible in updating their textbooks with this new trend.

Other reasons: Some FHs pointed out additional factors that may be considered irrelevant, but had their significance in practice at times. At least four FHs admitted that they selected their current textbooks either based on the recommendations of other universities or because other universities were using them and had given positive feedback. Although following other universities’ textbook choice or suggestions may be a convenient way of selecting textbooks, universities should be more cautious in their selection because each university had their own criteria. Some other FHs noted that sometimes their choice was affected by the availability of global textbooks. FHs had to consider whether the textbooks they selected were available in the market or not. In addition, they needed to choose one that had the versions reprinted by local publishers, as most students could not possibly afford the coloured hard covered textbooks. These students come from rural peasant or working-class families, with limited provisions for their children.

Reasons for textbook changes

Most participating universities reported updating textbook choice quite regularly, from every three to five years. These universities decided to change their textbooks for different reasons, the most common of which was to respond to MoET’s language policy. In accordance with the NFLP 2020, university graduates were required to have B1 English proficiency level (CEFR framework), which meant they were expected to have the ability to communicate confidently and to work using English in a contemporary world (See Chapter One, section 1.1.4, page 5). Nine universities stated that they wanted to meet with this requirement of MoET, and they decided to change over to a textbook that was more appropriate with this new exit requirement. These universities also provided more reasons for their textbook change, for example, to update information and language knowledge, and to improve students’ communication skills. They selected textbooks with more communicative approaches.

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The EFL programs at technical universities in Hanoi represented complex and inconsistent features. Although these universities conformed to MoET’s language policy, and they were supposed to respond to changes in foreign language assessment by MoET, they actually acted in a variety of ways based on their institutional conditions and the market’s demand. Most of these universities used CLT and MoET’s exit requirement as a means of promoting their market share. These universities took into account their students’ different proficiency levels, limited teaching hours and resources to amend their EFL programs. As a result, these universities were responding to the same policies with a great deal of latitude in interpretation. Their choice of textbooks was part of this response.

7.2.3. Sources of cultures represented in these textbooks.

As English is an international language and, and textbooks are designed to assist students in using English as a means of international communication, there was evidence of some recent textbooks shifting their focus to a diverse international culture (See section 7.2.2, page 273). However, most current ELT global textbooks maintained Anglocentric content. In order to examine the representations of life outside Vietnam in the corpus of seven textbooks, this research employed the sources of culture framework by Cortazzi and Jin (1990), which specified source culture, target culture and international target culture.

The analysis of the seven textbooks in terms of cultural representations indicated similar patterns by which sources of cultures were represented. There existed three patterns of representations: three textbooks featured more international target cultural representations, one included more target cultural representations, and three others had approximately balanced proportions of target and international target cultural representations. However, the differences in these proportions were not significant, which implies that global ELT textbooks are quite uniform in their design. The textbook analysis released evidence that the latter editions of these textbook series were more and more international, such as the textbook Cutting Edge Elementary published in 2014 and its older sister New Cutting Edge Elementary.

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A more detailed analysis of these textbooks features the dominance of target and international target cultures. These seven textbooks identified a European and Anglocentric content. Target cultural representations referred mostly to British and American cultures. Australian, Canadian and New Zealand cultures were rarely represented. This imbalanced representation depicted a deficient target culture picture, which was Anglocentric. These findings corresponded with existing literature of cultural representations in global textbooks (Dahmardeh et al., 2014; Messekher, 2014; Shah et al., 2012; Shin et al., 2011; Yuen, 2011). In these studies, the textbooks examined included a heavy load of English-American culture and social knowledge, thus they did not reflect the increasingly important role of English as a lingua franca (Truong & Phan, 2009). In other research, the Anglo-Saxon countries (the UK and the US) hold the focus of target cultural representations. International target cultural representations referred mostly to European countries as well, while African and Asian countries were underrepresented (Hermawan & Lia, 2012; Lund, 2007). These textbooks did not reflect the multicultural nature of communication around the world in general, and did not reflect the diversity of global English in particular.

As students need English to connect with a variety of cultures around the world, the trend of focusing on the UK and the US, or European countries, has lost its relevance (Hermawan & Lia, 2012). The cultural content imbedded in teaching materials should not focus mainly on the cultures of English-speaking countries or European countries, but needs to expose students to knowledge and experience of a much wider range of cultures. Textbooks need to increase the amount of international cultures and include a wide range of foreign cultures as this helps to develop students’ appreciation of a variety of foreign cultures (Yuen, 2011).

A detailed analysis of the seven textbooks also indicated the underrepresentation of the source culture (Vietnamese culture). This finding especially aligned with recent research which examined the foreignness in EFL global textbooks in Vietnamese classrooms (Truong & Phan, 2009). In this study, a lack of Vietnamese culture in the textbooks was identified. Vietnamese culture was underrepresented in global textbooks because they were not designed specifically for Vietnamese learners, but for a global education market. My research suggests that the low percentage and sometimes the total absence of references to

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Vietnam might not be sufficient for Vietnamese students to develop their ability to mediate their own culture in intercultural settings. For example, instead of presenting traditional sporting games, these textbooks were found to focus on non-local leisure activities such as skateboarding or roller-skating. The focus on non-local leisure activities might suggest that modern foreign sport games are more interesting than traditional local games. However, rural students from remote areas might not be familiar with these sports, and so this cultural knowledge might not support their contextual learning. Similarly, these textbooks presented Western festivals such as Halloween or Christmas Day and the celebrations of these festivals, but they paid no attention to the learners’ own cultural or regional festivals such as the Full Moon Festival or Hung King Festival. In this way, learners were provided with cultural knowledge of countries other than their own. The knowledge of other cultures might assist them in developing their intercultural skills in an international context, but the lack of confidence and language input in presenting their own culture might decrease their identity, and thus interfere with this development. This situation could be revised. Local or regional cultural representations may be incorporated into global ELT textbooks and vice versa for the sake of international integration and improvement of intercultural communicative competence (Kirkpatrick, 2010).

Although the seven textbooks claimed to be for international use, they seemed to privilege certain cultures, and they presupposed that learners using these textbooks had a certain amount of cultural knowledge required to complete the tasks. In foreign language classrooms, most learners of the English language received instructions from teachers speaking English as a foreign language. Some sociocultural knowledge that was considered common knowledge in Western cultures, or in developed countries, may sound ‘foreign’ to most Vietnamese learners, and are accessible to only a small number of higher level classes. For example, topics such as “at the airport’ or “driving a car” were presented as common lived experiences that anyone might know, but they were uncommon for most Vietnamese students who rarely had the chance to travel by air, or have their own car. Similarly, knowledge about Western music, sports, history or literature seemed to be challenging for most Vietnamese students at technical universities, who had limited exposure to foreign cultures. In addition, the proffered cultural information was mainly at a surface level, which did not help promote exploration of underlying concepts and cultural 274 value systems, and thus hindered students’ understanding of other cultures and appreciation of their own. These issues might raise a call for teachers and textbook writers to include more contextual cultural information and integrate a deep collaboration of various cultural aspects in their textbooks. By so doing, students may be able to communicate their culture in English and at the same time understand other cultures, thus improve their intercultural competence in language learning.

7.2.4. Types of cultures represented in these textbooks.

Sub-research question three explored what life outside Vietnam was represented in these ELT textbooks, revealing the dominance of target and international target cultures, with an overemphasis on Anglo-Saxon and European countries, and the underrepresentation of others, including Vietnamese culture. This research also examined the way this life outside Vietnam was represented.

In order to understand how life outside Vietnam was represented, I employed the model of four senses of culture: the sociological, the aesthetic, the semantic and the pragmatic (Adaskou et al., 1990). The seven textbooks displayed identical patterns in representing life outside Vietnam. In these seven textbooks, the sociological sense of culture (little c culture) significantly predominated. The number of sociological sense representations accounted for over 50% of the representations. The aesthetic sense of culture (big C culture) ranked second, representing about 30%. The two last senses, the semantic and the pragmatic, were the least presented. These findings aligned with previous studies, which examined the ways cultures were represented in English textbooks, and which identified the predominance of sociological and aesthetic sense representations (Abdullah et al., 2009; Dehbozorgi, Amalsaleh, & Kafipour, 2014; Hermawan & Lia, 2012; Liu & Laohawiriyanon, 2012).

Employing Adaskou et al.’s (1990) model of four senses of culture, I recognised that these textbooks emphasised culture as a way of life, or little c culture. In Adaskou et al.’s (1990) research, textbooks were expected to include cultural elements of the aesthetic and sociological because these two senses played a significant role in supporting students’ intercultural communicative competence. The aesthetic and sociological elements were believed to encourage international understanding and minimise negative stereotypes and 275 other prejudices (Seelye, 1974). The aesthetic and sociological senses also encouraged learners to compare and contrast their own and foreign cultures, from which they identified similarities and differences between the two cultures, and arrived at a better understanding of the other culture and appreciation of their own (Byram, 1986). More importantly, these two senses of culture helped facilitate learners’ potential visits to different countries and communicate with people from other than English speaking countries (Adaskou et al., 1990). In addition to that, the aesthetic and sociological aspects of culture were included in English textbooks to encourage students in their communication. In order to develop intercultural communicative competence, students need to be able to communicate their daily life (Wintergerst & McVeigh, 2014). Because of the importance of the sociological and aesthetic elements in supporting students’ development of intercultural communicative competence, Adaskou et al. (1990) proposed an English course that consisted of 90% of the geographically specific content of Morocco in the aesthetic and sociological senses. Anglo- American cultural content was restricted to the pragmatic sense – and, to a much smaller proportion, the semantic sense. Foreign cultural content in this English course was kept to a minimum.

The corpus of seven global textbooks shared similarities in the ways they were designed. They featured the domination of target and international target culture, with limited or no evidence of Vietnamese cultural representations. These representations of life outside Vietnam were mainly depicted in the sociological and aesthetic senses, sparing few representations for the other two senses, the semantic and pragmatic.

7.2.5. Teachers and students’ perceptions of the influence of life outside Vietnam on ICC.

In addition to identify the sources and senses of culture represented in the seven textbooks, my research investigated language teachers and students’ perceptions of the influence of these cultures on their language acquisition. To address the research question regarding how representations of life outside Vietnam in these textbooks influence students’ intercultural competence I conducted interviews with 18 teachers and 20 students at ten technical universities in Hanoi in the school year of 2015-2016.

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My data analysis indicated that students’ background knowledge had considerable influence on their perception of the representations of life outside Vietnam in their English language textbooks. Urban students with greater opportunities and exposure to foreign cultures were more confident in engaging with these representations. They seemed to find these representations simplistic. Sometimes they got bored learning about them. Rural students with less exposure to foreign cultures demonstrated less confidence. They were more challenged by these representations. While most urban students were more critical of the textbooks, and suggested ways to improve these texts, rural students did not criticise them. They might not have been sure what they should comment on, and therefore mentioned good features of these textbooks to be safe.

In spite of different perceptions of life outside Vietnam representations, both urban and rural students agreed that their textbooks contained mostly target and international target cultural representations, with a strong focus on British, American, and European cultures. Some urban and rural students expressed their desire to learn more about Vietnamese culture in their textbooks. Most urban students observed that the cultural representations in their textbooks were small c culture, which represented communication in everyday life and social relationships. Only a few rural students agreed with this assessment. Most rural students may have had little exposure to foreign cultures, and they were unfamiliar with these representations.

My data analysis also disclosed that students’ interest in English language influenced their engagement with cultural representations in ELT textbooks. Most of the ‘reportedly interested’ students admitted that cultural representations had a positive impact on their intercultural communicative competence. These representations encouraged them to focus more on English learning, learn more about other cultures, and be more confident with their own culture. Most of the ‘reportedly uninterested’ students believed that representations of life outside Vietnam had negative effects on their study. These students complained that the foreignness in their textbooks prevented them from completing their tasks in class and communicating with others in English. These students appeared unmotivated to learn through these representations. Some of the ‘reportedly uninterested’ students denied the

277 influence of these representations in communicative competence because they simply did not pay attention to the cultural aspects, but focused on practice tests in order to pass their exams (See section 6.2.2, page 223-224).

Having quite different views on cultural representations and their influence on students’ ICC, most ‘reportedly interested’ and ‘reportedly uninterested’ students agreed that their teachers were using traditional teaching methods, which were more teacher-oriented. These students were aware of the limited teaching time, and the pressure of final exams that caused their teachers to apply their current methods. They showed sympathy with their teachers, but still expected them to use visual aids in presenting cultures, apply more communicative approaches, and allow them to experience cultural activities.

International experience had influence on the teachers’ approaches to foreign cultural representations. Most teachers who had not had the chance to study or live abroad applied quite traditional approaches, in which they undertook most of the job, such as providing students with cultural information, comparing and contrasting cultures, choosing suitable sections to teach, replacing challenging tasks, or even skipping inappropriate sections. Teachers with international experience, on the other hand, applied various approaches to facilitate students’ cultural learning. They usually combined their own cultural experience and modern teaching facilities to provide students with general and lively descriptions of foreign cultural representations. They encouraged students to personalise their cultural knowledge, and experience culture by engaging students in cultural activities. They encouraged students to explore cultures themselves and present new cultural knowledge to their peers. These teachers believed that they had applied the most effective teaching methods they could, within the limits of their teaching conditions, to assist students in engaging with foreign cultural representations. These teachers did not share much about what they expected to do in an ideal teaching context.

