Third Bridging the gap towards the New Junior Cycle, this new edition Edition Third Edition of The Past Today includes a focus on key skills and assessment. ■ Complete Junior Certificate text for bothOrdinary and Higher Levels (including options) THE PAST TODAY ■ Promotes the idea of the student as an historian ■ New and updated! content to reflectrecent historical research ■ New! What You Will Learn lists focus student learning at the start of each topic ■ New! Assessing Your Learning panels allow regular self-assessment ■ New! Key Terms feature throughout promotes student literacy ■ New! Factfiles provide extra information on topics to engage the student ■ New! Focus Tasks promote independent learning, research and groupwork THE PAST ■ New! Visit sections suggest places to go to bring History alive ■ New and updated! People in History sections put information in context ■ Updated end-of-chapter exam questions reflect the latest exams ■ Revision plan helps prepare for house and state exams ■ Valuable guidance in Answering Junior Certificate History Questions section ■ Updated! Glossary focuses on key terms relevant to the exam TODAY The Past Today together with its companion The Past Today Skills & Resources Complete Junior Certificate History book provides students with their essential texts for Junior Certificate History.

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Teacher Resources Online resources for teachers on GillExplore.ie, our smart, reliable and easy-to-use resources platform. Dermot Lucey ● New! PowerPoint presentations, using illustrations from the textbook, assist in presenting key topics ● New! Worksheets for student analysis of video clips ● New! Sample exam papers for extra exam practice Updated online testing for homework and revision available on eTest.ie The FREE eBook blends resources available for the textbook in one place, saving you valuable time in class. These include: ✓ Videos ✓ Weblinks ✓ eTests The Author Dermot Lucey is an experienced teacher of History and an active member of the Cork History Teachers’ Association. He is the author of a number of History textbooks, including Modern Europe and the Wider World and Shortcuts to Success History Exam Guide for Leaving Certificate. www.gilleducation.ie ISBN 978-0-7171-6520-9

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The Past Today prelims.indd 2 11/02/2016 16:55 Contents

Introduction ...... ix

Year 1 How We Find Out About the Past

Historians at Work – How We Find Out About the Past 1 The Job of the Historian ...... 2 2 The Work of the Archaeologist ...... 12

Our Roots in Ancient Civilisation 1: Ancient Ireland 3 The Mesolithic Period (Middle Stone Age) ...... 23 4 The Neolithic Period (New Stone Age) ...... 27 5 The Bronze Age ...... 36 6 The Iron Age and the Celts ...... 42 7 Early Christian Ireland ...... 52

Our Roots in Ancient Civilisation 2: Ancient Rome 8 Ancient Rome ...... 60 The Story of Rome ...... 60 The Romans at Work ...... 66 Roman Towns and Houses ...... 61 Roman Art and Architecture ...... 68 Family and Food ...... 63 Funerals and Burial Customs ...... 69 Leisure and Entertainment ...... 64 The Decline of the Roman Empire ...... 71

iii Medieval Society 9 Medieval Society: Castle, Church and City ...... 74 What were the Middle Ages? ...... 74 Medieval Cities and Towns ...... 84 Medieval Society ...... 75 Monastery and Parish ...... 87 Medieval Castles ...... 76 The Decline of the Middle Ages ...... 91 The Manor and Village Life ...... 81

Renaissance Art and Society 10 The Renaissance ...... 94 What was the Renaissance? ...... 94 Michelangelo (1475–1564) – Sculptor, Changes in Art and Architecture ...... 96 Painter, Poet and Architect ...... 103 Renaissance Lives: Dürer (1471–1528) – Artist of the Lorenzo de Medici (1448–91) and Northern Renaissance ...... 106 Patronage ...... 99 Galileo (1564–1642) – Scientist, Gutenberg (1398–1468) and the Astronomer: The ‘Father of Modern Printing Press ...... 100 Science’ ...... 108 Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) – Painter, William Shakespeare (1564–1616) – Sculptor, Scientist: The ideal Dramatist and Poet ...... 110 ‘Renaissance Man’ ...... 101

Year 2 Studies of Change

Ordinary Level students may concentrate on the Special Studies in Second Year

Changes in the European View of the World: Exploration 11 The Age of Exploration ...... 116 Why People Wanted New Sea Routes . 116 The Voyage of Magellan ...... 128 What Made the Voyages Possible ...... 118 The Spanish Conquest of the The Portuguese Voyages ...... 121 New World ...... 130 Special Study – A Voyage of Exploration: The Results of the Age of The First Voyage of Christopher Exploration ...... 134 Columbus ...... 124 iv Religious Change: Reformation 12 The Reformation ...... 139 What was the Reformation? ...... 139 The Reformation in England and Special Study – The Life of a Reformer: Ireland ...... 147 Martin Luther ...... 141 The Catholic Counter-Reformation .... 150 Calvin’s Reformation in Geneva ...... 145 The Results of the Reformation ...... 153

Changes in Land Ownership: Plantation in Ireland 13 Plantations in Ireland ...... 158 Ireland in 1500 ...... 158 Special Study – Land and Conquest Efforts to Conquer Ireland: Why the in Ireland: The Plantation of Land Changed Hands ...... 160 Ulster ...... 166 The Plantation of Laois–Offaly ...... 161 The Cromwellian Plantation ...... 170 The Plantation of Munster ...... 162 The Results of the Plantations ...... 173

Political Change: Revolutionary Movements 14 The American War of Independence ...... 177 Background and Causes ...... 177 The Results of the American War of Special Study – The Life of a Independence ...... 185 Revolutionary: George Washington and the American War of Independence ...... 180

15 The French Revolution ...... 188 Background and Causes ...... 188 The Results of the French Robespierre and the Terror ...... 194 Revolution ...... 195

16 Ireland in the Age of Revolutions ...... 198 Causes of the 1798 Rising ...... 198 The Rising of 1798 ...... 201 Wolfe Tone and the United Irishmen .... 199 The Results of the 1798 Rising ...... 206

v Social Change in 18th-and 19th-Century England and Ireland 17 From Farm to Factory ...... 207 The Agricultural Revolution ...... 207 Manufacturing Inventions ...... 213 The Transport Revolution ...... 210 What Caused the Industrial Revolution in Britain? A Summary ...... 215

18 Special Study – Contrasting Lifestyles c. 1850: Industrial England and Rural Ireland ...... 218 Industrial England in the 1840s: Living Conditions in the Cities ...... 222 Working Conditions ...... 218 Rich and Poor ...... 225

19 Special Study – Rural Ireland in the 1840s ...... 229 The Great Famine, 1845–50 ...... 231 The Results of the Famine ...... 236

Year 3 Understanding the Modern World

Ordinary Level students may study Political Developments in Ireland in the 20th Century (Chapters 20–22) or Social Change in 20th-Century Ireland (Chapter 23)