Teachers and students, in spite of having quite opposite views on cultural teaching practice, shared a lot of common ideas in their perceptions of cultural representations. Teachers and students had common views on which representations were interesting or challenging. They cited similar examples in their textbooks to illustrate for their assessment. While my 278 analysis showed that teachers seemed to have a good understanding of students’ likes and dislikes about representations, sometimes teachers underestimated students’ prior knowledge. Some teachers reported that students might not know much about foreign cultures, and they had to provide them with necessary information, while students were actually familiar with the representations in their textbooks.

Most teachers and students agreed that their ELT textbooks consisted of mostly target and international target cultures, which were the representations of life outside Vietnam. This feature was common for those ELT textbooks designed for the global market. Given the overemphasis on life outside Vietnam, these textbooks failed to provide balanced opportunities for Vietnamese culture to appear in textbooks, and therefore, failed to nurture self-confidence and pride in the students. The low percentage and sometimes total absence of references to Vietnam seemed not to be sufficient for Vietnamese students to develop their ability to mediate their own culture in intercultural settings.

In terms of a sense of culture, teachers and students agreed that most of these representations in their textbooks were common or everyday culture, which belongs to the sociological sense. They agreed that these representations of everyday life were engaging. Some of the most challenging representations for students in these textbooks were about art, music, history or movies. These challenging representations were of the aesthetic sense of culture.

Some teachers and students expressed their wish in having more representations of Vietnam in their textbooks. Their expectations were in line with the findings of a research study in Algeria, in which most of the teachers expressed “their satisfaction with the inclusion of Algerian in the teaching of culture” (Messekher, 2014, p. 82). These teachers believed that the inclusion of Algerian culture enabled their students to use English when talking about their own culture. This ability may in turn encourage student’s intercultural communicative competence in the long run. In my study teachers and students believed that the inclusion of Vietnamese culture, and the improvement in the ways cultural representations were designed in these textbooks would play an important role in students’ engagement with

279 cultures and facilitate them in the development of their intercultural communicative competence.

7.3. Discussion of Findings

My study investigated the cultural representations in Vietnamese technical university ELT textbooks and the influence of these representations on students’ intercultural communicative competence. The core research question was, “How may representations of life outside Vietnam in 1st year technical university English textbooks in Hanoi influence students’ intercultural competence?” The understandings about EFL teaching programs and textbook choices at ten technical universities, the representations of life outside Vietnam in these textbooks, and the perceptions and reactions of teachers and students using these textbooks have patterned interrelationship and addressed this core research question. Administrators’ views, cultural representations in textbooks, and teachers and students’ perceptions of these representations were examined and combined to provide a comprehensive understanding of the influence that life outside Vietnam representations has on students’ intercultural communicative competence.

The following section provides a detailed discussion of the key findings presented in the previous chapters: The issues arising from the current provisions of technical university EFL programs and the course objectives toward students’ intercultural communicative competence (section 7.3.1); the issues arising from the representations of life outside Vietnam embedded in Vietnamese technical university textbooks and the development of students’ ICC (section 7.3.2); the issues arising from Vietnamese technical university students’ learning interests and the development of ICC (section 7.3.3); and the issues arising Vietnamese technical university EFL teachers’ cultural teaching practices and the development of students’ ICC (section 7.3.4). My discussion is based on the review of existing literature in Chapter Two and the relevant studies in the area of English language teaching, and the findings of the previously cited research, with special consideration of student’s development of ICC. From the four discussions, I propose recommendations to improve technical university students’ ICC in section 7.3.5. These recommendations include course provisions, cultural content and culture-based activities that may be applied

280 to technical university contexts to develop students’ understanding of cultural differences and their intercultural communicative competence.

7.3.1. Issues arising from the current provisions of technical university EFL programs and the course objectives toward students’ intercultural communicative competence.

The interviews with Language Faculties’ administrators about their EFL programs indicated that these participating universities were working toward MoET’s foreign language policy, which required their graduates to have B1 English proficiency level. This exit requirement was considered the objective of their English courses, which expected their students to be confident in international communication, and thus be able to use English in a globalised work environment. Phase one’s findings indicated that although these universities shared a common context and the common administration of MoET, their EFL programs were quite varied in terms of English instructional hours, entry and exit requirements, as well as textbooks. The following parts in this section specify the effects of these provisional issues to the development of students’ ICC.

The first issue was the flexible entry requirements and its resultant chaotic language classes. Most universities used placement tests to differentiate instructions, and in theory, students would be assigned classes appropriate to their English proficiency. However, while these classes may be named differently from institution to institution, they were usually referred to as elementary and pre-intermediate classes. And because of a large enrolment, there was a wide range of students’ proficiency levels even within a class. In most institutions, due to the lack of teachers and classrooms and high enrolments, most language classes were around 40 students. This number was considerably high for a language class because it was not easy to carry out skills-based activities with 40 students. In some institutions, students were allowed to move on to the next language level even when they did not pass the previous proficiency level. As a result, qualified students were in the same classes with unqualified ones, and the entry requirement was tokenistic. These chaotic classroom conditions were one of the factors that prevented the implementation of Communicative Language Teaching practice, which could have paved the way to students’ intercultural communicative competence.

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The second factor that had great influence on cultural teaching and learning practice and the development of students’ ICC was the limited English teaching time at these institutions. According to language experts, it usually takes approximately 200 guided learning hours for a language learner to progress from one level of the CEFR to the next (Desveaux, 2013). For example, a student who has passed Cambridge English: Key (KET), aligned to level A2 on the CEFR, might need approximately 200 hours of lessons and supervised study to prepare for the Cambridge English: Preliminary (PET), which is aligned to level B1. These figures are intended as a guideline, as there are other factors affecting the process, for example, the language learning background or the amount of exposure to English outside class hours. As reported by the FHs, most EFL programs at their universities were allocated from 100 to 150 hours, with the exception of U7 and U8 with around 300 hours. Some FHs feared that their universities had the intention to decrease their English teaching time. These numbers of teaching hours are obviously not sufficient for students to achieve their desired level of English, which is A2 or B1. That is not to mention students’ mixed proficiency levels, large classes, and the complexities and inconsistences in each EFL program due to institutional arrangements. As presented in Chapter Six, phase three’s findings also confirmed that limited time was a crucial issue among teachers and students (section 6.4.2, pages 263), as they referred to limited teaching hours in nearly every aspect of the interviews. Students stated that they did not have enough time to absorb the new language knowledge and practice their skills, while teachers complained that there was not enough time for them to implement skills-based activities as well as carry out culture-based activities. The pressure of time and the course objectives caused teachers and students to focus greatly on exams, with less stress on communication skills practice. Limited instructional hours seemed to be an urgent problem in these EFL programs, which seriously affected the learning and teaching practice of teachers and students in the development of students’ ICC.

According to the FHs, within these limits of their teaching and learning conditions, they selected their current textbooks with a hope that these textbooks would assist their students in achieving the exit requirements. The following sections will specify the extent to which these textbooks support or impede the development of students’ ICC.

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7.3.2. Issues arising from the representations of life outside Vietnam and the development of students’ ICC.

As discussed in Chapter Two, cultural competence from an ICC perspective is the ability to successfully communicate in intercultural communications. In any language learning contexts, students’ ICC has become increasingly important. It is especially more important when English has become an international language, and is spoken all over the world. In Vietnamese classrooms where English teaching and learning is excessively dependent on global ELT textbooks, these instructional materials play an important role in the development of students’ intercultural communicative competence. Chapter Five provided insight into the cultural representations of seven Vietnamese technical university textbooks. Based on this understanding, I ascertained that the cultural representations in these particular textbooks were of little relevance to the development of students’ ICC. There are five issues regarding the cultural representations in Vietnamese technical university textbooks, which do not support the development of students’ ICC.

The dominance of target and international target cultures

In the second phase, the seven textbooks were closely examined to investigate whether they support students’ intercultural communicative competence or not. The analysis using Cortazzi and Jin’s (1999) framework of sources of culture demonstrated the dominance of target and international target culture, with focus on Anglo-Saxon and European countries while other cultures were few and far between. In the third phase, the analysis of teachers and students’ interviews also indicated that these textbooks did not attempt to present cultural information from an intercultural approach. The general trend of target cultural representations was to focus on the two native countries, namely England and the USA. References to Canada were presented from time to time in these textbooks, and references to Australia and New Zealand occurred only in some recent textbooks (See section 7.2.3, page 276). The international target cultural representations referred mostly to countries in Europe, with very little attention to other countries in Asia, Africa or South America. These representations built up a confined picture of the world that consisted of England, the USA, and European countries. The imbalanced cultural representations in these textbooks did not

283 respond well to the increasing role of English as an international language, nor did it reflect the multicultural nature of communication in English in this contemporary world.

The confined global picture of only England, the USA and Europe in these textbooks reduced students’ opportunities to explore the multicultural reality of our contemporary society. These textbooks presented a wide range of cultural topics, from food and drink, history, technology, music, movies and other daily life culture that belonged to Anglocentric and European backgrounds. However, this confinement limits students’ understanding of a culturally diverse community, where there is an increasing intercultural communication among people from different cultures through trade exchanges, tourism, education or diplomacy. In this contemporary world with almost no boundaries across countries, a non-native English speaker learns English not only to speak with native speakers, but also to communicate with other non-natives (Alptekin, 2002) (See Chapter Two, section 2.3, page 50). For example, an Asian person may learn English not only to communicate with a British, American, Italian or Spanish person, but they may likely meet and work with people from Singapore, Malaysia, South Africa or Saudi Arabia (Tomlinson, 2005). These international communications require a speaker of English to have an understanding of not only Anglo-Saxon or European cultures, but other international cultures as well. In order to communicate successfully in this multicultural society, global ELT textbooks should help students develop a global view and provide students as many intercultural encounters as possible. The corpus of seven Vietnamese technical university textbooks did not meet these expectations. They represented the drawbacks of current global ELT textbooks, which only provide students with English speaking cultures and train them into native English speakers, instead of international English speakers. These textbooks were, therefore, inadequate for the development of students’ ICC.

The underrepresentation of source culture (Vietnamese culture)

Intercultural communicative competence involves the ability to communicate in all types of encounters regardless of the specific cultural context (Talley & Hui-ling, 2014). Intercultural communicative competence also means creating a balance for English speakers between their own culture and international cultures. Learners become more

284 appreciative of their own culture and open toward others (Tajeddin & Teimournezhad, 2014). Thus, ICC is conceptualised as the ability to communicate successfully in an international environment by understanding one’s own culture and using prior cultural knowledge to evaluate and negotiate diverse and complex situations. For example, in designing the cultural content of a secondary English course for Morocco, Adaskou et al. (1990) proposed a course in which “over 90 % of the geographically specific content (…) is situated in Morocco itself, and more than half the characters are Moroccan. Anglo- American cultural content is restricted to the pragmatic sense – and, very marginally, the semantic sense” (p. 8). These authors argued that by organising the course content in this way, their students were encouraged to compare their own culture with others, from which to become more appreciative of their own culture, and more receptive of others (Adaskou et al., 1990). When learning about the cultural representation in global ELT textbooks, learners are expected to connect their background knowledge with new cultural knowledge in meaningful ways. They compare and contrast that new knowledge with their own cultural knowledge, from which to strengthen their own identity and become confident to communicate with others.

There were few Vietnamese cultural representations in the corpus of seven textbooks. The most recent textbook, Cutting Edge Elementary Third Edition had the most Vietnamese representations (See section 5.3.1, pages 167-169). However, the portion of Vietnamese culture in this textbook was inconsiderable, only 0.53% of the total cultural representations. New English File Pre-intermediate or American English File Pre-intermediate included even less Vietnamese culture. Some other textbooks such as New Cutting Edge Elementary and New Headway Pre-intermediate 3rd Edition had unnoticeable references to Vietnam, sometimes just the name of a place or name of a person. Two textbooks, Straightforward Elementary Second Edition and Objective KET had none. The underrepresentation and sometimes the non-existence of Vietnamese culture in these textbooks failed to nurture students’ self-identity and confidence in accommodating themselves in an international environment. These textbooks may not provide students with adequate opportunity to understand more about their own culture, thus not increasing their confidence in intercultural communication.

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In developing intercultural communicative competence, learners of English do not stick to their own cultural frame, nor do they have to act like native speakers. Instead they create “a third place”, in which they experience cultural differences (Crozet et al., 1999, p. 5). Learners of English become the agents who negotiate cultural differences in order to achieve successful interactions with others. In such situations, if they are not aware of their own identity, they may have difficulty in interpreting and evaluating other cultures. The development of students’ self-awareness about their own cultural background is considered one of the key factors in developing students’ ICC. Current Vietnamese technical university textbooks do not assist students in this aspect.

The interviews with teachers and students in phase three also indicated that EFL teachers and students were aware of limited Vietnamese representations in these textbooks. Teachers reported finding it difficult to raise students’ awareness of cultural identity. They observed students’ engagement in lessons when encountering Vietnamese cultural representations in their textbooks, although these representations were rare. Students expressed their interest in Vietnamese representations, stating that they encouraged them to find more information about cultures. For example, a number of teachers and students cited the special representation of a Vietnamese football fan named Duc in unit 5D in the textbook New English File Pre-intermediate (See Chapter Six, section 6.3.2, pages 245-246). Students indicated their pride in reading about Vietnamese culture in their global textbooks. They reported feeling proud when reading in their textbooks about the L’Usine, a shop in Ho Chi Minh City, to be among the top five unusual shops in the world. Students expressed their desire to learn about Vietnamese culture in their global textbooks, so they would be able to talk about their culture in English. However, such Vietnamese references in these textbooks are scarce. I argue that the limited references to Vietnamese learners’ own culture in these global textbooks may not help facilitate students’ international communications. This is unlikely to support the development of students’ ICC.

Unfamiliar cultural representations without culture-based activities

As with other global ELT textbooks, there are no specific sections in these seven textbooks to teach culture, and no teaching activities especially designed for the teaching of cultural

286 forms. The only exception is the most recent textbook, Cutting Edge Elementary Third Edition, which consists of a separate section of World Culture lesson. This new feature, which provides students with various cultural representations from Outer and Expanding Circle countries including Vietnam, encourage students to investigate global and local issues, and become actively involved in classroom activities. The other textbooks emphasise linguistic aspects for the development of language skills such as reading, writing, listening and speaking rather than cultural skills. This situation is common not only in Vietnam but also in other EFL countries in Asia such as Japanese, Chinese, and Korean (Aliakbari, 2004). As textbooks are the main cultural sources in Vietnamese EFL classrooms, the teaching and learning of culture is restricted to what is represented in the textbooks. Very often, teachers and students reported not having enough time for teaching cultures. EFL lessons focused on linguistic knowledge.

In addition to textbooks’ emphasis of linguistic elements, some of their cultural representations are unfamiliar with students’ cultural backgrounds. These representations are designed in a way that requires students to have prior knowledge; these textbooks rarely provided contextual information for language learning. It seems that textbook designers presuppose that the learners of their books already know this cultural information. For example, in unit four in Objective KET, students are asked to categorise personal details of Louis Armstrong and some people that may be popular in Western cultures, but are not known to Vietnamese students. Or unit seven in New English File Pre-Intermediate requires students to categorise personal details of two American film directors, who are obviously unfamiliar to Vietnamese students as well. The practices associated with these representations do not provide students with any cues to help them complete the tasks. In the process of developing students’ ICC, students use their pre-existing knowledge to perceive new cultural knowledge. In this aspect, these types of cultural representations may not facilitate students’ communicative competence, as they may not allow them to use existing knowledge as a basis in receipt of new knowledge. Because of time pressures, sometimes teachers may not spend time on these representations and overlook opportunities to introduce them to students.

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Another concern about cultural representation in global ELT textbooks is that these representations are not introduced together with culture-based tasks, but mostly provide students with cultural information. Culture-related facts are presented in readings, conversations, or illustrations, which help teachers to raise students’ cultural awareness. The associated activities are skills-based activities, which help students to develop language skills such as reading, writing, speaking or listening. There are not many tasks, such as discussion or comparison with students’ own culture, games, and role-play activities for students to practice communications skills and explore different cultural backgrounds. Students seem to learn about culture, but they may not actually engage with it. In addition, textbook cultural references are mainly superficial, which do not promote students’ exploration of underlying concepts and cultural value systems. As a result, the cultural content of the seven global ELT textbooks may not support students in developing the skills for intercultural competence, and this might not be compatible with the objective of students’ ICC.

The dominance of life outside Vietnam representations in sociological and aesthetic senses

The analysis of the seven textbooks suggested that life outside Vietnam was represented predominantly in sociological and aesthetic senses. By focusing on aesthetic and sociological senses, these textbooks emphasise the provision of socio-cultural knowledge to encourage students’ international understanding and minimise stereotypes and prejudices of other cultures. These two senses may also help assist students in communicating their daily life, one important factor in developing their international communicative competence. Teachers and students observed that most representations were about culture as a way of life, providing them with sociocultural knowledge of foreign countries to facilitate them in intercultural communication. These two senses may help facilitate future visits to foreign countries and communication with people other than native speakers. By focusing on these two senses, these textbooks might play an important role in assisting students to develop intercultural communicative competence.

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However, as previously mentioned, these cultural contents were mostly Anglocentric. Teachers and students noticed that once in a while, they came across some Vietnamese references, but not all textbooks had them. The low percentage and sometimes the total absence of Vietnamese cultures in these textbooks may not be sufficient for Vietnamese students to develop their ability to mediate their own culture in intercultural settings. Little confidence and insufficient language input in presenting their own culture may decrease student’s self-identity, and thus interfere with this development. This corpus of seven textbooks, by focusing on sociological and aesthetic senses of culture, may assist students in developing their international cultural knowledge in some ways, facilitating their international communication with both native and non-native speakers. However, with the underrepresentation and sometimes non-existence of Vietnamese culture, these textbooks limited students in developing intercultural communicative competence.

ELT textbooks need incorporate a balanced proportion of foreign cultural content with learners’ own cultural content in the aesthetic and sociological senses of culture. As presented in the two previous paragraphs, the foreign cultural content in these two senses may help increase students’ intercultural understanding and decrease stereotypes and prejudices of other cultures, thus facilitate students in international communication. At the same time, the inclusion of learners’ own culture in these two senses may help increase students’ ability in mediating their own culture and develop their confidence and self- identity. All these factors are necessary for the development of students’ ICC.

The underrepresentation of life outside Vietnam in semantic and pragmatic senses

Sociological and aesthetic senses were prominent in the corpus of seven global textbooks, and semantic and pragmatic senses accounted for only a small proportion. The domination of the sociological and aesthetic senses in life outside Vietnam representations signified the content-orientation of these textbooks. Failure to pay attention to the semantic sense was evidence of the superficiality of these foreign cultural representations. The neglect of the pragmatic sense did not provide students with sufficient paralinguistic skills for successful intercultural communication.

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The semantic and pragmatic senses of culture are included as important components in a foreign language course because these two senses are “necessary to the learners’ achievement of a measure of communicative competence” (Adaskou et al., 1990, p. 4). While the semantic conditions our perceptions and thought processes, the pragmatic includes the ability to use various exponents of communicative functions (Rajabi & Ketabi, 2012). Students were required to get to know diverse cultures not only through the acquisition of information about the cultural background of different cultural groups; they need to learn to value other cultures and to understand others’ perspectives, and develop the linguistic skills to perform intercultural communication. The corpus of seven textbooks did not seem to provide students with sufficient condition for these developments.

7.3.3. Issues arising from students’ interest in learning English and their ICC development.

Students’ interest in English learning had considerable influence on their development of intercultural communicative competence. ‘Reportedly interested’ students (n=9) acknowledged the effect of foreign cultural representations on their ICC, stating that these representations provided them with new knowledge about other countries and encouraged them to enquire more from the Internet. Conversely, ‘reportedly uninterested’ students (n=11) expressed little interest in engaging with cultural representations. Most of them believed that these representations had a negative influence on learning and hindered their communicative competence. Some even denied the influence of these representations, stating that they did not learn much about culture.

When it came to cultural learning, while some of the ‘reportedly interested’ students confirmed that they looked for more information from the Internet about the topics they learnt, none of the ‘reportedly uninterested’ students showed their activeness in reading more about foreign cultural representations. As ‘reportedly uninterested’ students did not believe in the influence of cultural representations, they did not want to engage with these representations, and thus restricted their learning to English forms. Consequently, they might know the rules of the language, but they were likely to be faced with difficulties in applying these rules in actual international communications.

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Apparent disinterest in learning English also influenced students’ engagement with cultural teaching practice. ‘Reportedly interested’ students were ready to involve in cultural learning activities such as role-play activities, drama, and presentations. These activities allowed them to engage with cultures, supporting the development of their communicative competence. On the contrary, ‘reportedly uninterested’ students demonstrated their passiveness in this learning process. ‘Reportedly uninterested’ students wanted their teachers to provide them with cultural information, explain difficult representations in Vietnamese, or provide them with adequate vocabulary to understand the texts. These students also preferred their teachers to relate these foreign cultural representations to Vietnamese culture. Some wanted to play games, and a student suggested their teachers use high marks to promote students’ engagement with culture. In short, ‘reportedly uninterested’ students preferred their teachers to play the main role in the process of culture teaching and learning, and disinterest in English learning made these students become less involved in this process.

7.3.4. Issues arising from Vietnamese technical university EFL teachers’ practices and the development of students’ ICC.

Teachers and students’ divergent views on cultural teaching practices implied some issues in their cultural teaching and learning. These issues may originate from teachers themselves, or from their teaching conditions that navigate them into exam-oriented approaches. These teachers might not be as confident to engage with cultural representations, or they might focus on linguistic elements and linguistic skills. They might have chosen to be safe and prepare students for exams and fulfill exit requirements. These teachers might have overlooked the main role of language as a means of communication, and therefore their approaches by no means assist the development of students’ ICC.

Teachers’ hesitation in engaging with cultural representations

The interview data indicated that most teachers demonstrated confidence in their cultural teaching practices. As part of their teaching profession, they reported that they could gauge students’ language proficiency and background knowledge. They felt that they made accurate observations about the differences in rural and urban students’ background

291 knowledge. They reported they could identify the gaps in their students’ knowledge based on their teaching experience. They said that they played the roles of both language knowledge and cultural knowledge providers. Teachers indicated that they were aware of the positive and negative influences of representations of life outside Vietnam in their students’ intercultural communicative competence (See Chapter Six, section 6.3.3, pages 251-254).

However, not all teachers reported that they were confident and ready to undertake both roles. Five teachers, three of whom had international experience, were worried that they may misunderstand a challenging representation. Those who had international experience admitted that they were sometimes unsure whether they had a full understanding of some representations. These teachers were wary about providing students with superficial cultural knowledge partially because of limited instructional time. And when they were not confident about their cultural knowledge, they were inclined to skip these representations. They deprived students of opportunitites to engage with foreign cultures, which may influence students’ development of ICC.

Teachers’ focus on linguistic elements rather than cultural elements

Teachers’ instructional practices did not seem to match students’ stated learning needs. Teachers reported applying various approaches. To summarise section 6.3.3 in Chapter Six, some teachers without international experience reported replacing challenging readings texts, modifying skills exercises or redesigning tasks to make them more achievable for students. They also reported providing students with necessary information, comparing and contrasting these foreign cultural representations with Vietnamese culture, selecting suitable sessions to teach and skipping difficult representations. Teachers with international experience reported having more culturally engaging activities, such as role-play, drama or cultural projects.

Although teachers reported applying various approaches to culture, students reported that their teachers’ practices were traditional and more teacher-centred. Students felt that the addressing of culture was implicit in their classroom. In most cases, their teachers focused

292 on linguistic rather than cultural elements. To summarise students’ views of cultural teaching practice (pages 225-230) in Chapter Six, their teachers just concentrated on teaching grammar, vocabulary and practice exercises, which aimed at developing students’ grammatical structures and syntactic rules. These teachers may overlook cultural elements. Some of them left these elements untouched. Some students reported that their teachers introduced these representations exactly as presented in the textbooks. These teachers did not provide any further details. Very often these teachers chose simple representations to use and ignored challenging representations if students did not enquire further. Teachers’ engagement with cultural aspects was superficial, and students’ acquirement of culture was incidental. I would argue that such cultural teaching practice was not sufficient for developing students’ intercultural communicative competence.

Teachers focusing on linguistic skills rather than intercultural skills

Most teachers’ cultural teaching practices included providing students with vocabulary to understand and translate the texts. They often directly translated the texts for students and provided additional information about the texts. Teachers reported conducting these practices to assist students in completing exercises to master grammatical structures, build vocabulary, and develop language skills. My understanding from interviewing these teachers is that they did not often vary their instructional practices and focus on linguistic elements and assessment. They were oriented to students’ achievements in exams. Nine of the ten universities I studied used additional materials (usually exam-oriented practice test books) together with their textbooks in order to prepare students for their final and exit exams (See section 4.2.2, page 137). Some students reported being more familiar with their additional materials than the global course books (See section 6.2.1, Page 208). These teaching approaches may allow students to achieve the short-term assessment goal of passing their exams, but, in the long run, limit the development of communicative skills. In other words, these teaching practices influenced students toward viewing English learning as acquiring linguistic knowledge necessary for examination, but not as a means of communication.

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Teachers’ traditional and exam-oriented instructional practices indicated a preference for transmitting cultural information to their students. They reported sharing their own experiences about foreign communities. They provided students with cultural context by bringing English textbooks or visual aids into classrooms; however, limited teaching and learning conditions prevented students from engaging with English. Some teachers reported using techniques to engage students in a variety of culture-related activities, for example, lectures, discussion, or presentations of the culture in the textbooks (See section 6.3.3, pages 254-258). However, most teachers seemed to priotise instruction to cover their assigned workload and help students pass their exam. Most teachers reported limiting their teaching to the cultural knowledge presented in the textbooks, which was insufficient for the teaching of cultural competence. They expressed the need for more teaching time, so that they could organise more culture-based activities and engage students in intercultural skill practice.

As stated by a teacher with international experience, culture learning is a long process and culture can be learnt both inside and outside classrooms. In an EFL country where learners do not have many opportunities to experience an authentic English environment such as Vietnam, it is crucial that a foreign language classroom teach cultural competence alongside linguistic competence. In the remaining section of this chapter, I will propose suggestions to improve Vietnamese technical students’s ICC.

7.4. Recommendations to Improve Vietnamese Technical University Students’ Intercultural Communicative Competence

This section proposes recommendations to improve students’ ICC at Vietnamese technical universities. These recommendations are proposed based on the analysis of the issues raised in the discussions. I make recommendations for course provision, the knowledge and the activities to be taught in the course, and intercultural teaching and learning practice (See figure 7.1). These recommendations aim to support teachers and students in teaching and learning culture in light of ICC pedagogy.