Political Developments in Ireland in the 20th Century 20 Towards an Independent Ireland, 1900–22 ...... 242 Political Groups in Early 20th-Century The Rise of Sinn Féin ...... 257 Ireland ...... 242 The Independence Struggle, The Home Rule Crisis, 1912–14 ...... 247 1919–21 ...... 258 Reaction to World War I ...... 250 The Anglo-Irish Treaty, 1921 ...... 263 The 1916 Rising ...... 253 The Irish Civil War ...... 265

21 The New State ...... 272 Cumann na nGaedheal in Power, The First Inter-Party Government, 1923–32 ...... 272 1948–51 ...... 283 Fianna Fáil in Power ...... 276 Seán Lemass and the 1960s ...... 285 The Emergency: Ireland during Years of Uncertainty, 1966–85 ...... 286 World War II ...... 279 vi Northern Ireland, 1920–85 22 From Foundation to Attempts at Peace, 1920–85 ...... 293 The Foundation of Northern Ireland ..... 293 O’Neill, Civil Rights and the Northern Ireland During and After World Troubles ...... 299 War II ...... 296 Attempts at Peace ...... 303

Social Change in 20th-Century Ireland 23 Social Change in 20th-Century Ireland ...... 308 Sources for Social Change ...... 308 The Status of Women ...... 323 Rural Life ...... 309 Leisure and Entertainment ...... 329 Rural Work ...... 312 Transport ...... 334 Urban Life ...... 315 Communications ...... 338 Urban Work ...... 318

International Relations in the 20th Century

Ordinary Level students may study Higher Level students may study International Relations in the International Relations in the 20th 20th Century Part 1 or 2 or 3 or 4 Century Part 1 and Part 2 or 3 or 4

24 Part I: Peace and War in Europe, 1920–45 ...... 343 World War I ...... 343 Hitler and Nazi Germany: Versailles: The Tragic Peace ...... 344 The Rise of Nazism in Germany, 1920–33 ...... 356 The League of Nations ...... 347 Hitler in Power ...... 360 Democracy and Dictatorship: The Rise of Fascism, 1920–33 ...... 348 The Drift to War in Europe, 1933–39 ..... 364 Faciest Italy: World War II in Europe, 1939–45: Mussolini’s Rise to Power ...... 350 German Victories, 1939–42 ...... 370 Mussolini’s Italy ...... 352 The Allies Turn the Tables, 1942–45 .. . 376 Mussolini’s Foreign Policy ...... 353

vii 25 Part 2: The Rise of the Superpowers, 1945–91 ...... 388 What Was the Cold War? ...... 388 Case Study 3: The Cuban Missile Case Study 1: The Berlin Blockade, Crisis, 1962 ...... 400 1948–49 ...... 392 The Cold War Comes to an End ...... 403 Case Study 2: The Korean War, 1950–53 ...... 396

26 Part 3: Moves towards European Unity ...... 406 Origins: The Desire for European The European Economic Unity ...... 406 Community ...... 408 Steps to European Unity ...... 407 The Growth of the European Union ... 409

27 Part 4: Asian Nationalism after 1945 – Gandhi and Indian Independence ...... 415 European Empires: The Colonial The Independence Movement Background ...... 415 After 1945 ...... 416 Independence Movement ...... 416 Post-Independence Problems ...... 417 India in World War II ...... 416 Decolonisation – The End of Empires ...... 419

Revision Plan for the Junior Cert Examination ...... 422 Answering Junior Cert History Questions ...... 424 Glossary ...... 431 Acknowledgements ...... 436

viii Year 2 Studies of Change

Chapter 11 | How we find out about the past | 115 Changes in the European View of the World: Exploration

11 The Age of Exploration what you will learn At the end of this chapter you should understand . . . • The causes (or reasons for) the Age of Exploration. • The first voyage of Columbus. • The changes in navigation which made this possible. • Magellan’s voyage. • The Portuguese voyages to India and the East. • The Spanish conquest of the New World. • The results of the Age of Exploration.

In the 15th and 16th centuries, Europeans began to explore other parts of the world. In doing so, they spread European culture to other continents.

Why People Wanted New Sea Routes What Was the Age of Exploration? Over a period of 350 years – from about 1400 to 1750 – the European view of the world changed. This happened because of the Age of Exploration. During that time, Europeans explored many areas of the world for the first time.

Europeans had certain ideas about A drawing from the Travels of Sir John Mandeville, which led people to the world before explorations believe there were strange people living in faraway lands. began. Many believed: (i) The earth was flat. (ii) It had people with strange shapes. (iii) The seas further south were boiling. (iv) The seas were full of monsters. (v) The world was smaller than it is. All of these views changed because of the Age of Exploration.

116 | Year 2 | Studies of Change How do we know about the Age of Exploration?

Letters of the explorers such as Columbus and those who went on the voyages with them. Agreements between explorers and the rulers, for example, between Columbus and Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. Logbooks of the voyages. Government records. • The first voyage of Columbus. Books written at the time about the treatment of the native people. • Magellan’s voyage. • The Spanish conquest of the New World. Artefacts and buildings of the time. • The results of the Age of Exploration. Why did the Age of Exploration begin at this time?

1 2 WEALTHOR F COUNTRIES NEW TRADE ROUTES 3 WEALTH AND FAME FOR THE EXPLORERS There were trade links for many The voyages of exploration were funded centuries between Europe and Asia. Silk mainly by governments in Portugal, The leaders of the voyages and jewels came from China and spices Spain, England, France and the hoped that they would from the Spice Islands. The spices were Netherlands. The rulers hoped that the gain new riches and titles very important in Europe for preserving new lands would add to the wealth and for themselves. Examples and flavouring food, for some medicines power of their countries, create glory for of these leaders include and for making perfume. The silk and themselves and increase their own power. Vasco da Gama and jewels came overland along the Great Columbus, whom you will Silk Road from China to Turkey. Spices read about later. came to ports along the Mediterranean coast. Arabs controlled this part of the trade.

The silk, jewels and spices were brought 4 MARCO POLO by Italian merchants to Italy and transported to other parts of Europe. Causes of Marco Polo was the son of a Venetian trader. Since the Arabs and Italians controlled He spent almost twenty years in China in the trade (had a monopoly), other the Age of the 13th century, where he was employed by countries, such as Portugal and Spain, Exploration the Emperor Kublai Khan. When Marco Polo wanted to find new routes to Asia to returned to Europe, his story was published break the Arab and Italian control (see as The Travels of Marco Polo. He mentioned map on p. 96). great palaces and empires. His book encouraged explorers to find new routes to the great wealth of the East.

6 THE INFLUENCE OF THE RENAISSANCE

People questioned old ideas during the Renaissance. Ptolemy’s 5 RELIGION Geographia, which was a compilation of the geographical knowledge of ancient Greece and Rome, was rediscovered in the 14th century. It Europeans wanted to defeat and conquer the became more widely available when the printing press was invented Muslims, who controlled North Africa and the trade in the 15th century. The information it provided encouraged explorers routes, and who had also invaded Europe. The to learn new ideas and discover new information. The Renaissance explorers also wanted to convert people of the spirit led Europeans to explore other parts of the world. new lands to Christianity. The explorers often took priests with them to convert the native people.

Chapter 11 | The Age of Exploration | 117 Ass ng eYourssi L earning 1. What ideas did Europeans have about the world before the Age of Exploration? 2. What part did each of the following play in causing the Age of Exploration? (i) The influence of the Renaissance (ii) New trade routes (iii) Marco Polo Religion (iv) Wealth for countries (v) Wealth for explorers (vi) 3. Give two reasons why rulers were prepared to sponsor voyages during the Age of Exploration.

What Made the Voyages Possible

Improvements in Ships and Navigation We know why the explorers wanted to find new sea routes. But they could not have gone on voyages of exploration without improvements in ships and methods of navigation.

Ships New ships called caravels were built. These ships brought together the best qualities of ships that sailed in the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea: (i) They were carvel-built. The boards on the side of the ship (hull) were fitted edge-to-  edge. Carvel-built ships could be made longer than clinker-built ships (with overlapping skills & boards), and carry more masts. resources (ii) They used both square sails and lateen (triangular) sails. Square sails were used to sail faster with the wind following behind. Lateen sails were used to sail against the wind. They were also useful Square sail for exploring bays and river mouths. Lateen Bow sail (iii) The caravels were steered by rudders. sail This gave more control over the steering. (iv) They had castles (raised structures) on the decks at the front and back. From the castles, sailors could sight enemy ships more easily and take defensive action. A larger ship, the carrack or nao, was later developed to undertake longer voyages along Rudder Castle Carvel-built the coast of Africa and across the Atlantic A caravel. Ocean.

Navigation Compasses Compasses were used to tell sailors which direction they were sailing in. But the compasses were often unreliable because iron objects on the ship affected them. A compass for finding direction.

118 | Year 2 | Studies of Change Quadrants were pointed at the sun or the North Star to tell the Astrolabes were pointed to the North Star to tell the latitude. latitude.

Latitude and Longitude Sailors could work out the latitude of the ship, that is, how many degrees north or south of the Equator it was. They used astrolabes, quadrants and cross-staffs to do this. But longitude – degrees east and west – could not be worked out, because explorers did not have an accurate clock, called a chronometer, until the 18th century.

Maps The earliest maps used by sailors were called portolan The cross-staff was used to work out latitude. charts. They showed places along the coasts joined by straight lines. These lines gave the course or direction, which the sailors followed by compass. Soon mapmakers had to develop new ways of drawing maps that included the whole world. They developed maps to show true direction, correct area and the shape of land masses, which helped later discoveries.

Lead and line used for measuring depth.

Log and line used for measuring speed.

Speed Speed was measured using a log and line and a sand-glass. The line, with a log tied to the end of it, was thrown out of the ship. The line was marked Portolan chart based on compass directions. by knots, with an equal distance between each knot. The speed of the ship was calculated (worked out)

Chapter 11 | The Age of Exploration | 119 by measuring the time it took the knots on the line to Improvements in Ships and Navigation pass through a sailor’s hand. Today, a ship’s speed is given in ‘knots’ (nautical miles). Direction Compass Latitude Quadrant, astrolabe, cross-staff Depth Speed Log and line When ships were sailing in the shallow water of sea inlets or Depth Lead and line around islands, the sailors needed Caravels, carracks (naos), Ships to check the depth of the water. carvel-built This was done using a line with a Sails Lateen, square lead weight at the end. The line Steering Rudder was dropped into the water and the depth called out. Time Sand-glass/hour-glass

The sand-glass for The Logbook measuring time at sea. The logbook was used to record details of the voyage – the direction, distances, winds and currents. This information could be used again on later voyages.

Life on Board Ship Life on board ship was difficult.Officers came from the better-off classes, while the sailors came from the poorer classes. At the start of a voyage, more sailors were taken on board than were needed because the captain knew that many would die. Food was mainly dry and salted. Sailors ate ship’s biscuit – a flat loaf that was baked slowly until it was hard. Cooking was done in a firebox on deck if the weather was suitable. There were prayers in the morning and in the evening. The sailors spent the day mending sails, repairing the ship or helping with navigation. In the early voyages they slept on deck or with the cargo in the hold. On later voyages sailors used hammocks, which Food was cooked in Europeans saw for the first time in the New World. a firebox. Discipline was strict, and punishment was severe. Sailors could be flogged or put in chains, and some were executed. But one of the ssi earning greatest dangers they faced was scurvy. Ass ng eYour L improvements were made to ships and how did these This was a disease of sore gums, vomiting 1. What and weakness due to lack of vitamin C. improvements help the Age of Exploration? It often resulted in death. It was not until 2. In the Age of Exploration, how did sailors: (i) measure the 18th century that a cure for scurvy – speed; (ii) work out latitude; (iii) measure the depth of the citrus fruit – was proposed. water? 3. What was life like for sailors on voyages of exploration? 4. Give two dangers faced by sailors during the Age of Exploration. 5. Give one reason why sea travel was easier in 1550 than it had been in 1300. 120 | Year 2 | Studies of Change The Portuguese Voyages

Reasons for the Voyages 1. Wealth: The Portuguese led the way in the Age of Exploration, which began in the 15th century when they drove the Muslims out of their country. They attacked Muslim strongholds in Africa and heard about gold mines further south. 2. Myths and religion: They also heard about a great Christian kingdom in Africa, led by a king called Prester John. The Portuguese thought that if they could join forces with Prester John, then the two Christian armies would defeat the Muslims. 3. Trade: The Portuguese believed that if they found ‘any harbours where men could enter without peril [danger]’, they would profit from trade ‘because there would be no other persons to compete with them’. Prince Henry the Navigator, who organised the early Portuguese voyages of discovery. Prince Henry the Navigator The leader of the Portuguese explorations was Prince Henry the Navigator, third son of the King of Portugal. He believed in the legend of Prester John and he wanted to conquer the Muslims. Henry set up a school for navigation in Sagres in southern Portugal. He invited mapmakers, shipbuilders and astronomers to plan the voyages along the coast of Africa. They gathered information on the navigation instruments – the astrolabe, the quadrant and the crossstaff – and contributed to the development of the caravel.

FactFile

The Monument to the Discoveries (Padrão dos Descobrimentos) looking out on the river Tagus in Lisbon. At the front of the monument is the figure of Henry the Navigator carrying a carrack.