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Recommendations to improve students’ ICC at technical universities

Culture-based activities Course 1. Providing cultural knowledge provisions 2. Using authentic 1. Entry sources requirement 3. Compare and contrast cultures 2. Exit Knowledge Students’ Teachers’ 1. Sources of 4. Discussions intercultural intercultural requirement 5. Cultural mind 3. Teaching culture mapping learning English 2. Senses of 6. Doing cultural approach teaching time presentations 4. Class size culture 7. Interacting with foreigners 5. Textbook 8. Acting games selection (role play/drama) 9. Doing cultural projects 10. Organising cultural activities

Figure 7.1. Recommendations to improve students’ ICC at Vietnamese technical universities

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7.4.1 Recommendations for course provisions.

From the interviews with Heads/Vice Heads at ten participating universities, I understood that language administrators did not pay adequate attention to or did not provide appropriate support for course provisions such as entry requirement, exit requirement, instructional hours, class size and textbook selection. These language administrators may know that these provisions provide the conditions to support the achievement of course objectives. However, for some reason they did not comply with these provisions irrespective of their important role in the success of an English program. I propose recommendations for five provisional elements that course administrators need to take into consideration. These five elements are presented in the following sections:

Entry requirement

The first aspect that English administrators needs to consider is to establish a consistent entry requirement for students. As indicated by Heads/Vice Heads of Language Faculty in interviews, mixed language level classes are common at non- major Vietnamese universities. English is introduced into the curriculum from 3rd grade in urban schools, but it is an optional subject in some rural and remote areas where there are insufficient English teachers. Students in urban areas have more exposure to English and a larger investment in English learning than those in disadvantaged areas who do not learn English until they enter high school. When entering universities, these mixed level students take part in placement tests in order to differentiate level of instruction. Eight of ten participating universities carried out placement tests. However, these placement tests usually divided students into two levels only, elementary and pre-intermediate student groups. With a great number of enrolments each year, there are considerable differences in students’ proficiency levels in each group (See section 4.2.1, page 126).

In some universities, due to limited instructional hours, both student groups use the same textbooks. The elementary group starts the course from the beginning of their textbooks, and the pre-intermediate group from the second half of the textbooks. Students who do not pass elementary classes are allowed to continue to pre- 296

intermediate classes and retake the elementary exam later. In some other universities, the placement test is only for teachers to devide the classes up for easy instructions. Students are assigned to appropriate classes after the placement tests, but they use the same textbooks and same programs. The entry requirement in these universities does not retain its original purpose to differentiate levels of instruction appropriate to students’ proficiency levels (See section 4.2.1, pages 126-129). I feel that in this case the entry requirement is therefore a formulaic procedure and not particularly helpful.

Entry requirements could be established in accordance with the general consideration of other course provisions such as the exit requirement and allocated instructional hours, and based on an acceptable amount of instructional time required for progressing one language level. As the exit requirement for technical university graduates is B1 level, and the allowed time for a normal English course at these universities is around 150 credit hours, the proposed entry requirement for an English course for technical university students is A2. Students who have lower English proficiency level than required could improve their English by attending extra classes. It also means that these students need more English instructional hours than others, and they can only start the official B1 course when they pass A2 exams. A consistent entry requirement is necessary to help guarantee students’ achievement of the exit requirement.

Exit requirement

As stated in Decision 1400-QD-TTg for the improvement of foreign language teaching and learning in the national educational system for 2008-2020 period, university graduates need to achieve B1 proficiency level (following the Common European Framework Reference) (See section 1.1.4, page 5). University graduates are expected “to be able to use English to communicate confidently and be able to study and work in a multi-lingual and multi-cultural environment; thus, better enabling young Vietnamese people to contribute to the industrialisation and modernisation of the country” (To, 2010, p. 106). This requirement appears to infer

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that university graduates are expected to develop both linguistic competence and intercultural communicative competence in order to use English in daily communication as well as among colleagues at work.

The Head/Vice Head interviews indicated that all participating universities were fully aware of the exit requirement, and they were acting in response to that requirement. All these universities referred to B1 level as their requirement for graduates following MoET’s policy. However, they either used B1 level as a marketing term, or used other testing references with lower levels. For example, some other universities set up their own exit requirements such as TOEIC 350, TOEIC 400 or TOEIC 450. Some universities referred to A2 level. Some other universities cited B1 as their graduates’ level, but they modified their B1 tests. Instead of carrying out standard B1 exams that focused equally on four language skills, these universities stressed more on the grammar, reading and writing components, and stressed less on speaking and listening tasks. These apparently less demanding modified tests accommodated their students’ proficiency levels (See section 4.2.1, pages 133-134). The modifications suggest these universities’ exit requirements are formulaic and arbitrary.

In order to improve students’ intercultural communicative competence, these universities need to make a proper interpretation of the B1 exit requirement. Instead of using B1 exit requirement as a means of promoting prestige, these universities should strictly administer these exit tests as they are designed. This means the exit tests could include four skills, each in balanced proportion. Vietnamese students tend to focus on learning what they are going to be tested, and they may recognise the need of learning communicative language skills. University graduates then may use English for international and professional communication, instead of just having linguistic knowledge. Universities may refer to other testing systems for their exit requirement as long as they ensure that these systems’ scores are equal to B1 proficiency level. Together with a consistent entry requirement, a consistent exit

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requirement is the second important provisional factor to help improve students’ achievement of ICC.

Teaching time allocation

The Heads/Vice Heads interviews indicated that their universities allocated various instructional hours for their course, ranging from 90 to 300 credit hours. These time allocations were based on each university’s policy about English teaching, in consideration of the instructional hours for other subjects in their crowded curricula. Most universities allocated from 100 to 120 credit hours to progress from one CEFR proficiency level to another. In some situations, students were allocated about 150 credit hours to progress two levels, from beginning to pre-intermediate (See section 4.2.1, pages 122-124).

Teachers and students reported that these numbers of guided learning hours are not sufficient. Limited instructional time was the most frequently reported concern in teacher and student interviews. Teachers and students referred to limited instructional time as influential in nearly every aspect of teaching and learning. They reported having inadequate time for teaching and learning linguistic knowledge, and therefore there was no time for cultural knowledge. As teachers wanted to assist their students in passing written exams, they had the pressure of covering grammatical content within the time given (See section 6.4.2, page 263). This practicality reduced students’ engagement with cultural representations and their development of communicative language skills.

I suggest these technical universities allocate about 200 guided learning hours for an English course. As previously stated, this number of instructional hours would be ideal for students to progress (Desveaux, 2013) (See section 7.3.1, pages 284-285). Increased instructional hours may be sufficient for students to progress from entry level (A2 or Elementary) to exit level (B1 or Pre-Intermediate). Increased instructional hours therefore need to be in conjunction with consistent entry and exit

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requirements and more focused curricula. These factors may be sufficient to promote pedagogical engagement with skills-based cultural competence instruction.

Class size

Large English classes are common at technical (non-major) Vietnamese universities. These classes usually consist of more than 40 students, which may not promote communicative language teaching. Language teachers reported using group work or discussion, but these activities were not efficient because they were not able to monitor them well (See section 6.3.3, page 256). In order to ensure students’ engagement in classroom activities, I suggest that these universities could reduce language class sizes to 30 students. Reduced class size may allow teachers to engage students with skills-based activities and assist them in effectively monitoring group interactions. I also suggest that teachers may need professional development to improve their practices, which I later address in section 7.5.3 (pages 320-321). The decision to reduce class sizes implies that administrators change their perception of English language learning: English as a skill in communication, not as a subject in their curriculum. Limiting class sizes to effectively facilitate communicative competence is crucial.

Textbook selection

Textbooks play a significant role in any English classrooms. English textbooks are considered the curricula and teachers usually want to cover the entire textbook (See Chapter Four, section 4.3.3, pages 152-155). In the ten participating universities, current ELT textbooks were selected with an aim to bridge between entry and exit level. However, textbook selection at these universities was not systematic. Some textbooks were chosen based on convenience; for example, their availability or other universities’ recommendations (See section 4.3.1, pages 146-147).

I recommend that teachers and students be consulted when considering adopting a new textbook. The selected textbooks should correspond to learners’ needs (Cunningsworth, 1995). Textbooks may be chosen to facilitate students’ learning

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processes and help students use language effectively for their communication. Textbooks mediate the target language and students’ learning. Student input into textbook selection may reflect their learning needs, purposes and preferences.

Basically, the textbook selection process matches needs to available solutions (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987). The selection process should align the goals and objectives of the program, time allowance, and students’ entry level. If the program’s goals and objectives, and its curriculum, are clear and well defined, selection criteria can be developed such that “the parallels with certain textbooks may become obvious” (Wen-Cheng, Chien-Hung, & Chung-Chieh, 2011). Once the textbooks are in use, regular retrospective evaluation can be implemented in order to provide timely feedback and necessary adaptations be made.

In short, entry requirement, exit requirement, instructional hours, class sizes and textbook selections are necessary considerations for any language program’s improvement. In technical universities, the above five suggestions may vary depending on each university’s circumstances. To improve students’ intercultural communicative competence, universities should consider these suggestions as important conditions for the improvement of students’ ICC.

7.4.2. Recommendations for teaching cultural representation.

My research suggests that most technical universities’ teachers and students are oriented to passing the final exams or qualifying for graduation. Technical teachers and students are likely to access discrete vocabulary and grammatical items. However, English use in international communication and work requires semantic and pragmatic consideration, which may lead to teachers and students’ greater appreciation of the role of English as a means of communication. Successful English learning exposes students to semantic and pragmatic senses of culture. Besides having linguistic knowledge, students should be provided with cultural knowledge and be able to use this in international communication. Enabling students to become more confident with their own culture and open to other cultures, with which they can communicate confidently in an international environment, is

301 crucial for the Vietnamese to achieve Vietnam’s ambitious policy goals. I suggest that balanced proportions of sources of culture, which comprises source, target, and international target cultures be incorporated into the teaching content to improve students’ cultural knowledge. I also suggest that senses of culture: aesthetic, sociological, semantic and pragmatic need to be introduced in balanced amounts to assist students in their development of ICC. The following sections elaborate.

Sources of culture

When teaching and learning English, teachers and students inevitably work with the cultures of the countries where English is the first language (Byram, 1997). Exposure to target cultures helps students develop cultural competence, because limited knowledge about native English-speaking countries and people may lead students to make meaningless utterances (Erfani, 2014). However, most global ELT textbooks focus only on the two target countries, England and the US, as the representatives for English speaking cultures (See section 5.3.3, page 185). I suggest that cultures of numerous other countries in the English-speaking world, such as Canada, Australia, or New Zealand be integrated into EFL classrooms.

It is important that students acquire knowledge of international target cultural content. Students need to prepare themselves for international contact. I suggest that textbooks increase representations of international target cultures, with focus on non-English speaking countries in Europe, Asia and Africa. This shift in focus may provide students with a more comprehensive picture of the multicultural world; it may also facilitate students’ engagement and understanding about foreign countries in the regions or in other continents.

The global English textbooks in this study often overrepresented target and international target cultures, and some of these representations required students to have prior knowledge of Western cultures (See section 7.3.2, pages 289-291). This overrepresentation seemed to ignore the challenges students face when presented with unfamiliar schematic knowledge. Students need to have a certain amount of

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prior knowledge in order to accommodate new cultural knowledge. The unfamiliarity with the content knowledge hindered students’ learning, as their cognitive processing was overwhelmed by the foreignness of the target language background (Alptekin, 1993). I suggest that cultural representations facilitate students’ perception of foreign cultural knowledge. Representations of life outside Vietnam may be introduced together with necessary contextual information to facilitate students’ understanding.

The absence of Vietnamese culture in these textbooks did not provide students with sufficient language and cultural input of their own culture. These textbooks appeared to disregard students’ familiarity with their own culture – Vietnamese culture, which allowed them to easily handle various language tasks. Since intercultural communicative competence (ICC) can be defined as the ability to interact with ‘others’ in culturally different contexts, to accept others’ perspectives and perceptions of the world, to mediate between different perspectives, to be conscious of their evaluation of difference (Byram, Gribkova, & Starkey, 2002; Kramsch, 1998), Vietnamese language learners must enjoy the understanding of both Vietnamese culture and foreign cultures. These textbooks, with the overrepresentations of target and international target culture, may assist learners in developing the knowledge of ‘others’, but the absence of Vietnamese culture meant that students’ self-identity was not nurtured as part of developing their intercultural communicative competence.

Given the insufficience of learners’ own culture in textbooks then I suggest that Vietnamese culture be incorporated into these English textbooks and programs. This inclusion of Vietnamese culture may cultivate in students a deep understanding of their own cultures, and subsequently assist them in strengthening their cultural identity. Once students are aware of their own cultural identity, they gradually develop cultural self-awareness. In the development of intercultural communicative competence, this cultural awareness may allow students to understand the behaviours, the values and the beliefs of their own and other cultures. Self-cultural

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awareness becomes the foundation for understanding and accepting other cultures, which paves way for successful international communication. With little presence of Vietnamese culture in current global textbooks, Vietnamese teachers could incorporate more Vietnamese cultural content into their teaching. They could design and organise this content based on the topics provided in the textbooks so that their students can compare and contrast among cultures. Students may feel more engaged and more comfortable in learning about cultural representations familiar to their own culture.

In sum, a balanced proportion of source, target, and international target cultures is recommended to improve students’ ICC. Each type of cultural content has its own important role in the development of students’ intercultural communicative competence, and the insufficient provision of each source of culture negatively influences that development.

Senses of culture

Among the four senses of culture, the aesthetic and sociological senses of culture generally account for most cultural representations in ELT textbooks. However, in order to use the content successfully in communication, students should be well equipped with the semantic and pragmatic senses of culture. The underrepresentation of the semantic and pragmatic senses of cultures in most global textbooks does not support “learners’ achievement of a measure of communicative competence” (Adaskou et al., 1990, p. 4) (See section 7.3.2, pages 292-293, this chapter). A balance of the four senses of culture, which provide students with both cultural content, social skills, and paralinguistic skills is recommended to improve students’ ICC.

The semantic and pragmatic senses of culture help form the conceptual system embodied in the language that conditions all our perceptions and our thought processes. They include “the background knowledge, social skills, and paralinguistic skills that, in addition to mastery of the language code, make possible

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successful communication” (Adaskou et al., 1990, p. 4). Because of their importance, I suggest the introduction of the semantic and pragmatic senses of culture by providing students with the following content.

Students need to get familiar with appropriate communicative functions. For example, they learn how to greet someone, take leave, or respond to an invitation appropriately in a foreign culture. Students may need to differentiate between greeting someone for the first time and greeting a close friend, and they may need to know that saying goodbye to a friend might be different from saying goodbye to a person with a higher status. If they mix these functions, their communicative purposes may not be as successful as expected, or sometimes their communication may break down.

Students could be encouraged to learn about how to use appropriate intonation patterns. For example, they need to understand what it means by the rise or fall of intonation at the end of a tag question. They need to know how to raise their voice at the end of a question, or how to utter an exclamation. English has its cadence, and the mastery of English rhythm and intonations contributes to the success of communication.

Students might be invited to explore different cultural norms of politeness so that they are able to conform in daily conversations. What is considered polite or normal in one culture may be inappropriate in another culture. For example, it is acceptable for a student to call his/her teachers by their first name in English speaking cultures, but it is rude or impolite to do so in Vietnamese culture. In some cultures, a kiss or a hug is an act of politeness when greeting someone, but this action is not a common practice in Asian societies. If a learner of English is not aware of these types of social etiquette, he/she may not have successful communications.

Students could be provided with the conventions that control interpersonal relationships, such as the status or the obligation that are different from their own. For example, they need to know the right way to behave in interactions such as

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between a boss and his/her employees, and to conform to the dos and don’ts in society. This kind of knowledge is helpful in maintaining interpersonal relations, making great contribution to intercultural communicative competence.

Students could be provided with principle rhetorical conventions in different written genres such as how to fill in a form, how to write a business letter, or how to write an advertisement. These conventions are the text types, which in addition to the information are necessary in any successful communication.

7.4.3. Recommendations for culture-based pedagogical practices.

Developing intercultural communicative competence in students does not only mean providing facts about a culture and knowledge for students to understand how and why different people perform different behaviours and attitudes across cultures (T. M. H. Nguyen, 2011a). This section focuses on the recommendations of culture-based pedagogical practices that could be applied in Vietnamese EFL classrooms. Within the Vietnamese context where EFL education focuses on the international aspects and develops students’ intercultural communicative competence, I have attempted to make a list of culture-based practices for culture teaching in EFL classrooms. This list of culture-based pedagogical practices has been formed based on the techniques offered by a number of researchers in the literature, with a consideration of the Vietnamese classroom context. This list was also made on the basis of the discussions of teachers’ cultural teaching pedagogies and students’ expectations. This selection of pedagogical practices takes into consideration the ethics of Vietnamese classrooms, where teachers organise their lessons and play the main role in the process of culture teaching and learning. The recommendations presented below range from applying cognitive techniques to engaging students into different cultural activities. These practices may help teachers to reconsider their roles and their goals in language teaching within an ICC pedagogy, and provide more opportunities for students to engage in student-centred activities:

Providing cultural knowledge: One common approach to prepare students for intercultural communicative competence at cognitive level is to tell them what may

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cause problems or what are the differences (Argyle, 1982). This technique is widely used by Vietnamese teachers due to its applicability in their classrooms. Teachers provide their students with cultural knowledge of a foreign country. They do this by a number of language activities such as lectures, readings, telling stories or culture capsules. Because Vietnamese learners are used to rote learning, this technique may allow them to easily perceive and obtain background knowledge about the culture of different countries. In this technique, teachers may help students to acquire cultural knowledge in a short time, but students are passive in receiving this knowledge.

Using authentic sources: Teachers bring into their classrooms different sources of teaching material, such as pictures, video clips, movies, magazines, newspapers, … and use them to provide contexts related to other foreign countries (Reid, 2015). By adapting these supplementary materials, teachers provide their students with opportunities to learn English in an authentic English environment. The insertion of illustrations, clips, movies, and other visual aids may help bring the real world into the classroom, and make the teaching and learning process more meaningful and engaging (Brinton, 2001). In a visual learning context, students may enhance their understanding of new concepts, and retain their cultural knowledge better. They may become more interested in the lessons, more active, and more curious to learn about new knowledge, which in turn will improve their learning outcomes. Although this technique requires teachers to make careful preparation before class, they are strongly recommended to do so in order to engage students in authentic cultural experiences.

Compare and contrast cultures: This technique involves students in classroom activities exploring the similarities and the differences among diverse cultures (Reid, 2015). Teachers may ask their students to investigate some cultural aspects of other countries and make comparisons and contrast with their own culture. Students may develop a deeper understanding about other cultures through experiencing the similarities and the differences. Again, in order to implement this technique, teachers need to spend time making careful preparation before class.

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Discussions: This technique requires students to work in pairs/groups to discuss cultural topics and share their personal ideas (T. M. H. Nguyen, 2011a). By using this technique, students may become more confident in expressing their own ideas and in giving or defending their opinions about a cultural phenomenon. In addition, this technique requires students to develop critical thinking skills, making a contribution to the development of students’ intercultural skills.

Mind mapping: Students can work individually or in pairs/groups to create a mind- map about a cultural theme or a cultural phenomenon. This technique requires students to investigate a cultural phenomenon and present it systematically. Students may retain cultural knowledge more easily, turning it into their background knowledge in a structured order.

Doing cultural presentations: This technique requires students to carefully prepare their lessons before class. They are asked to explore by themselves a cultural phenomenon and make a presentation about that phenomenon in front of the class (Reid, 2015). Students may retain their cultural knowledge better, as well as develop their confidence in speaking English in public. Although this technique may be good for students’ communicative competence, the teacher may need to pay attention to time management in order not to rush other parts of their lessons.

Interacting with foreigners: When employing this technique, teachers provide students with opportunities to interact with English speaking people (Argyle, 1982). Teachers may invite foreign guests or visitors to their classrooms in order to provide their students with face-to-face contact, or they may encourage their students to get in contact with foreigners through Skype/Face Time or emails. In this way, students may gain cultural experience through real contact with people from different countries. Students may learn much from the ways these foreign contacts behave or respond to different situations in their cultures.

Acting games (role play/drama): This technique involves students positioning themselves in the role of a dramatic character (Gudykunst & Hammer, 1983;

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Krasnick, 1984; Reid, 2015). Students practise speaking and interacting with other students as their assigned characters in a play, or as people in a particular everyday situation. Students may become more familiar with different cultures because they have acted as the characters of other cultures. Again, time management is necessary for teachers when carrying out these activities in order not to rush in other parts of the lessons.

Doing cultural projects: Teachers assign projects related to foreign cultures to groups of students. The project can start at the beginning of the term and students have time to collect and analyse data during the term. When the project is finished, each group reports their findings in front of the class. This technique involves students’ participation throughout the term. It not only develops students’ deep understanding of a cultural phenomenon, but also develops students’ teamwork skills and communication skills.

Organising cultural activities: This technique involves both teachers and students’ participation in cultural events that they organise. Teachers may organise cultural events such as Halloween, a Christmas party or Easter Day in their own classes by assigning preparation tasks to each group of students. Although this technique is time and money consuming, it may raise students’ interest in learning the language, and provides students hands-on experience of a cultural phenomenon.

By being involved in these culture-based techniques, students may participate in a number of classroom practices, discover cultural aspects of a specific country, compare them to their own culture and make distinctions between different cultures. The implementation of these techniques will require a passion for teaching, as much time and effort will be needed, as well as a perception of culture in foreign language teaching. In order to provide opportunities for students to develop intercultural awareness and intercultural skills, teachers may need to be flexible in employing these techniques based on their particular teaching context.

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7.4.4. Recommendations for students’ intercultural learning. Vietnam is a country in the Expanding Circle where English is spoken as a foreign language. In EFL teaching, the ultimate goal is competence in intercultural communication rather than native-speaker-like competence (Dinh, 2014). Non-native speakers are not expected to be exactly like native speakers (Crozet & Liddicoat, 1999). Instead, they are expected to communicate effectively in the sense of accomplishing a respectful and favourable negotiation between people in terms of both culture-specific and culture-general features (García, 2004).

While EFL teaching and learning in technical Vietnamese universities is not a curriculum priority, it is important that learners become competent intercultural speakers. This goal allows Vietnamese learners to constantly compare new experiences with past experiences, new linguistic phenomena with those of their first language, and target cultural components with their own. As competent intercultural speakers, Vietnamese technical students may be able to create a comfortable third place between their first linguaculture and target linguacultures. In this sense, intercultural learning is not parroting foreign cultural codes in order to communicate successfully with foreigners. Vietnamese technical students need to be able to negotiate language and adjust to different contexts of using English. These competent intercultural speakers need to be able to meet unformulaic forms of communication and flexible in dealing with a variety of everyday encounters and exchanges. Figure 7.2 elaborates the process of intercultural learning (Kaikkonen, 1997) that Vietnamese technical university students could follow.

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One’s own One’s own One’s own Conscious of cultural cultural language one’s own environment standards identity grows

Expansion Process

Foreign Knowledge of Foreign cultural Foreign foreign cultural environment language behaviour and standards culture grows

Figure 7.2. Expanding the learner’s understanding of culture and its components

(Adapted from “Learning a culture and a foreign language at school—aspects of intercultural learning” by Kaikkonen, P., 1997, Language Learning Journal, 15(1), p.49)

When learning a foreign language, this process allows for the expansion of cultural understanding, and at the same time increases the awareness of the special features of their own culture and language (Kaikkonen, 1997). To clarify this process, several stages need to be considered. Although these stages present in a successive sequence, they are difficult to separate as each stage is interrelated.

As can be seen in figure 7.3, the stages are described as follows:

Stage 1: Learners become aware of the foreign cultural phenomena that naturally emerge in the process of language teaching and learning.

Stage 2: Learners receive instructions to perceive foreign language and its cultural phenomena. At the same time, they make comparison between those phenomena and their own.

Stage 3: Learners apprehend the knowledge of the foreign language and its cultural norms; they compare the functioning of the foreign language and its cultural norms with their own.

Stage 4: New meanings are shaped based on the first three stages, which allow for learners’ linguistic and cultural competence during the process of foreign language learning.

(Kaikkonen, 1997, p.49) 311

2. Observation of 1. Sensitization to foreign culture foreign phenomena

4. Learning of foreign meanings and development of foreign linguistic and 3. Learning of foreign cultural cultural standards communication

Figure 7.3. Different stages of intercultural learning

(Adapted from “Learning a culture and a foreign language at school—aspects of intercultural learning” by Kaikkonen, P., 1997, Language Learning Journal, 15(1), p.49)

In this approach, the roles of students are redefined. Students, besides being taught about the ‘cultural factors’ in the target language by well-informed teachers, need to be provided with space to explore the target linguaculture. It was found that students’ interest in English learning greatly influenced their engagement with cultural representations in textbooks (See Chapter Six, section 6.2.2, pages 221-224). Students need to be more active and more dynamic in engaging themselves to intercultural learning process. With its significant role as the ‘bridge’ between cultures, an intercultural learning approach is appropriate forVietnamese students. This learning approach helps to develop students’ ability to negotiate meanings across languages and cultures, and prepare them for living in a multicultural world (Ho, 2009).

7.4.5. Recommendations for teachers’ intercultural teaching.

In the technical university context, EFL teachers may confront many difficulties in teaching culture, given insufficient intercultural content in textbooks, lack of teaching facilities, large classes, or time constraints. In the three previous sections, I have presented recommendations for the content and the activities teachers may use in class, as well as the intercultural learning approach their students may apply in cultural learning. The following

312 recommendations focus on the measurements to support teachers in developing their intercultural English teaching practices.

Although the EFL teachers interviewed were aware of the importance of teaching culture in foreign language education, not all of them were confident with their cultural knowledge. As a result, these teachers either overlooked challenging cultural representations or replaced them with easier ones (See Chapter Six, section 6.3.3, pages 254-257,). Foreign language teaching in the light of an ICC approach requires teachers to have their own ICC as the prerequisite criterion to implement their professional task of developing students’ ICC (Sercu, 2006). This means that EFL teachers need to possess the necessary linguistic and cultural knowledge, skills, and attitudes for an ICC perspective. In a sense, EFL teachers cannot know everything about foreign cultures, but they should be confident of their own culture and culture-general knowledge. EFL teachers may also need skills to implement culture-based activities in order to help students develop intercultural communicative competence. Another important factor is teachers’ attitudes toward cultural teaching. Teachers should be willing to integrate ICC into foreign language teaching by persisting with their teaching goals from an ICC approach.