Chapter 11 | The Age of Exploration | 121 Prince Henry sent ships south along the African coast. The captains kept records of their voyages. They kept these records secret from other European countries that also wanted to find a sea route to the east. The captains set up stone pillars on the coasts, called padrãos, to mark the end of each voyage. They returned with slaves and gold to help pay for the voyages. When Prince Henry died in 1460, the Portuguese had sailed beyond Cape Bojador in modern-day Morocco, and gone as far as Sierra Leone. The Portuguese also discovered the Azores, the Canary Islands and the Cape Verde Islands. However, they still had a long way to go before rounding the southern tip of Africa. But in two great voyages led by Bartholomew Diaz and Vasco da Gama, the Portuguese rounded Africa and sailed on until they reached India. source analysis: picture This picture is an artist’s impression for Expo Lisbon 1998 of the Court of Prince Henry the Navigator.

(i) From the picture, identify one aid to navigation which made voyages of discovery possible during the 15th and 16th centuries. (ii) What name is given to the type of boat marked X? (iii) Mention two features of this boat which made it faster and stronger than other sailing ships x of its time. (iv) Is this a primary or a secondary source for studying Henry the Navigator? Explain your answer.

Diaz Rounds the Cape Bartholomew Diaz was about thirty years of age when he left Lisbon in 1487 with two caravels and a store ship. He followed the coast of Africa until he reached the mouth of the Orange River. Soon afterwards his ships were caught in a fiercestorm that blew them southwards for nearly two weeks. When the storm stopped, Diaz sailed eastwards to reach the African coast. But it was not there. Instead he turned northwards until he reached Africa. He knew then that he had rounded the continent. He called the great headland in southern Africa the Cape of Storms after his experiences and erected a padrão (stone pillar) there. King John of Portugal gave the cape a new name – the Cape of Good Hope – because the Portuguese had turned the southern coast of Africa. They hoped to reach India and the Spice Islands.

Da Gama Reaches India It was another ten years before the Portuguese eventually reached India. The man chosen to lead the expedition was Vasco da Gama. On 8 July 1497, da Gama and

122 | Year 2 | Studies of Change 170 men walked in procession through the streets of Lisbon to the docks. Priests, friars and the people of Lisbon Portugal Lisbon walked with them. Sagres Da Gama sailed with four ships: his Azores flagship, the San Gabriel, and three Canary Islands others. After reaching the Cape Verde Islands, he sailed southwards into the Cape Bojador Africa India Atlantic Ocean and far away from the Slave Coast coast of Africa to avoid the northerly Cape Calicut Verde current and winds. He was out of sight Ivory Coast Islands of land for ninety-six days before he Gold Coast Equator reached the African coast. He used the Malindi lines of latitude to work out when he should sail eastwards to reach the coast. Indian Ocean To India Sofala Da Gama then rounded the Cape of Orange River Good Hope. He stayed close to land as Bartholomew Diaz he sailed northwards along the east Atlantic Ocean Vasco da Gama coast of Africa. At Malindi, in present- Cape of Good day Kenya, he hired an Arab pilot, who Hope guided him across the Indian Ocean to The voyages of Diaz and da Gama. Calicut. The Portuguese said, ‘We come in search of Christians and spices.’ Da Gama returned to Portugal after a two-year voyage. He was given a title, pension and lands by the king. Very soon the Portuguese sailed all the way to the Spice Islands. Now the Portuguese could gain from trade with the East.

Results of the Portuguese Voyages 1. They set up trading posts and forts in Africa, India and the Spice Islands. 2. They defeated the Arabs and took Bartholomew Diaz. control of the spice trade between Vasco da Gama. Asia and Europe. 3. There was an increased supply of spices in Europe which reduced the price of the spices; as an example, the price of pepper in Lisbon fell to one-fifth that in Venice. 4. Portugal established a large empire in Africa, Asia and Brazil and grew rich and powerful (see map p. 133).

Chapter 11 | The Age of Exploration | 123 5. The Portuguese language and culture spread to parts of Africa and to Brazil. 6. In the 17th century, a series of wars between the Portuguese and the Dutch resulted in the Dutch taking over the spice trade in Indonesia, including the Moluccas or Spice Islands.

FactFile earning Ass ng eYourssi L What part did each of the following play in the Portuguese voyages of exploration?: Navigator (i) Prince Henry the (ii) Bartholomew Diaz (iii) Vasco da Gama

special study A Voyage of Exploration: The First Voyage of Christopher Columbus

The Spanish Voyages of Exploration While the Portuguese sailed around Africa to reach India and the Spice Islands, the Spanish sailed west across the Atlantic Ocean. The inspiration for this came from Christopher Columbus. Christopher Columbus was born in Genoa in Italy. He became a sailor and gained experience in many voyages along the Atlantic coast. He sailed as far north as Ireland and Iceland, and south along the African coast.

Why Columbus Sailed West On his voyages he heard stories that led him to believe that there was land to the west. He studied the writings of Ptolemy, the Greek geographer, and Marco Polo. He believed that this land was Asia or islands off Asia. He believed that the world was round, and he thought that if he sailed west, he would reach Cathay (China) or Cipango (Japan). He worked out the distance as 4,500 kilometres, when it is really more than three times as long as that. Christopher Columbus. F erdinand and Isabella Columbus tried to persuade the kings of Portugal and England to support him in a voyage of discovery, but he failed. Instead he won the support of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain. They had just defeated the Muslims in Spain and now wanted to compete with the Portuguese for the rich spice trade. They sponsored ships and provided men and supplies. They also said that Columbus would become governor of all the lands he discovered and would receive the title of Admiral of the Ocean Sea.

124 | Year 2 | Studies of Change ‘In 1492, Columbus Sailed the Ocean Blue’ On 3 August 1492, Columbus set sail with a carrack and two caravels, the Santa María, the Niña and the Pinta, from the port of Palos in Spain ‘half an hour before sunrise’. The Santa María was the flagship. The ships carried about ninety sailors, including a surgeon, cooks and servants. There were no women or priests on board.

JAPAN

NORTH AMERICA

N orth Pole North Pole ‘Japan’ ASIA ASIA

Atlantic Ocean C West olumbus Indies EUROPE 1492 Columbus Atlantic Ocean

AFRICA 1492 EUROPE Columbus’s world The actual world AFRICA

Columbus thought the world was smaller than it actually is. He Columbus’s Ships and Crew believed that by going west he Columbus’s three ships were small. The Santa María was the largest of them, but would reach the east. He thought it was only about 18 metres in length. It had two square sails and a lateen sail. The he had discovered the islands off ships travelled slowly, averaging about 160 kilometres a day. Asia. Instead he had discovered a new continent. The crew of almost ninety came mostly from around Palos. Many were experienced seamen. The rest of the crew were freemen attracted by promises of fame, riches and the sight of ‘gold-roofed’ houses. Ferdinand and Isabella offered freedom to any convicts who would sign up for the voyage, but only four did so. The crew were fed one hot meal a day, which was cooked in the firebox on deck. They also had wine or water. The ships also carried gunpowder and cannonballs, as well as mirrors, beads and pins that could be used for trading.