In order to develop teachers’ ICC as in the three previously mentioned components, I first suggest that EFL teachers enrich their own linguistic and cultural knowledge. Teachers can do this by practicing their linguistic skills and reading widely professionally. They become not only learners of language, but also learners of culture. Acting as the facilitators to guide learners through exposure to ‘familiarity’ and ‘foreignness’, teachers need to improve their cultural background knowledge in order to become confident in their teaching. By devoting time to exploring more about cultures, teachers not only enrich their cultural background knowledge for their professional careers, but also are able to provide students with necessary information for successful communication and interaction with people of different cultures.

In addition, EFL teachers are encouraged to attend teachers’ training workshops for professional development. In these workshops, teachers may be provided with the most recent trends in language teaching. They may also be equipped with guidance for 313 implementing culture-based activities, for adapting textbooks, or for the assessment of intercultural learning outcomes. Through this training, teachers may gradually enhance their ability in integrating culture into language teaching. These training workshops could be carried out on a continuous basis for teachers to accumulate and maintain linguistic and cultural knowledge in an EFL environment. These workshops can be either international or domestic. However, if EFL teachers have opportunities to study and stay abroad for a period of time, the experience of living in a foreign environment could definitely be useful for their professional careers as effective teachers in a multicultural world.

7.5. Practical Implications

The analysis of cultural representations in English language textbooks in Vietnamese technical universities in Hanoi, and teachers and students’ perspectives suggest that culture is a significant component in these ELT textbooks. Textbook designers, administrators, language teachers and students should take into consideration the following recommendations.

7.5.1. Recommendations for textbooks designers.

Language can not be taught separately from its culture, and learning the English language means acquiring English-speaking cultures (Byram, 1988; Stewart, 1982; Valdes, 1986) (See section 2.4.1, pages 61-62). However, the current status of English as a lingua franca has changed people’s views on learning English. The boundaries of native-like competence have been challenged (Graddol, 1996) because “English already represents many cultures and it can be used by anyone as a means to express any cultural heritage and any value system” (Smith, 1987, p. 3). Modern language teaching should accept that English is not always inextricably tied to one particular culture, such as British or American (Alptekin, 1993).

As the ideal of producing native language competence is problematic, the logic for inclusion of only target or international target cultures in English language textbooks is under question (Shah et al., 2012). Teachers and students have met with difficulty in encountering the foreignness of some representations of the life outside Vietnam (See

314 section 6.4.1, pages 259-261). I recommend that textbook designers try to create a “conceptual bridge between the culturally familiar and the unfamiliar” (Alptekin, 1993, p. 141) in order to provide learners with some background knowledge as they acquire new knowledge. Making the course content relevant to learners can be one positive step in increasing learners’ motivation in language learning. It is certainly ineffective to force learners “to express a culture of which they have scarcely any experience” (Brumfit, 1980, p. 95). In addition to the relevance of course content, textbook designers should avoid stereotypes when presenting those target and international target cultures. Presenting cultures in a stereotypical manner is misleading and unrealistic (Alptekin, 1993) as this provides an inaccurate overgeneralisation of the real world to students, that may promote them into thinking in unfavourable ways (Dat, 2006). While the aim of ELT textbooks is to provide intercultural context for language skills development, it is a challenge for textbook writers to avoid potential stereotypes about other cultures.

In order to build this conceptual bridge, global English textbooks could be designed in more supportive ways. They may increase the use of cultural comparisons to increase cross- cultural awareness. They may also encourage the employment of common knowledge or experience as a base for understanding and perceiving unfamiliar knowledge. Given the notion of English as a lingua franca, and intercultural communicative competence is a goal to be achieved in an EFL program; the foreignness in these global textbooks may not necessarily include only target culture, but more preferably include the international English of common areas and popular cultural knowledge.

The teachers and students interviewed expressed their preference to learn about Vietnamese culture (See page 246). Teachers recognised that their students were more engaged in lessons with references to Vietnamese culture, and students demonstrated their excitement when talking about these references. I recommend that English textbooks include Vietnamese representations to provide students with linguistic and cultural input of their own culture. The extensive use of local references in these textbooks may encourage learners to reflect on and relate their culture to the cultures of others, from which they may be able to utilise cultural components to the real language contexts (Munandar & Ulwiyah,

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2012). International textbook publishers could consider targeting their market to geographical regions, for example, Southeast Asia, China, Middle East, and African or South American regions. This cooperation may introduce a global English textbook that consists of a balance of target and international target cultures, with considerable attention to source culture (Dat, 2006). When textbook projects are launched, groups of international textbook experts work with local authors to produce a text for use that includes both target and international target cultures, and specific local knowledge. Some of these textbooks were recently published and introduced to participating universities after the implementation of the NFLP 2020. For example, the textbook Life by Cengage Learning was ordered specifically for Vietnamese market (See section 4.3.1, pages 139-140). However, publications of this kind are still rare.

7.5.2. Recommendations for English language education administrators.

Language education administrators may take into account the characteristics of global textbooks and make relevant choices for their students. I recommend that language administrators undertake a more systematic textbook selection process. They could consider their needs and their students’ needs, the course objectives, the course requirements, students’ psyche, and students’ social backgrounds and language level.

Language education administrators could undertake careful predictive evaluation and set out a number of important criteria to consider when selecting a textbook. The list of criteria is related to diverse aspects representing a broad domain for evaluation (El-Dakhs, 2011). One of the first criteria is the target audience of the textbook, and thus the proficiency level targeted in the textbook. Another important criterion is the textbook content and the authenticity of this textbook content. Next are the language skills that assist students in achieving their learning targets. Pedagogy is a key aspect, as among various teaching methods, the good use of a textbook helps learners achieve their aims with “maximum interest and motivation”, as well as encouraging learning autonomy (El-Dakhs, 2011, p. 5). Other criteria that need to be taken into consideration include educational psychology, physical appearance, sociolinguistic and pragmatic factors, and supplementary packages (El-Dakhs, 2011).

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In addition, administrators could apply flexible measurements to the use of these textbooks, employing timely adjustment and adaption if necessary. If a chosen textbook is found to be inappropriate in content or language level for students, I recommend that they take necessary acts to change or adapt teaching materials. While most Heads/Vice Heads expressed their satisfaction with their current textbooks, stating that their textbooks were the most relevant, not all of their teaching staff agreed. These teachers pointed out the inappropriateness of their textbooks within their EFL programs, at the same time acknowledging complicated and lengthy procedures for any changes (See section 4.3.3, page 152-155).

Administrators could also undertake more systematic retrospective evaluations. These evaluations may not only be based on students’ exam results, but also take into consideration teachers and students’ feedback.

Administrators can also attend to the design of EFL programs, especially in terms of time allocation. One of the most frequently reported factors affecting teaching and learning was the shortage of time (See section 6.4.2, pages 263). Teachers reported not having sufficient instructional hours to introduce language knowledge, thus they were not able to implement cultural activities. Students felt they had to rush through units in the textbooks, so they did not retain knowledge of and facilitate with practice language. I suggest that if universities cannot increase their English instructional hours, they may consider suitable course objectives to fit with the time available. It is onerous to insist on students’ having a B1 exit requirement given limited instructional time and resources, low entry proficiency levels and large classes. As instructional time is one of the necessary conditions for the improvement of students’ ICC (See section 7.4.1, page 302), administrators’ allocation of sufficicent instructional time for teachers and students is crucial.

7.5.3. Recommendations for EFL teachers.

Foreign language teachers, in addition to their main responsibility in providing language knowledge, play multiple roles of cultural knowledge providers, textbook selectors and textbook evaluators. Language teachers should be flexible in providing students with both

317 language knowledge and cultural knowledge. No matter what cultures are represented in ELT textbooks, their effectiveness in promoting language learning is dependent to a large extent on teachers’ labour. Therefore, teachers should be aware of the aims of teaching culture in its broadest context, to help students develop their cultural awareness and respect for cultural diversity. In addition, teachers may be aware of the shortcomings of ELT textbooks. Teachers are likely to be familiar with students’ background and characteristics, the sociocultural contexts of their teaching, and their universities’ general orientation of ELT. In taking into consideration of all these factors, teachers could create classrooms that promote ICC.

I suggest that teachers could use complimentary instructional materials in class. As textbooks are not always up-to-date, these additional materials may provide additional information and authentic and updated contexts focused on problem-solving tasks. These materials could be readings from a wide variety of sources including media such as newspapers, television or Internet videos. Songs or movies are useful materials that are parts of everyday life. These materials may be important resources to provide learners with an opportunity to develop language skills and enhance intercultural communicative competence.

Teacher-produced materials are another alternative source of supplementary materials. In contrast to global textbooks, these may be better targeted to satisfy specific students’ needs. Unfortunately, most current teacher-produced materials are exam-oriented (See section 4.2.2, page 137). Teachers could produce more materials that are relevant both to their context and their students’ background knowledge.

Teachers may provide students with more authentic activities and more opportunities to personalise their knowledge. Instead of providing students with cultural information, teachers could ask students to prepare short presentations or role-plays, improvisations, games, projects, interviews or observations. Active learning may be effective for Vietnamese tertiary students. These activities may raise students’ awareness of cultural differences and help them understand the importance of those differences in

318 communication. At the same time, students may find these lessons more effective and more enjoyable, even in an artificial classroom environment far from the target culture.

As an important contributor in the process of textbook selection, teachers may need to take greater care when considering textbook selection. They should reflect on the criteria for choosing the most suitable available textbooks. I noticed that teachers usually presented their comments/suggestions only in the later stages of textbook selection, when they had already used these textbooks for some time (See section 4.3.3, pages 152-155). Teachers need to be more critical and take a more active role in the early stages of textbook selection. They should also take part in regular reviews of existing textbooks. Currently, their involvement in making adaptations to the texts is a temporary solution.

7.5.4. Recommendations for students.

Students’ background knowledge and their interest in English learning influences their perceptions and engagement with representations of life outside Vietnam in ELT textbooks. While enriching their contextual knowledge is a long process, students may develop capability in locating cultural information on the Internet. Internet surfing, reading print materials about foreign countries, watching and listening to English language films, songs, and media, and opportunities to interact with foreign visitors are all effective means to gradually accumulate sociocultural knowledge, and facilitate ICC.

Students’ interest in learning English influences the ways in which they respond to representations of life outside Vietnam. While the degree of their interest in English learning affects their engagement with English, their apparent disinterest limits the development of intercultural communicative competence (See section 6.2.2, pages 221- 224). While changing one’s interest is not easy, students should be aware of the importance of English in future work and study opportunities. They can become active in classroom’s cultural teaching activities. These activities may help them improve their cultural learning as part of developing their ICC.

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7.6. Limitations

Throughout the process of my study, although I anticipated some of the limitations in its design phase, there were some inevitable limitations that arose during the data collection process. The students’ interviews were not as informative as the teachers’ interviews. This shortcoming may be the results of the current state of educational research in Vietnam. Social science research in Vietnam, in particular research in education, is recent. My student informants had never experienced being interviewed. They were unused to be asked for their opinion other than simple things such as “Do you like this kind of food?” or “Do you like this movie or not?” My student informants felt reluctant to share their opinions about their textbooks.

Another important limitation in my study was that students saw the program through their own particular experience, which was quite narrow. Technical students had little previous contact with the English language and cultures. These students were reticent to comment on their experience with foreign cultures. They may have had other reasons of which, as a researcher, I am unaware. If I had conducted follow-up interviews with these students, I would have devoted much more time to speak with them and to allow them to become more familiar with the concept of educational research and the culture of social science research. They could possibly open up more to me and provide me with more information than they did.

My intention in phase three of my research was to interview ten teachers with international experience together with ten teachers with local experience in order to provide rich data and allow for comparison. However, I could only enlist eight teachers with international experience because two of the participating universities did not have such teachers. One of the unexpected findings of my study was that many Vietnamese teachers of English do not usually have an opportunity to experience a native English-speaking environment (See section 6.3, page 230). English appears to be of secondary importance in the technical university curriculum, and consequently English teachers may be provided fewer opportunities to go abroad or undergo short professional development. I have recommended

320 that teachers be provided opportunities to enrich their linguaculture knowledge in an English-speaking environment (See section 7.4.5, pages 315-316).

During the data collection process, I observed that nine out of ten universities used supplementary teaching materials in conjunction with their ELT global textbooks. I was also informed that these supplementary materials were all exam-oriented practice tests, which were used to supplement students with test formats and familiarity. Due to the purpose of this study, which was to examine the representations of life outside Vietnam in global ELT textbooks and their influence on students’ intercultural communicative competence, I did not collect these supplementary materials for investigation. A more critical examination of how these in-house materials were used in accordance with current global ELT textbooks would definitely improve the validity of the findings.

I also noted that although the ten universities follow MoET’s curriculum framework, they had different time frames for similar destinations. For the same exit requirement, these universities allocated a range of instructional hours to assist their students in achieving their goals. More surprisingly, I realised these universities’ choices of textbook levels for the same exit requirements were not consistent. For example, some universities used a pre- intermediate level textbook for the B1 exit requirement, while some others use intermediate level textbooks. It appeared that these universities defined students’ English proficiency differently in accordance with A2 and B1 level. However, due to the time limit and the scope of this study, I did not investigate more into these issues. These limitations have implications for further research.

7.7. Suggestions for Further Research

Further research may strengthen my study by expanding the number of research sites and participants. Future studies on cultural representations of life outside Vietnam in global ELT textbooks may include more technical universities throughout the country. My study was limited to those in Hanoi. Technical universities in Ho Chi Minh City and other regions may participate to provide a fuller picture of cultural representations in global ELT textbooks in Vietnam, although their textbooks are likely to be the same as the textbooks in

321 my study given their ubiquitousness. An increased teacher and student participation could provide richer data suggesting more generalised and verifiable research conclusion.