Across the Atlantic Columbus stopped at the Canary Islands for repairs and fresh supplies of water and food. Then, in September, he headed out into the unknown waters of the Atlantic Ocean. However, Columbus was lucky because he was helped by the following winds (now called the trade winds).

Chapter 11 | The Age of Exploration | 125 Reaching San Salvador, Columbus kneeled to thank God. Columbus needed to calm his crew, who feared that if they travelled too far they would not be able to find their way back. So he kept two logbooks – one recorded the true distance he had travelled, while the other recorded a shorter version of the distance covered. When land was still not in sight after four weeks at sea, he told his crew that the birds they saw were proof that land was nearby. Eventually, Columbus was forced to promise to return home if he did not reach land within a few days.

San Salvador On the morning of 12 October 1492, the Pinta fired a cannon shot – this was a pre-arranged signal that land was in sight. Columbus and his crew landed on San Salvador in the Bahama Islands. ‘The Admiral went ashore in the ship’s boat with the royal flag displayed … Having given thanks to Our Lord, kneeling on the ground … the Admiral arose and gave the island the name San Salvador.’ He later explored Cuba and Hispaniola (now divided into Haiti and the Dominican Republic). He thought he had found Cipango, but he was puzzled that there were no great cities similar to the ones written about by Marco Polo. The Santa María ran aground and was badly damaged. With A cross-section of the Santa Maria, the help of native people, Columbus and his men Columbus’s flagship, showing the unloaded the ship. The timber of the ship was main mast, the lateen sail and storage below deck. then used to build a fort called La Navidad in Hispaniola.

Return Home Columbus left about forty Atlantic Ocean officers and men behind to D N SPAIN man the fort, and he set sail for WI Lisbon Azores Spain in January 1493. After NO RTH AMERICA Palos a stormy voyage, he returned Sargasso Sea to Palos and later to the court Canary Islands AFRICA of Ferdinand and Isabella in San Salvador Barcelona. He and his sailors CUBA D brought back gold, pineapples, Hispaniola N Jamaica parrots and six of the men WI whom Columbus now called Indians. He was honoured and praised by the king and queen. The first voyage of Columbus.

126 | Year 2 | Studies of Change Later Voyages FactFile Columbus made three more voyages to ‘the Indies’, as he called them. On his second voyage, he found that the men he had left in the fort in Hispaniola had all been killed in clashes with the islanders. He explored Jamaica, Puerto Rico and the coast of South America, but he still thought that he had found Asia. He brought settlers to live in Hispaniola and sugar cane to grow on the islands. The settlers were often very cruel to the Indians. They forced the Indians to search for gold, and tortured and killed many of them. Columbus was a poor ruler, and after his third voyage he was brought back to Spain in chains. Even though he returned to the new continent once more, he died a bitter and disappointed man. The new continent that he found is now named after another Italian explorer, Amerigo Vespucci, who stated that this was not Asia. Gradually, Europeans Results of Columbus’s realised that they had discovered a New World. First Voyage • Columbus discovered a The Treaty of Tordesillas new continent, later The discoveries of Columbus led to conflict with the Portuguese. To prevent called America. a war, the pope persuaded the Spanish and Portuguese monarchs to sign the • Spain created a great Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494. This drew a line on the globe from north to empire and grew rich south. Land discovered to the west of this line was Spanish, and land to the and powerful. east was Portuguese. In this way most of South America became Spanish, • Spanish culture was while Brazil was given to the Portuguese. spread to the new continent. The Line of Tordesillas which divided the world between the Spanish and Portuguese. • The Treaty of Tordesillas was agreed. Line of Tordesillas

West Indies Cape earning Verde Ass ng eYourssi L Islands Christopher Columbus’s First Voyage to explore? 1. Why did Columbus want 2. Who helped him? 3. What were his ships?

4. Where did he sail? 5. What were the results of his voyage? Spanish Portuguese

Chapter 11 | The Age of Exploration | 127 The Voyage of Magellan Ferdinand Magellan was born in Portugal. He became a soldier in the king’s service and went on many expeditions to the new Portuguese empire in Asia and Africa. When he had a dispute with the Portuguese government, he looked to Spain for support. He proposed to King Charles V that the Spice Islands were in the Spanish half of the world. He promised he would find a new route by sailing south around the new continent of America. He believed that there was a strait – ‘El Paso’ – which would take him into the great South Sea, which the Spanish had seen from Panama. King Charles gave him five ships. He appointed Magellan captain- general of the expedition (fleet), made him governor of all the lands he would discover, and promised him 5 per cent of the profits of the voyage.

The Voyage Begins: From Spain to the Straits In 1519, Magellan sailed from Seville with the five ships – the flagship, Trinity, as well as the San Antonio, the Conception, the Victoria and the Santiago. He had a crew of 260 men, mostly Spanish. Emperor Charles V, who sponsored There was tension between Magellan and three of the other Magellan’s voyage. captains, who were Spanish. Antonio Pigafetta, a crew member who later wrote an account of the voyage, said, ‘The captains of the other ships did not love him.’ Magellan headed for the Canary Islands for fresh supplies of water and food. He then decided to sail along the coast of Africa before heading across the Atlantic Ocean. When he reached the coast of South America, he began his search for ‘El Paso’. He was forced to spend the winter in Port St Julian on the coast of present-day Argentina. He was faced with a mutiny, which he put down, and with the desertion of one ship which headed back to Spain. Soon after beginning his voyage again, he found ‘El Paso’, which ran between the mainland of South America and an island, Tierra del Fuego (‘Land of Fire’).

The Peaceful Ocean After sailing through ‘El Paso’, now called the Straits of Magellan, Magellan headed in a north-west direction towards the Spice Islands. But the voyage took three months in the calm and peaceful waters that Magellan named the Pacific Ocean. The food ran out, and the water went bad. The sailors ate whatever they could, including insect-infested biscuits, sawdust and rats. Many died Ferdinand Magellan, who was born in from scurvy. Portugal but sailed for Spain.

128 | Year 2 | Studies of Change Seville 1522 Seville 1519

End Start The Philippines, Atlantic Ocean Victoria reaches the death of Pacific Ocean Cape Verde islands Magellan 1521 many sailors die Spice Islands from hunger and Indian Ocean Spice Islands disease (scurvy) Rio de Janeiro Pacific Ocean Rio de la Plata Cape of Good Hope March 1520 St Julian’s Bay 1520 Straits of Magellan ‘El Paso’ Magellan’s voyage.

Llama, penguins and hammocks seen on Magellan’s voyage along the coast of South America. Hammocks were later used on ships.

Magellan cleaned the hulls of his ships at low tide.

Death of Magellan Eventually Magellan reached the Philippine Islands, where he converted one of the chiefs to Christianity. But Magellan was killed when he helped the chief in a war with another island. The remaining crew headed for the Spice Islands with two ships, the Trinity and the Victoria. Only the Victoria, now captained by Sebastian del Cano, was in good enough condition to sail for Spain. Del Cano sailed round the southern tip of Africa in Portuguese-controlled waters. Food and water were scarce, and many of the sailors died of hunger and scurvy. Finally, on Death of Magellan in the 7 September 1522, eighteen exhausted sailors and four Indians, ‘weaker than men Philippine Islands. have ever been before’, reached Spain with a ship full of spices.

Chapter 11 | The Age of Exploration | 129 Results earning Ass ng eYourssi L Magellan and his crew had sailed west to reach the Magellan East. In doing so, they made the first complete 1. Why did Magellan go west to reach the East? voyage around the world (circumnavigation). This were his ships? 2. Who helped him? What gave full proof that the earth was round. Magellan’s 3. Where did he sail? What was ‘El Paso’? voyage extended the Spanish empire to include the Ocean? 4. What happened in the Pacific Philippine Islands (called after King Philip II). But the 5. How was he killed? voyage also proved that the Spice Islands were in the 6. Who was captain after Magellan? Portuguese half of the world. 7. What were the results of Magellan’s voyage?

The Spanish Conquest of the New World According to the Treaty of Tordesillas, all the land of the new continent, except Brazil, belonged to Spain. Spanish adventurers now began the conquest of these lands. These adventurers were known as conquistadors (conquerors). They were seeking gold and silver. Hernando Cortés was responsible for the defeat of the Aztec Empire in Mexico, and Francisco Pizarro for the defeat of the Incas in Peru.

Cortés and the Aztecs Hernando Cortés was born in Spain in 1485. He was a soldier and adventurer who settled in Cuba. He volunteered to head an expedition to the mainland of South America. He was put in charge of an expedition of Cortés, conqueror of the Aztecs. Aztec sacrifices of captured enemy tribesmen.

Pizarro, conqueror of the Incas.

130 | Year 2 | Studies of Change eleven ships and 500 men to Mexico in 1519. He landed at Vera Cruz, where he destroyed his ships to show he was not turning back. As he marched inland, he was helped by native tribes who had been conquered by the Aztecs. They Cuba did not like the heavy taxes and slavery imposed on them Tenochtitlán Expedition of Cortés (1519) by the Aztecs. Many were also sacrificed to the Aztec gods. (Mexico City) The Aztecs believed that one day their god, Quetzocoatl, Expedition of would return. When Cortés landed, many Aztecs believed Pizarro (1531–33) Amazon that this was the return of their god. They thought that the Spaniards on horses were six-legged and two-headed gods. Cajamarca As Cortés came near the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlán, the Aztec emperor, Montezuma, came to greet him. Cuzco The Spaniards were allowed into the city, but soon trouble broke out between them and the Aztecs. Montezuma was taken prisoner. But his own people, who thought he had betrayed them, killed him. Cortés and the Spaniards then Aztec Empire of Mexico escaped from Tenochtitlán and got help from neighbouring Inca Empire of Peru tribes. He led 100,000 people against the Aztecs and captured the city. The city was destroyed, and the Aztecs were forced to work as slaves in mines or in the fields. Cortés later rebuilt Tenochtitlán as Mexico City. Soon the Spaniards The conquests of Cortés and Pizarro which brought cattle, plants, ploughs and hundreds of priests to created a Spanish empire in the New World. establish a colony in the Aztec lands, and renamed them New Spain.

Pizarro and the Incas Francisco Pizarro was sixty years of age when he set out to conquer the Inca Empire in Peru. He left Panama in 1531 with two ships and 170 men. He also had horses, two cannon and FactFile three muskets. After landing, Pizarro and his men headed further south into the Inca Empire. At Cajamarca, they met the Inca emperor, Atahualpa, and his army. The Spaniards attacked by surprise and captured Atahualpa. The captured emperor offered to filla room full of gold and silver if they would free him. Very quickly, Inca people brought gold and silver and filled the room. But the Spaniards killed Atahualpa, who was looked upon as a god by his own people. Pizarro and his men then marched south into the Andes Mountains and captured the city of Cuzco, the Inca capital. They seized the Inca treasures and melted them down for gold. But the Spaniards also fought among themselves, and Pizarro was killed by his own soldiers.

Chapter 11 | The Age of Exploration | 131 The Spaniards later discovered . For the next 100 years, gold and silver mines Timeline of the gold and silver was mined by Incas, who died in their thousands. Peru and Age of Exploration Bolivia supplied about 65% of the gold and silver sent to Spain in the 16th century. As a result, Spain became very wealthy. Spanish ships sailing c.1420 between the New World and Spain were attacked by English ships, eventually Prince Henry the Navigator began organised voyages leading to war between the two countries. down the coast of Africa

1434 The Portuguese rounded ssi earning Ass ng eYour L Cape Bojador Conquistadors 1. Who were the conquistadors? 1489 2. Where did Cort¶s conquer and what were the Diaz rounded the results of his conquests? Cape of Good Hope Incas? 3. How did Pizarro conquer the 1492 4. What were the results of Pizarro’s conquests? Columbus’s first voyage

1494 A Wider World Treaty of Tordesillas By the middle of the 16th century, France, Britain and Holland were also exploring the world. Some explorers wanted to find anorth-west passage, north of Canada, to reach the East. Others wanted to find anorth-east passage, 1497–8 John Cabot, an Italian, explored north of Russia. Great voyages by Cartier for France, Drake and Cook for the coast of North America on England and Tasman for Holland led to the exploration of most of the world behalf of England by Europeans by the middle of the 17th century. Europeans had also begun to explore the interior (inside) of the continents and to settle in (or colonise) some 1498 parts of the world, especially North America (see map opposite). Da Gama reached India

New foods brought to Europe from America in the Age of Exploration. 1502 First shipment of African slaves to Cuba and the New World

Pepper 1519 Magellan’s voyage began

Turkey 1519 Tea Coffee Cortes and the Aztecs Pineapple Maize

1532 Pizarro and the Incas Potatoes

Sugar Tomatoes Chocolate 1545 Silver discovered at Potosi, Bolivia

132 | Year 2 | Studies of Change GREENLAND North-east Passage North- west Passage ICELAND

Bristol Amsterdam St Malo Lisbon Palos JAPAN CHINA NEW SPAIN ARABIA Cortés San Salvador Tenochtitlán INDIA Vera Cruz WEST INDIES PHILIPPINES Cape Verde Calicut Pacific Ocean

Indian Ocean SPICE ISLANDS

Atlantic Ocean

Cape of Good Hope

Strait of Magellan Spanish explorations Portuguese explorations French explorations English explorations Dutch explorations Christopher Columbus (1492–93) Bartholomew Diaz (1487) Jacques Cartier (1534) John Cabot (1497) William Barents (1596–97) Ferdinand Magellan Vasco da Gama (1497) Spanish possessions Portuguese possessions French possessions English possessions

European voyages of exploration and the growth Impact of the Age of Exploration of empires. Effects on the Colonies Effects on Europe • Destruction of empires – Aztecs, • Rise of European empires – Incas Portugal, Spain, England, France • Destruction of cultures • Decline of Mediterranean Sea/ rise of Atlantic trade and ports • Spread of Christianity • Diseases from new lands • Slavery • New foods and raw materials • Spread of European diseases/ decline of native population essi earning • Spread of European languages/ Ass ng Your L 1. What other European countries, culture Spanish, besides the Portuguese and explored the world? Where did they Key Terms explore? 2. What was the impact of the Age of Exploration (i) on Europe; (ii) on America and/or Africa?