Another topic to be explored could be the institutional use of supplementary teaching material. As I previously stated, nine out of ten universities used these supplementary materials to prepare students for exams. My interview data also indicated that some students did not pay much attention to the global ELT textbooks, but did to these supplementary materials. Some teachers who focused mainly on exams were inclined to spend more instructional time on the supplementary materials. Because of the prominence of the tertiary exam regime, global textbooks were sometimes less important than the supplementary materials.

The inconsistencies among universities’ textbook levels, the allocation of time for instruction, and entry or exit requirements raise questions for further study about the basis on which these universities construct their English teaching programs (See section 4.4, page 155-157). Furthermore, the introduction of CEFR needs to be studied carefully. Various institutions I studied were inconsistent in how they interpreted CEFR. Therefore, research into how higher educational institutions interpret this assessment framework is strongly recommended.

7.8. Final Reflection: Lessons Learnt and Experiences Drawn by the Researcher

I started this research journey with an unclear understanding of cultural representations in ELT textbooks. As a lecturer, I encountered problems with these representations. I was concerned whether or not other teachers and their students met with similar problems when encountering these representations. I wanted to understand how they responded to them. I was also interested in the extent to which foreign cultures were represented in global ELT textbooks, and how these representations influenced students’ language learning communicative competence. As a lecturer, I was sometimes confused in what role I was to take in teaching language and culture. Personally, my present study was a journey to clarify what was unclear to me and position myself as a language and culture teacher.

322

My study has been a process of reconstruction. My perceptions of cultural representations and my teaching beliefs have been continuously challenged during the research process. My exposure to research literature pushed me to reconceptualise what I understood about cultural representations. My textbook analysis employing Adaskou et al.’s (1990) framework forced me to understand the four senses of culture, facilitating my textbooks’ coding process and enriching my knowledge. Teacher and student participants’ responses raised my awareness of their various underlying value systems and the diversity of perceptions and approaches to engaging with cultural representations in English language teaching, which has led me to reconsider my own beliefs about English language teaching.

323

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346

APPENDICES

Appendix 1. Common European Framework of Reference

347

Appendix 2: Test scores equivalency table

TOEIC TOEFL TOEFL TOEFL IELTS Cambridge CEFR VEC Approximate Paper CBT IBT Exam Online VEC Level Score

0 - 310 0 - 30 0 - 8 0 - 1.0 0 - 34 2 0 - 250

310 - 343 33 - 60 9 - 18 1.0 - 1.5 A1 35 - 38 3

347 - 393 63 - 90 19 - 29 2.0 - 2.5 A1 39 - 45 4 - 5 KET A2 255 - 400 (IELTS 3.0)

397 - 433 93 - 120 30 - 40 3.0 - 3.5 46 - 53 6 - 7 PET B1 (IELTS 3.5) (IELTS 3.5)

437 - 473 123 - 150 41 - 52 4.0 PET B1 54 - 57 8 PET B1 405 - 600 (IELTS 4.5) (IELTS 4.5)

477 - 510 153 - 180 53 - 64 4.5 - 5.0 58 - 65 9 - 10 FCE B2 (IELTS 5.0) (IELTS 5.0)

513 - 547 183 - 210 65 - 78 5.5 - 6.0 FCE B2 66 - 73 11 - 12 605 - 780

550 - 587 213 - 240 79 - 95 6.5 - 7.0 CAE C1 74 - 81 13 - 14

785 - 990 590 - 677 243 - 300 96 - 120 7.5 - 9.0 CPE C2 82 - 100 15 Top Score Top Score Top Score Top Top Top Score Top Level Top Top Level Score Score Score

990 677 300 120 9 100 C2 100 15

(Source: https://secure.vec.bc.ca/toefl-equivalency-table.cfm)

348 Appendix 3 Faculty Interview Protocol

Institutions: ______

Time of the interview: ______Date: ______

Venue: ______

Interviewee (Title and Name): ______

Interviewer: ______

Research topic: How may the representation of life outside Vietnam in 1st year technical university English textbooks in Hanoi influence students’ cultural competence in learning English? Sub-research questions: 1. What English textbooks are used by non-major 1st year Vietnamese university students? 2. How and why are these textbooks are chosen? How important is the role of English-speaking cultures in ELT textbook choice? Sections to be covered: _____ A: Interview Background _____ B: Textbook Information _____ C: Teaching Programs

Other Topics Discussed: ______

Documents Obtained: ______

Post Interview Comments or Leads:

______

349 EFL Textbooks and Teaching Program Interviews

Introductory Protocol

To facilitate our note taking, I would like to audio tape our conversations today. For your information, only the researcher on the project will be privy to the tapes. Essentially, this document states that: (1) all information will be held confidential, (2) your participation is voluntary and you may stop at any time you want, and (3) I do not intend to inflict any harm. Thank you for your agreeing to participate.

I have planned this interview to last no longer than one hour. During this time, I have several questions that I would like to cover. If time begins to run short, it may be necessary to interrupt you in order to push ahead and complete this line of questioning.

Introduction

Thank you for agreeing to have conversation with me today about the English teaching program and ELT course books at your institution. As the Dean/Vice Dean of the Language Faculty at technical universities in Hanoi, you have been identified as someone who has a lot of information to share about ELT textbooks and teaching program and assessment on this campus. My research project as a whole focuses on the cultural representation in ELT textbooks and its influence on cultural competence in English learning, with particular interest in understanding which and why these ELT textbooks are chosen and how English learning and teaching is assessed. Our study does not aim to evaluate your techniques or experience. Rather, we are trying to learn more about ELT textbooks and the teaching program at the university, the cultural representation in ELT textbooks and its influence on teaching and learning, and hopefully learn about faculty practices that help facilitate student learning on campus.

A. Interviewee Background

How long have you been …

______teaching at this institution?

______in your present position?

Have you worked in other institutions before working here? If yes, where did you work? How long did you work there?

Interesting background information on interviewee:

What is your highest degree? ______

What is your field of study? ______

350 B. Teaching Program 1. Could you please tell me some information about English teaching program at your university? Probing questions: a. What are the entry and exit requirement for the course? b. How many hours are there in the English program and how are they allocated? C. Textbook information: 1. What ELT textbooks are being used for first year students in your university? 2. Why are these textbooks chosen? Probing questions: a. What influences the choice of textbooks at your university? b. Are there any other particular reasons for choosing these textbooks? 3. Why are ELT textbooks changed in your teaching curriculum? 4. How are these textbooks chosen?

351 Appendix 4 Teacher Interview Protocol

Institutions: ______

Time of the interview: ______Date: ______

Venue: ______

Interviewee (Title and Name): ______

Interviewer: ______

Research topic: How may the representation of life outside Vietnam in 1st year technical university English textbooks in Hanoi influence students’ cultural competence in learning English? Sub-research questions: According to teachers and students, how does the representation of life outside Vietnam in these textbooks influence students’ cultural competence in learning English?

Sections to be covered:

_____ A: Interview Background

_____ B: Evaluation

_____ C: Teaching and Learning

_____ D: Solutions

Other Topics Discussed: ______

Documents Obtained: ______

Post Interview Comments or Leads: ______

352 Culture Teaching, Learning, and Assessment Interviews

Introductory Protocol

To facilitate our note taking, I would like to audio tape our conversations today. For your information, only the researcher on the project will be privy to the tapes. Essentially, this document states that: (1) all information will be held confidential, (2) your participation is voluntary and you may stop at any time you want, and (3) I do not intend to inflict any harm. Thank you for your agreeing to participate.

I have planned this interview to last no longer than one hour. During this time, I have several questions that I would like to cover. If time begins to run short, it may be necessary to interrupt you in order to push ahead and complete this line of questioning.

Introduction

Thank you for agreeing to have conversation with me today about your English language teaching, especially culture teaching experience at your university. As an experienced teacher, you have a lot of information to share about culture and language teaching, learning, and assessment on this campus. My research project as a whole focuses on the cultural representation in ELT textbooks, with particular interest in understanding how this representation influences students’ cultural competence. My study does not aim to evaluate your techniques or teaching practice. Rather, I am trying to learn more about the influence of cultural differences in language teaching and learning.

A. Interviewee Background

How long have you been …

______teaching at this institution?

______in your present position?

Have you worked at any other institutions before? if yes, where did you work and how long did you work there?

Interesting background information on interviewee:

What is your highest degree?

Where did you study at university?

What is your field of study?

353 B. Textbook evaluation 1. How long have you been using this textbook? 2.What do you think of the book? Probing questions: a. Does it meet the objectives of the course? b. Is the book appropriate for your students’ language level? c. What do you feel are the strong points of this book? d. And what are the weaknesses? 3. In what way does this textbook represent life outside Vietnam? Probing questions: a. Can you describe some cultural representations in the textbook? b. Which one do you find the most interesting for your students? c. What are the most challenging foreign cultural representations? 4. How do you think the representations of life outside Vietnam embedded in textbooks affect their students' language learning? Probing questions: a. What do students know or do not know about these representations? b. How do students response to these cultural representations? C. Teaching process 1. How do you address the most challenging cultural representations of life outside Vietnam in your textbook? D. Solutions 1. What do you think should be appropriate ways to guide your students through difficulties in dealing with foreign cultural representations in ELT textbooks?

354 Appendix 5 Student Interview Protocol

Institutions: ______

Time of the interview: ______Date: ______

Venue: ______

Interviewee (Title and Name): ______

Interviewer: ______

Research topic: How may the representation of life outside Vietnam in 1st year technical university English textbooks in Hanoi influence students’ cultural competence in learning English? Sub-research questions: According to teachers and students, how does the representation of life outside Vietnam in these textbooks influence students’ cultural competence in learning English?

Sections to be covered:

_____ A: Interview Background

_____ B: Evaluation

_____ C: Teaching and Learning

_____ D: Solutions

Other Topics Discussed: ______

Documents Obtained: ______

Post Interview Comments or Leads: ______

Culture Teaching, Learning, and Assessment Interviews

Introductory Protocol

To facilitate our note taking, I would like to audio tape our conversations today. For your information, only the researcher on the project will be privy to the tapes. Essentially, this 355 document states that: (1) all information will be held confidential, (2) your participation is voluntary and you may stop at any time you want, and (3) I do not intend to inflict any harm. Thank you for your agreeing to participate.

I have planned this interview to last no longer than one hour. During this time, I have several questions that I would like to cover. If time begins to run short, it may be necessary to interrupt you in order to push ahead and complete this line of questioning.

Introduction

Thank you for agreeing to have conversation with me today about your experience on English learning, especially about culture learning. You have been identified to have all criteria to become my potential participants of the research. My research project as a whole focuses on the cultural representation in ELT textbooks, with particular interest in understanding how this representation influences students’ cultural competence. My study does not aim to evaluate your English level or learning practice. Rather, I am trying to learn more about the influence of cultural differences in your learning, and hopefully learn more about how we can overcome these barriers.

A. Interviewee Background

How long have you been …

______learning English?

______a student at this institution?

Interesting background information on interviewee:

Where are you from?

What is your field of study?

Have you ever communicated with an English speaker?

What difficulties you meet when talking to an English speaker?

How often do you have contact with English outside classroom? And in what ways?

Are you good at English? What do you think of English? Do you like it?

B. Textbook evaluation 1. How long have you been using this textbook? 2.What do you think of the book? Probing questions:

356 a. Does it meet the objectives of the course? b. Is the book appropriate for your language level? c. What do you feel are the strong points of this book? d. And what are the weaknesses? 3. In what way does this textbook represent life outside Vietnam? Probe: a. Can you describe some cultural representations in the textbook? b. Which do you find the most interesting? c. What are the most challenging foreign cultural representations? 4. How do you think the representations of life outside Vietnam embedded in textbooks affect your language learning? Probing questions: a. What do you know or do not know about these representations? b. How do you response to these cultural representations? C. Teaching process 1. How do your teachers address the most challenging cultural representations of life outside Vietnam in your textbook? D. Solutions 1. How do you think your teacher should do to guide you through difficulties in dealing with foreign cultural representations in ELT textbooks?

357 Appendix 6: Unit 5 – Cutting Edge Elementary Third Edition

358

359 Appendix 7: Checklists for content analysis

I. Sources of culture

No Type Notion Examples 1 Source culture Vietnamese cultural A reading text about Mid- representations Autumn Festival in Vietnam A picture of one-pillar pagoda in Hanoi 2 Target culture English speaking cultural A reading text about an English representations from the U.K, wedding the U.S, Australia or New A picture of Opera House in Zealand Sydney A song by Britney Spears 3 International Cultural representations of A reading text about a floating target culture countries other than Vietnam market in Bangkok or English-speaking countries A picture of a Japanese temple

II. Senses of cultures No Sense of culture Notion Example 1 Aesthetic Culture with a Media capital C Cinema Music (classical & popular) Literature 2 Sociological culture with a small Organisation of a family c A home life Interpersonal relations Material conditions Work & leisure Customs & institutions 3 Semantic The conceptual Opinions system embodied in General beliefs the language control Norms our perceptions and our thought process 4 Pragmatic The background Ability to use appropriate exponents of knowledge, social various communicative functions skills and Ability to use appropriate intonation paralinguistic skills patterns that, in addition to Ability to conform to the norms of social mastery of the courtesy language code, The awareness of conventions governing kame possible interpersonal relations successful The familiarity with the main rhetorical communication convention in different written genres Appendix 8: Worksheet grid - Sources of culture 360 Textbook: Level: Unit Source Target International target 1 …. Total

Worksheet grid – Senses of cultures Textbook: Level: Unit Aesthetic Sociological Semantic Pragmatic 1 … Total

361 Appendix 9: Examples of changes in American English File and New English File American English File Pre-intermediate (P.49)

New English File Pre-Intermediate (P.49)

American English File Pre-Intermediate (p. 57)

362

New English File Pre-Intermediate (P57)

363

364 Appendix 10

HUMAN RESEARCH ETHICS COMMITTEE

Notification of Expedited Approval

To Chief Investigator or Project Supervisor: Professor Jim Albright Cc Co-investigators / Research Students: Mrs Thi Lan Huong Lam Doctor I-Fang Lee Re Protocol: The representation of life outside Vietnam in first-year technical university textbooks in Hanoi and its influence on students' cultural competence in English learning Date: 30-Jun-2015 Reference No: H-2015-0144 Date of Initial Approval: 29-Jun-2015

Thank you for your Response to Conditional Approval submission to the Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC) seeking approval in relation to the above protocol.