Chapter 11 | The Age of Exploration | 133 1 Rise of Empires 2 Decline of Mediterranean/Rise of the Atlantic Portugal and Spain were the first The Arab and Italian control of trade was broken. The Mediterranean Sea European countries to establish great declined in importance, and Italian cities such as Venice and Genoa lost empires. But they were soon followed their wealth. Most trade now shifted to the Atlantic Ocean. England, by England, France and Holland. Over Holland and France became great trading countries. Cities such as the next few centuries, thousands of London, Seville and Amsterdam traded with their empires. New foods – Europeans migrated to the colonies such as maize and potatoes – and raw materials – such as dyes, wood and and settled there. Wars between the cotton – were brought from the explored lands. countries decided which were the most powerful countries in the world: Anglo-Spanish War 1585–1604; Franco- 3 Decay of Empires Spanish War 1595–98; Dutch– Portuguese War 1602–63; Seven Years’ The great empires of the Aztecs in War (Britain & France) 1756–63. Mexico and the Incas in Peru were destroyed. The European settlers used the native Indian people as slaves on their estates or in mines. Thousands of Indians were worked to death or, more likely, died from the spread of European The Results of diseases, such as the cold or influenza the Age of (flu) and smallpox from which they had Death from smallpox. no immunity (protection). Exploration

4 SlAVERY Shortages of native people to work on the estates of the Europeans in 7 European culture the New World led to slaves being brought from Africa. Portuguese, Europeans imposed their culture on Spanish and, later, English and French ships transported African slaves the new lands. The settlers, or to work on cotton and sugar estates or plantations, in mines or as colonisers, of the new empires brought domestic servants their language, laws, art and in central, south architecture with them. In Spanish- and later north controlled south and central America, America. This slave Spanish became the main language trade continued and remains so today; Roman for over 300 years. Catholicism became the dominant faith; Spanish-style churches and public buildings were built in the main cities and towns; the Spanish land system based on the hacienda – a very large estate – was used to control and tax the native people.

6 Spread of Christianity 5 Geographical All the European countries Knowledge were Christian. Spain, All the main land areas of Portugal and France spread the world were explored. the Catholic faith. England New continents were and Holland spread discovered. Soon better Protestant faiths. In this way, maps, showing all the new Christianity took root among lands, were produced. The the native peoples old ideas Europeans had of North and South America about the world (p. 116) were Spanish-style architecture in the and Africa. shown to be wrong. cathedral in Mexico city.

134 | Year 2 | Studies of Change people in history A named explorer during the Age of Exploration

Christopher Columbus was an explorer in the Age of Exploration. He was born in Genoa and got experience sailing in the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean. He wanted to sail west to reach Asia. He believed that the world was round. He wanted to convert the native people to Christianity. He got three ships from the rulers of Spain, Ferdinand and Isabella. These were the Niña, the Pinta and the Santa María. Two were caravels and the Santa Maria was a carrack, each with a rudder, carvel-built hull, square sails and lateen sails. He set sail from Palos in Spain and headed for the Canary Islands, where he got fresh supplies of water and food. He used Read More the wind and currents of the Atlantic to sail westwards. The crew were Marc Aronson, The World Made fed one hot meal a day, which was cooked in the firebox on deck. Their New: Why the Age of Exploration food consisted of ship’s biscuit, meat, dried peas, cheese and fish. He Happened and How It Changed used a compass for direction, a quadrant for latitude, a log and line for the World, National Geographic Society, 2007. speed and an hourglass (or sand-glass). He also kept two logbooks – one recorded the true events of the Peter Crisp, Christopher Columbus, Explorer of the New World, voyage and one gave a false account. He did this because he did not Dorling Kindersley, 2006. want to frighten his crew, who were afraid that if they travelled too far Rupert Matthews, Explorer, they would not be able to find their way back. He said that birds they Eyewitness Guide, Dorling saw at sea were a sign that land was near. But he had to promise to Kindersley, 2012. return home if they didn’t reach land within a few days. On the Web Columbus landed on San Salvador in the Bahama Islands in October The Columbus Navigation 1492. He later explored Cuba and Hispaniola. Columbus thought he had Homepage – www. found Cipango (Japan), but he was puzzled that there were no great columbuslandfall.com/ccnav/ index.shtml cities, which Marco Polo had described. The Santa María ran aground and was wrecked. The timber from the Conquistadors – www.pbs.org/ opb/conquistadors/mexico/ ship was used to build a fort, La Navidad. Columbus left forty men in the mexico.htm fort and headed back to Spain. He returned to Palos and later to the court of Ferdinand and Isabella The Story of the Conquistadors – www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/ in Barcelona. His great voyage had found a new continent, which made tudors/conquistadors_01.shtml Spain a wealthy empire and led to the spread of Christianity and Spanish culture.

Chapter 11 | The Age of Exploration | 135 The Age of Exploration – (b) Name the rulers of Spain who sponsored Assessment the voyage of exploration marked B. (iii) Select one of the voyages of exploration A, B or exam questions C above, or any other exploration of your choice, and discuss: peoplen i history (a) Why the exploration was undertaken. 1. A sailor on a voyage of discovery during the Age of (b) The main consequences/results of the Exploration. exploration. 2. A native of a land discovered by Europeans during the Age of Exploration. 5. (i) Give two reasons why rulers were prepared to 3. A named leader of a voyage of discovery during the sponsor voyages of exploration. Age of Exploration. (ii) Give one reason why the development of the caravel helped to make voyages of discovery longer questions – higher level possible. 4. Study the map below and answer the questions that (iii) Name two instruments that helped sailors to follow. navigate while at sea during the Age of Exploration. (iv) Write an account of Portugal’s contribution to the Age of Exploration. (v) ‘Europe benefited, while the newly discovered lands and their peoples were exploited terribly.’ Do you agree? Write an account explaining your answer.

6. (i) Explain the purpose of two of these aids to navigation: Astrolabe; Logbook; Log and Line; Sand-Glass. (ii) Identify two features of the caravel, which made (i) (a) Name the leader of each of the voyages of it better than other sailing ships. exploration marked at A, B and C. (iii) Write an account of the contribution to the Age (b) Identify the straits marked X; Identify of Exploration of two of the following: the cape marked Y; Identify the islands (a) Portugal’s contribution to the Age of marked Z. Exploration. (c) Name the civilisation in the area marked (b) Hernando Cortés and the conquest of 1 that was conquered by Hernando Cortés Mexico. in 1521. (c) The main effects of the voyages of (d) Name the civilisation in the area marked exploration. 2 that was conquered by Francisco Pizarro in 1531. (ii) (a) Give one reason why the voyage of exploration marked C took place some years after the voyage of exploration marked B.

136 | Year 2 | Studies of Change 7. This is an extract from an account written by (i) Name the ruler(s) who sponsored the voyage. Amerigo Vespucci (1452–1512). It is about his first (ii) Name the sailor(s) who led the voyage. voyage in 1497. It describes one of the tribes in the (iii) Describe the consequences (results) of the land that he had discovered. Read the extract and voyage. then answer the questions that follow. 8. Study the documents and answer the questions below. Amongst those people we did not learn that they had any law, nor can they be called Moors nor Jews, and they are SOURCE A worse than pagans: because we did not observe that they offered any sacrifice: nor even had they a house of prayer: Privileges Granted by Their Catholic Majesties their manner of living I judge to be luxurious: their FERDINAND and ISABELLA to Columbus, 30th of April dwellings are in common: and their houses made in the style 1492. of huts, but strongly made, and constructed with very large You, Christopher Columbus, with some of our vessels trees, and covered over with palm-leaves, secure against (ships) and men, are commanded to discover and subdue storms and winds: and in some places [they are] of so great breadth and length, that in one single house we found there some Islands and Continent in the ocean … Therefore it is but were 600 souls: and we saw a village of thirteen houses just and reasonable, that since you expose yourself to such where there were four thousand souls: every eight or ten danger to serve us, you should be rewarded for it. years they change their habitations: and when asked why Our will is, that you, Christopher Columbus, shall be our they did so: [they said it was] because of the soil which, from Admiral, Viceroy, and Governor in the Islands and Continent its filthiness, was already unhealthy and corrupted, and that you discover and conquer … and that for the future, your sons it bred aches in their bodies, which seemed to us a good and successors may call themselves Dons, Admirals, Viceroys, reason ... in fine, they live and are contented with that which and Governors of them; and that you may freely decide all nature gives them. The wealth that we enjoy in this our causes, civil and criminal, as you shall think fit in justice, and Europe and elsewhere, such as gold, jewels, pearls, and other that you have power to punish offenders. riches, they hold as nothing: and although they have them in their own lands, they do not labour to obtain them, nor do source they value them. analysis: SOURCE B document

A. (i) Give one reason why source analysis: Vespucci said that the document people whom he had discovered were ‘worse than pagans’. (ii) Why did they change ‘their habitations’ every eight to ten years? (iii) What is the difference in attitude to wealth x between the Europeans and the people described in the extract? (iv) Is Vespucci’s account biased? Explain your Christopher Columbus returns to the Spanish Court, 1493. answer. (v) What would Europeans think of the people A. Source A of the New World after reading that (i) What command was given to Columbus? account? (ii) What rewards did the King and Queen grant B. Select one named voyage that you have studied and Columbus? answer the following questions about that voyage. (iii) Why were rulers such as Ferdinand and Isabella Write the name of the voyage at the top of your of Spain willing to sponsor voyages of answer. exploration?

Chapter 11 | The Age of Exploration | 137 (iv) Mention two dangers faced by sailors on (iii) Suggest two effects which voyages of voyages such as these. exploration had on the native people of the New (v) Name two instruments which helped sailors to World. navigate while at sea during the age of exploration. C. Write an account of one of the following topics: B. Source B (i) Achievements of the Portuguese voyages of (i) Columbus returned to Spain with some exploration. inhabitants of the land he discovered (marked (ii) The conflict between European powers as a X). Why did Columbus call these men Indians? result of the voyages of exploration. (ii) Name two new products brought from the New (iii) The Spanish conquest of either Mexico or Peru. World to Europe by explorers or traders.

FOCUS TASK 1 Summarise Draw up a table in a page of your copybook with the heading ‘Columbus’s First Voyage’ or ‘Magellan’s Voyage’. Fill in the information in short note form opposite each of the categories.

columbus’s first voyage

Reasons Sponsors Ships

Incidents on the voyage

Results of the voyage

Origins – Research Write one sentence on each of the following, explaining the origin of the names and their connection to the Age of Exploration: (i) Amazon (ii) New York (iii) San Francisco (iv) Tasmania

FOCUS TASK 2 < Group work < Class debate Historical Investigation and Analysis Who was the greater explorer, Columbus or Magellan? Use your textbook and the internet to present the case, for and against, both Columbus and Magellan.

138 | Year 2 | Studies of Change Third Bridging the gap towards the New Junior Cycle, this new edition Edition Third Edition of The Past Today includes a focus on key skills and assessment. ■ Complete Junior Certificate text for bothOrdinary and Higher Levels (including options) THE PAST TODAY ■ Promotes the idea of the student as an historian ■ New and updated! content to reflectrecent historical research ■ New! What You Will Learn lists focus student learning at the start of each topic ■ New! Assessing Your Learning panels allow regular self-assessment ■ New! Key Terms feature throughout promotes student literacy ■ New! Factfiles provide extra information on topics to engage the student ■ New! Focus Tasks promote independent learning, research and groupwork THE PAST ■ New! Visit sections suggest places to go to bring History alive ■ New and updated! People in History sections put information in context ■ Updated end-of-chapter exam questions reflect the latest exams ■ Revision plan helps prepare for house and state exams ■ Valuable guidance in Answering Junior Certificate History Questions section ■ Updated! Glossary focuses on key terms relevant to the exam TODAY The Past Today together with its companion The Past Today Skills & Resources Complete Junior Certificate History book provides students with their essential texts for Junior Certificate History.

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Teacher Resources Online resources for teachers on GillExplore.ie, our smart, reliable and easy-to-use resources platform. Dermot Lucey ● New! PowerPoint presentations, using illustrations from the textbook, assist in presenting key topics ● New! Worksheets for student analysis of video clips ● New! Sample exam papers for extra exam practice Updated online testing for homework and revision available on eTest.ie The FREE eBook blends resources available for the textbook in one place, saving you valuable time in class. These include: ✓ Videos ✓ Weblinks ✓ eTests The Author Dermot Lucey is an experienced teacher of History and an active member of the Cork History Teachers’ Association. He is the author of a number of History textbooks, including Modern Europe and the Wider World and Shortcuts to Success History Exam Guide for Leaving Certificate. www.gilleducation.ie ISBN 978-0-7171-6520-9

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