Your submission was considered under Expedited review by the Chair/Deputy Chair.

I am pleased to advise that the decision on your submission is Approved effective 29-Jun-2015.

In approving this protocol, the Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC) is of the opinion that the project complies with the provisions contained in the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research, 2007, and the requirements within this University relating to human research.

Approval will remain valid subject to the submission, and satisfactory assessment, of annual progress reports. If the approval of an External HREC has been "noted" the approval period is as determined by that HREC.

The full Committee will be asked to ratify this decision at its next scheduled meeting. A formal Certificate of Approval will be available upon request. Your approval number is H-2015-0144.

If the research requires the use of an Information Statement, ensure this number is inserted at the relevant point in the Complaints paragraph prior to distribution to potential

365 participants You may then proceed with the research.

Conditions of Approval

This approval has been granted subject to you complying with the requirements for Monitoring of Progress, Reporting of Adverse Events, and Variations to the Approved Protocol as detailed below.

PLEASE NOTE: In the case where the HREC has "noted" the approval of an External HREC, progress reports and reports of adverse events are to be submitted to the External HREC only. In the case of Variations to the approved protocol, or a Renewal of approval, you will apply to the External HREC for approval in the first instance and then Register that approval with the University's HREC.

• Monitoring of Progress

Other than above, the University is obliged to monitor the progress of research projects involving human participants to ensure that they are conducted according to the protocol as approved• by the HREC. A progress report is required on an annual basis. Continuation of your HREC approval for this project is conditional upon receipt, and satisfactory assessment, of annual progress reports. You will be advised when a report is due.

• Reporting of Adverse Events

1. It is the responsibility of the person first named on this Approval Advice to report adverse events. 2. Adverse events, however minor, must be recorded by the investigator as observed by the investigator or as volunteered by a participant in the research. Full details are to be documented, whether or not the investigator, or his/her deputies, consider the event to be related to the research substance or procedure. 3. Serious or unforeseen adverse events that occur during the research or within six (6) months of completion of the research, must be reported by the person first named on the Approval Advice to the (HREC) by way of the Adverse Event Report form (via RIMS at https://rims.newcastle.edu.au/login.asp) within 72 hours of the occurrence of the event or the investigator receiving advice of the event. 4. Serious adverse events are defined as: • o Causing death, life threatening or serious disability. o Causing or prolonging hospitalisation. o Overdoses, cancers, congenital abnormalities, tissue damage, whether or not they are judged to be caused by the investigational agent or procedure. o Causing psycho-social and/or financial harm. This covers everything from perceived invasion of privacy, breach of confidentiality, or the diminution of social reputation, to the creation of psychological fears and trauma. o Any other event which might affect the continued ethical acceptability of the project.

5. Reports of adverse events must include: o Participant's study identification number;

366 o date of birth; o date of entry into the study; o treatment arm (if applicable); o date of event; o details of event; o the investigator's opinion as to whether the event is related to the research procedures; and o action taken in response to the event.

6. Adverse events which do not fall within the definition of serious or unexpected, including those reported from other sites involved in the research, are to be reported in detail at the time of the annual progress report to the HREC.

• Variations to approved protocol

If you wish to change, or deviate from, the approved protocol, you will need to submit an Application for Variation to Approved Human Research (via RIMS at https://rims.newcastle.edu.au/login.asp). Variations may include, but are not limited to, changes or additions• to investigators, study design, study population, number of participants, methods of recruitment, or participant information/consent documentation. Variations must be approved by the (HREC) before they are implemented except when Registering an approval of a variation from an external HREC which has been designated the lead HREC, in which case you may proceed as soon as you receive an acknowledgement of your Registration.

Linkage of ethics approval to a new Grant

HREC approvals cannot be assigned to a new grant or award (ie those that were not identified on the application for ethics approval) without confirmation of the approval from the Human Research Ethics Officer on behalf of the HREC.

Best wishes for a successful project.

Professor Allyson Holbrook Chair, Human Research Ethics Committee

For communications and enquiries: Human Research Ethics Administration

Research Services Research Integrity Unit The Chancellery The University of Newcastle Callaghan NSW 2308

367 T +61 2 492 17894 F +61 2 492 17164 [email protected]

RIMS website - https://RIMS.newcastle.edu.au/login.asp

Linked University of Newcastle administered funding:

Funding body Funding project title First named investigator Grant Ref

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Appendix 11

FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND ARTS

Prof. James Albright School of Education Faculty of Education and Arts The University of Newcastle University Drive, Callaghan, NSW 2308 Australia

T +61 2 4921 5901 F +61 2 4921 7818 [email protected]

Rector

Information Statement for the Research Project:

The representation of life outside Vietnam in first-year technical university textbooks in Hanoi and its influence on students’ cultural competence in English learning

Prof James Albright Mrs Thi Lan Huong Lam Project supervisor Research Student

Document Version 2; dated 18/06/2015

You are asked to give consent your staff and students of your university to participate in the above identified research project, which is being conducted by Ms Thi Lan Huong Lam, a PhD Candidate from the School of Education, Faculty of Education and Arts at the University of Newcastle. The research is part of Mrs Thi Lan Huong Lam’s doctoral studies at the University of Newcastle, which are supervised by Professor James Albright from the School of Education/ Faculty of Education and Arts the University of Newcastle. Why is the research being done? This research focuses on the representation of culture as life outside Vietnam in common language textbooks for Vietnamese technical students and investigates the influence of these cultural differences on students’ cultural competence in language learning. This study is carried out at a time when English language education in Vietnam is hotly debated at educational conferences and in the public, generally. The National Foreign Language Project 2020 has determined that textbook innovation is one of this strategic plan's priorities as part of a comprehensive change in English language teaching from primary to

369 tertiary education. In language learning, differences in cultures may prevent learners from making meaning of cultural representations in text. By offering the case study of Vietnam, this research may make an important contribution to Vietnamese education. Little research has been done in Vietnam regarding cultural representation in ELT textbooks and its influence on learners' language acquisition. In addition, research on cultural representation in ELT textbooks in Vietnam from an insider's research perspectives may assist Vietnamese ELT practitioners. Although, Vietnamese language teachers may recognize the interrelation between language and culture, they may not have capacity to teach cultural competence and may feel constrained by the conditions under which they are teaching. This research may help EFL teachers improve learners' intercultural competence and identify the conditions needed for teaching English cultural competence. Also, this research may assist textbook writers and curriculum designers to improve the quality of the textbooks that are used in Vietnamese ELT tertiary education. Textbook writers may incorporate cultural components more purposefully and effectively in their commercial ELT textbooks, improving the quality ELT textbooks available for learners of the English language. Additionally, this research may assist administrators in choosing the appropriate textbooks for their students. Who can participate in the research? We are seeking ten Deans/ Vice Deans of Language Faculty, about fifteen language teachers and fifteen first-year students at technical universities in Hanoi to participate in the project. The Deans or Vice Deans of Language Faculty at technical universities in Hanoi are invited to become participants in this research. Those who are not currently in these management positions are not eligible to participate. English teachers, who have over five years’ teaching experience at technical universities in Hanoi wishing to volunteer in this research project, can participate. Among those, fifty per cent of the teacher participants should have studied or lived abroad for a period of time and the other half should have graduated from a university in Vietnam. The teachers who are not currently teaching at a technical university in Hanoi and do not meet either criteria are not eligible to participate. Freshmen, who are non-English major students at ten technical universities in Hanoi, are invited to participate in this research. Among those, we are seeking fifty per cent of the students from the countryside and the other half from the city. Students, whose major is English language or TESOL and are not currently in their first year at the University, are not eligible to participate in the research. If more than the stated numbers of Deans/ Vice Deans, language teachers and students provide consent then not all people will be interviewed. What would you be asked to do? If you agree to allow the Dean/Vice Dean of Foreign Language Faculty, language teachers and students of your university to participate in the project, you will be asked to sign in a Consent Form. In this Consent Form, you will give your staff and students the permission to

370 release information to the researcher concerning their attitudes, teaching and learning practices related to this project’s aims. What choice do you have? Participation in this research is entirely your choice. Only those people who give their informed consent will be included in the project. Whether or not you agree to allow your Dean/Vice Dean, teachers and students to participate, your decision will not disadvantage you and your university. You may withdraw from the project until such time as the data from the interviews has been transcribed without giving a reason and have the option of withdrawing any data, which you may feel indirectly identify your university. If you do decide to allow your Dean, teachers and students to participate, they may withdraw from the project until such time as the data from the interviews has been transcribed without giving a reason and have the option of withdrawing any data, which they may feel directly or indirectly identify them. How much time will it take? Each interview should take no more than one hour of your time. However, follow-up questions for clarification may be sent to you and the other participants later via email if needed. What are the risks and benefits of participating? We cannot promise you any individual benefit from participating in this research. However, the research may be of some anticipated benefit to the English teaching and learning situation at technical universities in Vietnam. It may assist ESL teachers to identify the conditions needed for teaching English cultural competence. It may also help curriculum designers and textbooks writers to improve the quality of textbooks and assist educational institutions with better textbooks choice. How will your privacy be protected? Any information collected from your university will be transcribed, coded and stored securely by the researcher. All personal information of your university such as your Dean, students and teachers' names, their classes, and the university will be coded so it will not be possible to identify your university from the information your students and teachers provided. The information will be accessed only by the researcher(s) unless you consent otherwise, except as required by law. Data will be stored in a locked cabinet at the researcher's office in Vietnam while she is there. After the researcher returns to the University of Newcastle, the data will be retained in a locked cabinet at the University of Newcastle for at least 5 years. The researcher is the only person who holds the key to the locked cabinet containing the data. How will the information collected be used? The data will be transcribed and translated into English by the researcher. These data will be reported and presented in a thesis to be submitted as a partial requirement for Ms Thi Lan Huong Lam’s doctorate degree and some of the scientific journals. Individual participants will not be identified in any reports arising from the project.

371 Non-identifiable data may also be shared with other parties to encourage scientific scrutiny, and to contribute to further research and public knowledge, or as required by law. There may be journal articles published from the results of the research. Each participant will personally receive a summary of the findings if they would like to have one provided. What do you need to do to participate? Please read this Information Statement and be sure you understand its contents before you consent to participate. If there is anything you do not understand, or you have questions, contact the researcher. If you would like your Dean of Language Faculty, language teachers and students to participate, please complete the attached Consent Form and send it back in a paid envelope to the researcher. Further information If you would like further information please contact: Ms Thi Lan Huong Lam Tel: +61 452427505 +84 912227505 Email: [email protected] Thank you for considering this invitation.

(Signature) Professor James Albright Project Supervisor

(Signature) Thi Lan Huong Lam Student Researcher

Complaints about this research This project has been approved by the University’s Human Research Ethics Committee, Approval No. H-2015-0144

372

Should you have concerns about your rights as a participant in this research, or you have a complaint about the manner in which the research is conducted, it may be given to the researcher Room 814, CT1B, Van Quan, Ha Dong, Hanoi, Vietnam, Tel: +84912227505, email: [email protected], or, if an independent person is preferred, to the Human Research Ethics Officer, Research Office, The Chancellery, The University of Newcastle, University Drive, Callaghan NSW 2308, Australia, telephone 00-61-2-49216333, email [email protected].

Appendix 12

373 FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND ARTS

Prof. James Albright School of Education Faculty of Education and Arts The University of Newcastle University Drive, Callaghan, NSW 2308 Australia

T +61 2 4921 5901 F +61 2 4921 7818 [email protected]

Teachers Consent Form for the Research Project: The representation of life outside Vietnam in first-year technical university textbooks in Hanoi and its influence on students’ cultural competence in English learning

Prof James Albright Mrs Thi Lan Huong Lam Project supervisor Research Student

Document Version 2; dated 18/06/2015 I agree to participate in the above research project and give my consent freely.

I understand that the project will be conducted as described in the Information Statement, a copy of which I have retained.

I understand I can withdraw from the project until such time as the data from the interviews has been transcribed and do not have to give any reason for withdrawing.

I understand that my personal information will remain confidential to the researchers. I have had the opportunity to have questions answered to my satisfaction.

I consent to: • Participating in an hour interview session and having it recorded YES NO • Answering additional questions through emails if required by the researcher YES NO I have been a teacher of English for over 5 years YES NO I have studied abroad YES NO I would like to receive a summary of the findings YES NO

Print Name: ______Contact Details: ______Signature: ______Date: ______

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